eJournals Forum Modernes Theater 28/2

Forum Modernes Theater
0930-5874
2196-3517
Narr Verlag Tübingen
Es handelt sich um einen Open-Access-Artikel der unter den Bedingungen der Lizenz CC by 4.0 veröffentlicht wurde.http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
This paper investigates the influence of the traditional Japanese puppet theatre, bunraku, on Edward Gordon Craig, against the background of its international reception. The main focus of the paper is the transmission of the puppet images in the book Gakuya zue shūi, written at the beginning of the 19th century, which explains the construction of the bunraku puppets with many illustrations. Craig’s strong interest in bunraku can be seen in the fact that he traced these illustrations repeatedly, mentioned them in his essay, and published them. Tracing the transmission routes of the images, this paper also reveals complex networks of modernism spanning Japan, Europe, and the United States, within which there was a growing international interest in bunraku. Finally, this paper analysesYone Noguchi's article "The Puppet-Theatre of Japan" and Craig's "Postscript" in his Puppets and Poets as examples of cultural interactions.
2013
282 Balme

Edward Gordon Craig and the International Reception of Bunraku

2013
Yoko Yamaguchi
Edward Gordon Craig and the International Reception of Bunraku 1 : Transmission of the Puppet Images in Gakuya zue shu ˉ i, and the Networks of Modernism between Japan, Europe, and the United States Yoko Yamaguchi (Nagoya) This paper investigates the influence of the traditional Japanese puppet theatre, bunraku, on Edward Gordon Craig, against the background of its international reception. The main focus of the paper is the transmission of the puppet images in the book Gakuya zue shu ˉ i, written at the beginning of the 19th century, which explains the construction of the bunraku puppets with many illustrations. Craig ’ s strong interest in bunraku can be seen in the fact that he traced these illustrations repeatedly, mentioned them in his essay, and published them. Tracing the transmission routes of the images, this paper also reveals complex networks of modernism spanning Japan, Europe, and the United States, within which there was a growing international interest in bunraku. Finally, this paper analysesYone Noguchi's article "The Puppet-Theatre of Japan" and Craig's "Postscript" in his Puppets and Poets as examples of cultural interactions. 1. Introduction Edward Gordon Craig, the standard-bearer of early 20 th century modernist theatre, published the periodical The Marionnette [sic] in Florence, between 1918 and 1919. 2 The Marionnette ran for twelve issues, and featured illustrations and articles related to bunraku theatre. In fact, in issues four to eight, some nineteen pages were devoted to presenting illustrations from 戯場楽屋図会 拾遺下之巻 Shibai gakuya zue sh ū i ge no maki ( “ Gleanings from Collection of Theatre Drawings, Volume 2 ” ; hereafter Gakuya zue sh ū i), a book written at the beginning of the 19 th century by the Osakan illustrator of actor prints, Sh ō k ō sai Hanbei. 3 Sh ō k ō sai ’ s illustrations showed mechanisms and constructions involved in theatre and puppetry (see Fig. 1). 4 The Marionnette also featured illustrations depicting ningy ō j ō ruri (epic puppet narratives); 5 illustrations of posters displaying the puppet theatre presented by the puppet-masters Sanzaemon Yamamoto, Kanj ū r ō Yoshida, and Kunigor ō Yoshida; 6 two photographs of a stage; 7 and an English translation of an extract from Oskar Münsterberg ’ s Japanische Kunstgeschichte. The influence of Japanese arts such as noh and kabuki on Craig has been discussed in previous research, but the influence of bunraku has not been adequately studied. During my investigation, I noticed that Craig repeatedly utilized illustrations from Gakuya zue sh ū i. He traced these illustrations, or used them as inserts in an essay published in The Mask. He also used them as illustrations in his book Puppets and Poets. Craig wrote about bunraku in the “ Postscript ” section of Puppets and Poets (hereafter “ Postscript ” ). In writing the “ Postscript ” , Craig relied on Yonejir ō (Yone) Noguchi ’ s essay “ The Puppet-Theatre of Japan, described by the Japanese Poet, Yone Noguchi ” (1913). Conversely, Noguchi ’ s discourse on bunraku includes statements that seem to indicate Noguchi ’ s awareness of the concept of the Über-mar- Forum Modernes Theater, 28/ 2 (2013 [2018]), 176 - 192. Gunter Narr Verlag Tübingen ionette envisaged by Craig. I concluded that there must have been a mutual influence; Craig ’ s ideas on art and puppetry were to some extent inspired by bunraku, and in turn influenced modernist theatre and puppetry in Japan, as well as the West. As I traced the transmission routes of the puppet images in Gakuya zue sh ū i further back in time, the emerging picture was of a growing interest in Japanese bunraku, facilitated by complex networks of modernism and Japonism spanning Japan, Europe, and the United States. Among the multiple networks by which the puppet images were transmitted, one can track the involvement of Craig and other personages such as Isadora Duncan, Ellen Terry, Arnold Genthe, Ernest Fenollosa, Porter Garnett, Yone Noguchi (Isamu Noguchi ’ s father), and Michio It ō . One can also observe deep connections with trends in other artistic genres, including literature, painting, photography, theatre, and dance. Although there are many aspects of Craig ’ s relationship with bunraku and Japanese culture that have not yet been clarified, I will draw on the findings obtained in my analysis of the transmission routes of Gakuya zue sh ū i to focus the discussion on the kind of international networks of modernism that fostered Craig ’ s interest in bunraku, and the resulting impact of Craig ’ s discourse on bunraku. I will also argue that bunraku had a degree of influence on Craig ’ s view of theatre and puppetry. Judging by his opinions, Craig (who had not seen a bunraku play himself) must have regarded bunraku as the closest thing to the ideal form of marionette drama, and bunraku must have provided him with some justification for his vision of the Über-marionette. 2. Craig ’ s Reception of Bunraku: Overview of Existing Research and the Role of this Study Existing studies frequently reference the influence of noh, kabuki, and ukiyo-e on Craig, but they provide only fragmentary facts about the influence of bunraku. Fig. 1: Puppet Images Featured in the Periodical The Marionnette, Osaka Ohtani University Library. Courtesy of the Edward Gordon Craig Estate. 