www.narr.de Buchreihe zu den Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik ISBN 978-3-8233-8460-1 This book offers a nuanced, integrated understanding of EFL learning and instruction and investigates both learner and teacher perspectives on four thematically interconnected parts. Part I encompasses chapters on psychological aspects related to teaching and learning and presents the latest research on positive language education, teacher empathy, and well-being. Part II deals with EFL teaching methodology, specifically related to teaching pronunciation, language assessment, peer response, and strategy instruction. Part III addresses aspects of cultural learning including interand transculturality, digital citizenship, global learning, and cosmopolitanism. Part IV concerns teaching with literary texts, for instance, to reflect on social and political discourse, facilitate empowerment, imagine utopian or dystopian futures, and to bring non-Western narratives into language classrooms. Amerstorfer / von Blanckenburg (eds.) Activating and Engaging Learners Perspectives for English Language Education Carmen M. Amerstorfer Max von Blanckenburg (eds.) Activating and Engaging Learners and Teachers Perspectives for English Language Education Activating and Engaging Learners and Teachers Buchreihe zu den Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik / Agenda: Advancing Anglophone Studies Herausgegeben von / edited by Alexander Onysko, Ulla Ratheiser, Werner Delanoy Founding editor / Erstherausgeber: Bernhard Kettemann Band 27 Carmen M. Amerstorfer / Max von Blanckenburg (eds.) Activating and Engaging Learners and Teachers Perspectives for English Language Education Veröffentlicht mit Unterstützung der Fakultät für Kulturwissenschaften, des Forschungsrates und der School of Education der Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt. DOI: https: / / doi.org/ 10.24053/ 9783823394600 © 2023 · Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. 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Internet: www.narr.de eMail: info@narr.de CPI books GmbH, Leck ISSN 0939-8481 ISBN 978-3-8233-8460-1 (Print) ISBN 978-3-8233-9460-0 (ePDF) ISBN 978-3-8233-0478-4 (ePub) Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http: / / dnb.dnb.de abrufbar. www.fsc.org MIX Papier aus verantwortungsvollen Quellen FSC ® C083411 ® 9 19 23 31 55 77 97 119 Contents Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harald Spann Foreword. A Book to Celebrate Werner Delanoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Max von Blanckenburg and Carmen M. Amerstorfer Strengthening the Involvement of Learners and Teachers in English Language Education. An Introduction to the Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 1: Psychological Perspectives on EFL Teacher and Learner Emotions, Well-Being, and Relationships Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre Psychology of Language Learning. Where Are We and where Are We Going? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers. An Idiodynamic Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carmen M. Amerstorfer How Cooperative Learning Can Contribute to Teacher Wellbeing, Contentment, Motivation, and Positive Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, and Christina Gkonou Attitudinal, Motivational, and Socio-Biographical Predictors of EFL Teachers’ Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 2: Methodological Considerations on EFL Learner Activation and Engagement Manuela Schlick Kinaesthetic Learning Material for EFL Pronunciation Teaching and Their Potential for Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 159 183 205 223 241 261 281 301 Ha Hoang and Peter Gu Unguided Peer Response. A Missing Piece in the Jigsaw Puzzle? . . . . . . . . . Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty for Pre-Service Teachers of English in Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White Implementing a Strategy Instruction Framework. Challenges of Classroom-Based Research at the Elementary Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 3: Who to Engage with and in what Ways? Perspectives on Concepts and Competences in Cultural Learning Laurenz Volkmann Trigger Warnings, Safe Spaces, and Taboo Topics. Is there Still a Place for Hermeneutic Perturbation in Teaching (Foreign) Literature and Culture? . Frauke Matz and Daniel Becker Rethinking Cultural Learning in Light of “Response-Abilities.” Shifting Language Education “onto a Sustainable and Resilient Path” . . . . . . . . . . . . Christiane Lütge and Thorsten Merse Digital Citizenship in English Language Education. Perspectives for Cultural and Global Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grit Alter Being Culturally Competent. Quo Vadis Cultural Learning 2.0? . . . . . . . . . . Part 4: Engaging EFL Learners Aesthetically and Politically through Literary Texts Nursen Gömceli and Allan James Command of Language and Interpersonal Positioning. A Literary Linguistic Analysis of Dialogue in Harold Pinter’s The Dumb Waiter with Insights for English Language Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael C. Prusse “Memory Is the Most Unreliable of Faculties.” Literature in English Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Contents 319 339 Max von Blanckenburg Literary Learning and Political Education. Exploring the Nexus of Aesthetic and Rhetorical Language Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maria Eisenmann Developing Global Environmental Citizenship through Teaching Contemporary Dystopian Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contents 7 Contributors Alaa Al-Tamimi has an MA in TESOL from the American University of Sharjah. She owes her background education in Marketing to fuelling her passion for writing, raising her awareness of the inherent power of language, and inspiring her to pursue her professional development in language education. Her teaching experience as an ESL instructor in the Middle-East is what steered her research efforts towards the impact of positive psychology in language teaching a domain she feels is worthy of further recognition. She hopes to continue to contribute to the research in language and education in the future. Grit Alter is Professor of Teaching English as a Foreign Language at the University College of Teacher Education in Innsbruck, Austria. Her research focuses on using picturebooks in English language teaching (ELT), playful learning in primary ELT, diversity education, curriculum studies, and critical pedagogy. She is currently involved in projects on critical textbook studies, teaching Canadian studies on the secondary and tertiary level, and narrative inquiry into teacher education. Carmen M. Amerstorfer is a senior scientist and teacher trainer at the University of Klagenfurt, Austria. She has extensive experience of teaching students at various age and proficiency levels at educational institutions in Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, Poland, and China. Carmen’s research encompasses features of psychology of language learning and teaching as well as learner-centred teaching approaches, particularly problem-based learning and cooperative learning. Besides having published numerous book chapters and journal articles, she has co-edited Language Learning Strategies and Individual Learner Characteristics: Situating Strategy Use in Diverse Contexts (Bloomsbury, 2018) together with Rebecca L. Oxford. Daniel Becker is a senior lecturer and postdoctoral researcher in English language education at the Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Ger‐ many. He studied English, History, and Educational Studies at the Univer‐ sity of Koblenz-Landau. After graduating, he started his practical teacher training at the Studienseminar Trier, where he obtained his Second State Exam. He then moved to Wuppertal to work on his PhD-project in literary studies (Title: On the Thresholds of Memory - National History and Liminal Memory Practices in Contemporary Irish Poetry). Since October 2018, Daniel Becker has worked at the University of Münster. His research interests include teaching literature and culture, inter/ transcultural learning, digital game-based language learning,-multiliteracies, and digital media. Armin Berger is a senior scientist and senior lecturer in the Department of English and American Studies at the University of Vienna, Austria, where he acts as academic coordinator of the English Language Competence programme. His main research interests are language testing and assessment, washback effects on language teaching and learning, speaking for academic purposes, and language assessment literacy. He is the author of the book Validating Analytic Rating Scales: A Multi-Method Approach to Scaling Descriptors for Assessing Academic Speaking, and he has just co-edited Developing Advanced English Language Competence: A Research-Informed Approach at Tertiary Level. He is also active in preand in-service teacher education and has served as a consultant to a number of national and international language testing and other educational projects. Max von Blanckenburg is a postdoctoral researcher at the Chair of Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München in Germany. After completing his studies in English and Physical Education at the University of Göttingen and the University of Gloucestershire, he pursued a PhD at the University of Munich, which centred on the role of rhetoric in English language education. Max subsequently completed his teacher training and has taught at different grammar schools. His main research interests include democratic education; teaching with literature, film, and music; digital learning as well as performative approaches in EFL. Max has published numerous journal articles and book chapters, he works on the editorial board of the journal AAA - Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik, and he co-edited Drama in Foreign Language Education. Texts and Performances (2021) with Christiane Lütge. Jean-Marc Dewaele is Professor of Applied Linguistics and Multilingualism at Birkbeck, University of London. He has published widely on individual differences in psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, psychological and emotional variables in Second Language Acquisition and Multilingualism. He is former president of the International Association of Multilingualism and the European Second Language Association and current president of the International Association for the Psychology of Language Learning. He was General Editor of the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism before becoming General Editor of the Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural 10 Contributors Development. He won the Equality and Diversity Research Award from the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (2013), the Robert Gardner Award for Excellence in Second Language and Bilingualism Research (2016) from the International Association of Language and Social Psychology and the Distinguished Scholar Award from the European Second Language Association (2022). Maria Eisenmann is Professor of EFL Teaching at the Julius-Maximilians-Uni‐ versity of Würzburg. She studied the subjects English, German, and Pedagogy at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne/ England and at the University of Würzburg, where she completed her M.A. degree and state examination. After finishing her PhD and working as a teacher in school, she taught at the Univer‐ sity of Education in Freiburg, held a deputy professorship for EFL Teaching at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg and held the chair for EFL Teaching at the University of Duisburg-Essen. Her primary research interests lie in the field of teaching literature, media literacy, and inter-/ transcultural learning including individual differences. She has edited and co-edited numerous books and published widely in the field of foreign language education, literary literacy and teaching literature in the EFL classroom. She edited Teaching the Bard Today - Shakespeare-Didaktik in Forschung und Lehre, published in 2019, and co-edited Queer Beats - Gender and Literature in the EFL Classroom, published in 2018. Christina Gkonou is Associate Professor of TESOL and MA TESOL Pro‐ gramme Leader in the Department of Language and Linguistics at the University of Essex, UK. She convenes postgraduate modules on language teacher educa‐ tion and development, and on psychological aspects surrounding the foreign language learning and teaching experience. She is co-editor of New Directions in Language Learning Psychology (with Sarah Mercer and Dietmar Tatzl), New In‐ sights into Language Anxiety: Theory, Research and Educational Implications (with Jean-Marc Dewaele and Mark Daubney), and The Emotional Rollercoaster of Language Teaching (with Jean-Marc Dewaele and Jim King). She is also coauthor of MYE: Managing Your Emotions Questionnaire (with Rebecca L. Ox‐ ford) and has published several research articles in international, peer-reviewed journals. She serves as expert consultant on a number of international projects and is often invited to give plenaries and train language teachers across different countries. Her new co-authored book (with Kate Brierton) for Cambridge University Press is on-Cultivating Teacher Wellbeing. Nursen Gömceli is attached to the Department of English at the University of Klagenfurt, where she has taught as a visiting professor since 2009. She received her PhD at Hacettepe University in Ankara, Department of English Language Contributors 11 and Literature and has previously held positions at Akdeniz University in Antalya and Hacettepe University in Ankara. Within literature she has mainly taught in the areas of British theatre and British novel and has taught English as a foreign language at all levels. As part of her collaboration with the Pädagogische Hochschule Kärnten in Klagenfurt, she has carried out teacher training courses with the focus on how to teach literature to young learners and young adult learners not only to improve language skills but also to raise cultural awareness and an understanding of cultural diversity among young learners. Nursen Gömceli’s main research interests are in Irish drama, contemporary British drama, and British feminist drama. Her national and international publications are in the areas of drama and performance, literary linguistics and feminist drama. Major publication: Timberlake Wertenbaker and Contemporary British Feminist Drama, Palo Alto, 2010. Tammy Gregersen, a professor of TESOL at the American University of Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates, received her MA in Education and PhD in Linguistics in Chile, where she began her academic career. She is co-author, with Sarah Mercer, of Language Teacher Wellbeing, published by Oxford University Press and The Routledge Handbook of the Psychology of Language Learning and Teaching. Together with Peter MacIntyre, she wrote the books, Capitalizing-on Language Learner Individuality and Optimizing Language Learners’ Nonverbal Communication in the Language Classroom. She is also a co-editor with Peter MacIntyre and Sarah Mercer of Positive Psychology in SLA and Innovations in Language Teacher Education. She has published extensively in peer-reviewed journals and contributed several chapters in applied linguistics anthologies on individual differences, teacher education, language teaching methodology, and nonverbal communication in language classrooms. Peter Yongqi Gu is Associate Professor and Head of School at the School of Lin‐ guistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. His main research interests include learner autonomy and learning strategies, vocabulary acquisition, and language testing and assessment. Pamela Gunning lectures at Concordia University, Canada. She has vast experience as an elementary ESL teacher and has co-authored ESL textbooks for children. Under the auspices of the Ministry of Education of Québec, she coauthored a strategy instruction module for teachers. She authored the Children’s SILL, the first adaptation for children of Oxford’s Strategy Inventory of Language Learning. Her teaching and research focus on primary pedagogy, strategies, selfregulation, and classroom-based assessment. 12 Contributors Helen Heaney is a senior lecturer in the Department of English and American Studies at the University of Vienna, Austria. She studied French and German at Durham (GB) and obtained her teaching degree in English and French from Klagenfurt University (A). Her PhD was on developing a tertiary-level English reading comprehension test. After spending many years team teaching in a CLIL programme and teaching ESP in diverse settings, from medical English to tourism, Helen worked in the English Department at Klagenfurt University (language competence, linguistics, and teacher education). Now in Vienna, her focus is on teacher education. Helen’s special interests are language testing and assessment, especially language assessment literacy, innovative approaches to language teaching and learning, and reading comprehension. She has just co-edited Developing Advanced English Language Competence: A Research-Informed Approach at Tertiary Level and is active in in-service teacher education throughout Austria. Teresa Hernández-González is the Program Director for the Teaching English as a Second Language degrees at Concordia University, Canada. Her extensive experience in elementary ESL classrooms and teacher education, with a partic‐ ular interest in assessment and self-regulated learning, has led to investigating the application of gamification principles in language learning and research. Ha Hoang is a teacher of English for Academic Purposes at the English Language Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Ha has worked in ESOL areas for 20 years. She is interested in EAP, writing pedagogy, figurative language processing, and autonomy and agency. Allan James is Emeritus Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Klagenfurt, having held previous positions at the Universities of Tübingen, Nairobi, and Amsterdam. His main research interests are in the sociolinguistics of international English(es), literary linguistics, Celtic and English (esp. Welsh studies), second language phonology, and pronunciation teaching, having pub‐ lished widely in these fields. He is a member of the editorial boards of a number of leading international journals in linguistics, applied linguistics, and English studies, and is a life Fellow of the Netherlands Institute of Advanced Study (Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences). Christiane Lütge is Professor at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Mu‐ nich (LMU) where she holds the Chair of Teaching English as a Foreign Lan‐ guage. She is also the director of the Munich Centre of Teacher Education (MZL). Her areas of expertise in research and teaching include digital literacies, literature in the foreign language classroom, as well as interand transcultural Contributors 13 learning and global citizenship education in EFL. She is a co-editor of the vol‐ umes-The Praxis of Diversity (Palgrave Macmillan 2020) and of Digital Teaching and Learning: Perspectives for English Language Education (Narr 2021) and - most recently - editor of the volume Foreign Language Learning in the Digital Age. Theory and Pedagogy for Developing Literacies-(Routledge 2022). She is the Principal Investigator of a project on improving the quality of teacher education funded by the German Ministry of Education and Re‐ search (‘Lehrerbildung@LMU’) and also the coordinator of a third-party funded ERASMUS-+-project on-digital citizenship education with project partners from Ireland, Portugal, Italy, and Latvia (DiCE.Lang). Peter D. MacIntyre received his PhD in psychology from the University of Western Ontario (now Western University) in 1992 with Robert C. Gardner and is now a professor of psychology at Cape Breton University. His research examines emotion, motivation, and cognition across a variety of types of behaviour, including interpersonal communication, public speaking, dynamic systems, and learning. The majority of Peter’s research examines the psychology of communication, with a particular emphasis on second language acquisition and communication. He has published several books including Capitalizing on Language Learners’ Individuality (Multilingual Matters, 2014), Motivation Dy‐ namics in Language Learning (Multilingual Matters, 2015), Positive Psychology in SLA (Multilingual Matters, 2016), and Optimizing Language Learners’ Nonverbal Behavior (Multilingual Matters, 2017). Frauke Matz is Chair of English Language Education at the Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster. After completing her studies in English and History at the University of Essen, she received her M.A. in English Studies from the University of Wolverhampton and completed her Graduate Teacher Training with CILT and the University of Birmingham. She also completed her PhD in English Literature and was a Language Teacher in England and Germany. After having worked at the University of Duisburg-Essen and the Justus-Liebig University Gießen she became Chair of English language education at the University of Münster. Her research interests lie in the field of teaching methodology of literary and digital texts in language education, with a special focus on young adult fiction; the role of cultural studies in the EFL context, especially cosmopolitan education; alternative forms of summative assessment, such as speaking exams and portfolios, and the development of mediation competence. Sarah Mercer is Professor of Foreign Language Teaching at the University of Graz, Austria, where she is Head of ELT methodology. Her research interests 14 Contributors include all aspects of the psychology surrounding the foreign language learning experience. She is the author, co-author, and co-editor of several books in this area including, Towards an Understanding of Language Learner Self-Concept, Psychology for Language Learning, Multiple Perspectives on the Self in SLA, New Directions in Language Learning Psychology, Positive Psychology in SLA, Exploring Psychology for Language Teachers (Winner of the IH Ben Warren Prize), Language Teacher Psychology, Engaging Language Learners in Contempo‐ rary Classrooms, and Wellbeing and Development as a Language Teacher. She has also published over 140 book chapters and journal articles. She has served as Principal Investigator on several funded research projects, including currently a large FWF-funded project investigating language teacher wellbeing. She works on the editorial board of various journals, was co-editor of the journal System for several years, is co-editor of Multilingual Matters’ Psychology of Language Learning and Teaching book series, is currently vice-president of the International Association for the Psychology of Language Learning (IAPLL), and serves as a consultant on several international projects. In 2018, she was awarded the Robert C Gardner Award for excellence in second language research by the International Association of Language and Social Psychology (IALSP). Thorsten Merse is Professor of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Education with a special focus on Anglophone Literatures and Cultures. In his research, he explores interand transcultural learning, pedagogies of teaching literature, and digital education in EFL. He places particular emphasis on engaging with LGBTIQ* diversity and Queer Theory in EFL education and on researching teachers’ developing digital competences, also in light of Digital Citizenship Education. In view of research approaches chosen, Thorsten Merse embraces theoretical and conceptual paradigms as well as critical coursebook analyses and qualitative pathways, including surveys and interview studies. He joined the University of Duisburg-Essen in October 2021. Previously, he held research positions at the University of Münster (WWU, 2011-2016) and the University of Munich (LMU, 2016-2021), where he completed his PhD in 2017. During his Postdoc time at the LMU, he also coordinated an interdisciplinary research net‐ work on teacher education in the context of the BMBF-funded Qualitätsoffensive Lehrerbildung. Thorsten Merse studied English and Biology at the University of Münster (WWU) to become a teacher in secondary education. Michael C. Prusse is Professor of English language teacher education at the Zurich University of Teacher Education. His studies at the University of Zurich and Trinity College Dublin resulted in a PhD in 1996. This was succeeded by a PGCE for the subjects of English and History in secondary schools. Apart Contributors 15 from teaching at secondary level in Great Britain and Switzerland, he was also a lecturer at the University of Zurich and the Universities of Applied Sciences Rapperswil and Winterthur before joining the Zurich University of Teacher education. There, he is responsible for the university’s master programs in subject-specific education. His current research focuses primarily on language in professional contexts, pedagogical content knowledge, and on teaching literature in the ELT class‐ room. Stylistic analysis (chiasmic structures) and transmedia narratives are recurrent themes. Together with Barbara Prusse-Hess, he is the editor of Wirk‐ samer Englischunterricht (2018), a collection of expert interviews on effective English teaching. Most recently, he has published a contribution to the debate on subject specific education (BzL, 2022), a discussion of refugees in children’s literature (ETAS-Journal, 2022), and an analysis of transmedia narratives in the volume Foreign Language Learning in the Digital Age: Theory and Pedagogy for Developing Literacies (ed. C. Lütge, 2022). Manuela Schlick attained experience in the field of foreign language teaching both from doing research and from everyday classroom practice. Currently she is post-doc researcher and teacher educator at the Center for English Language Learning, Teaching and Teacher Education Research (CELTER) at the Department of English Studies of Vienna University. Previously, she worked as Senior Lecturer and External Lecturer at the English Department, Englischdidaktik, and School of Education at Salzburg University alongside teaching English at an upper secondary school with inclusive classes in Salzburg. Since her PhD project (“Professional vision and collegial feedback within ex‐ pert-novice groups”) at LMU Munich 2009-2014, where she worked as research assistant, her research has focused on foreign language teacher education and continuing professional development through classroom videos, professional discourse and cooperation among practitioners. She has since been running various teacher trainings on collegial feedback and professional development for teachers and headteachers. Based on her practical experience she also pub‐ lishes on topics of differentiation and material development for individualized learning settings. In her current research project, she focuses on how student teachers cope with and can be supported in adapting to increasingly dynamic teaching conditions, and the role of value awareness for professional teacher development. Günther Sigott is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics in the English Department at the University of Klagenfurt, Austria. He started his career at the 16 Contributors Department of Romance Philology at the University of Graz and as a freelance translator for specific purpose English, French, and German in Austria and North Africa. He has taught English and French at secondary-level schools in Graz and Klagenfurt while at the same time working as a lecturer at the Department of Romance Philology and at the International Language Centre at the University of Graz. In his teaching he has covered a broad range of subjects ranging from practical language training to translation, semantics, lexicology, text linguistics, discourse analysis, research methodology, and language testing. He has also acted as director and consultant to large-scale national test development projects for English, German, and Classical Languages. His research interests are in all areas of Applied Linguistics and particularly in Language Testing and Evaluation. He is co-editor of the international monograph series Language Testing and Evaluation (Peter Lang Publishers) and has recently brought out volume 40, Language Testing in Austria: Taking Stock, in that series. Harald Spann is Professor of EFL teaching at the University College of Education Upper Austria in Linz, Austria. His main research interests are lit‐ erary texts in the EFL classroom and action research. He is currently in‐ volved in two projects, the ABC Approach to Literature in the EFL Class‐ room and DIGIT: TIME (Digital Technologies, Innovations and Media in English Language Teaching). Laurenz Volkmann is full Professor of Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena. He has a long teaching experience both at schools in Germany and at universities in the USA, the UK, and in various German states. His main research interests are in the areas of interand transcultural learning as well as in literature, culture, media, and gender-related issues. He has edited and co-edited numerous books, published around 300 academic articles, and co-authored the standard textbook Teaching English (2015). Joanna White is a past co-editor of the journal Language Awareness. She is retired from Concordia University, where she was a professor in the Department of Education. In her research, she focuses on maximizing the benefits of instruction in second language classrooms for learners of different ages in a variety of instructional contexts. She is particularly interested in promoting collaboration between first and second language teachers. Contributors 17 Foreword A Book to Celebrate Werner Delanoy Harald Spann Quo vadis, language education? This is a pivotal question, and also a very dynamic one: One that asks for movement, action, directions, perspectives. It was one of the questions Werner Delanoy, whose retirement we commem‐ orate in this publication, raised in a symposium he chaired at the SLTED2022 conference in Vienna. In his presentation, he then suggested an innovative concept of cultural learning and English language education which, highly dynamic by nature, provides multiple perspectives to meet the challenges facing teachers and learners in a rapidly changing, globalised world. In essence, this concept is founded on three pillars: A dialogic life approach, a cultural learning perspective which addresses topical socio-cultural challenges, and the inclusion of multimodal and digital dimensions in language education. And this is where this timely volume comes into play. Activating and Engaging Learners and Teachers: Perspectives for English Language Education makes these three pillars clearly visible. In a way, it showcases their significance, and, by doing so, pays tribute to Werner’s work as a researcher, writer, and lecturer in the field of English language education. The dialogic principle, the first pillar, is already reflected in the title since it encapsulates both the conditions for and the ultimate goal of English language teaching and learning: People who actively engage with each other through interaction in and with the target language. Seen this way, it points to Werner’s notion of dialogic learning, which takes place when learners and teachers, as equal dialogue partners, proactively try to learn from each other. Whether such relationships can be successfully established not least depends on a number of psychological factors and their complex interplay. The first part of this book brings to light the nature of this complexity. Here, the contributions offer multiple psychological perspectives on emotional, attitudinal, and motivational factors affecting EFL teachers and learners, emphasising the need for developing empathy and well-being in language learning contexts. As a theorist in the tradition of Hans-Georg Gadamer’s philosophical herme‐ neutics, one of the key tenets pervading Werner’s theory-building is that all our understanding is inherently limited and that we therefore need engagement with different perspectives to at least partly overcome these limitations. A dialogic life approach, therefore, does not solely rest on personal relationships between teachers and learners, but also on the respectful dialogue between universities, schools, and other key players in and outside the educational field. One could say, it needs and thrives on critical encounters with different viewpoints. This is why EFL teacher education needs to foster a lively and dynamic discourse, where theories and the teaching methodologies they inform can meet, challenge each other, mix, and, eventually, enrich each other. This volume not only contributes to this discourse substantially, it also underscores its multifaceted quality. The latter is particularly exemplified in Part 2, where the contributors offer a wide range of methodological considerations on how to activate and engage learners, including studies on kinaesthetic learning, peer feedback, language assessment literacy, and strategy instruction. Given Werner’s extensive research output in the field of EFL cultural and literary teaching and learning, it does not come as a surprise that the second pillar of his educational concept - a cultural learning perspective with a focus on topical socio-cultural challenges - repeatedly surfaces in the remaining parts of this book. In fact, the question Who to engage with and in what ways? , posed in the title of Part 3, could well have come from him. It invites us to reflect on current developments in cultural learning, and, at the same time, to rethink language education as a whole - both from a conceptual and methodological perspective. From a conceptual perspective, the contributions in this part address salient and controversial concepts in cultural educational contexts, such as transculturality, global citizenship, and cosmopolitanism. Methodologically, there is a focus on how, in times of globalisation and digitalisation, learning opportunities can be created to develop cultural competences in learners. Here, our attention is also drawn to discourses on digital citizenship education, which, in turn, gives rise to reflections on how to incorporate multimodal and digital approaches in modern EFL education. Thus, I would argue that Part 3 also makes visible the third pillar of Werner’s timely concept of cultural learning and language education. The contributions in Part 4, which offer intriguing discussions on how to engage EFL learners through literary texts, aptly exemplify the huge educational 20 Harald Spann potential of such an engagement. Not only do these chapters throw some light on the broad spectrum of learning opportunities literary texts can provide for developing, for instance, aesthetical, political, global, and cultural competences, they also make us aware of the complex processes that are at play between learners and texts. What these chapters suggest is that engaging with literary and creative texts is never a one-way street. Teachers, learners, and texts need to enter relationships to unfold their potential. In a way, they need to activate each other. And, I would argue, theories and concepts in language education, such as Werner’s, undoubtedly support this mutual activation. So, quo vadis, language education? Of course, no single volume can ever answer this question. Personally, I think, however, that all four parts of this volume offer numerous fresh perspectives. They put up signposts, so to speak, on the many avenues language education may take in the future. Let me return to our retiree again and finish on a personal note. As my former PhD supervisor in the field of EFL literature teaching and learning, Werner introduced me, among many other thought-provoking books and theories, to Lothar Bredella’s works on Rezeptionsästhetik (reception aesthetics). I thoroughly enjoyed these meetings! What I can still remember, more than ten years later, is that, although he himself drew largely on dialogic reception aesthetic concepts for his own theory-building and teaching, he never seemed to give them preference over other approaches. In a way, this is a good example of how Werner, as a role model, has embodied his own approach to English language education and, by doing so, has profoundly influenced my views on reading and teaching literature. Thank you, Werner, for being such an inspiring dialogue partner. And all the best for your retirement. --- * * * I am grateful to the editors, Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Max von Blanckenburg, for compiling this volume and for giving me the honour of writing its foreword. Foreword 21 Strengthening the Involvement of Learners and Teachers in English Language Education An Introduction to the Volume Max von Blanckenburg and Carmen M. Amerstorfer Ask a hundred people what they consider key aspects of good teaching, and you will most likely get quite a variety of responses. But many of us - whether you are a foreign language teacher, university student, teacher educator, researcher, or do not belong to any of these groups - can typically remember a lesson that somehow left a positive impression. As editors of this book, we would like to invite you to think back to a foreign language class that you experienced as enjoyable and purposeful. What was the lesson about and what made it meaningful to you? This volume aims to explore such questions and, in doing so, starts from the premise that stimulating lessons require a readiness on the sides of learners and teachers alike to get involved in the educational process. We thus chose “Activating and Engaging Learners and Teachers” as a leading theme to describe both a prerequisite and a goal of foreign language education. Managing to “get someone on board” arguably depends on individual, social, and systemic factors which are interdependent and influence how teachers design and conduct lessons and how learners experience and profit from them. The contributions in this book investigate these aspects from various angles to illustrate how activation and engagement relate to • positive learning environments and relationships, • texts and teaching materials that facilitate immersive as well as reflective learning experiences, • approaches allowing for both individualised as well as social learning and engage students cognitively, socially, and emotionally, • diagnostic measures for assessment and classroom research, and • current concepts for engaging learners with cultural themes and spaces as well as with political issues. This volume commemorates the retirement of Werner Delanoy, who has been a cherished staff member at the Department of English at the University of Klagenfurt since 1984 and Professor of English Didactics since 2001. Werner has tremendously influenced both of our academic careers and those of many others as advisor, confidence booster, role model, and “critical friend,” as he likes to call himself. His work has been characterised by a deep interest and extensive research output in various areas, particularly in the fields of cultural and literary learning within English language education. Werner’s reflections - on concepts of culture in a globalised modernity, on the relevance of literary texts to promote educational processes, or on the notion of dialogue as a basic orientation in teaching and learning scenarios, to name but a few - have shaped and advanced English didactics in a substantial manner. Werner’s interest in the concept of dialogue likewise translates into his un‐ derstanding of his various roles as researcher, lecturer, supervisor, or colleague, where he is consistent in meeting others in most respectful and appreciative ways. He will be greatly missed as a board member of the ÖGSD (Austrian society for the didactics of language teaching), which he cofounded in 2007. With his exceptional people skills and academic genius, he is a tough act to follow. Moreover, Werner is a gifted musician and creative songwriter who has dedicated much of his free time practicing and entertaining others at social gatherings as well as university festivities. By dedicating this volume to Werner Delanoy, we express our deep gratitude to a dear colleague and friend. This book is divided into four thematically interconnected parts. Part 1 of the book encompasses chapters on psychological aspects related to teaching and learning a foreign language and presents the latest research on positive language education as well as teacher empathy and well-being. The opening chapter by Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre summarises the history of psychology of language learning (PLL) and highlights the most important developments. It furthermore presents the opinions and experiences of ten experts in PLL and attempts a preview of how the field may progress in the years to come. The chapter that follows, composed by Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gre‐ gersen, empirically investigates the capability of a foreign language teacher to decode his students’ facial expressions and his empathetic responses. The authors combined multiple research methods in this idiodynamic case study to raise the participant’s awareness of the emotions of his students and to discuss his empathetic responses as a practical approach to empathy development. 24 Max von Blanckenburg and Carmen M. Amerstorfer The third chapter in Part 1 by Carmen M. Amerstorfer switches the focus to the wellbeing of three teachers who employ a student-centred teaching methodology in their foreign language classes. In semi-structured interviews, the teachers explained how cooperative learning affects their professional contentment and motivation, and they highlighted the importance of positive relationships with students and colleagues. Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, and Christina Gkonou investigate the wellbeing of teachers from a different angle, bringing Part 1 of this volume to a close. They quantitatively analysed the wellbeing of 513 EFL teachers in relation to personal and professional background factors, indicating an interplay between the motivation, attitudes, and wellbeing of teachers, the environment in which they work, and the people they work with. Part 2 deals with aspects related to EFL teaching methodology, specifically teaching pronunciation, peer feedback, language assessment, and language learning strategy instruction. In the first chapter of Part 2 Manuela Schlick investigates how kinaesthetic learning material inspired by the practices of Maria Montessori can be used for teaching pronunciation in EFL. She reports a small-scale research project, in which pre-service teachers of EFL developed kinaesthetic learning materials to practice English pronunciation and reflected on their experiences. The following chapter by Ha Hoang and Peter Gu was inspired by the reluctance of L2 teachers to endorse peer feedback activities in foreign language teaching. The authors conducted an exploratory study with a peer response task without any teacher guidance in a writing skills class at a Vietnamese university. They convincingly demonstrate that unguided peer response can be valuable alongside guided, focused, and targeted feedback activities as it encourages students’ self-reflection, critical thinking, text improvement, and joy during the learning experience. The third chapter in Part 2 turns to the topic of language assessment literacy and presents an empirical investigation of the perceived level of difficulty of specified assessment-related abilities, knowledge, and understanding of preservice English teachers in Austria. The authors, Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott, discuss possible implications of the findings of their study for teacher education and language assessment literacy programmes. In the final chapter of Part 2, Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White report two studies, one conducted in Quebec, Canada, the other in a CLIL context in Spain. The studies examine the practicalities of implementing strategy instruction for reading in a foreign language with young learners aged 11-12 years. Their research is unique because it implements Strengthening the Involvement of Learners and Teachers in English Language Education 25 elements of gamification in strategy instruction, which, to the best of our knowledge, has never been done before. Part 3 addresses current trends and future perspectives of cultural learning through a focus on concepts and approaches including interand transcultur‐ ality, digital citizenship, global learning, as well as cosmopolitanism. The opening chapter by Laurenz Volkmann delineates the educational poten‐ tial of moments of discomfort that may arise or even be responsibly sought after by language teachers. Drawing on the notion of hermeneutic perturbation, Volkmann elaborates how instances of irritation and embarrassment can be regarded as learning opportunities, which may be productively harnessed and need to be pedagogically framed through materials and tasks. In their chapter, Frauke Matz and Daniel Becker argue for a reconceptualisa‐ tion of cultural learning in English language education with a view to current global challenges. In light of a world shaped by risks and uncertainties, they highlight the relevance of civic education that starts from a cosmopolitan viewpoint and aims at fostering resilience in (language) learners. Christiane Lütge and Thorsten Merse, in their contribution, reflect on the locus of cultural and global learning within EFL from the perspective of digital citizenship education (DCE). They retrace and merge current discourses on DCE to then put forward a model that anchors the concept within the theory and practice of foreign language education and incorporates larger societal digital transformations. In the last chapter of Part 3, Grit Alter reviews central concepts and paradigm shifts in the context of cultural learning and argues that the goal of becoming culturally competent needs to be revisited considering the implications of digitization. She identifies three main dimensions, namely de-localization, detemporalization, and disembodiment, which emerge from digitized communi‐ cation and impact on the practice and desired outcomes of cultural learning. Part 4 sets out to investigate questions and developments concerning the educational potential of literary texts in current EFL teaching. In the chapters, a twofold direction becomes visible: On the one hand, they thematise the aesthetic dimension of literature that may be explored with learners, and, on the other, focus on unique ways in which literature allows to reflect on social and political discourse, and in turn facilitate empowerment and civic engagement. Nursen Gömceli and Allan James take Harold Pinter’s play The Dumb Waiter as a starting point for a literary and linguistic analysis to reveal the interactional dynamics and struggles for social positioning between the characters in the drama. In that, the authors showcase the benefits of an in-depth examination 26 Max von Blanckenburg and Carmen M. Amerstorfer of a literary text in tertiary English language education that gives profound insights into the realisation and contestation of speech acts and supports the design of targeted learning activities. Michael Prusse’s chapter centres on the short story Japanese Girl, a literary text that negotiates Singapore’s colonial past and hence allows integrating perspectives from outside the Western hemisphere into the university EFL classroom. Harnessing a cultural studies approach, Prusse illustrates how the story offers manifold benefits to engage learners with themes such as a country’s narrated and experienced history, the mingling of cultures, and the creation of hybrid identities. In his chapter, Max von Blanckenburg interrelates two fields within English language education in discussing how political education may be fostered through a focus on literary texts. He conceptualizes core dimensions of an intersection between rhetorical and aesthetic language use, and exemplifies how this heuristic allows to approach current discourses via analytical and reflective tasks. Aiming at the promotion of global and ecological education, Maria Eisen‐ mann, in the final chapter of this volume, reflects on the benefits of teaching with young adult dystopian fiction. By drawing on a wide array of literary texts, she demonstrates how this genre lends itself to being included in English language classrooms as it connects with learners on an individual level and involves them in global discourses of climate change and sustainability. With the chapters in this volume, revolving around psychological, methodolog‐ ical, literary, and cultural themes in language learning, we hope to provide readers with impulses for reflection - be it through empirical data, conceptual thought, or concrete teaching approaches. The polyphony and diversity of con‐ tributions in this book showcase the complexity of foreign language education as a field of research and practice, and likewise speak to the manifold ways in which learners and teachers can be activated and engaged in and beyond foreign language classes. Strengthening the Involvement of Learners and Teachers in English Language Education 27 Part 1: Psychological Perspectives on EFL Teacher and Learner Emotions, Well-Being, and Relationships Psychology of Language Learning Where Are We and where Are We Going? Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre 1. Introduction Psychology and language learning are a natural combination of scholarly topics. With more than half of the world’s population able to speak two or more languages, under a wide range of personal, pedagogical, social, and cultural conditions, the psychology of language learning (PLL) is of practical concern to much of the population. Understanding the psychology of language learning and teaching is relevant to professions including foreign language teachers, material developers, curriculum designers, policy makers, educational psychologists, and foreign language researchers. Research that underlies the psychology of foreign language learning comes from many perspectives, including informal classroom observations, structured action research, projects that form part of pre-service teacher education programmes, large-scale multi-site studies, and meta-analyses. The diversity in scope and magnitude of the scholarly domain leads to flexibility in topics and research questions being investigated, and ultimately a better understanding of the topic. The purpose of this chapter is to open a discussion of PLL, the theme central to the first part of this book, by examining the state of the art as interpreted by the present authors and 10 experts in the field who responded to our call for their perspectives on where the field is now and where it might be going. Following a brief literature review (Section 2), the experts weigh in on the future of this flourishing research field. 2. Psychology of language learning (PLL) PLL is a broad research field that explores how psychological processes, such as self-concept, mindsets, motivation, anxiety, engagement, personality, styles, and strategies, influence foreign language learning. These topics and others provide substantial food for thought for researchers, philosophers, psychologists, and teachers. Research about psychology of foreign language learning is informed by theories from educational psychology (Corno and Anderman 2016; Roth 2019; Roth and Jornet 2017) and a large, ever-growing body of empirical research. These studies reflect a range of methodologies and designs and include largescale, statistical data as well as targeted, in-depth analyses of individuals. In recent years two specific areas have become influential, complex dynamic systems theory (Larsen-Freeman 1997) and positive psychology (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2000). Complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) reflects an approach that examines the emergent properties of interacting systems over the multiple timescales of language development (see Larsen-Freeman and Cameron 2008), focusing on processes such as vocabulary acquisition (Verspoor et al. 2011), motivation (Dörnyei et al. 2014), and emotions such as anxiety or enjoyment (Boudreau et al. 2018). Positive psychology has emerged as an approach to examining “the strengths that enable both language learners and teachers to thrive individually and in communities” (MacIntyre, Gregersen, and Mercer 2016, 4). Moreover, new methods for research about the interrelated, multifaceted topics of learner psychology have been developed (e.g., Hiver and Al-Hoorie 2020; Sampson and Pinner 2021) in the hope of achieving profound insights into the complexity of foreign language learning as well as practical ramifications for foreign language classrooms. A growing number of monographs (e.g., Dörnyei 2005; Griffiths and Soruç 2020; Williams, Mercer, and Ryan 2015) and edited volumes (e.g., Gabryś-Barker and Gałajda 2016; Gkonou, Tatzl, and Mercer 2016; Gregersen and Mercer 2022; Mercer, Ryan, and Williams 2012) are being published every year, and seemingly countless articles (e.g., Gkonou, Mercer, and Daubney 2018; Mercer and Ryan 2016) have inspired the readers of established journals and special issues (e.g., Kalaja, Mäntylä, and Nikula-Jäntti 2017; Mercer and Ryan 2015a, 2015b; Padilla, Chen, and Lake 2019-2020) dedicated to this important topic. In 2014, the first international conference on Psychology of Language Learning (PLL) gave the research field a crucial boost, as did the founding of the International Association for the Psychology of Language Learning (IAPLL) four years later. Meanwhile, IAPLL has grown to more than 200 members and publishes its own open-access online journal, the Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning ( JPLL). Two founding members of IAPLL, Sarah Mercer and Stephen Ryan, are the editors of a new book series with Multilingual Matters publishing, entitled “Psychology of Language Learning and Teaching.” 32 Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre Alongside individual learner characteristics, the academic literature also acknowledges other influences on learner psychology that are relevant in foreign language classrooms such as learner autonomy (Benson 2011; Little, Dam, and Legenhausen 2017), self-direction (Pemberton and Cooker 2012), self-determination (Wehmeyer and Zhao 2020), self-regulation (Oxford 2017), cooperation (McCafferty, Jacobs, and DaSilva Iddings 2006; Slavin 1995), group dynamics (Murphey et al. 2012), and multilingualism (Thompson 2016). While many books emphasise theoretical information, others integrate findings from empirical studies (Oxford and Amerstorfer 2018) and provide practical guidance for teachers (Ferlazzo 2013; Gregory and Kuzmich 2015), thereby considering “both the ‘premise’ and the ‘practice’” (Gregersen and MacIntyre 2014, ix) of individual characteristics of foreign language learners. The richness of the field has inspired us to take stock of the state of the art and in doing so ask, where might we be going? A firm theoretical and empirical foundation that has been developed based in part on the longevity of interest in topics such as language learning motivation (Gardner and Lambert 1959) and aptitude (Carroll and Sapon 1959), followed by a wave of studies about individual differences of “good language learners” (Rubin 1975; Stern 1975) such as language learning strategies (Naiman et al. 1978) and styles (Dunn, Dunn, and Price 1975); progress has been made in understanding the psychology of the learner, with much left to learn. Although predicting the future can be difficult, we draw on the insights of colleagues from various parts of the world, who are at various stages of their careers, to help us make sense of where we might be going. 3. The experiences and opinions of experts - 3.1 Procedure We invited 14 researchers in the field of PLL to participate in this study. During the selection, we aimed for a balance between early-career and experienced re‐ searchers, variation regarding their preferred research methods, and diversity of research interests within the research domain of PLL. We asked the participants to read the literature review (Section 2) and answer the following two questions in an online questionnaire: 1) How have the above-described developments influenced your work? 2) How do you anticipate the future of psychology of language learning? The data were analysed by identifying prominent themes in the participants’ responses and by summarising them accordingly (Section 3.3). Psychology of Language Learning 33 3.2 Participants Ten of the 14 invited researchers responded to the questionnaire and gave us permission to share their answers in this chapter, brief biographies are listed below alphabetically. They are all experts in the broader field of PLL with individual research interests in specific areas. Ali H. Al-Hoorie is an Assistant Professor at the English Language and Preparatory Institute, Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, Saudi Arabia. He completed his PhD degree at the University of Nottingham under the supervision of Zoltán Dörnyei and Norbert Schmitt. He also holds and MA in Social Science Data Analysis from Essex University. His research interests include motivation theory, research methodology, and complexity. His pub‐ lications have appeared in a number of journals including Language Learning, The Modern Language Journal, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, ELT J, Language Teaching Research, and Learning and Individual Differences. He is also the co-author (with Phil Hiver) of Research Methods for Complexity in Applied Linguistics and co-editor (with Peter D. MacIntyre) of Contemporary Language Motivation Theory: 60 Years Since Gardner and Lambert (1959). Chengchen Li is an Associate Professor of applied linguistics at Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China as well as a research fellow at the Center for Applied Linguistics, Institute of Education, University College London, UK. Dr. Li has taught Ph.D., MA, and BA courses in academic writing, psycholinguistics, and general English. Her research interests include positive psychology, second language acquisition, and L2 writing. She has published widely on individual difference factors in journals including Modern Language Journal, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Language Teaching Research, System, Applied Linguistics Review, and Journal of Multilingualism and Multicultural Development. She is the author of A Positive Psychology Perspective on Chinese EFL Students’ Emotional Intelligence and Classroom Emotions (2020). She is Associate Editor of Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching. She is a board member of IAPLL as well as co-chair of EMOTION SIG of IAPLL. Phil Hiver is an Associate Professor in the College of Education at Florida State University. His teaching ranges from courses in domain-general learning and instruction as part of initial teacher preparation at the undergraduate level 34 Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre up to doctoral level courses in second language development and L2 research. In his own research he tries to weave together his interests from instructed language acquisition with the study of the individuals doing the learning and teaching in classroom contexts. Often this leads him to study the impact that individual and contextual factors have on the type and quality of students’ involvement and engagement in classroom learning. He also extends this to investigate how teacher thought and action, broadly conceived, contribute to language learners’ proactive learning. Another part of his research is related to methodological innovation and explores the methods for researching complex and dynamic phenomena in language education. This work is part of a broader pivot in L2 research to acknowledge interconnectedness and change and to address issues of precision and rigor through open science practices. Gholam Hassan Khajavy (PhD) is Assistant Professor of Applied Lin‐ guistics at University of Bojnord, Iran. His main research interests are at the intersection of the psychology of language learning and teaching and instructed second language acquisition. He examines the role of individual differences such as emotions and mindsets in foreign language learners’ and teachers’ performance. He has recently co-edited a special issue on the role of grit among language learners which was published in the Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning. He has published in different international journals such as TESOL Quarterly, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Language Learning, and Contemporary Educational Psychology. Paula Kalaja is a former teacher educator and Professor Emerita of English at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland (with a PhD from Georgetown University, Washington, DC). Issues related to PLL have been a keen interest of hers for some decades, and she has been carrying out research on a few individual learner differences, including learner beliefs, attitudes, motivation (or more specifically, attributions and visions), identity, and emotions. Her publications include co-authored and/ or co-edited collections of articles or chapters, such as Beliefs about SLA: New Research Approaches (2003), Narratives of Learning and Teaching EFL (2008), Beliefs, Agency and Identity in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching (2016), and Visualising Multilingual Lives: More than Words (2019) as well as textbooks on doing research in Applied Language Studies (2011) and learning-to-learn skills (2005) for the local market, published in Finnish. Psychology of Language Learning 35 Sarah Mercer is Professor of Foreign Language Teaching at the University of Graz, Austria, where she is Head of ELT methodology. Her research interests include all features of the psychology surrounding the foreign language learning experience with a focus on aspects of self, positive psychology, wellbeing, and engagement. She is the author, co-author, and co-editor of several books in this area including Towards and Understanding of Language Learner Self-Concept (2011), Psychology for Language Learning (2012), Multiple Perspectives on the Self in SLA (2014), New Directions in Language Learning Psychology (2016), Positive Psychology in SLA (2016), Exploring Psychology for Language Teachers (2016; Winner of the IH Ben Warren Prize), Language Teacher Psychology (2018), Engaging Language Learners in Contemporary Classrooms (2020), and Student Engagement in the Language Classroom (2021). Luke Plonsky (PhD, Michigan State) is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics at Northern Arizona University, where he teaches courses in SLA and research methods. His work in these and other areas has resulted in over 100 articles, book chapters, and books. Luke is Editor of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Managing Editor of Foreign Language Annals, Co-Editor of De Gruyter Mouton’s Series on Language Acquisition, and Co-Director of the IRIS Database (iris-database.org). In addition to prior appointments at Georgetown and University College London, Luke has lectured in China, Japan, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, and Puerto Rico. Stephen Ryan is currently Associate Dean in the Faculty of Letters, Arts and Sciences at Waseda University, Tokyo. He has been involved with language education for over thirty years but does very little language teaching these days. His recent research has looked at the experiences of older language learners and he has also been interested in the experience of Chinese tertiary students studying overseas. Richard J. Sampson has been working in the Japanese educational context for over 20 years. He is currently an Associate Professor at Rikkyo Univer‐ sity, teaching courses in English communication and language learning psychology. His research explores the social and dynamic emergence of lan‐ guage learner and teacher psychology by drawing on complexity thinking, 36 Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre with a particular focus on emotions and motivation. He uses action research approaches to investigate experiences of classroom language learning from the perspectives of students and teachers. He has published widely in inter‐ national journals, and is the author of two research monographs - Complexity in Classroom Foreign Language Learning Motivation: A Practitioner Perspective from Japan (Multilingual Matters, 2016) and Complexity in Second Language Study Emotions: Emergent Sensemaking in Social Context (Routledge, 2023) - and co-editor (with Richard Pinner) of the volume Complexity Perspectives on Researching Language Learner and Teacher Psychology (Multilingual Matters, 2021). Amy S. Thompson (Ph.D. Michigan State University) is a Woodburn Professor of Applied Linguistics and Department Chair of the Department of World Languages, Literatures, & Linguistics at WVU and the Director of International Relations and Strategic Planning for Eberly College. Her teaching experience includes a range of theoretical and methodological courses in Applied Linguistics. Regarding research, her primary research foci involve Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition and the interaction of these IDs and multilingualism. Thompson has authored a book about context and motivation (Multilingual Matters, 2021) and has coauthored a book about language learning in Anglophone settings (Palgrave, 2021). Other examples of her research can be found in journals such as the Modern Language Journal, TESOL Quarterly, Foreign Language Annals, and the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, among others. More information can be found on her WVU website: https: / / worldl anguages.wvu.edu/ faculty-staff/ administration/ amy-thompson. - 3.3 The experiences and opinions of the participants The participants provided us with rich data in the form of detailed explanations and personal accounts of their experiences and opinions regarding research in PLL. On the basis of their responses to the questionnaire, we could identify the following themes: 3.3.1 Individual differences Perhaps the defining theme of PLL, or at least one of its longest running concerns, is a recognition that individuals respond differently within the same Psychology of Language Learning 37 situations; where some persons succeed others struggle to learn, where some find anxiety others find enjoyment. Over the years, the observation of different trajectories of success among learners helped solidify a concern for how differences in learner psychology affect the learning process. Stephen Ryan summarized his observation as follows: Above all, I discovered that my primary interest in language teaching was with the people in the classroom rather than the language being taught. Looking back, contact with some of the research you mention gave me this crucial insight into my own teaching practice and the confidence to pursue my own interests without feeling that they were somehow faulty because they did not directly address gains in language proficiency. (That was a frequent comment I was receiving from reviewers of my work at the time.) Many researchers in PLL have a similar concern for how the people doing the learning think and feel about it. Amy Thompson noted that her “professional identity primarily revolves around Individual Differences in Language Learning (IDs in SLA) and the interaction of these IDs and multilingualism. Thus, everything [in the PLL domain] resonates with me and my work.” Thompson’s deeply-held concern for IDs is echoed by Golham Hassan Khavjay who said “…it was always a question for me that why some language learners, despite high linguistic competence, were silent in the classrooms while others with low proficiency levels sought every opportunity to speak in L2.” Rarely will reactions to language teaching and learning be uniform across a group of learners, and the effects of the differences in how people approach the learning process and activities accumulate over time, potentially leading to very different experiences with language and its usage. Phil Hiver suggests that (o)ne of the unique things about learning and teaching languages is that depending on who is doing the learning and teaching and in what settings, the picture that emerges about what works, how, and why can change quite dramatically. I study how the people doing language learning and teaching themselves play a role in the learning and teaching that takes place. My research centers on two primary issues in second and foreign language (L2) education: Why are some learners more successful than others in their rates and routes of development? How can the individual differences that underlie this variation be leveraged to reduce disparities in achievement? These types of questions have long centred PLL on individual differences, broadly defined, in both the process and outcomes of language learning. Over the years, motivation has proven to be one of the most consistent topics of interest in PLL, supplementing an early focus on language aptitude. In recent 38 Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre years, individual differences have examined language anxiety as a prominent topic of research, joined by additional emotions such as boredom and enjoyment among an ever-growing list of individual differences factors. The expansion of topics is part of a long trajectory of development, expansion and contraction that was summarized by Luke Plonsky as follows: It is normal and healthy for the field to want to explore the potential relevance of the multitude of emotions, personality traits, cognitive variables, and so forth. But the current expansion is probably not sustainable or theoretically supported. Consequently, I anticipate the range of variables of interest to continue to expand in the coming years, followed by a period of consolidation or contraction of such variables. Psychology has identified hundreds of concepts that capture how people differ from each other, from personality to social relations, developmental processes to long-term goals. One of the most frequently asked questions over the years has been - are these factors facilitating or hampering the learning process? However, the emergence of positive psychology in SLA might be changing that question. 