177 Edward Gordon Craig and the International Reception of Bunraku Sang-Kyong Lee ’ s West-Östliche Begegnungen: Weltwirkung der Fernöstlichen Theatertradition (1993) is a key example of existing research. According to this work, Craig became an avid collector of East Asian and African puppets and masks. Lee claims that it was noh that Craig admired most among the forms of Far Eastern theatre, and that to Western eyes, the restrictive movements of noh appear like the movements of puppets. Furthermore, he mentions that bunraku puppet movements were incorporated into kabuki, and accepts the possibility that Japanese traditional arts may have been a source of inspiration for Craig ’ s conception of the Über-marionette. However, Lee never discusses bunraku. 8 The influence of bunraku on Craig was pointed out in clear terms for the first time by Olaf Laksberg (1993). Laksberg reproduced Gakuya zue sh ū i and other puppet images that appeared in Craig ’ s periodical The Marionnette and in his essay Puppets and Poets. He also reproduced the “ Postscript ” of Puppets and Poets. 9 While criticizing Lee for not mentioning any of these illustrations, 10 Laksberg himself fails to provide a detailed analysis of the influence of bunraku. Thomas Spieckermann ’ s work (1998) is also worth mentioning. While Spieckermann did not systematically examine the relationship between Craig and bunraku, he did offer some interesting findings. 11 For example, in the German essay Marionetten, Craig praises the excellent mobility of “ today ’ s Japanese marionettes ” , and compares them with the large-size marionettes of classical Greece, including King Antiochus of Cyzicus and Pothinus of Athens: “ Die griechischen Marionetten waren hochgradiger Gelenkigkeit, ihre sämtlichen Körperteile, auch die Augen waren beweglich. Alles weist auf eine Vollkommenheit hin, wie sie heute die japanische Marionette erreicht hat, und auf eine Stellung, wie diese sie einnimmt. ” ( “ These Greek marionettes had extremely flexible joints. All parts of the body, including the eyes, could be moved. This goes to show the degree of perfection that today ’ s Japanese puppetry has accomplished and the position it occupies ” ). 12 Spieckermann remarks that the basis of Craig ’ s statement is unclear, 13 but that his reference to movable eyes, at least with regards to bunraku, was likely based on the puppet images in Gakuya zue sh ū i, such as those shown in Figures 1 and 2. Furthermore, in 1931, Craig declared, “ The Mask and Marionettes have only been nobly used by the Japanese ” . 14 This could be seen as a sign of his lasting interest in bunraku. In The Mask: A Periodical Performance by Edward Gordon Craig (1998), Olga Taxidou points out the influence of Eastern puppet theatre on Craig. She also remarks that Craig could find a kind of “ refuge ” for his concept of Über-marionette “ in the puppet theatre of the Holy East ” , citing Craig ’ s letter about two books in The Mask: Zoe Kincaid ’ s Kabuki: The Popular Stage of Japan and Asataro Miyamori ’ s Masterpieces of Chikamatsu: The Japanese Shakespeare. 15 Based on Taxidou ’ s work, I believe that Craig found in bunraku, to some extent, the justification for his concept of the Über-marionette. 16 Furthermore, she points out that bunraku puppets formed a particularly treasured part of Craig ’ s puppetrelated collection, and that The Mask featured Craig ’ s essays on bunraku, and the tracings of puppet images provided to him by Porter Garnett. 17 As far as The Marionnette is concerned, she does not mention any of the puppet images from Gakuya zue sh ū i but only the translation from Münsterberg ’ s above-mentioned book. 18 Thus, Taxidou referred to plenty of information about the bunraku, but she did not sufficiently contextualize it. In “ Noguchi Yonejir ō no n ō no sh ō kai to, G ō don Kureigu no zasshi ‘ masuku ’ (Yone 178 Yoko Yamaguchi Noguchi ’ s Introduction to Noh and Gordon Craig ’ s ‘ The Mask ’ ) ” (2013), Madoka Hori examines how Yone Noguchi introduced noh to the West as a symbolist art form. She analyses this introduction of noh in terms of interactions within modernism, specifically, the exchanges and shared interests with Western theatre practitioners like Craig and Yeats. Thus, Hori ’ s awareness of the issue is similar to mine in many respects. Hori offers suggestions regarding Noguchi ’ s introduction of ningy ō j ō ruri, and she argues that when Noguchi gave The Mask to Yoshikuni Ozawa, it inspired Ozawa to advance his studies of puppet plays. Though Garnett is also mentioned, there is no substantial discussion regarding Craig and bunraku. 19 Thus, none of the existing studies has provided a substantial discussion of Craig ’ s reception of bunraku or any detailed commentary on Gakuya zue sh ū i. In the following section, I will trace back the multiple transmission routes of Gakuya zue sh ū i and discuss the networks of modernism and Japonism that spanned Japan, Europe, and the United States. 3. Transmission of the Puppet Images in Gakuya zue shu ˉ i, and the Networks of Modernism between Japan, Europe, and the United States 3.1 Transmission from Genthe to Craig: Porter Garnett ’ s Letter Referencing a letter from Craig to the playwright Edward Hutton, Spieckermann argues that 1908, the year in which the first issue of the periodical The Mask was published, marked the beginning of a new phase in Craig ’ s relationship with Japanese culture. The letter in question was written either at the end of 1908 or at the beginning of 1909, and it contains the following request: “ Can you put me in touch with some Scholars of Japanese Art who can tell me of the Literature connected with Asiatic Theatre ” . 20 It can also be confirmed that a point of contact between Craig and bunraku had emerged by 1911 at the latest, because a statement regarding tracings from Gakuya zue sh ū i is found in a letter from Garnett to Craig dated 1 September 1911: I enclose as well some tracings from an 18 th century Japanese book on marionettes and stage craft. The original is owned by Dr. Arnold Genthe, recently of San Francisco but now of New York, where you can comunicate [sic] with him (care, the Lambs Club) if you should want tracings or reproductions of the numerous other drawings in the book. 21 The Japanese book mentioned in the letter is surely Gakuya zue sh ū i. The evidence lies in Craig ’ s collection of tracings “ Japanese Marionnettes [sic]: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” , some pages of which contain tracings from Gakuya zue sh ū i such as those shown in Figure 2. There is a note at the lower centre of this paper. Notice how it matches the content of Garnett ’ s letter. Tracings from an 18 th century Japanese book on marionettes & stage craft. The original owned by Dr Arnold Genthe of San Francisco now in New York Lambs Club. - Sent to EGC by Porter Garnett. 22 The content of this note was used largely unchanged at the beginning of Craig ’ s essay “ A Note on Japanese Marionettes ” (1915), which appeared in The Mask: “ Mr. Porter Garnett several years ago very kindly sent me these tracings of parts of a Japanese marionette from designs in an 18 th century book on Marionettes and Stage craft, owned by Dr. Arnold Genthe of San Francisco ” . Alongside this note, Craig introduced four of the five drawings shown in Figure 2, the exception being the image of the whole 179 Edward Gordon Craig and the International Reception of Bunraku puppet ( 人形全体之図 ningy ō zentai no zu). 23 Porter Garnett was an American critic. His critiques of literature, plays, and music were published in newspapers and periodicals. He also published Yone Noguchi ’ s first book of poetry. 24 Yone (Yonejir ō ) Noguchi, the father of the American sculptor and artist Isamu Noguchi, was an internationally renowned early 20 th century poet, who published his books in both English and Japanese. He was also known as an intermediary of Japanese culture. The photographer Arnold Genthe was a close friend of Garnett. 25 Genthe had also taken a portrait of Noguchi in 1920, 26 which suggests that by this year a network existed between Genthe, Garnett, Noguchi, and Craig, albeit closer in some parts than others. 3.2 Arnold Genthe ’ s Photography, Dance, and Interest in Japan Berlin-born Arnold Genthe was a pioneer of photography in its early days. He moved to the United States in 1895, and taught himself the craft. Genthe is renowned for his portrait photography of famous people, such as Theodore Roosevelt or Greta Garbo. He was also a pioneer of dance photography, taking photographs of modern dance, which had gradually come into vogue at the time. Copies of Genthe ’ s photographs include not only Noguchi and Garnett, but also Craig ’ s mother Ellen Terry, Craig ’ s former lover Isadora Duncan, Craig ’ s friend William Butler Yeats, and dance masters such as Michio It ō who played the role of the hawk in Yeats ’ At the Hawk ’ s Well. Genthe Fig. 2: Tracings from Gakuya zue sh ū i and Craig ’ s Explanatory Note, Bibliothèque nationale de France, EGC MS B630, p. 73, Courtesy of the Edward Gordon Craig Estate. 180 Yoko Yamaguchi took many photographs of It ō and his disciples, and he asked It ō (who had just landed in the United States) to perform a Japanese dance at a party in honour of Genthe ’ s friend Isadora Duncan. Genthe records that she was particularly impressed by It ō’ s performance. 27 Genthe, who was already interested in Eastern arts, fortuitously met Ernest Fenollosa in San Francisco. This meeting was a catalyst for Genthe ’ s interest in collecting Japanese woodblock prints. 28 Genthe travelled to Japan in 1908, and toured the country for about half a year. 29 In his memoirs, he records a curious episode concerning Ellen Terry (who visited his New York studio upon Duncan ’ s invitation), Japanese marionettes, and Craig. Ellen Terry was very much interested in Chinese and Japanese art and liked to look at my collection. I showed her a Japanese seventeenth-century book about marionettes. She went through with little bursts of delight. ‘ This is charming ’ , she said. ‘ But it really ought to belong to Ted (Ted was her name for Gordon Craig). He just has to have it ’ . 30 Genthe refused Terry ’ s request, explaining that the book was very valuable. It is unclear if the book in question was Gakuya zue sh ū i. Regardless, one can observe the emerging interest in bunraku in mainstream modernism in the West. 3.3 “ Japanese Marionnettes: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” and “ Note on Japanese Marionettes ” Gakuya zue sh ū i consists of two volumes, j ō no maki (volume 1) and ge no maki (volume 2). All of Craig ’ s tracings correspond to the latter. Which part of Gakuya zue sh ū i was Craig particularly interested in? I checked the physical version of the collection of Craig ’ s tracings ( “ Japanese Marionnettes: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” ) and made the following observations. The tracings were inserted unbound inside a booklet with thick pages and an English-titled hard cover. The tracings shown in Figure 2 (page 73 of the PDF file) are notable in that they alone were made on white paper (probably Japanese hanshi writing paper) of a size different from the other tracings. This implies that Garnett had sent this specimen. The rest of the tracings are on thick, translucent, possibly oiled paper, yellowish in colour. They are free of notes or commentary, save for some cases where numbers appear in the upper corner (most likely written by Craig). Therefore, other than the numbers added by Craig, the page numbers in the PDF version of “ Japanese Marionnettes: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” were probably not originally fixed. Table 1 shows a list of the puppet images in Gakuya zue sh ū i that Craig used. Fig. 3: A Tracing from Gakuya zue sh ū i, Bibliothèque nationale de France, EGC MS B630, p. 41, Courtesy of the Edward Gordon Craig Estate. 181 Edward Gordon Craig and the International Reception of Bunraku Gakuya zue sh ū i shows various kinds of images, including images of programs (banzuke) and portraits of actors, but most of the images Craig traced were those showing the mechanisms for operating the puppets (Table 1: Nos. 5 - 15), the exception being images of the theatre interior; these images take up two pages of the PDF version (Table 1: Nos. 3 - 4). Notice that the numbers that Craig added run conversely to the page numbers in Gakuya zue sh ū i. Craig must have failed to realize that Japanese books are read from right to left, instead of left to right, and must have traced the images in the reverse order. If so, then this would imply that Craig had in his possession at the time the original book or at least a faithful duplicate. Garnett ’ s letter suggests the original owner was Genthe, but Genthe ’ s memoirs make no mention of his lending the book to Craig. As can be seen in Figure 1, in Gakuya zue sh ū i, illustrations are