3.3.2 Positive psychology In one of the more productive avenues of recent expansion, approximately 10 years ago concepts from the subfield of Positive Psychology (PP) started making their way into the literature on PLL. One of the early leaders of this effort, Sarah Mercer, said that the introduction of PP has “…been enriching introducing an array of new constructs and perspectives.” One of those perspectives is a focus on learner strengths and how they can be employed in different ways to achieve learner goals. Mercer commented, “[m]y hope is to see [the field] go from strength-to-strength with new scholars opening up new vistas and taking the field in a range of different directions with continued energy and passion.” One of the over-arching lessons of positive psychology in SLA is that there is more than one way to be a good language learner (Rubin 1975) and capitalizing on individuality requires a focus on strengths rather than deficits (Gregersen and MacIntyre 2014). To accomplish this goal, PLL is drawing upon dozens of concepts in the PP lexicon that are especially relevant to language learning and becoming the focus of current and future research (MacIntyre 2016). The influence of PP seems to be especially strong among early career researchers in our limited sample. Gholam Hassan Khajvay said, “[o]ne major theoretical advancement was the introduction of positive psychology to SLA. I believe that we should not only avoid and control negative factors in the Psychology of Language Learning 39 language classrooms but also foster positive factors in this setting.” Chengchen Li has been an active proponent of the adoption and expansion of positive psychology factors, theories, methods, and interventions for learners: The increasing number of PP-based publications (theses, books, papers, and chapters) enables me to thrive individually and in the PP community. This in turn makes me more positive and aware of the strengths that have made this happen. Beyond research, I have been applying the strengths-based approach in other domains (e.g., supervising MA students) and found similar positive effects. There are positive effects emerging from the adoption of positive psychology in PLL. Not only does the concern for topics such as grit, flow, and enjoyment expand on the individual differences tradition noted above, those topics promote a more explicit concern for both the teachers’ and learners’ well-being beyond their roles as instructors or pupils in a classroom, or as the subjects of research. Richard Sampson discussed his appreciation of the dual function of PP research, to both study how the process works but also to intervene to help the people involved: At the same time, as a classroom teacher and researcher, I am appreciative of developments like the Positive Psychology movement or humanistic approaches to the psychology of language learning that maintain our view of people as people, and which attempt to not only ‘study’ but also benefit those involved in L+ learning. Considering the future of PP in this field, Li highlighted the need for increasing development of a connection between positive psychology and language itself: The field of positive psychology has shown its strong (or even exclusive) focus on learner psychology without connecting psychology to language itself. I would anticipate more efforts to bolster the psychology-language bonds. That is, more attention would be directed to the target language itself (e.g., linguistic features or target structures), which will allow for the interface between positive psychology and second language acquisition. 3.3.3 Contributions from complexity theory One area of PLL where the psychology-language bonds are especially strong is in applications of complex dynamic systems theory (CDST). Introduced to applied linguistics by Larsen-Freeman and Cameron (2008), CDST is a meta-theory that focusses on the ways in which systems related to language interact with each other, growing and developing over time. CDST’s focus on interacting systems means that processes such as vocabulary acquisition, linguistic proficiency, and memory converge in specific tasks and activities with issues of emotion, 40 Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre motivation, identity, and social support. By examining the ongoing, dynamic operation of inter-connecting systems, CDST fosters new avenues of research and understanding of the processes of language. CDST also has had an impact on developmental psychology (Thelen and Smith 1994) as well as communication (Fogel 2006), but has a more prominent role in the mainstream of PLL. Phil Hiver notes that the “study of human thought and action in the service of language learning are among the most complex” issues that one can study. To master a language takes years of effort and for most learners, the process is never fully complete. The ongoing learning of language while using it for communication creates what Hiver calls “‘wicked’ problems in language education and use,” problems so complex they defy being “solved.” He suggests that PLL has a role to play but such issues require a coming together of many diverse insights and perspectives to resolve dilemmas and issues in the field. This is akin to a transdisciplinary perspective (i.e., crossing borders and boundaries in a problem-oriented approach) to tackle “wicked” problems in language education and use. At the same time, the applied lessons from this body of work will continue to expand and accelerate. Richard Sampson links this concern to the concern for applications of theory in language classrooms and other contexts: As a practitioner researcher, I would urge us to remember the applied nature of our enterprise. I would also anticipate further recognition of the complexity of the psychology of language learning. Such a continued shift will engender more of a holistic understanding of behaviours, feelings and ways of thinking emergent via the interplay of what at times have been posited as neatly compartmentalized psychological ‘factors’. The goal of gaining a “holistic understanding” has considerable merit but iden‐ tifying research methods to use for CDST is an issue. One of the extraordinary challenges of CDST can be found in developing research methods that capture the multiple interactive systems at play without either over-complicating or over-simplifying the question under consideration (Hiver and Al-Hoorie 2020). 3.3.4 Research methods and diversity of approaches The challenges presented by implementing CDST alongside other methodolog‐ ical approaches within the relatively young research field of PLL has generated methodological diversity and advancement (e.g., the development of the idio‐ dynamic method; see Al-Tamimi and Gregersen 2023, in this volume), which have helped to “conduct research on PLL more thoroughly” (Gholam Hassan Psychology of Language Learning 41 Khajavy). An expansion of methodological variety is expected to continue in the future, hopefully retaining “methodological and theoretical plurality without one perspective coming to dominate in a way that it stifles debate, criticality and growth” (Sarah Mercer). Khajavy observed that most PLL studies are cross-sectional in nature and calls for “more longitudinal studies to examine change and development in psychological factors involved in language learning […] as well as to see how different linguistic and psychological factors are longitudinally linked to each other.” Furthermore, noting that relationships among many of the oft-studied variables have consistently been indicated in many cross-sectional, longitudinal, and meta-analytic studies, Khajavy suggests that more intervention studies be conducted in addition to correlational studies. In his view, the next logical step would be “to design interventions to improve the positive factors and to control the negative factors. For example, if research has found that growth language mindset is positively related to mastery goals, we should design interventions to improve this construct in the language class‐ rooms.” This approach to designing, implementing, and testing interventions would be endorsed by many of the proponents of positive psychology in SLA (MacIntyre, Gergersen, and Mercer 2019). One crucial factor that research methodology in PLL must continue to consider is context, which according to Khajavy, concerns both the domainspecificity of the field of language learning (i.e., situating constructs within the language learning context) and the conditions under which a study is conducted (e.g., social, cultural, and temporal aspects; Khajavy, Sampson). Amy Thomson agrees, anticipating “the future of psychology of language learning to have a stronger focus on the context(s) involved. A greater synthesis/ inclusion of different psychological aspects would enhance the research output, as would continued equal value placed on quantitative and qualitative research methods.” Applying a holistic perspective in PLL research requires “greater sensitivity to the lived experiences of the participants in their specific contexts and involved cognitively, emotionally and bodi-ly or as full persons” as well as “greater respect for the participants,” which can be expressed by carrying out research “in their terms and possibly with them” (Paula Kalaja). Kalaja criticises past research in PLL that has looked at “pre-determined/ fixed sets of bundles of IDs, defined and measured by researchers, with an unfortunately heavy emphasis on quantification and reliance on verbal data, or questionnaires, interviews and narratives, or as some have put it, on lingualism.” Searching for new ways of conceptualising and pursuing research on aspects related to PLL, she has recently been advocating arts-based methodologies beyond known visual 42 Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre methodologies as alternative ways for language learners to share their “lived experiences of being multilingual (or knowing more than one language).” Concerning future developments of research methodology in PLL, Luke Plonsky sees movement in another direction that would welcome “an increase in the sophistication of psychometric and statistical analyses.” However, he is cautious about “a danger in potential loss of interpretability and technification.” Intrigued by some of the issues this research domain is facing, Plonsky expressed an interest in the development of new methods in PLL research himself. A good starting point to do so would be “learning more about scale development, latent variable modeling, and the many types of validity evidence that must be put forth to appropriate and accurately measure variables in the realm of PLL” (Plonsky). An overarching goal of much PLL research these days is to generate findings that can be effectively applied in practice. As Richard Sampson put it, we “need to continue exploring new research methods more suited to uncovering nuanced, dynamic insights that can both develop understandings and benefit the real people with whom we are concerned.” 3.3.5 Longitudinal and pedagogical developments A current trend in PLL research leads away from “conducting research for research’s sake, or the fabrication of theories without practical meaning for the people learning and teaching languages” (Sampson). Instead, “we ought to first and foremost consider the people who are the centre of our concern” as all “three of these words - psychology, language, learning - strongly imply humanity” (Sampson). Viewing learners holistically and embedded within their idiosyncratic contexts can lead to targeted, effective classroom practices and therefore greatly benefit individual language learners. However, such positive effects can only be achieved if language teachers “understand the connections between theory and practice,” which requires research that is well written with an appropriate amount of jargon, as noted by Stephen Ryan. The increased practicability of research findings is also related to the research field becoming more inclusive and growing in diversity. Sarah Mercer believes that the “richness of the field […] is one of its most valuable features,” which is reflected in the broadening repertoire of research methods (Section 3.3.4) as well as in the common hope among PLL researchers to see an expansion of inclusivity of research participants as well as larger diversity concerning research interests and theoretical paradigms. With regard to the research participants, Stephen Ryan expects a stronger focus “on learners who have not really featured prominently in existing research agendas” as so far “research has gravitated towards learners of English in tertiary settings.” Ryan has noticed Psychology of Language Learning 43 that PLL researchers have started looking “beyond learners of English and also considering other learner populations.” He would like to see investigations of foreign language learners within general education “without problematizing these learners” in the future. Psychology and foreign language education, inseparable entities, seem to have been somewhat estranged for a time, as topics in which language is a central concern have been supplanted by other foci in psychology such as brainbased neurological and other physiological processes, mental health, and studies of various disorders. The cognitive revolution of the 1970s exemplified how theories of language learning revolutionized psychology, challenging the thendominant behaviourist perspective, with theories of internal mental processes in which language takes centre stage. In an increasingly multilingual and less Western-focussed world, issues of language and culture are becoming more prominent concerns across the full spectrum of psychological research. Today, many researchers find it “exciting” (Sarah Mercer) again to explore the nexus of psychology and language learning, and maybe the ground is ready for language to have a deep impact on psychology again. By the same token, the expansion of psychology into areas as diverse as neuro-physiological processes and community mental health is influencing research in PLL as reflected in the growing concern for teacher and learner well-being (Mercer and Gregersen 2020; Oxford 2016). We agree with Phil Hiver that the “future of the psychology of language learning is bright,” although we must acknowledge there are issues requiring attention. 3.3.6 Issues and concerns raised In light of the ongoing expansion of research topics in PLL, Richard Sampson warns of a possible “danger of a rush from one flashy new lure to the next, as researchers attempt to stake their claim to ‘new territory’” rather than viewing individual aspects of PLL in relation with each other. Moreover, the focus of PLL researchers on each other’s work is a reason for concern. Stephen Ryan observed an “increase in the amount of ‘teacher-researchers investigating teacher-researchers’ kind of research,” which he considers an unhealthy development because research might lose “its pedagogic focus and therefore undermine the developments of the past few years.” This fear alongside with a lack of accessibility and clarity due to an “increased use of impenetrable - to the outsider - jargon” (Ryan) are potential problems that will need to be addressed in the future. Phil Hiver anticipates the future developments as follows: 44 Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre 1 Other scholars graduated from psychology programs with research interests in lan‐ guage, identity, and communication, which by extension of the argument makes them amateurs on the linguistics side of PLL. Much more still needs to be done to curate useful insights and applications for prac‐ titioners that extend beyond descriptive or hypothetical ideas and that go further than cursory or generic insights. Finally, more explicit links between research evidence in instructed language learning and in PLL research will become an essential part of the field. Many researchers study one of these sub-domains of language learning exclusively and in isolation from the other. This will not be the case in the future as the field comes to expect research to provide answers that speak to the concerns of both. This coming together of ISLA [instructed second language acquisition] and PLL research is an exciting frontier that will no doubt open new avenues for research in the coming years. Paula Kalaja urges the research community to establish a deeper awareness of the contextual situations of multilingual language learners where they “find themselves using/ struggling with their knowledge of more than one language … and with a growing concern for linguistic equality and social justice … in classes they attend and beyond.” Kalaja critically reflects on previous research when writing: Now that it is acknowledged that most people are in fact multilingual, I am wondering if we have been asking the right questions […] regarding this issue and the people involved, be they learners or teachers (but they are also citizens, mothers, fathers, children, etc., etc., in their own communities): what took them to become multilingual, what does their multilingualism (depending on the status of the languages in their repertoires or translanguaging practices) mean to them, what does it allow them to pursue or what does it prevent them from doing in different spheres of their lives. Ali Al-Hoorie identified another potential problem in PLL research, namely what he refers to as an identity crisis of PLL researchers (Al-Hoorie et al. 2021). Many PLL researchers graduated from language, linguistics, or teacher education departments, which, he says, makes them amateurs on the psychology side of PLL. 1 This is the “primary reason why ‘real’ psychologists do not take note of PLL literature, why it is hard for PLL researchers to publish in top psychology journals, and why few PLL researchers keep up with the latest literature in psychology” (Al-Hoorie). Studying psychology in addition to a previously completed qualification could ease such an identity crisis but may not be practically feasible for many PLL researchers. Sarah Mercer is one of the few exceptions, but she strongly disagrees with the idea of PLL’s identity crisis. Psychology of Language Learning 45 Mercer obtained a Master’s degree in psychology years after her PhD in Applied Linguistics out of enthusiasm for the combination of psychology and language education and her intense engagement with PLL. She does not, however, see this as a universal path for researchers in PLL. “That is NOT the only way or even needed to work in PLL […] the nature of interdisciplinary work does not mean we must all become psychologists, there are other ways to work in such a manner.” She vehemently rejects the thought that somehow in PLL we automatically position ourselves as inferior to psychology as if that is the domain we aspire to. I feel very strongly about this […] we must not deter people from PLL or see it as an identity crisis that we straddle domains and disciplines. It requires caution and wider reading but it does not require a Masters degree in psychology […] I can attest to that! I do not see this identity crisis among psychologists writing about applied linguistics issues. The point Sarah Mercer is making in relation to PLL also applies to other areas of language education. In fact, all parts of this volume emphasise the interdisci‐ plinary nature of language education as well as transparency regarding research methodologies and research traditions (Part 2 on teaching methodologies in EFL; Part 3 on concepts and competences in cultural learning; Part 4 on the intersection of language learning and literary studies). 3.3.7 Respect and gratitude for the PLL community During data analysis, an unexpected but encouraging theme emerged, which highlights another characteristic of PLL: the friendly and supportive research community that has established itself in PLL. IAPLL regularly brings together groups of openminded, mindful scholars who enjoy inspiring conversations and experience exchanges. As the participants testified, the work of others has tremendously influenced their interests and engagement in PLL. Gholam Hassan Khajavy, for instance, became interested in the domain when he “started reading Dörnyei’s (2005) book The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition during [his] postgraduate studies. […] this was an inspiring book for me and made me think deeply about the role that psychology plays in language learning.” In the same vain, Richard Sampson described an article by Zoltán Dörnyei as “eye-opening” and said that he “was hooked” after reading it. Phil Hiver also noted that the developments described in the literature review (Section 2) have profoundly influenced his work and said, “[i]n fact, my work would not be possible without this foundation to build on.” This is in line with Stephen Ryan’s perception that the developments discussed are “a core part” of his work. He explained, “I don’t think of them as 46 Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre an external factor influencing my work but more as an internal guide directing my work. […] These developments also provided me with a sense of belonging to a worldwide community of like-minded people.” Paula Kalaja emphasised that she enjoys the company of some well-estab‐ lished experts in the field and that she respects their work. Richard Sampson and Sarah Mercer included similar comments in their responses, describing the IAPLL community as motivating, supportive, and empowering: The proliferation of research and theory over the years, not least represented by publications and conferences, has meant that there really is a diversity of thinking and openness to new directions in this field. In this regard, the creation of our ‘own’ association (IAPLL) and the associated conferences and online roundtable events has served as a source of inspiration and community that has been both motivating and supportive. (Richard Sampson) It is a joy to have an identifiable community to connect with. It makes it easier for new and early-career academics to venture into new or established areas of PLL when an existent community and set of professional resources exist. The vibrancy of the field is motivating and empowering for everyone working in this area. Having an established field facilitates cooperation and the ability to connect and work with others, which is wonderful. (Sarah Mercer) We trust that PLL will stay amenable to new topics, theories, and research methods, that it will continue to motivate, support, and empower individuals, and that it will sustain its diversity and inclusivity as new scholars are welcomed to the field. 4. Discussion The research field of PLL is successful and unique because of the people working in it. They are living examples of diversity, aware of their individual differences, and they embrace variation in research and thinking. We noticed many similarities in the responses to the questionnaire. However, there were also some instances of diverging opinions and preferences that were like forks in a road, where the participants’ answers could not have been further apart. We noted examples of divergence of viewpoints which include the potentially com‐ peting tendencies toward increasing sophistication in research (see Plonksy’s comments) and accessibility for teachers and learners (see Kalaja’s comments), as well as the issue of the relationship between psychology and PLL that Al- Hoorie views as an identity crisis but Mercer sees as a unique and thriving field with its own identity. Even if the long-term goal of understanding may be the Psychology of Language Learning 47 2 Qualitative methods: qualitative comparative analysis, process tracing, concept map‐ ping, agent-based modelling, retrodictive qualitative modelling, social network anal‐ ysis, design-based research methods 3 Quantitative methods: panel designs, latent growth curve modelling, multilevel model‐ ling, time series analysis, experience sampling method, single-case design, idiodynamic method (see Al-Tamimi and Gregersen in this volume) same, individuals can have very different ways of approaching a task and may focus on different facets of a problem depending on individual features like personal preferences, interests, knowledge, and styles. This diversity creates a strong foundation for PLL research because the individuals’ distinct ways of thinking and experiencing the world foster the exploration of unknown territory in innovative and creative ways. This is exactly what a research field needs to flourish. If the work of others is respected and appreciated (Section 3.3.7), it means that we can learn from each other, support each other, and reach new goals as a community. Embracing diversity implies acknowledging different viewpoints and methodological approaches, which sometimes requires some courage and a switching of perspectives in order to make new discoveries. The diversity of researchers may be a reason why PLL is so rich in meth‐ odological variation in comparison to psychology, which has not embraced a wealth of methods in a similar way. Within the short time of its existence, PLL has come a long way from a small pool of traditional quantitative and qualitative research methods to the large methodological variety we have today. Alongside standard correlational research methods, the research toolbox includes experimental methods, intervention methods, classroom-based and community-based methods, to name just a few. The development of different narrative and interpretive methods has led to arts-based methods that account for the individuality of study participants in a very intimate, thorough, and respectful manner. Even spiritual approaches have been advocated (Lin, Oxford, and Culham 2016) as well as other methods that seem unconventional for PLL research at first glance (e.g., decision tree-based methods; Mizumoto and Takeuchi 2018). PLL has a tradition of extending research to other paradigms, which may be due to a combination of open-mindedness and bravery of the PLL community that may be uncommon in other domains. The most recent expansion of the repertoire of research methods in PLL was the introduction of dynamic methods inspired by complexity theory. Hiver and Al-Hoorie (2020) propose seven qualitative 2 and seven quantitative 3 methods for complexity theory in applied linguistics and advocate their integration in mixed-methods studies. 48 Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre In the future, we hope to see the development of research methods that can be applied by classroom teachers and account for the complexity of language learning. We imagine a hands-on, relatively easy to use pool of research methods that integrate CDST into action research. An innovation like this would not only support but expand the wish to make PLL research more useful for classroom practitioners. Participants in this project suggested that a broad understanding and application of PLL research results at times is not straightforward, and can be made more difficult depending on how the research is presented. Consistent with the tenets of positive psychology, there is an emerging emphasis on classroom and action research in PLL, which suggests that language teachers are becoming more involved in generating findings, and with expanding pathways for dissemination, sharing research with others is an ever-changing landscape. One reason we see for the changing landscape of teaching is movement away from an unrealistic and potentially demoralizing goal of trying to turn language learners into native speakers (Dewaele and Saito 2022). Setting an unattainable goal like this will inevitably lead to disappointment but PLL is heading in the opposite direction, in part as a reaction to positive psychology in SLA. Rather than focusing on deficits or discrepancies between leaners and the almost mythical “native speakers,” an approach that emphasize errors and problems with language use, the field is better prepared to follow a strength-based approach, where we do not only evaluate how far learners are away from being native speakers but how far they have come from being new to the target language. This sort of developmental approach emphasises the accumulation of capabilities and skills alongside identity formation and intercultural understanding. The field is abandoning the narrow conception that language acquisition is mostly about putting together words in a systematic way and learning about vocabulary and grammar rules. Rather, the spotlight has been shifted onto the person-in-context (Ushioda 2009) and the psychology of the learner. After all, languages are learned by people, and psychology matters as much as their reasons for learning within the dynamics of the learning process. As people understand each other - each other’s languages but also each other’s cultures - we stand a better chance of getting along with each other (Oxford 2013, Oxford et al. 2021). 5. Conclusions It is fair to say that in undertaking this research project to capture the state-ofthe-art in PLL as envisioned by practitioners at various career stages we (the authors) have come away with a more complete understanding of the depth and Psychology of Language Learning 49 breadth of the field, the concerns of researchers involved, and appreciation for the past, present, and future contributions of psychology to language learning and vice versa. The foundation of PLL was established by the long running concerns both for what people bring to the language learning process and how language learning affects people. In recent years the area has expanded to include a wider diversity of topics, research methods, publications, and conferences, featuring a dedicated book series with a leading publisher and a new professional organization promoting PLL. The future of this field looks very bright indeed. References Al-Hoorie, Ali H., Phil Hiver, Tae-Young Kim, and Peter I. 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Williams, Marion, Sarah Mercer, and Stephen Ryan. 2015. Exploring Psychology in Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 54 Carmen M. Amerstorfer and Peter D. MacIntyre The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers An Idiodynamic Case Study Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen 1. Introduction In his book entitled If I Understood You, Would I Have This Look on My Face? Alan Alda (2017) urged his readers to willfully name the emotion of their interlocutors prior to responding to them to facilitate their empathy. According to Ickes (1997), the cognitive elements of empathy can be broken down into three mental abilities; emotional decoding, understanding others’ emotional states, and perspective taking. In this study, we explore the first aspect, emotional decoding, which entails the ability to name discrete emotions from the facial expressions of others. We investigate the capacity of in-service language teachers to enhance their empathetic responses in situ in the classroom, intrinsically questioning the school of thought which promotes empathy as a personal trait which cannot be cultivated. Previous studies on empathy development used external classroom experi‐ ences as a means of enhancing teacher empathy. For example, Zhang and Pelttari (2013) found that in immersing English language teachers in a fifteen-minute oral presentation given in a foreign language, teacher participants claimed to possess greater degrees of empathy in comparison to before. Our study, on the other hand, recognizes the act of “feeling what the students are feeling.” It adheres to the reality that not all teachers possess the resources to engage in outside-the-classroom labor intensive professional development practices, such as, enrolling within foreign language classrooms as learners or taking part in study-abroad programs, as a means of enhancing empathy (Palmer and Menard- Warwick 2012; Zhang and Pelttari 2013). As such, this study explores the extent to which a retrospective empathy building process using the teacher’s own pedagogical practice and capitalizing on the notion of decoding learner emotion, can lead to greater empathic responses in teachers. In particular, we implement a practice which cultivates the teacher’s awareness with respect to learner emotion and the subsequent responses that this recognition brings. At the same time, this technique is not labor intensive in terms of in-class time, logistics, or preparation. We assess the effects of emotional decoding on eliciting empathetic responses using a retrospective moment-by-moment means to enhancing teacher empathy while concurrently presenting a practical approach of empathy development. 2. Literature review Whilst contemporary research appears to primarily deliberate the theoretical influence of an empathic quality to teaching practice, little explores theories in relation to the process of empathy development or addresses to what extent empathy in itself is deemed a “learnable skill.” In other words, a large body of literature confirms the positive impact of empathy in teaching in terms of the student-teacher relationship, academic progress, and student well-being, but a gap still exists in research which addresses the capacity to enhance empathy and whether this can be translated into actual behavior in the form of greater empathetic responses. As such, it is difficult to gauge the cognizant effort inservice educators are prepared to put forth to practice empathy in-action at a didactic, meaningful level irrespective of whether or not they are urged to endorse the concept if they have not been shown how. In one study, Snead et al. (2016) discovered that teachers were uncom‐ fortable when engaged with the topic of empathy - not only due to the abstruseness stemming from the various interpretations of the definition, but as a result of the assumption that the phenomenon is solely attributed to one’s personal nature. Gordon (2011) believes that empathy cannot be taught directly but it can be “intentionally cultivated.” While empathy is commonly perceived as a characteristic that individuals are born with, the author contests that just like any other skill it demands practice. The ambiguity encompassing the act of empathy as a skill that can be nurtured versus a trait which is inherently unteachable inhibits teachers from mustering the incentive to take an active role in facilitating their empathy reservoirs. As a result, they are stripped from reaping the rewards of empathy in teaching and learning (Gordon 2011). Given the uncertainty of the learnability of empathy, this study aims to identify a process which can potentially prompt greater empathetic responses from language teachers, debunking the notion that empathy is 56 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen dominantly intrinsic and thus encouraging educators to intentionally cultivate their empathy. Heightened awareness of what it entails to be a teacher is pivotal, with both the personal “being” and the professional “becoming” as equally crucial and interconnected dimensions of career advancement in teacher education. Highlighting the “becoming” at the expense of what it means to “be” is the common trend. As a result, teacher education programs need to consider emphasizing the personal process involved in the becoming of a professional teacher, which means a balance must be struck between the cognitive and emotional dimensions of learning to teach (Malm 2009). - 2.1 Defining empathy In Lee’s (1960) timeless novel, “To Kill a Mockingbird,” the author explores the concept of empathy by means of the protagonist who conveys to his children the idea that unless we “climb inside of the person’s skin,” we are unable to justly understand them. Lee (1960) not only insinuated the inherent prominence of empathy as a way of being but also exemplified empathic practice. Whilst a universally agreed upon definition is elusive in relevant literature, Colesante and Biggs (1999, 186) define the notion as “the intrapersonal realization of another’s plight that illuminates the potential consequences of one’s own actions on the lives of others.” A notable body of literature in educational psychology has addressed the personal characteristics of educators and their subsequent impact on the potential to boost cognitive development and improve the overall quality of learning outcomes (Stojiljković, Djigić, and Zlatković 2012). Two characteristics of particular importance include emotional stability and empathetic sensitivity (Morgan 1977). Townsend (2012) highlights this renewed direction for teaching and learning by asserting that psychologists, neuroscientists, economists, and educators alike are placing emphasis on the “non-cognitive skills” of teachers, specifically, teacher empathy. According to Hoyt (2001, 329), at the heart of education is: a way of defining one’s identity to oneself and others, a way of demonstrating how one can be helpful to others, a way in which one can make some part of the world a better place, a way in which an individual can excel in something, a way of doing things of interest to the worker, a way of finding and interacting with others who have similar interests, and a way of accumulating economic benefits. This quote epitomizes empathy-in-action by delineating the concept as a controlled effort which entails the individual’s capacity to consciously deduce The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers 57 indicators of either distress or pleasure (Rueda et al. 2004). This prescribed effort is manifested when the response to a given situation is subsequently adapted (Hoffman 2000). As such, educators with greater levels of empathic willingness are deliberately more considerate, supportive, and responsive to each individual student, which in turn enriches the learning environment. An ethos of caring sincerely and empathically with learners and their wellbeing is at the heart of purposeful teaching and is imperative to inspiring students to better contemplate their own learning (Arnold 2011; Bergman and Bergman 2010; Eisner 2002; Hoyt 2001; Jalongo et al. 2010). Teachers who are insensitive to what goes on “inside of their learners” are not necessarily placing learning on the “firmest foundation” (Arnold 2011, 14). In light of this, the professional development of teachers’ non-cognitive skills becomes even more imperative. - 2.2 Empathy is dynamic The focus of empathy research has traditionally emphasized the internal experience of the empathizer, which oftentimes limits our understanding of the dynamic way empathy operates in an interpersonal and relational process. Such conceptualizations fail to depict the depth and complexity of empathy and do not offer implications concerning the changes people undergo to be better empathizers. Previous studies have neglected the idea that empathy entails an interactive and social process that is not only contingent on the empathetic tendencies of the empathizer but on the openness or resistance of the individual being empathized with (Main 2017). Empathy is also traditionally viewed as a static trait (i.e., if empathy is ex‐ pressed in this situation, one is deemed empathetic; if not, one is not). However, empathy is context-dependent. Although sharing the emotional experiences of others can be adaptive in certain contexts (such as, the motivation to help by sharing an individual’s pain), it is not always the most effective means to practicing empathy (Main 2017). Additionally, empathy does not occur at a definite point in time, but instead evolves dynamically over a given period of time. If we neglect the corrective processes involved in real-time, the very dynamic nature of empathy is squan‐ dered. That is to say, empathy research that utilizes self-report questionnaires that measure dispositional tendencies requires participants to make one-time judgments of another’s emotions. However, empathy is a corrective process that necessitates the decoding of others’ facial, postural, and emotional cues to determine an empathizer’s accuracy in determining others’ emotions (Main 2017). 58 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen The dynamic nature of empathy demands research methodologies that align with such complexity. Hence, this chapter is the first of its kind to use the idiodynamic approach (MacIntyre and Legatto 2011) to examine empathy in action. This method entails the participant observing a video recording of themselves while teaching and self-rating the efficacy of the target variable (in our case, empathy) on a moment-by-moment basis using specialized software and subsequently, interviewing the participant about the fluctuations in their self-ratings. Because empathy is dynamic in nature in that it is constantly af‐ fected by the convergences of individual characteristics and situational features, the idiodynamic approach allows for more explicit and systematic assessment of empathy at every moment of a teacher’s performance. This permits us to investigate the interplay of the dynamicity of the practice of empathy in realtime and is significantly less subject to the biases of recall memory. The emerging self-reported narrative data facilitates the critical reflection process of the teacher and prompts a “growth mindset” (Dweck 2006). Moreover, this approach exposes language teachers to the multifaceted dynamics of the classroom and provides experience with spontaneous decision-making, which the respective complexity necessitates (Gregersen and Macintyre 2017). 3. Research design Teacher empathy is continuously advocated as a key competency of effective teaching in developing learners’ academic and personal growth. Whilst some studies may have explored the theoretical benefits of empathic teaching to teachers and students, few have contemplated empathy development measures to prospectively enhance teacher empathy, especially that occurring in relation to the teachers’ own pedagogical practice. Therefore, this case study investigates the scope to which a retrospective empathy building process capitalizing on the practice of emotional decoding can affect the empathetic responses of one in-service language teacher and by what means. The participant was observed on several occasions before employing the idiodynamic method to permit the participant to assess the nature of his interactions with learners in terms of their varying levels of empathy. - 3.1 Research questions This study purports to answer the following research question: 1. How does retrospective empathy building, using the practice of naming learner emotions, encourage a language teacher to reassess his/ her empa‐ thetic responses during given moments of teacher-student interaction? The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers 59 In addition, the chapter addresses the below secondary research questions: 3. To what extent can retrospective empathy building concerning pedagogical practice on a moment-to-moment timescale serve as a viable means of empathy development? 4. Is there evidence that a dynamic systems approach can be used to document changing levels of empathy? - 3.2 Participant In order to recruit an eligible candidate for the purpose of this research, a call for participation was sent to a practicing ESL teacher at an institution of higher learning within the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Upon receiving consent, data was collected in relation to his practicum experience, acquired qualifications, demographics and measure of empathy at the time of study. This measure was calculated quantitatively via the Toronto Empathy Ques‐ tionnaire (Appendix B). The participant, William (a pseudonym), was recruited because of his role as a language instructor within the intensive English program at the respective facility. With a total of thirty-four years teaching experience, he has been teaching at the institution for seven years. His main teaching assignment is to prepare students for standardized English exams and improve their study skills. A sum of William’s responses to the Toronto Empathy Questionnaire in‐ dicates an empathy score of 49. The average score for males ranges from 43.45 to 44.45. William’s result indicates a higher than average score for male respondents. A summary of the participant’s demographics can be seen below: Name: William Age: over 50 Nationality: British Years of teaching: 34 Years of teaching at current place of employment: 7 Current teaching subjects: IELTS preparation/ University study skills course Educational qualifications: CELTA, DELTA, MEd TESOL, PhD Applied Linguistics Empathy score: 49 60 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen 3.3 Instruments 3.3.1 The idiodynamic method This study employed the idiodynamic method as its primary source of data collection. The idiodynamic method is a novel approach to assessing the affective states involved in human interaction in real time. The process entails videotaping a participant involved in a communicative event and then using specialized software that permits the participant to provide self-reported ratings on a given variable, in the case of this study, empathy. The ratings generate a graph that captures the fluctuations. The respondent is subsequently inter‐ viewed to gain insight concerning self-reported peaks and dips and underlying explanations for the variabilities. For the purpose of this chapter, five noticeable drops relating to low self-reported levels of empathy were explored. 3.3.2 Participant interviews Finally, as part of the idiodynamic process, a semi-structured interview was conducted to prompt the participant to reflect on the implications of the empathy-building process he experienced. The primary aim of the interview was to triangulate data obtained from the respondent’s idiodynamic charts as well as solicit in-depth open-ended responses concerning data collected during the intervention process. The interview served to add to the layered interpretations of the quantitative and qualitative data collected as per the intervention period. - 3.4 Research procedure Upon obtaining informed consent of the research participant, video recordings of him teaching two ESL lessons to the same learners were obtained in which similar pedagogical practices were carried out. Selected moments of interactive practice between the teacher and learners from each of the observations were edited and collated before being assembled into two shorter recordings (Observation 1 and Observation 2) of approximately four and five minutes respectively. This was done to factor out any pedagogical practices that were irrelevant to the study (e.g., teacher-led instruction with little to no interaction) to narrow down the content to concise, individual instances of teacher-student interaction permitting William to study his empathic responses during each of the exchanges. Next, William watched and rated the selected teacher-student interactions in terms of his perceived levels of empathy. To do this, it was critical that William possessed a clear understanding of the construct, could confidently identify levels of low and high empathy, and use the idiodynamic software effectively. Therefore, an Information Sheet (Appendix A), which provided a The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers 61 working definition of empathy and highlighted its role in teaching and learning, was presented to the participant prior to the intervention. The Information Sheet provided context and served as a source for William to revert back to during the intervention. William was also trained to use the idiodynamic software with a test-run video. He then self-rated his levels of empathy during each of the pre-recorded, edited teacher-student interactions by continually clicking on one of two arrows; one pointing upwards indicated self-perceived high levels of empathy, while the arrow pointing downwards indicated the opposite. Next, the researcher reviewed William’s Idiodynamic Charts and identified five instances of significant drops or “lows” in relation to his self-reported levels of empathy. The respective video recordings were electronically delivered to him, along with an Intervention Survey, which instructed him to cue the video to the five specific teaching segments and respond to the following three questions: 1. Why did you rate yourself low on empathy? 