intermingled with annotations, and there are multiple illustrations on a single page. When Craig traced these illustrations, he mostly traced them exactly as they appeared on the page, including their relative positions. In some cases, he even traced the written annotations (see Figure 3, and Table 1: No. 9). Furthermore, as indicated by means of parentheses in Table 1, in some cases, Craig made multiple tracings of separate images on the same page. For example, apparently fascinated by the constructions of the head and eyes, Craig made many tracings of both the reverse and front images of 女形頭面之働仕掛見図 onnagata kashira omote no hataraki shikake miru zu (Figure 1, and the middle and bottom-left images in Figure 2). As suggested by his caption “ DRAWINGS SHOWING THE CONSTRUCTION OF A PUPPET ” , Craig probably made various attempts at construction, in an effort to gain insight into the workings of these marionettes, which differed from their European counterparts. Craig ’ s essay “ A Note on Japanese Marionettes ” is, as it were, a set of annotations based on this collection of tracings. In this essay, Craig states that “ the elaboration of the mechanism seems at first a little startling ” . While remarking that “ a hand in which each joint of each finger is moveable seems a little unnecessary ” , he nevertheless acknowledges that the puppet makers must have “ considered that infinite capacity for taking pains was not unworthy of the object they had in view ” : “ a figure that should be comparable to the human figure in that it could move anywhere and make a maximum of movements, (if not the maximum), with head and hands, shoulders and legs ” . Craig goes on to describe the construction of the puppet, in which “ shoulders, neck, head, arms at all joints, fingers, trunk, hips, knees and feet are all flexible and moveable in several different ways ” . 31 Earlier on, I mentioned how Craig related Japanese marionettes to classic Greek marionettes and praised “ eine Vollkommenheit ” , “ wie sie heute die japanische Marionette erreicht hat ” ( “ the degree of perfection that today ’ s Japanese puppetry has accomplished ” ). These words of appreciation must have surely been inspired by his investigations of the constructions and mechanisms of the Japanese puppets as described above. Having proposed the Über-marionette that could replace the “ living figure in which the weakness and tremors of the flesh were perceptible ” , 32 Craig was not merely interested in the physical movements of actors, none of whom has ever reached “ a state of mechanical perfection ” . 33 He wished to reform the whole mechanisms of theatre; this included plans for lighting transitions and stage objects that could move from side to side and backwards and forwards. To Craig, such reform meant more than simply the improvement of apparatus; it meant the restoration of the “ ancient joy in ceremonies ” . 34 His was a conservative aspiration to bring the totality of life back into the modern 182 Yoko Yamaguchi age. Craig believed that the people required to achieve this were not temperamental actors at the mercy of emotions, but rather disciplined artists, whose movements unswervingly follow the dictates of the stagedirector. 35 One can therefore argue that Craig placed immense value on what a bunraku puppet represented: a construction that enables complex movements “ comparable to the human figure ” . We can assume this from his comments about bunraku puppets in “ A Note on Japanese Marionettes ” , in which they are regarded, if not as “ the ideal marionette ” , at least as a “ thorough one ” . 36 As I mentioned earlier, the tracings Garnett had sent to Craig ended up appearing in The Mask. What about the others? By 1913, Craig had made a collection of his own tracings. He then added to this collection two more illustrations (Table 1: Nos. 1 - 2), which can be counted as four since Craig divided the upper and lower panels onto separate pages, bringing the total to nineteen. Each one of these nineteen illustrations made an appearance in The Marionnette. Five of them also appeared in the “ Postscript ” of Puppets and Poets (1921). The images in The Marionnette and the “ Postscript ” of Puppets and Poets were direct duplicates from Gakuya zue sh ū i. Therefore, there must have been at least one other copy of Gakuya zue sh ū i circulating within the sphere of Japonism. To investigate this, let us turn our attention to Europe. 4. Bunraku as Featured in The Marionnette, and Münsterberg ’ s Japanische Kunstgeschichte as a Source of Information In the editorial note to the fourth issue of The Marionnette, Craig states the following about the source of reproduction: We publish in this number the first four of a series of illustrations of Japanese puppet theatre, from «Gakuya Zuya» illustrated by Shokosai Hanbèi, and published in Osaka about 1800. We have been enabled to reproduce these rare designs through the kindness of Mr. Wilson Crewdson, who lent us the book. 37 Crewdson was a member of the Japan Society of London (established in 1891), and he presented at its conferences. 38 Ultimately, Craig explicitly mentions only two sources for the illustrations: Genthe ’ s library and Crewdson ’ s library. Unless new material is discovered, one must assume that the images in The Marionnette and Puppets and Poets were supplied by Crewdson, and that the images in “ Japanese Marionnettes: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” were supplied by either Crewdson or Genthe. Underneath each of the nineteen illustrations in The Marionnette are brief English captions. There are no translations of the Japanese commentary in the source, Gakuya zue sh ū i. As is the case in Figure 1, most of the illustrations were inserted between other articles with no direct connection to the bunraku theme. The only exception was the article “ Japanese Marionnette Plays and the Modern Stage ” in the fifth issue. “ Japanese Marionnette Plays and the Modern Stage ” was an English translation of some of the text from Japanische Kunstgeschichte (1904 - 1907), an opulent book written by oriental art historian Oskar Münsterberg. 