2. Can you name the emotion of the learner? and 3. What would you have done differently if you had recognized the emotion of the learner in the moment of speaking? Lastly, a face-to-face semi-structured interview lasting approximately ninety minutes took place. The semi-guided nature of the interview served to solicit more comprehensive responses from the Intervention Survey. William was asked to share any potential challenges he faced during the intervention, the capacity of the practice to be utilized in teacher training programs as a means of enhancing empathy, and finally, the general impact of the experience on William’s teaching practice. 4. Results - 4.1 Results of the idiodynamic charts One purpose of the idiodynamic approach was to determine to what extent the participant’s self-reported levels of empathy were shown to be dynamic in nature. The Idiodynamic Charts (see Figures 3.1 and 3.2), which were derived from the idiodynamic software and William’s responses to the teacher-student exchanges, depict his self-reported levels of empathy from the first and second classroom observation. 62 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0: 00: 02 0: 00: 09 0: 00: 18 0: 00: 27 0: 00: 34 0: 00: 42 0: 00: 47 0: 00: 55 0: 01: 03 0: 01: 13 0: 01: 22 0: 01: 30 0: 01: 37 0: 01: 45 0: 01: 54 0: 02: 01 0: 02: 10 0: 02: 17 0: 02: 24 0: 02: 33 0: 02: 42 0: 02: 51 0: 02: 58 0: 03: 07 0: 03: 16 0: 03: 26 0: 03: 31 0: 03: 38 0: 03: 45 0: 03: 55 response time (sec) Self-reported Empathy of Observation I Psychometric Study Figure 3.1 Self-reported Empathy during Classroom Observation 1 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 0: 00: 05 0: 00: 14 0: 00: 25 0: 00: 34 0: 00: 46 0: 00: 58 0: 01: 09 0: 01: 24 0: 01: 35 0: 01: 48 0: 01: 59 0: 02: 10 0: 02: 22 0: 02: 32 0: 02: 42 0: 02: 53 0: 03: 01 0: 03: 12 0: 03: 23 0: 03: 34 0: 03: 46 0: 03: 57 0: 04: 07 0: 04: 17 0: 04: 26 0: 04: 36 0: 04: 46 0: 04: 59 0: 05: 09 0: 05: 18 response time (sec) Self-reported Empathy of Observation II Psychometric Study Figure 3.2. Self-reported Empathy during Classroom Observation 2 The vertical axis indicates the extent to which William rated his empathy as high (i.e., positive; 0 to 12) or low (i.e., negative; 0 to -8). The higher the response rate, the higher the participant’s self-reported level of empathy, and the lower the response rate, the lower the participant’s self-reported level of empathy. The horizontal axis indicates the time of the participant’s response in seconds. The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers 63 As illustrated in Figure 3.1, William’s self-reported empathy dropped from a positive response rating of 3 to about -2 at approximately 1 minute and 19 seconds to 1 minute and 29 seconds indicating a lack of empathy during the given teacher-student interaction. Figure 3.2 depicted greater variance in relation to levels of empathy with four instances of self-reported low empathy or dips. These occurred between 0: 00: 10 to 0: 00: 37; 0: 02: 19 to 0: 02: 35; 0: 02: 50 to 0: 03: 03, and 0: 04: 31 to 0: 04: 40. - 4.2 Results of the retrospective interview The second phase of the intervention required William to re-watch and respond to the five preselected instances of dips in empathy from the idiodynamic charts by explaining the reason for the low ratings (Q1), naming the emotions the learners felt in those moments (Q2), and reflecting on what he would have done differently if he had recognized the students’ emotions (Q3). Video Cue 1 (0: 01: 19 - 0: 01: 29) - Q1. In this instance, William challenged mobile phone usage in the classroom in response to catching a student using his device. When William asked the student to explain what was on the phone, the student responded, “nothing important.” William sarcastically echoed the student’s words. In relation to his low rating of the incident, he said: The mobile phone seems to have become the bane of many teacher’s lives in that we cannot really compete with its attraction to many of the students and, for those like me who do not want to place an outright ban on things in class, this can be problematic… Perhaps the negative rating I awarded was due to the negative feelings I get when I see students in class on social media or playing games rather than concentrating on the lesson. Video Cue 1 (0: 01: 19 - 0: 01: 29) - Q2. William recognized the emotion as “embarrassed.” He said: He’s embarrassed but not overly so as I have not challenged him loudly in front of the whole class. My voice has been low and only Y, sitting next to him, has even noticed our exchange. He looks slightly ashamed at having been caught out, but not actually bothered. Video Cue 1 (0: 01: 19 - 0: 01: 29) - Q3. William reconsidered his initial response to the student, accentuating the way he discreetly and personally managed the situation. Subsequently, he reassessed his low rating and responded: “He had been doing something he knew he really 64 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen shouldn’t have and I had called him up on it, but quietly and personally. I think in doing it this way I was actually showing empathy.” Video Cue 2 (0: 0: 10 - 0: 0: 37) - Q1. During the interaction, William responded to the learner’s inquiry of test results, which William had yet to mark. He explained his “long and unnecessary” answer to the student, shedding light on his low self-rating. He said: I had to explain how, with forty-two students and an average of twenty minutes spent marking each essay, I had not marked their essays… I do not like marking essays - I find it hard and often quite depressing. I feel that I MUST give full and comprehensive feedback on each piece of writing so that the students will be able to learn from their mistakes and become better writers yet when I hand them back all too many of them just glance at the grade and then put them away, ignoring all the careful corrections of spelling, punctuation and form, an all the suggestions for improvement. If I have essays that I have not marked yet, I tend to spend the day with a constant, nagging guilt that I have not done them… William continued to rationalize his low self-rating as follows: I’m trying to teach reading and this kid brings up the writing… I’m not thinking this kid is worried because he wants to know his result because he wants to get better at writing… I’m thinking I haven’t had time to mark them all. I think I’m being defensive because I don’t need to be telling them this all the time… I was wrapped up in my own emotions. With him in particular I was annoyed because his attendance isn’t great, he doesn’t do homework and I made him write one essay and he’s complaining that I haven’t instantly marked it. Video Cue 2 (0: 0: 10 - 0: 0: 37) - Q2. William identified the student as “unhappy” and/ or “worried.” He said “the student seems unhappy that I have not corrected all the essays yet. He also seemed surprised when I said I spent twenty minutes on each essay. He shakes his head dismissively at my excuses.” Video Cue 2 (0: 0: 10 - 0: 0: 37) - Q3. William clarified that he should have responded to the student’s query in a manner that addressed the underlying emotion of the learner (i.e., worry). In retrospect, he believed the student was genuinely concerned about his work given that he wanted to improve his academic writing skills. William expressed regret in that he accentuated the inconveniences he personally experiences towards the marking process. Instead, he would have taken the learner’s emotion as one of concern into account, deflecting his response away from his The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers 65 own disposition to grading and reaffirmed that the assignment will be marked and returned as soon as possible. He said: In this particular case I marked myself low for empathy because rather than show concern for a student who wants to know their grade for their latest piece of writing, and acknowledge their worry about how their writing skills may be developing, I seem to be more concerned about defensively justifying my lack of progress in getting the essays marked. My tone of voice shows my exasperation with the situation. I cut off the student saying “As I said on Thursday …” signaling my irritation on being called up on the fact that I had not spent my whole weekend marking their essays. Video Cue 3 (0: 02: 19 - 0: 02: 35) - Q1, 2 & 3. William admitted that he was uncertain of the underlying reason for the low rating in empathy. He remarked: “I’m not sure why… I was checking to see if they had done the homework. One of them had done a bit. I think I seem quite empathetic with the students here.” The emotion of the learner at the time of interaction, according to William, is contentment, and in terms of what he would have done differently, William said he does not necessarily think he would have done anything differently. Video Cue 4 (0: 02: 50 - 0: 03: 03) - Q1. William attributed his low self-rating to his “contemptuous” response to two students who were caught using their mobile phones during a structured classroom activity. He said: One student was on his phone (again with the phones) instead of working on the reading activity, while the other had turned up for class yet again without a book. I was trying to get them to actually do some reading and asked them “don’t you care? Do you want to pass IELTS [reference to an international standardized test of English language proficiency]? ” as a way of getting them to concentrate on the reading and not waste time on their phones. Although I was quite light-hearted and joking with them, I was also a bit dismissive. Video Cue 4 (0: 02: 50 - 0: 03: 03) - Q2 & 3. In relation to naming the learners’ emotions, William suggested that the two students “don’t seem to care” and that they are “laughing and joking.” In response to the third question, William highlighted the need to have been “more serious” in an effort to “reflect the seriousness of the issue and the fact that they have to pass the IELTS if they want to get into their major and continue as students.” Instead, William maintained that he treated their lack of effort “as a joke.” 66 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen Video Cue 5 (0: 04: 31 - 0: 04: 40) - Q1. During the final selected teacher-student interaction, William saw himself as having to manage yet another instance of phone usage in the classroom. He said: As the video shows, I look out and see the same student on his phone again rather than paying attention to the lesson and my whole body slumps. As I watch myself looking so exasperated with once again having to fight for a student’s attention against the irresistible allure of the mobile phones, watch my body slump in frustration … I’m physically shaking my beard and it’s kind of a negative thing to do … Please, I put you in groups, you’re working on this reading activity and what are you doing? You’re on the phone, you’re having fun but not fun from English, fun from phone. I marked myself down because I was being snarky. I can hear the irritation in my voice, I think that’s why I reacted faster [in response to William’s rate of clicking.] Video Cue 5 (0: 04: 31 - 0: 04: 40) - Q2 & 3. William decoded the learner’s emotion at the time of interaction as “fun.” The participant elaborated by suggesting that whilst the student may be “having fun,” it is not necessarily the “type of fun” that will help him improve his English skills or similarly enhance his chances of passing the IELTS exam. Finally, William maintained he would not have altered his response to the situation. He said, “Unlike some of my colleagues, I have made a decision not to ban the use of phones in class as I believe they can be useful at times. However, this is a decision I have to live with and it does mean that some students will abuse it.” As a final step in the procedures, William answered a series of questions in a follow-up interview. When asked whether he considers himself to be a naturally empathetic person or whether he feels he has to make a concentrated effort, William stated that to be in the teaching profession for that many years, empathy is a crucial component: “It seems to work [on being empathetic.] Students seem on the whole to respond well and learn so I think hopefully what I’m doing is empathetic … I do feel emotions and I do recognize them in others … Although I do use humor, I try never to be cruel.” To decode students’ emotions during the intervention (e.g., via facial expres‐ sions, body language etc.), William indicated that he assessed the use of nonverbal cues such as “looking into the eyes of learners” to gauge whether the students were engaged or beginning to drift away. He asserted that emotional decoding is a natural part of the teaching process in that the teacher is consistently asking himself if he is talking at the students or engaging them. He highlighted the importance of “reading the room” as an integral component to teaching. He commented that in the event that he “got the empathy wrong” The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers 67 or, “read the situation wrong,” and the learner felt aggrieved, he would make a point to talk to the student after class and subsequently manage the situation - especially if there is a “physical manifestation” in which he can clearly see he has upset the learner. In response to the practice of emotional decoding or “naming emotions,” during teacher-student interactions, William explained that mindfully looking at the faces of the learners in an effort to distinguish and subsequently name their emotions posed certain challenges. For instance, he stated that at times it can be difficult to physically see the faces of the learners, which can stem from physical barriers such as those who wear caps or simply due to the physical position of the student within the class that can prevent the instructor from distinctly seeing their faces. When asked if he can see himself implementing this practice during teacher-student interactions in the future, William said the following: I’d like to think it is something that I automatically do without having to put a name to it. However, putting a name to it might actually help. So for instance, with the kid asking about their essay marks at the beginning of the class, maybe I could have said “look, I know you are worried and I know you want to see your writing. I promise, I’ll have it done” and if I named it [the emotion] and saw that he was genuinely worried because he knows what he wrote instead of thinking “poor me” and complaining about my hard life, it would definitely have been a useful practice. Finally, when asked about whether he felt that the intervention facilitated or enhanced his own empathy, he asserted that whilst empathy training was not a part of his own teacher training, the intervention could be beneficial to teacher trainees. William commented that empathy and being able to read learners’ emotions is hugely useful for teachers and that he would like to think it is an area teacher training programs are currently looking into. 5. Discussion of findings The charts generated via William’s input of self-reported levels of empathy during teacher-student interaction indicate a series of spikes and dips in his idiodynamic ratings. As can be depicted from Figures 3.1 and 3.2, there is considerable diversity in terms of the patterns of change in the participant’s self-reported empathy. William showed high ratings of empathy, with the peak obtaining a response rate of 10 during the first classroom observation and approximately 7 during the second classroom observation. William also 68 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen indicated low self-reported levels of empathy of -2 during the first classroom observation and approximately -7 during the second classroom observation. Most of William’s dips pertained to his responses towards mobile phone usage among students. William permitted students to keep their phones; however, he consistently rated his empathetic responses towards interactions about phones as low. The intervention revealed that William’s internalized belief about the perceived hindrance of their presence on student learning produced a discrepancy in terms of his interpretation of empathy and what an empathic response evidently entails. It is possible that William rated these interactions as low as a result of the adverse emotions they brought forth in him on a personal level. For instance, during the interview he explicitly indicated that “seeing students in class on social media triggered negative feelings.” On a subconscious level, this may have interfered with his decision to rate these given instances as low in empathy. In other words, he falsely determined interactions which arose negative feelings within him, mechanically implied less than empathic teacher responses. It is promising to note that William perceived the retrospective empathy building process using the idiodynamic method as effective for improving teach‐ ers’ empathetic responses toward their learners. Not only was this evidenced in his response to post-intervention interviews, but also in the fact that he offered a different response to two of the five instances of teacher-student interactions that were presented to him. For example, during Classroom Observation 2, William acknowledged the learner’s emotion (i.e., unhappy/ worried) and his perceived ineffectiveness in responding to the student who had enquired about the marks of a submitted academic essay. William made a conscious note of the “defensiveness” of his response, which he maintained was triggered by an internal dislike towards the process of correcting. He explored this in greater detail during the interview when he indicated that he should have recognized the emotion of the learner. William’s response reflects the theory of empathy as a means of consciously exposing the affective or psychological state of another and offering an affective response that is more appropriate to the other’s situation than one’s own (Hoffman 2000). He explicitly recognized that his reaction to the student in the video was reflective of his own emotions. His response in retrospect should have entailed recognizing the emotion of the learner and as such delineating a reply more appropriate to the learner than to himself. In this retrospective reflection, William showcased empathy in-action. Whilst William opted not to alter his pedagogical responses to three of the five instances of teacher-student interaction, he nonetheless demonstrated a The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers 69 greater awareness of what an empathic response involves. In other words, there is a realization that an empathic response concerns the appropriateness of the interaction in light of the emotion of the learner involved. For instance, during Classroom Observation 1, despite William initially marking the empathic response as low, after naming the emotion of the learner and noting the student appeared “slightly ashamed” but not “actually bothered,” he commended his response and the “quiet” nature of the interaction. A second observation of the incident through the lens of empathy and subsequently, learner emotion, drew William’s attention to the communicative nature of the interaction and prompted his confidence in that “calling a student out for wrong-doing, but quietly and personally” is an effective empathic response to a perceived negative situation, contrasting his initial low rating. It is important to note the inconsistencies between William’s initial empathy ratings and the root causes for these ratings, and that upon a reexamination of given interactions, William demonstrated reservations about the accuracy of his judgements. This potentially suggests a lack of clarity as to what an empathetic response entails and possibly stems from the conflicting definitions of the construct or the negligence of past and present teacher training programs to incorporate empathy training tools. Furthermore, William’s misjudged ratings of empathy as a direct consequence of neglecting the emotion of the learner during the interaction brings about im‐ portant implications. Without a thorough reexamination of learners’ emotions, teachers may continue to respond unproductively trusting that they are in fact endorsing practices of teacher empathy or remain entirely unaware of the significance of empathy in terms of teaching and learning at all. A retrospective empathy building process which analyzes learner emotion during the teacher’s own pedagogical practice may facilitate a deeper understanding of what the construct of empathy entails and as such, guide the teacher towards practicing empathy in-action. Finally, the generated data provided evidence for the usefulness of the idiodynamic method for measuring the empathy of language educators on a moment-to-moment basis and with triangulated quantitative and qualitative data. The results of William’s idiodynamic ratings, which revealed diverse patterns of change, indicated that empathy is not static but instead progresses dynamically. Therefore, the construct of empathy appears to be part of a continuous, complex system in which levels of empathy evolve or alter from one moment to the next. The intervention further highlighted the dynamic and intricate nature of empathy by revealing the corrective emotional experience it entails. Main 70 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen (2017) suggests that empathy entails more than a one-time judgment of anoth‐ er’s emotion in that an inaccurate interpretation of the emotion necessitates corrective action. During playbacks, William illustrated a manifestation of the corrective process in re-examining the emotions of learners during interac‐ tions and subsequently recognizing alternative responses to those interactions. He recognized the importance of misreading an interaction and as such his subsequent empathy. He suggested that he consistently exploited the facial, postural, and emotional cues of his students to determine the accuracy of his interpretations (Main 2017). 6. Conclusion The findings of this study attest to the necessity of developmentally shifting from the broad and general conception for the need of teacher empathy to a more specific and applied conception of the theory in action (Boyer 2010). In addition, in light of the clear-cut implications of empathic teaching to learning, educators seeking positive change owe it to themselves to designate their efforts to the evaluation, construction, and reconstruction of their practices. However, this study is not without its limitations. The first of these is in relation to the nature of the research design. The study purported to hone in on the experiences of an individual case study participant in an effort to collect in-depth qualitative data than would have been possible with a larger sample size. However, a larger sample may have permitted more generalizable as well as conclusive results. The second limitation pertains to the brief duration of the intervention period. In extending the duration, thus permitting more classroom observations, greater data could be collected prompting further insight in relation to the impact of idiodynamic intervention and the participant’s overall experience. In addition, the familiarity of the initial intervention could have prompted the participant to later reflect more systematically as he grew more accustomed to the process. A third limitation is in the very nature of the construct (i.e., an empathic response), which is difficult to gauge, define, and measure. Participants’ incon‐ sistent ratings in relation to self-reported levels of empathy may indicate their inability to accurately define instances of low or high empathy. This may stem from the ambiguity surrounding the definition of empathy as well as the lack of research which depicts the theory in action. Future research which is conducted longitudinally, includes a greater number of case study participants and investigates the participants’ levels of comfort in relation to identifying positive and negative instances may alleviate the afore‐ The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers 71 mentioned restraints and produce more decisive outcomes. Further research is also required to survey not only the teacher’s views in terms of what a positive empathic response entails, but it would prove worthwhile to explore the underlying perceptions of students as well. References Alda, Alan. 2017. If I Understood You, Would I Have this Look on My Face? My Adventures in the Art and Science of Relating and Communicating. New York: Random House. Arnold, Jane. 2011. “Attention to Affect in Language Learning.” International Journal of English Studies 22 (1): 11-22. Bergman, Daniel J., and Cathlina C. 