39 The article presented four pages on the history of ningy ō j ō ruri from “ Puppenspiele - Modernes Theater ” , a subchapter from “ Masken und Theater ” , and the fifth chapter from Section II of the book. In this text, there is a passage that explains the construction of puppets. It mentions the author of Gakuya zue sh ū i, Sh ō k ō sai Hanbei: Page 117 shows the narrow stage. The manipulators of the puppets, clad in the ancient 183 Edward Gordon Craig and the International Reception of Bunraku ceremonial garments with the wing-like shoulder pieces worn by the chorus on the Nò-Stage, hold the figures and guide their many-jointed limbs. In early times the puppets appear to have been moved from above by means of strings, for the literal meaning of the name Ayatsuri is ‘ to set in motion a jointed doll with strings. ’ Shokosai ’ s detailed drawings (1800) of the mechanism for the motions of eyes, lips and even single fingers show the high degree of perfection to which these figures were carried. 40 Given that Münsterberg mentions “ detailed drawings (1800) of the mechanism for the motions of eyes, lips and even single fingers ” , he must have seen the book somewhere, or at least seen a duplicate. Beginning with the formation of ayatsuri-ningy ō j ō ruri in the early 17 th century, Münsterberg discusses stage and puppet constructions. Then, he provides a historical overview starting from old-style joruri (ko-j ō ruri) and leading up to the development of the narrative style called gidayu-bushi. He also refers to several personages in the history of bunraku. In his writing, one can detect the rise of Japonism in Europe during the early 20 th century and his interest in bunraku. 41 In his German-language essay “ Marionetten ” , Craig provides a page-long history of bunraku, referring to names such as Chikamatsu Monzaemon, Takemoto Gidayu, Takeda Izumo, and Chikamatsu Hanji. 42 “ Marionetten ” was published in a pamphlet for an exhibition on marionettes and shadow puppets ( “ Ausstellung von Marionetten und Schattenspielfiguren ” ) in Zurich in 1920. Münsterberg ’ s research must have been one of the sources of information for Craig ’ s essay. Nevertheless, Gakuya zue sh ū i ’ s puppet images, which I am tracing in this paper, are not featured in Münsterberg ’ s Japanische Kunstgeschichte. Therefore, it could not have been the source of the duplicate images in The Marionnette. I would like to supplement this conclusion by exploring one more transmission route: the Japan Society of London to which Crewdson belonged. 5. Japan Society of London That Craig borrowed Gakuya zue sh ū i from Crewdson, a member of the Japan Society, indicates that there must have been a connection between Craig and the Japan Society. Noguchi was also involved in this network related to the Japan Society, because he delivered his famous presentation on “ Japanese Poetry ” at the meeting of the Japan Society of London in January 1914. 43 In addition, even before Noguchi delivered his presentation, many puppet images from both volumes of Gakuya zue sh ū i had already been introduced in a presentation delivered by Henri L. Joly on 11 December 1912, titled “ Random Notes on Dances, Masks and the Early Forms of Theatre in Japan ” . However, it is unclear where Joly got his duplicates from. Joly ’ s presentation was on the history of Japanese arts. He used vast amounts of source materials in Japanese, covering a diverse range of subject matter. Joly also provided four pages of content on the history of ningy ō j ō ruri. Joly started by explaining that the origin of ayatsuri lies in the legend of Hiruko in the Kiki-shinwa (the Kojiki and Nihonshoki). In this explanation, he provided a summary of 傀儡師発 kairaishi no hajime (origin of the puppeteer) from the first volume of Gakuya zue sh ū i. 44 He also added thirteen tracings from both volumes of Gakuya zue sh ū i. Ten of these tracings were depictions of puppet construction, and they were the very same images Craig used in The Marionnette (Table 1: Nos. 5, 7 - 15). 45 The remaining three, from the first volume, were 傀儡師 kairaishi (puppeteer), and two images depicting back-stage activities: 荒立 aradate (rehear- 184 Yoko Yamaguchi sal) and 人形拵 ningy ō koshirae (puppet preparation). 46 I do not know if there was a specific point of contact between Joly and Craig. However, given the findings about the complex personal and cultural networks between Japan, Europe, and the United States, it seems proper to regard Craig ’ s fixation on bunraku as a phenomenon that occurred against the background of such networks, as opposed to being his own idea. I would now like to discuss the mutual influence between Craig ’ s ideas and Japanese modernism, using as an example the “ Postscript ” in Puppets and Poets (1921), the final publication in which Craig utilized the puppet images from Gakuya zue sh ū i. 6. Mutual Influence between Craig and Japanese Modernism: Craig ’ s “ Postscript ” and Noguchi ’ s “ The Puppet-Theatre of Japan, described by the Japanese Poet, Yone Noguchi ” “ Postscript ” comprises a two page-long main text and five images from Gakuya zue sh ū i (see Table 1) with Craig ’ s essaylike annotations attached, including ones in the upper and lower sections. In the main text, Craig makes passing references to Noguchi ’ s views on Japanese puppets, photographs of a bunraku stage, and Rome ’ s Teatro dei Piccoli. As Craig states, Yone Noguchi ’ s “ The Puppet-Theatre of Japan, described by the Japanese Poet, Yone Noguchi ” was published in the 6 December 1913 issue of The Graphic, a weekly illustrated British newspaper. 47 In his discussion of Japanese puppets, Noguchi offers a more different perspective than Münsterberg and Joly ’ s histories of ningy ō j ō ruri. Whereas Münsterberg and Joly provide a basic outline of the history of ningy ō j ō ruri ’ s formation, Noguchi ’ s article focuses more on the aesthetic qualities of Japanese puppets. Noguchi claims that “ Ayatsuri ” represents a “ real old art ” that resists the “ public degeneration ” caused by Westernization. Noguchi does explain the history of ningy ō j ō ruri and the varieties of ningy ō shibai, but his focus is not the “ old history ” ; it is the relevance of puppetry in the history of theatre in Japan and its influence on human actors. According to Noguchi, on the bunraku stage, the dolls “ turn to human beings more human and more living; and on the other hand, how many real actors are there who cannot ever become these silent dolls! ” . 48 The inferiority of human actors compared to puppets comes from the human being ’ s physical and psychological instability; we “ cannot always clarify our mind and intention on account of the disturbance of our senses ” . Emphasizing the calmness and the technical perfection of the artificial figures, Noguchi approached puppetry from an antinaturalist/ symbolist perspective. In other words, Noguchi ’ s outlook on puppets clearly corresponds to Craig ’ s notion of the Übermarionette and the preceding symbolist conception of puppets. Noguchi ’ s interpretation of puppetry must have appealed to Craig, because Craig devotes four lines to quoting him in his “ Postscript ” . In contrast to the commentary on the images in “ Note on Japanese Marionettes ” , in which he concentrated on the elaborate construction of bunraku puppets, in “ Postscript ” Craig paid much attention to the “ marvellous ” “ spirit ” of the Eastern countries which give existence to their puppets. 49 Judging from his description, the “ marvellous ” “ spirit ” in Japan must have been revealed in the existence of “ a stage made for the purpose of puppetry ” - as opposed to the make-shift stages in Western countries - performed by “ puppets noble of bearing, beautiful faces ” , and in the fact that such a spectacle is watched by an audience of “ about 2,000 persons or even more ” of “ all ages ” , all with “ very serious ” faces. 50 185 Edward Gordon Craig and the International Reception of Bunraku In the Bibliothèque nationale de France three postcards are preserved. Photos of bunraku puppet theatre are printed on them. These photographs must have been a good source of information for him when writing the text. Two of these images show the large packed auditorium. In the bottom margin of one, there is an annotation “ circa 2600 Spect. ” written most likely by Craig. 51 As I argued earlier, Craig had the conservative aspiration to bring back the totality of life by restoring the “ ancient joy in ceremonies ” . The photographs to which Craig was referring in the “ Postscript ” - some photographs of the Japanese bunraku theatre and the auditorium showing the large audience - must have made him think of the thronging spectators in ancient Greek theatres. Craig may also have been painfully aware of the gap between Japanese and Western theatre, in terms of what Noguchi described as the “ public degeneration ” . One can see evidence of such awareness in Craig ’ s withering assessment of Rome ’ s Teatro dei Piccoli. This theatre was known to be a place of futurist experimentation, but Craig regarded it as a place where the “ infantile ” held sway on a “ beautiless stage ” , where the audience was comprised of children or adults who were fed up with the “ artless artificiality ” . 52 Craig ’ s comments on the images in Gakuya zue sh ū i use bunraku to compare the state of English puppetry unfavourably with that of bunraku, instead of explaining the constructions of puppets. In each comment, Craig expresses his wish that support be given to English puppetry, especially to the British puppeteer Clunn Lewis, whom Craig references throughout Puppets and Poets. 53 Craig demands Lewis be given several assistants and installed in a “ large and well equipped Puppet Play house ” . Such pleas may have been inspired by Noguchi ’ s article in which Noguchi explained that several puppeteers are needed to make one bunraku puppet play, and also reported on his recent visit to the famous puppet houses in Osaka. 54 Thus, Noguchi produced a new interpretation of bunraku inspired by the symbolist view of puppetry advocated by Craig and others, while Craig used this perspective of bunraku to support his criticism of Western puppetry. 7. Summary The starting point in this paper was the many bunraku-related images published in The Marionnette, a periodical on puppetry presided over by Edward Gordon Craig. Most of these images came from Sh ō k ō sai Hanbei ’ s 楽屋図会拾遺 Gakuya zue sh ū i. When I traced the transmission routes of this book, I uncovered complex networks of modernism spanning Japan, Europe, and the United States. Within this network, there was a burgeoning international interest in bunraku, and Craig ’ s own interest in bunraku can only be understood against this background. Craig observed that the intricate construction of the bunraku puppet made it “ comparable to the human figure ” , and he concluded that it represents a “ thorough ” marionette which was the next best thing to the “ ideal marionette ” , namely, the Über-marionette. Here we can detect a mutual influence: in his “ Postscript ” to Puppets and Poets, Craig paid attention to Yone Noguchi ’ s ideas on bunraku. These ideas represented a modern Japanese interpretation of bunraku which had in fact been inspired by the modernist discourse on puppet shows advocated in the West by Craig and others. This interaction between Craig and Noguchi provides an example of the networks of modernism and the international reception of bunraku. 186 Yoko Yamaguchi Table 1: Craig ’ s Utilization of Gakuya zue shui In the PDF version, front and back of the same leaf are displayed as separate pages. I have ignored pages that are blank except for a handwritten page number, and also ignored the reverse (blank) pages of illustrations. Parenthesis indicates that the page contains tracings of only a part of the images listed. No. 1 2 3 4 Images in Gakuya zue shu ˉ i 二 階楽屋 nikai no gakuya [second floor of theater] 億病口後 okubyo ˉ guchi no ushiro [behind the left side entrance of the stage] 橋懸の内 hashigakari no uchi [inside the hashigakari] 浄瑠璃の床 jo ˉ ruri no yuka [stage for reciters and musicians] 人形細工場 ningysaiku ba [puppet workshop] 三番叟棚 sanbans ō dana [shelf for sanbas ō -puppet] 立者部家 tatemono no heya [room for leading actors] 床山 tokoyama [puppet hairdressing room] Page No. in Gakuya zue shu ˉ i 200 (upper panel) 200 (lower panel) 201 (upper panel) 201 (lower panel) 202 (upper panel) 202 (lower panel) 203 (upper panel) 203 (lower panel) Page No. written by Craig in “ Japanese Marionnettes: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” 12 (upper panel) 12 (lower panel) Page No. in PDF version of “ Japanese Marionnettes: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” 79 (upper panel) 79 (lower panel) 78 (upper panel) 78 (lower panel) Page No. in Issue 7 of The Mask Issue and Page No. of The Marionnette 4 - 119 4 - 117 4 - 123 4 - 121 5 - 147 5 - 145 5 - 151 5 - 149 Page No. in “ Postscript ” of Puppets and Poets 187 Edward Gordon Craig and the International Reception of Bunraku No. 5 6 7 8 9 Images in Gakuya zue shu ˉ i 立眉 tachimayu [eyebrow elevation] 開闔 眉 Aochimayu [eyebrows movable up and down] 眼之働 manako no hataraki [eye mechanism] 目の玉 me no tama [eyeball] 口働 kuchi no hataraki [mouth mechanism] 頭後之図 kashira ushiro no zu [rear view of face] 同前 後合たる図 onajiku zengo aitaru zu [view of face, combined] 頭前後合内見図 kashira zengo wo awasete uchi wo miru zu [internal view of face, combined] 咽首 nodokubi[throat part] 引栓 hikisen[hook for a string] 釣片 tsurikata[board used as shoulders] 胴串 do ˉ gushi[grip attached to the neck] 頭全躰之図 kashira dekiagari no zu [complete face] 足 之図 ashi no zu [foot] 抓手 tsukamide [hand for grasping] 差金 sashigane [stick for moving hand and fingers] 差込手 sashikomide [hand with movable wrist] 革番 表 kawatsugai omote [hand for a female figure, front view] Page No. in Gakuya zue shu ˉ i 206 207 208 209 210 Page No. written by Craig in “ Japanese Marionnettes: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” 11 10 9 8 7 Page No. in PDF version of “ Japanese Marionnettes: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” 57 56 49, (62), (73) 48 41, (70), (73), (89) Page No. in Issue 7 of The Mask (105) (105) Issue and Page No. of The Marionnette 6 - 175 6 - 182 6 - 176 6 - 183 7 - 207 Page No. in “ Postscript ” of Puppets and Poets 33 34 36 188 Yoko Yamaguchi No. 10 11 12 13 14 15 Images in Gakuya zue shu ˉ i 招 手 manekide[hand for beckoning] 二の腕 ni no ude [upper arm] 指手 yubide [hand without arm] 指革 yubikawa [leather string attached to the right wrist 弓手 yunde [left arm] [ 革番 ] 裏 [kawatsugai] ura [hand for a female figure, rear view] 扇子手 ō gide [hand for holding a fan] さぶた sabuta [hand for holding a towel] 鼓手 tsuzumide [hand for playing a drum] 琴手 kotode[hand for playing the koto] 略扇子手 riyakuo ˉ gide [hand for holding a fan, simplified] 三味 線手 shamisende [hand for playing the shamisen] 三味 線手の右 samide no migi [the right hand for playing the shamisen] 女形頭面之働仕 掛見図 onnagata kashira omote no hataraki shikake miru zu [construction of female figure's face, front view] 片 板 kataita [board used as shoulders] 切 胴仕立図 kirido ˉ shitate no zu [construction of torso frame] 丸 胴 marudo ˉ [round torso] 肩車 kataguruma [round board attached to the shoulder] 人形全体之 図 ningiy zentai no zu [view of whole puppet] Page No. in Gakuya zue shu ˉ i 211 214 215 216 217 218 Page No. written by Craig in “ Japanese Marionnettes: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” 6 5 4 3 2 1 Page No. in PDF version of “ Japanese Marionnettes: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” 40 33 32 25, (63), (64), (65), (67),(73), (85), (87) 16 9, (72), (73) Page No. in Issue 7 of The Mask (104), (105) Issue and Page No. of The Marionnette 7 - 208 7 - 223 7 - 224 8 - 234 8 - 233 [Front/ back reversed] 8 - 257 Page No. in “ Postscript ” of Puppets and Poets 35 32 189 Edward Gordon Craig and the International Reception of Bunraku Acknowledgements: I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. Tony Taylor at the Edward Gordon Craig Estate and to the Osaka Ohtani University for permission to publish the figures. I am also very grateful to Mr. Patrick Le Boeuf in the Bibliothèque nationale de France for his kind and detailed comments on the materials and to Mrs. Annick Tillier for her support. I would like to thank the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for supporting the research by KAKENHI (23520164, 26370164). This paper is a revised version of my Japanese article, “ Edow ā do G ō don Kureigu to Bunraku: Gakuya zue sh ū i no zuz ō no denpa to nichi bei ō modanizumu no kokusaiteki nettow ā ku (Edward Gordon Craig and Bunraku: Transmission of the Puppet Images in Gakuya zue sh ū i and the International Networks of Modernism between Japan, Europe and the United States) ” , Engekigaku ronsh ū (Theatre Studies: Journal of the Japanese Society for Theatre Research), 59 (2015), pp. 1 - 18. I thank the society for permission to publish this English edition. Notes 1 In the early twentieth-century Western literature by Craig and others, there are frequent references to terms such as ayatsuri, ayatsuri j ō ruri, and ningy ō shibai. However, in this paper, I will use the umbrella term bunraku. 2 The Marionnette [sic], 1(1 - 12) (1918 - 1919). About the title of this magazine: Craig does not consistently spell the word “ marionette ” , he often writes it with nn ( “ marionnette ” ). When I quote the word, I follow his original spelling (very often “ marionnette ” but sometimes “ marionette ” ). Although the magazine shows the “ Scheindaten ” (dummy date) 1918 as the year of publication, it was published from 1918 to 1919. See: Olaf Laksberg, “ Marionette, Che Passione! ” , Munich 1993, p. 344. 3 Sh ō k ō sai Hanbei, Shibai gakuya zue/ Gakuya zue sh ū i, ed. Haruhiko Asakura, Tokyo 2000. All references to Gakuya zue sh ū i, including the information in Table 1, will display the relevant page number used in this version. I have converted old Japanese characters into modern ones. I also referred to Sh ō k ō sai Hanbei, Shibai gakuya zue, ed. Yukio Hattori, Tokyo 1973. The publication date of Shibai gakuya zue sh ū i is controversial. The editions of Asakura and Hattri portray 1802 as the year of publication. However, according to Kabuki jiten (Kabuki Lexicon), it was published probably in 1804. See also: Yukio Hattori, Tetsunosuke Tomita, Tamotsu Hiromatsu (ed.), Kabuki jiten, Tokyo 2000, p. 213. 4 The Marionnette, 1 (8) (1919), p. 234. The content of the English annotation below the image in Figure 1: “ DRAWINGS SHOW- ING THE CONSTRUCTION OF A PUP- PET. From Gayuka Zuyé [sic], illustrated by Shokosai Hanbèi: published in Osaka about 1800 ” . Please also refer to Table 1. 5 The Marionnette, 1(8), inside cover. Below the image is written: “ JAPANESE MAR- IONNETTES [sic], From “ Yayègaki Kumono ” by Moroshige (circa 1700). (Presented by Mrs. Bevan Williams) ” . The image in question can also be found in Moroshige Furuyama, Shinpan yakusha ezukushi ge (Illustrations of Actors, New Edition, Vol. 3), ed. Kisho fukusei kai (Rare Book Reproduction Association), Tokyo, 1921. 6 The poster of the puppet theatre of Sanzaemon Yamamoto, in: The Marionnette 1(9) (1919), inside cover. That of Kanj ū r ō Yoshida, in: The Marionnette 1(9), inside back cover. That of Kunigor ō Yoshida, in The Marionnette 1(12) (1919), inside back cover. 7 The Marionnette 1(6) (1918), inside back cover. 8 Sang-Kyong Lee, West-Östliche Begegnungen, Darmstadt 1993, p. 71, p. 74, pp. 76 - 77. 9 Laksberg, “ Marionette, Che Passione! ” , p. 362, p. 384, p. 386, p. 392, pp. 434 - 435. 10 Ibid., p. 397, note. 6. 190 Yoko Yamaguchi 11 Thomas Spieckermann, “ The world lacks and needs a Belief ” , Trier 1998, particularly p. 43 - 44 and note 105. 12 Edward Gordon Craig, “ Marionetten ” , in: Alfred Altherr/ Edward Gordon Craig, Wegleitungen des Kunstgewerbemuseums der Stadt Zürich 32, 1920, p. 10. 13 Spieckermann, “ The world lacks and needs a Belief ” , p. 165, note 23. 