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Accessed May 5, 72 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen 2020. https: / / emotionresearcher.com/ empathy-and-its-development-what-is-missing / #. Malm, Birgitte. 2009. “Towards a New Professionalism: Enhancing Personal and Profes‐ sional Development in Teacher Education.” Journal of Education for Teaching 35 (1): 77-91. Morgan, Sharon R. 1977. “Personality Variables as Predictors of Empathy.” Behavioral Disorders 2 (2): 89-94. Palmer, Deborah K., and Julia Menard-Warwick. 2012. “Short-Term Study Abroad for Texas Preservice Teachers: On the Road from Empathy to Critical Awareness.” Multicultural Education 19 (3): 17-26. Rueda, M. Rosario, Jin Fan, Bruce D. McCandliss, Jessica D. Halparin, Dana B. Gruber, Lisha Pappert Lercari, and Michael I. Posner. 2004. “Development of Attentional Networks in Childhood.” Neuropsychologia 42 (8): 1029-40. 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The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers 73 Appendix A Information Sheet What is Empathy? According to Hoffman (2001), empathy is “an affective response more appro‐ priate to another’s situation than one’s own.” Tyler Colasante defines the notion as “the intrapersonal realization of another’s plight that illuminates the potential consequences of one’s own actions on the lives of others’” (as cited in Hollingsworth, Didelot, & Smith, 2003, p.146). In other words, empathy entails the ability to relate to the perspective of another and provides a means for individuals to lead compassionate and socially aware lives. self empathy other Figure 1. Correlation of Empathy between the Self and Other Importance of Empathy in Teaching The field of educational psychology as well as other similar domains recognizes empathy as an imperative factor in teaching and learning as well as prosocial development. According to Tettegah and Anderson (2007), teacher empathy is referred to as the capacity to express concern and recognize the perspective of the student. The empathy-attitude action model proposed by Batson et al. (2002), suggests that the induction of empathy towards a stigmatized group, does not merely augment positive attitudes towards the group but also increases their willingness to help. 74 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen Appendix B Toronto Empathy Questionnaire Below is a list of statements. Please read each statement carefully and rate how frequently you feel or act in the manner described. Circle your answer on the response form. There are no right or wrong answers or trick questions. Please answer each question as honestly as you can. Statement Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1. When someone else is feeling excited, I tend to get excited too 0 1 2 3 4 2. Other people’s misfortunes do not disturb me a great deal 0 1 2 3 4 3. It upsets me to see someone being treated disrespectfully 0 1 2 3 4 4. I remain unaffected when someone close to me is happy 0 1 2 3 4 5. I enjoy making other people feel better 0 1 2 3 4 6. I have tender, concerned feelings for people less fortunate than me 0 1 2 3 4 7. When a friend starts to talk about his/ her problems, I try to steer the conversation towards something else 0 1 2 3 4 8. I can tell when others are sad even when they do not say anything 0 1 2 3 4 9. I find that I am “in tune” with other people’s moods 0 1 2 3 4 10. I do not feel sympathy for people who cause their own serious illnesses 0 1 2 3 4 11. I become irritated when someone cries 0 1 2 3 4 12. I am not really interested in how other people feel 0 1 2 3 4 13. I get a strong urge to help when I see someone who is upset 0 1 2 3 4 The Effects of Emotional Decoding on Eliciting Empathic Responses in Language Teachers 75 14. When I see someone being treated unfairly, I do not feel very much pity for them 0 1 2 3 4 15. I find it silly for people to cry out of happi‐ ness 0 1 2 3 4 16. When I see someone being taken advantage of, I feel kind of protective towards him/ her 0 1 2 3 4 76 Alaa Al-Tamimi and Tammy Gregersen How Cooperative Learning Can Contribute to Teacher Wellbeing, Contentment, Motivation, and Positive Relationships Carmen M. Amerstorfer 1. Introduction Teachers are constantly exposed to high expectations from students, parents, colleagues, head teachers, curriculum designers, ministries, and the general public. They are expected to follow official laws and regulations, meet curriculum-based teaching aims, and implement topics and coursebook contents within a given timeframe. Moreover, they are expected to handle day-to-day issues as well as sudden emergencies in a professional manner without showing insecurities or other signs of weakness. The demanding nature of the teaching profession and the high degree of responsibility that it brings with it cause fluctuating levels of stress. Teachers are often under tremendous time pressure caused by packed curricula and a large workload outside of class including lesson preparation, homework correction, feedback work, grading, parent communication, and administrative tasks. Furthermore, teachers frequently experience emotional stress, specifically if they care about the fates of their students. Teachers are not simple, mechanical transmitters of knowledge. They are people with histories, beliefs, emotions, and private lives. One of the features that shape their being human is their relationships with others and the different roles they take in these relationships. They can be someone’s colleague or friend, someone’s child, sibling, or parent, and someone’s spouse or life companion. Unlike robots that can be serviced at regular intervals and repaired when an issue occurs or when they break down, maintaining the wellbeing of humans is more complicated. Teacher wellbeing encompasses more than feeling happy and being physically healthy. It requires teachers to regularly check up on their personal and professional contentment. This includes continuous monitoring of their emotional and physical states and good self-care in both areas. This chapter explores the relatively young topic of teacher wellbeing and presents three real-life reports from in-service teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL). The interviewees work at a school that emphasises learner self-direction, cooperation, and communication. The relationships the teachers have with their students seem to affect their professional wellbeing in positive ways. I have always been innately interested in student-oriented classroom prac‐ tices and offer self-directed learning in my own teaching at university. I have visited the school where this study was conducted several times in the past decade, have talked to many students and teachers about their learning and teaching experiences, and observed many lessons. For these reasons, it would be wrong to claim that I am unbiased towards the student-centred teaching approach applied at the school. In fact, I am very much in favour of it. Before the interviews, I predicted that the approach would have benefits for teacher wellbeing, and I am pleased to have found confirmation of my hypothesis in the interviews. 2. Teacher wellbeing Teaching is generally recognised as a highly stressful profession (e.g., Johnson et al. 2005; Kell 2018; Kieschke and Schaarschmidt 2008; Kyriacou 2000). In addition to the above-mentioned issues, teachers may experience pressure because of overambitious timeframes for content coverage during the school year, selfdoubt regarding the quality of their professional performance, and concerns about the future of their students. Teachers can have tremendous significance in the lives of young people (Ampwa-Farr 2017), the awareness of which may add further pressure on themselves. A large-scale study by the London School of Economics (Clark et al. 2018) showed that “the school that children attend affects their happiness nearly as much as it affects their academic performance” and that “the best predictor of an adult’s life satisfaction is their emotional health as a child” (London School of Economics and Political Science 2018). It is of utmost importance that teachers look after themselves and nurture their own wellbeing so that they are fit to positively, ideally sustainably, affect their students. Just like in the safety instructions before take-off on airplanes, when passengers are advised to put on their own oxygen masks before helping others put on theirs in case of an emergency, teachers need to maintain their own wellbeing in order to be able to support their students in becoming happy, well-qualified, and content individuals. Teachers who become unwell due to being exposed to excessive stress over a lengthy period of time may, in the worst case, experience burnout, a serious “state of physical and emotional exhaustion” (Mental Health, n.d.). Teacher 78 Carmen M. Amerstorfer wellbeing is more profound than feeling comfortable, healthy, and happy. Teacher wellbeing is essentially connected to self-efficacy, job satisfaction, and “feeling that your efforts are worth it” (Bethune and Kell 2021, 3; original italics). It is about “finding meaning and connection in the world” (Mercer and Gregersen 2020, 3) and related to the professional pride and integrity of teachers (Kell 2018). Teachers want to feel valued in their jobs and they want to make a difference in the lives of their students (Kell 2018). With teacher burnout on the rise (e.g., Calm Classroom 2022), professional wellbeing and happiness have attracted much attention in research and the media in recent years (Education Support, n.d.; Ferguson 2019; Kestel 2019; Kroker 2020) bringing forth self-help guides (Bethune and Kell 2021; Kell 2018; Mercer and Gregersen 2020) and online advisors for teacher wellbeing and self-care (e.g., educationsupport.org.uk). These print and electronic media convincingly advocate the importance of teacher wellbeing and provide guidance for those who are striving to improve or sustain it. They list common stress-inducing pitfalls and offer effective activities with which teachers can explore, assess, and improve their own wellbeing, highlighting emotional awareness as a starting point. The relationships teachers have with others in the workplace seem to be particularly influential on their wellbeing. Working together with like-minded colleagues on collaborative projects can increase motivation, create strong bonds among teaching staff, and reduce the risk of burnout (Mercer and Gregersen 2020, Rankin 2016). If the members of a team share the same work ethic and vision for teaching, they are likely to experience the “greatest personal-professional satisfaction” (Mercer and Gregersen 2020, 28), which can manifest itself in a “sense of belonging in the workplace” (Mercer and Gregersen 2020, 27; see also Espeland 2006; Maslach and Leiter 2008), making them feel that their accomplishments are purposeful and respected. As regards the relationships between teachers and students, they can reportedly be experienced as both energy-giving and energydraining at the same time (Mercer and Gkonou 2020). Building and sustaining them can be demanding and emotionally stressful; however, teachers’ efforts will eventually pay off and they can reap the rewards. Students notice if teachers care about them and value it highly when they do (Amerstorfer and Münster-Kistner 2021). Teacher caring, which is an important characteristic of effective teachers (Cheung et al. 2008; Pishghadam and Karami 2017; Pishghadam, Makiabadi, and Mohtasham 2018; Wentzel 1997) and a crucial ingredient of positive studentteacher relationships (Amerstorfer and Münster-Kistner 2021), can be expressed in traits and actions such as being available for students, providing a psychologically safe learning environment, being empathetic, talking about students’ interests, disclosing some personal information, and embracing diversity (ibid.). Looking Teacher Wellbeing, Contentment, Motivation, and Positive Relationships 79 after their own wellbeing is also an expression of teacher caring (ibid.) as illustrated in the analogy with the airplane safety instructions above. The wellbeing of teachers is noticeable in their moods, emotions, and motiva‐ tion and can be expressed both verbally and non-verbally (Mercer and Gregersen 2020). It can spread like a wildfire among students and similarly colour students’ own moods, emotions, and motivation (Mercer and Gregersen 2020), affecting academic engagement (Frenzel and Stephens 2013) and consequently learning success (Christenson, Reschly, and Wylie 2012; Linnenbrink and Pintrich 2003; Mercer and Dörnyei 2020). In fact, a reciprocal interaction between the emotions of teachers and learners has been confirmed (Becker et al. 2014; Frenzel et al. 2009; Mifsud 2011), extending the notion of “happy teachers make for happy learners” (Mercer and Gregersen 2020, 2) to “… and happy learners make for happy teachers, too.” In order to evaluate their wellbeing, teachers need to become aware of it first. A useful recommendation is to take some quiet time to mindfully reflect on momentary situations that concern life in and outside school (Bethune and Kell 2021; Mercer and Gregersen 2020; Thom 2020). A teacher’s job-related wellbeing is likely to affect other arenas of life beyond work, which in return has ramifications on their professional wellbeing. Bethune and Kell suggest six topics to consider: • Purpose and values - having a strong sense of why you teach; working in an environment aligned to your values. • Perspective - being able to see the bigger picture; focusing on what really matters. • Managing workload - feeling on top of your work; being able to prioritise and be productive. • Balance and self-care - looking after yourself through good sleep, diet, and exercise; knowing what works for you for managing stress. • Positive relationships - building strong connections at schools; main‐ taining close relationships with friends and family. • Agency - feeling in control of important aspects of your work and personal life; being able to affect positive change. (adapted from the Personal Wellbeing Wheel, Bethune and Kell 2021, 13) As if on an “emotional rollercoaster” (Gkonou, Dewaele, and King 2020), the welfare of teachers often moves on a trajectory with ups and downs, representing easier and tougher times, fragmented with emotions and events on a scale from momentary euphoria to long-term, barely endurable distress. 80 Carmen M. Amerstorfer Hence, the evaluation of teacher wellbeing and the adjustment of positive selfcare measures require regular attention. What seems to be a natural enemy of teacher wellbeing is perfectionism (Bethune and Kell 2021; Mercer and Gregersen 2020). Following Winnicott’s notion of good enough mothers (Winnicott 1962), Bethune and Kell (2021) suggest that trying to be a perfect teacher should be replaced by aiming at being a good enough teacher. In other words, teachers should accept and welcome imperfection in both their students’ performance and their own. Good enough teachers regard mistakes as fertile soil for learning growth and model life-long learning to their students. They give students appropriate space and opportunities to struggle and figure out problems by themselves, providing guidance when necessary. They focus on small improvements in their work and lives outside school and take care of their own wellbeing (Bethune and Kell 2021). Being good enough rather than perfect takes pressure off teachers and simultaneously increases the value of learning for students, thus creating a winwin scenario. Putting students in charge of learning enhances their autonomy, self-regulation, and sense of responsibility (Amerstorfer 2018) while allowing teachers to adopt less central roles in the classroom such as those of facilitator, coach, or guide (Amerstorfer 2020; Amerstorfer and Münster-Kistner 2021, Mercer and Dörnyei 2020). The dynamic between students and teachers changes, thereby increasing the potential for creating or consolidating positive studentteacher relationships. 3. Cooperative learning In the first half of the 20 th century, progressive educationalists like John Dewey, Célestine Freinet, and Maria Montessori promoted learner cooperation and informed teaching approaches that have since been applied and modernised in schools around the globe. One such teaching approach, the Dalton Plan (Parkhurst 1922), was used as a model to develop CoOperative Open Learning (COOL) in Austria. Introduced in 1996 and founded on the pedagogical prin‐ ciples of freedom, cooperation, and self-reliance, COOL is implemented in 60 schools today (Cooltrainers, n.d.), one of which served as the research environ‐ ment for this study. Cooperative learning can be defined as purposeful teamwork by students in order to reach common and individual learning outcomes. In COOL, students collaboratively complete task-based and topic-based self-study assignments within a given timeframe. The students have much freedom of choice, for instance, regarding team members, individual work during task completion, Teacher Wellbeing, Contentment, Motivation, and Positive Relationships 81 and movement within the boundaries of the school building. Through peer cooperation, they develop a profound social consciousness and practise a variety of skills for working together with others. Self-reliance is reflected in the autonomy students have for decision making and time management, which increases their responsibility for the actions they take during the learning processes as well as their consequences. In the schools using this approach, the assignments in COOL are designed to elicit peer communication and teamwork among students and usually include several mandatory and additional voluntary tasks. The optional tasks allow students to decide for themselves into how much depth they want to go regarding specific topics and exercises. The COOL assignments are developed by a team of teachers, who meet regularly to discuss how student interests can be combined with curricular standards and learning targets. COOL assignments often combine various school subjects, which increases the overall purpose of the activities and their authenticity. Moreover, students develop and practise a broad range of skills, including creative, critical, and logical thinking, (foreign) language and communication skills, digital competences, awareness for cultural diversity and citizenship, and strategic learning. The teachers regularly review and update the assignments according to their observations during lessons and the feedback they receive from students. Designing and revising the COOL assignments is time-consuming and requires intense teamwork. The COOL lessons, on the other hand, which sometimes stretch over two or more regular 50-minute periods, are less intense for the teachers. In this way, the teachers function as supervisors and coaches, giving advice and guidance to individuals and teams, occasionally intervening “to praise, correct, question, share, and motivate” ( Jacobs and Renandya 2016, 16). The students are actively engaged in learning and build a support system among themselves. Only upon request, that is, when the students hit a dead-end after having consulted each other for help, does the teacher get involved. In such an instance, rather than giving a direct answer, the teacher points the students in the direction of the answer, for example, by asking questions that guide them towards finding the solution to their problem or suggesting additional information sources to the ones the students have already examined. Changing the roles of the teacher in this way is only possible because the students have more rights and take on more responsibility for their learning compared to conventional classroom practice, which has several other advan‐ tages, too. Their increased autonomy and responsibility have positive effects on their motivation and team spirit. The learning processes gain authenticity and significance, and the students’ academic engagement grows. That said, students 82 Carmen M. Amerstorfer 1 The data were collected with the friendly assistance of Christopher Blake Shedd, who accompanied the university excursion. who do not feel motivated or who are unwilling or unable to engage in learning on a particular day are usually saved by the team. The students acknowledge that everybody can have a bad day and compensate for the momentary shortcomings of individuals. Long-term laziness, however, is not tolerated and addressed as a problem for the team when it occurs. Even in such instances, the teacher only gets involved if the students do not manage to solve the issue at hand and consult the teacher for support. 