14 Glenn Hughes (ed.), On Eight Pages from ‘ The Story of the Theatre ’ by Glenn Hughes with Some Fourteen Notes by Edward Gordon Craig, Seattle 1931, p. 15, cited in Spieckermann, “ The world lacks and needs a Belief ” , p. 44, note 105. 15 Olga Taxidou, The Mask: A Periodical Performance by Edward Gordon Craig, New York, 2013, pp. 85 - 88. 16 On the basis of the article “ Puppets in Japan. Some Notes by a Japanese ” in The Mask (6 (3) 1914, pp. 217 - 220), Taxidou also discusses that Craig saw in the figure of the puppet master the priest of a religious ceremony and the model for the director of the new theatre, who controls the Über-marionette (Taxidou, The Mask: A Periodical Performance by Edward Gordon Craig, pp. 86 - 87). However, this article itself was not written by Craig, though its publication in The Mask indicates that he probably had sympathy with this opinion. I found out that he made an exact reproduction of theatre criticism about a bunraku theatre performance of Chikamatsu-za (Chikamatsu troupe) in Tokyo from the English weekly The Far East of 21 June 1913. This newspaper was published from 1912 to 1923 by John N. Penlington and his wife Zoe (Kincaid) Penlington in Japan. (This finding was already reported in: Yoko Yamaguchi: “ Edow ā do G ō don Kureigu to Noguchi Yonejir ō : Kureigu eno kenteibon to sono juy ō , Kureigu ate shokan, bunraku kankei no kiji oyobi ehagaki (Edward Gordon Craig and Yone Noguchi: Presentation Copies of Books by Noguchi and their Reception by Craig, Noguchi's Letters to Craig, and Articles and Postcards about Bunraku) ” , in Engekigaku ronsy ū (Theatre Studies: Journal of the Japanese Society for Theatre Research) 61 (2015), pp. 70 - 71.) It is assumed that the article was written by “ a Japanese ” or probably Zoe Penlington herself. In this regard, it is noteworthy that “ Zoe Kincaid ” was the author of the book Kabuki: The Popular Stage of Japan, which Craig reviewed in The Mask. 17 Taxidou, The Mask: A Periodical Performance by Edward Gordon Craig, p. 153. 18 Ibid., p. 163. 19 Madoka Hori, “ Noguchi Yonejir ō no n ō no sh ō kai to, G ō don Kureigu no zasshi ‘ masuku ’ (Yone Noguchi ’ s Introduction to Noh and Gordon Craig ’ s ‘ The Mask ’ ) ” in Kokubun mejiro, 52 (2013), pp. 62 - 73. 20 Edward Gordon Craig, handwritten letter to Edward Hutton, Florence, n. d., Dorothy Nevile Lees Collection, British Institute Florence, cited in Spieckermann, “ The world lacks and needs a Belief ” , p. 44, note 105. 21 Porter Garnett, Unpublished letter to Edward Gordon Craig, September 1, 1911, Edward Gordon Craig Collection, Recipient Correspondence. Harry Ransom Center, The University of Texas at Austin. 22 Edward Gordon Craig, “ Japanese Marionnettes[sic]: Construction of Figure, Tracings, 1913 ” (EGC MS B630), Bibliothèque nationale de France, p. 73. Page numbers refer to the page numbers in the PDF version. 23 Edward Gordon Craig, “ A Note on Japanese Marionettes ” , in The Mask Vol. 7(2) (1915), pp. 104 - 107. 24 Madoka Hori, “ Nij ū kokuseki ” shijin Noguchi Yonejir ō (Dual Nationality: The Poet Yone Noguchi), Nagoya 2012, p. 51. 25 Arnold Genthe, As I Remember, New York 1979, pp. 59 - 61, p. 67. 26 Genthe ’ s photographs have been digitally stored and they can be viewed at the Genthe Collection - Prints & Photographs Online Catalogue, Library of Congress. This collection includes photographs of Yone Noguchi and the following personages: Ellen Terry, Isadora Duncan, William Butler Yeats, and Michio It ō . 27 Genthe, As I Remember, p. 184. 28 Ibid., pp. 144 - 145 29 Ibid., pp. 223 - 234. 30 Ibid., p. 190. 191 Edward Gordon Craig and the International Reception of Bunraku 31 Craig, “ A Note on Japanese Marionettes ” , p. 106. 32 Edward Gordon Craig, “ The Actor and the Über-Marionette ” , in: The Mask 1(2) (1908), p. 11. 33 Craig, “ The Actor and the Über-Marionette ” , p. 7. 34 Ibid., p. 15. 35 Edward Gordon Craig, On the Art of the Theatre, London, 1962, pp. 146 - 147, pp. 165 - 172. 36 Craig, “ A Note on Japanese Marionettes ” , p. 106. 37 “ Our Illustrations ” , in: The Marionnette 1 (4), p. 128. Note that Gakuya zue is rendered here as “ Gakuya Zuya ” . 38 Wilson Crewdson, “ The Textiles of Old Japan ” , Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society London, XI (1912 - 1913), pp. 3 - 26. 39 Regarding Münsterberg, I referred to the following: Miyuki Yasumatsu “ Doitsu kindai ni okeru Nippon bijutsukan: T ō y ō bijutsushika Myunsut ā beruku no Kyunmeru hihan o moto ni shite (Appreciation of Japanese art among German art historians: On the criticism of Oskar Münsterberg against Otto Kümmel) ” in Beppu daigaku kiy ō (Memoirs of Beppu University) 53 (2012), pp. 39 - 49. 40 Oskar Münsterberg, “ Japanese Marionnette [sic] Plays and the Modern Stage ” , in: The Marionnette, 1(5), pp. 143 - 150, quoted part: p. 144. 41 Oskar Münsterberg, Japanische Kunstgeschichte, Part 2, Braunschweig 1905, pp. 213 - 217. In the English translation, which appeared in The Marionnette ( “ Japanese Marionnette Plays and the Modern Stage ” ), some of the content was omitted and the illustrations were replaced. 42 Craig, “ Marionetten ” , pp. 26 - 27. 43 Hori, “ Nij ū kokuseki ” shijin Noguchi Yonejir ō , pp. 178 - 211. 44 Henri L. Joly, “ Random Notes on Dances, Masks and the Early Forms of Theatre in Japan ” , in: Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society London, XI (1912 - 1913), pp. 57 - 58. Asakura (ed.), Shibai gakuya zue/ Gakuya zue sh ū i, pp. 120 - 121. 45 Joly, “ Random Notes on Dances, Masks and the Early Forms of Theatre in Japan ” , Plate IV, VI, VIII. 46 Joly, “ Random Notes on Dances, Masks and the Early Forms of Theatre in Japan ” , p. 58, p. 60. Asakura (ed.), Shibai gakuya zue/ Gakuya zue sh ū i, pp. 128 - 129, pp. 144 - 145. 47 Yone Noguchi, “ The Puppet-Theatre of Japan, described by the Japanese Poet, Yone Noguchi ” , The Graphic, 6 December 1913, p. 1072. On this article, see also: Yamaguchi: "Edow ā do G ō don Kureigu to Noguchi Yonejir ō” , p. 68. 48 Noguchi, “ The Puppet-Theatre of Japan ” , p. 1072. 49 Craig, Puppets and Poets, p. 30. 50 Ibid., pp. 30 - 31. On Clunn Lewin, see: Taxidou, The Mask: A Periodical Performance by Edward Gordon Craig, p. 158, p. 160. 51 Bibliothèque nationale de France, EGC Ms B632, No 104. These postcards have been already published in: Yamaguchi: “ Edow ā do G ō don Kureigu to Noguchi Yonejir ō” , pp. 68 - 69. 52 Craig, Puppets and Poets, p. 31. 53 Ibid., pp. 32 - 36. 54 Ibid., p. 30. 192 Yoko Yamaguchi