4. Experiences of teachers The school where the study took place welcomes guests who are interested in the COOL approach with open arms and open classroom doors. I regularly take teacher education students there to see COOL in action and to learn from the experiences of the students and teachers there. The annual university excursions were temporarily suspended due to the Covid-19 pandemic but continued in 2022. During a previous visit, three EFL teachers were interviewed in order to investigate how COOL is practised in reality 1 . The individual interviews were semi-structured, hoping that this would elicit spontaneous, unprepared responses in addition to the information that the teachers shared in their presentations and meetings with us. The interview questions focused on the lived experiences of the three teachers. They aimed to find out about their opinions regarding the COOL methodology, their contentment, self-confidence, and motivation as teachers, and their relationships with students and colleagues within the context of COOL. The three interviewees are strongly in favour of the COOL approach, which is why they chose to apply it in the first place. They believe in the educational value of COOL and in the numerous additional skills that students gain through COOL. The interviews were thus not expected to generate objective, unbiased findings (cf. Norton 2013, Thompson 2021). Rather, the purpose was to gain insights into the teachers’ perspective of COOL and how it affects their wellbeing. The three interviewees, whose real names have been concealed, were • Anne, who has practised COOL in EFL for 23 years, • Fiona, who has applied the COOL methodology in EFL for 12 years, and • Caroline, who has 14 months of experience with COOL in EFL (including a pre-service internship supervised by Anne) and two months in Natural Sciences. Teacher Wellbeing, Contentment, Motivation, and Positive Relationships 83 The collected interview material is presented as narrative summaries in the following sub-sections. - 4.1 Anne’s experiences The first time Anne heard about COOL was on her return from parental leave in 1996. She had always been open to new ideas and felt immediately that this could be something that suited her personally. It did not take her long to decide to participate in the COOL pilot project at her school, which made her one of the first teachers in Austria to implement COOL. Anne explains that COOL massively affects her contentment as a teacher. She is convinced that she prepares her students well for their future by helping them develop a broad variety of skills. From her own perspective, COOL creates a welcome balance to traditional teaching. During COOL lessons, she can take a less prominent role in the classroom and interact more intensively with individuals. Students talk to her more frequently in comparison to other teachers who do not offer COOL. “They want to talk,” she says in reference to her students, “also about private issues.” It all contributes to my contentment because even though I have been teaching for a long time, I never feel like I don’t want to do it anymore. This is because COOL always brings new challenges, there’s always something new to develop. I think if I didn’t have that, I wouldn’t like being in school so much anymore. Regarding her competences as a teacher, Anne believes that COOL has affected her immensely as it brings to the fore multiple facets of what makes a good teacher. She explains, Clearly, a good teacher isn’t someone who has an amount of knowledge that would fill a cloud three times. The most knowledgeable teachers cannot make a change if their relationships with students are off […] when they don’t feel that they like the students. It sounds weird but it’s just like that. You’ve got to like your students and the students must like you. Then they are ready to make an effort. And that makes me content. When I give them a voluntary extra assignment and they complete it. Just because they are motivated. Because the weaker ones think ‘I can get better’ and the stronger ones want to become even better than they already are. That makes me very, very content. Anne believes that her teaching skills have improved because she also applies some basic principles (e.g., learner-centredness, freedom of choice) in other classes that are not officially part of the COOL programme and as such do not have regular COOL lessons. Believing in the COOL approach and knowing 84 Carmen M. Amerstorfer that it is “the right way to go” reinforce her self-efficacy. She gains pride and self-confidence from the interest others take in her work and the positive feedback from visitors to the school. Furthermore, her confidence increases when colleagues who do not apply COOL in their own teaching notice a difference between students who practise COOL and those who do not. Anne recalls an instance that occurred with a Maths teacher at her school who does not apply COOL in her own teaching. She was a few minutes late for class, and when she arrived, the students were already working by themselves: She said ‘I thought I was not in the real world! ’ because the students had picked up from where they had stopped in the previous lesson although the teacher wasn’t there yet. She claimed that classes who don’t have COOL wouldn’t do that. For them, the class starts at the earliest when the teacher enters the classroom. In COOL, students start by themselves as soon as the lesson begins - not because a teacher tells them to do so but because they want to make the most of the time available. As one of the more senior teachers at the school, Anne says that COOL has had a positive effect on her work-related motivation and that she still loves teaching. The only thing she does not like so much anymore is correcting homework. COOL motivates her because it involves creative work and because it has a sustainable impact on students. One day, when she told her adult children about the latest innovation regarding COOL at school (i.e., the introduction of a “selfstudy day” - a whole day of COOL every week), they enviously remarked that they would have liked COOL themselves as students. Such comments from her own children motivate her extremely. However, not all teachers at the school are in favour of the COOL approach. Anne admits that she had to deal with a few critical voices in the past, but the majority of reactions have been positive. More importantly, the feedback from students has always been positive, she emphasises. Sometimes students complain about the large volume of COOL assignments and the intense effort involved in completing them. But at the end of the day, they enjoy the work, from Anne’s experience: “The best feedback for a teacher is what the students say. That’s what counts for me. Not what anybody else says. It’s important that the students are content.” Anne tells me that during COOL lessons, students approach her and start conversations of their own accord. The conversations are not always related to school as the students frequently share private issues, which, Anne believes, is easier in COOL because teachers can focus their attention on individuals. In regular classes, where she is the centre of attention of 20-25 onlooking students, Teacher Wellbeing, Contentment, Motivation, and Positive Relationships 85 this is impossible, but COOL provides a suitable framework for one-to-one conversations. When asked why the relationships with her students are so important, Anne says that they give her strength and self-confidence: “I’m not just interested in how a student completes a task. I want to know about where they’re coming from, what makes them tick, what they do.” Having children of her own has helped Anne develop an awareness of her students’ private lives, she adds. In her opinion, “[t]eachers who don’t have children of their own and who complain on a Monday that their students didn’t study what they were supposed to study over the weekend, can’t imagine what was going on [at home] at the weekend.” She deliberately seeks conversations with students to find out what is happening in their lives, how they are doing, and what reasons they have if they are not performing so well sometimes. It’s a matter of trust. Sometimes students tell me via email. I find that really great. I think that’s something that makes ‘COOL students’ special, that they know how to communicate with others. Never ever would a student raise her hand in a regular class or come up to me at the end of a lesson and tell me something personal. Meeting the students in smaller groups or individually is different. Another aspect of COOL that has a positive effect on Anne is the close collaboration with like-minded teachers. The relationships among the team of 25 “COOL teachers” at her school have notably improved over the years. “I think it has made each one of us stronger together.” They have regular morning meetings at school, additional planning meetings during the semester, and an off-campus retreat once a year, where their interpersonal bonds have strengthened. Anne loves meeting other teachers and exchanging ideas and opinions about COOL. The topics discussed in morning meetings are usually school-related but on other occasions, the teachers talk about private issues, too. For instance, every school year ends with a communal hike - a perfect backdrop for private talk. Other meetings with the COOL team, which can take several hours, are sometimes held at a colleague’s home, where the host invites the others to a home-made meal. On such occasions, the conversations are often interwoven with private topics. Anne adds that such meetings have been very valuable for constructive work and long-lasting friendships. Anne points out that her relationships with teachers who are not involved in COOL have not suffered either, although she believes that some of these teachers are “resistant to this method” as they do not believe in student-centred teaching at all. When asked about the disadvantages of COOL, Anne acknowledges that COOL is not equally suitable for all teachers because, in addition to a genuine 86 Carmen M. Amerstorfer devotion to the philosophy of this teaching approach, it requires a high degree of self-organisation and planning. The overall effort on the part of the teacher (e.g., planning, preparation, team meetings) is larger compared to conventional teaching but this is not a draw-back for Anne because she is well-organised by nature. - 4.2 Fiona’s experiences Fiona experiences COOL lessons as relaxed lessons in which she is more of a facilitator, regularly checking in how students are managing the classwork. In advanced classes, she says, there is less input needed from the teacher, although she provides help where required, as the students work almost completely independently. While she admits that COOL lessons themselves are easy on the teacher, she stresses that the preparation and correction work is much more compared to conventional classroom practices. But it all pays off “when you see how diligently the students work and what the outcomes are.” Fiona notices a tremendous improvement in the quality of her students’ work from the first year of COOL to the last. She highlights that COOL adds value to her lessons, which is why she sometimes uses COOL assignments even with classes that are taught in a traditional manner. “Watching how the students stick their heads together to discuss issues and how eagerly they work together on the assignments” makes her happy. Fiona does not consider herself as overly self-confident. Yet she does not have issues with self-doubt either. She thinks that self-reflection is the key. Considerations about what went well and what did not go so well in a lesson are important indicators for her future actions. She believes that every teacher has to find the right way for himself or herself - with COOL or without it. What is important is to find an approach that fits both teacher and students. Fiona does not believe that COOL has impacted her competences as a teacher. To her mind, it is just a method with which she can work well and where she notices greater student motivation and engagement as well as better learning outcomes: “They like COOL so much that they insist on having their COOL lessons even if the timetable is adapted at short notice, for instance, due to the absence of a teacher.” With regard to her own preferences, she particularly appreciates the creative freedom within the COOL framework. Fiona feels it gives teachers more opportunities for methodological variation and the incorporation of students’ interests compared to conventional classroom teaching. The positive student responses she has received and the positive student reactions she has observed motivate Fiona most to continue applying COOL in her job: “I stick with it because it’s the right way for me.” Teacher Wellbeing, Contentment, Motivation, and Positive Relationships 87 In Fiona’s opinion, COOL contributes to a relaxed, friendly atmosphere between students and teachers. She explains that the students have clear guide‐ lines, reasonable tasks, and a submission deadline. No student “is bored to death or struggling to keep up” because they plan their time wisely. Fiona emphasises that the students are responsible for their own progress, can help each other, and there is no pressure from the teacher. She sees three major advantages of COOL for students: self-direction, time management, and teamwork. Students work independently of the teacher and regulate their own learning. They manage the time they have available until the submission deadline of an assignment and use it efficiently. They acquire the skills that are necessary for effective teamwork and a pleasant team atmosphere. Although no friendships have emerged from Fiona’s professional relation‐ ships, she cherishes the close collaboration with the other “COOL teachers” at her school. She enjoys the frequent meetings with individual colleagues to discuss COOL assignments and the monthly meetings with all teachers involved. Moreover, she always looks forward to the annual retreat and to trying out a new pilot project every other year, which they adopt from other innovative schools in Europe: “You grow together. […] You act in concert. […] You look for colleagues with whom you can make new assignments, with whom you work well together.” Fiona notes that, as mentioned above (Section 3), one disadvantage of COOL is that sometimes individual students withdraw from the completion of an assignment and let others do the work for them. This issue usually occurs with beginners and often sorts itself out without the involvement of a teacher. If this is not the case, it is the teacher’s job to raise the students’ awareness that their behaviour will not be successful in the long run. Fiona furthermore remarks that time management may be difficult for novices as they sometimes use the COOL lessons for things other than the COOL assignments, for instance, studying for an exam in a different subject. In such situations, she offers the students some guidance although it is not required of the teacher to keep students on task in COOL. For example, she suggests that they spend half of the lesson time on the COOL assignment and the other half on something else, adding that “[a]t the end of the day, I always receive the assignments on time.” - 4.3 Caroline’s experiences Caroline finds contentment in COOL because she can be a “different kind of teacher” as the students are the main actors and she can “work with them in a different manner, on a different level.” She explains that the intense preparation of COOL assignments weeks or months in advance requires much investment 88 Carmen M. Amerstorfer on her part. It seems like a disadvantage at first but turns into an advantage in the long run because the assignments are sustainable and can be adapted and reused. After the preparation has been completed, she always experiences an intense “sensation of security.” Then the students are in charge and she can focus her attention on them. Caroline describes herself as generally wellorganised and says that COOL makes her even better organised. This, in return, boosts her confidence, which she is yet to establish as a novice teacher. With the lesson content well-defined and set out in advance, she is less worried about it during class. Similarly, she is less worried about classroom management and organisation, as students are competent and confident in this way of working. In answer to the question whether COOL makes her a better teacher, Caroline responds that she does not know whether it increases her factual, professional competences. But, she highlights, it gives her the time and space to “work with the students on a relationship level.” It extends her competences and range of effect to a personal level, for which there is often too little time in conventional teaching. Rather than a person who merely “conveys knowledge,” she sees herself as a “learning companion” for her students, which she enjoys very much and which enriches her as a person and as a teacher. However, trusting that the students can work self-directedly and handing over power to them was challenging at first. It was extremely difficult for me at the beginning to stop controlling the students, to stop asking ‘Are you working on the assignment? It looks like you’re playing a game? Did you just get a snack from the buffet? ’ That’s when I realised that I’m completely stuck in this compulsive urge to check everything. Caroline finds learner-centred teaching more interesting and motivating than lecturing in front of a class. Like Anne and Fiona, Caroline finds another very motivating aspect of COOL is the close collaboration with other teachers and going on retreats together, for which the school covers part of the accommoda‐ tion costs. She explains that the main purposes of these retreats are drafting a plan for the whole school year and designing COOL assignments that integrate various subjects. Naturally, there is also some time for private chats and “simply having a good time together.” These retreats energise Caroline, and she can draw on them during the year. It is the “togetherness” that influences her the most and that gives her “a good start to the new school year.” Although she generally believes that intense teamwork can bear some potential for conflict, she has never encountered any problems herself. On the contrary, the close peer collaboration, joint participation in professional in-service training, and the Teacher Wellbeing, Contentment, Motivation, and Positive Relationships 89 annual retreats have led to friendships with other teachers. To her, “everything has been extremely positive so far.” Similar to Anne and Fiona’s experience, COOL has positively affected Caroline’s relationships with her students, too. She feels that the students perceive her as more open in comparison to other teachers. They come to her more frequently and talk about what is on their minds. They approach her to vent about what is bothering them and share private stories. She appreciates that COOL creates a classroom atmosphere that encourages students to open up to her, that fosters positive relationships between her and her students. Caroline chuckles at the question as to why positive relationships with students matter: “It is always better if you know your students on a personal level, if you can understand them better and you can comprehend their situations.” It gives students the confidence to talk about problems sooner than they would normally, which can prevent more serious issues. Likewise, it encourages students to give positive feedback to teachers, to speak about what they like: “It is a give and take and I find it very important.” 5. The wellbeing of the COOL teachers The three teachers interviewed have very positive attitudes towards studentcentred teaching in general and the type they practise in particular. They seem to be generally relaxed and content in their jobs, which was noticeable in their body language, facial expressions, and responses during the interviews. They find COOL a welcome variation from traditional classroom practices, specifically due to the easy-going, friendly classroom atmosphere it creates, the creative freedom for teachers and students, and the new challenges entailed in collaborative material development. Anne and Fiona, are absolutely convinced that COOL is the right way to go, so much so that they even use cooperative learning materials in other classes that are not part of the COOL project. Caroline is relatively new to teaching and still finding her feet as a teacher. Caroline feels that having Anne as her internship supervisor and mentor at the school was a wonderful stroke of luck. With her open-minded attitude towards learner-centred teaching and many years of experience with COOL, Anne is regarded in the school as a role model for many other teachers and visitors to the school. The teachers’ explanations during the interviews indicate that a crucial contributor to their professional wellbeing is the opinion of others. This concerns people in their work environment, such as students, visitors interested in the COOL approach, and colleagues (particularly those who do not use COOL themselves), as well as people in the teachers’ private environment, like their 90 Carmen M. Amerstorfer children. Positive reactions and feedback from others extrinsically motivate the teachers, strengthen their self-confidence and pride, and, hence, increase their wellbeing. Creating learning materials that students find interesting, meaningful, and suitably challenging is another central factor for the professional contentment of the three teachers interviewed. Their ultimate aim is to develop in their students the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that they need as competent and confident citizens. This high-stakes aim implies teacher care, which Anne emphasised as being fundamental in the teaching profession. The students’ wellbeing seems to be close to the hearts of the interviewed teachers, which adds purpose to their jobs and positively affects their own wellbeing. Further satisfaction comes from knowing that their efforts are worthwhile, that COOL has positive long-term effects on their students, and that their students’ achievements exceed factual knowledge. Witnessing rapid improvements in the performance of their students - independently of the teacher, as individuals, and in teams - and noticing how determined the students are when completing the COOL assignments are rewarding and motivating for Anne, Fiona, and Caroline. Pride was repeatedly named in connection with their students’ engagement and achievements in COOL. As an emotional response to their professional performance, pride seems to have an immense potential to enhance the wellbeing of teachers (Kell 2018). Regarding how they evaluate their professional abilities, COOL appears to have a positive impact as well. Although none of the teachers explicitly stated that COOL improves their teaching skills, they noticed benefits to the organisation, planning, and preparation of their teaching. Moreover, being able to shift the focus away from classroom management during lessons was particularly highlighted by Caroline, the novice teacher, as it creates a sense of security for her and thus increases her self-confidence. It was highlighted as a huge advantage by all three teachers that their traditional roles change during COOL lessons. They become guides or “learning companions,” as Caroline put it, who can focus their attention on individual students. This enables them to get to know the students more holistically and personally and thus have “real” relationships with them. In the minds of the three COOL teachers, this is impossible to establish through purely professional, usually quite brief, albeit regular, encounters in teacher-centred classrooms. Their relationships with students add significance to their jobs as they empower and motivate them, which is important for teacher wellbeing (Mercer and Gkonou 2020; Mercer and Gregersen 2020). In this regard, respect and trust seem to be essential (Amerstorfer and Münster-Kistner 2021). The teachers Teacher Wellbeing, Contentment, Motivation, and Positive Relationships 91 repeatedly mentioned that students open up to them during COOL lessons and that they share private information with them. As they engage in private conversations, the teachers also share details about themselves, which echoes the trust and respect of their students. Letting the students work on the COOL assignments by themselves and making sure that no COOL lessons are cancelled are further symbols of trust and respect. The appreciation the teachers receive for this from their students increases their professional contentment and adds to their wellbeing. It is not only their relationships with students but also their relationships with peers that improve the teachers’ wellbeing. The meetings and retreats to discuss developments, experiences, and new ideas are treasured by all three teachers. The feeling of togetherness in the close, constructive collaboration with like-minded colleagues adds purpose to their work, which also contributes to professional wellbeing (Bethune and Kell 2021; Mercer and Gregersen 2020). Furthermore, peer cooperation has a motivating effect on the teachers. Specifically, the retreats seem to function as a power bank of motivation, which is annually recharged, and can be drawn on during the school year. In a team, the strengths of individuals can be pooled and weaknesses compen‐ sated for. For instance, someone who is good at writing may be able to help other teachers to express their excellent, creative ideas in a way that is understandable for students. Digitally competent colleagues can help less tech-savvy teachers with online research and a critical evaluation of the quality of digital resources. The teamwork of teachers in COOL reflects features of Nguyen’s (2017, 29-30) notion of peer mentoring in teacher education, “a process whereby teachers […] help each other to learn by providing each other with professional and emotional support.” The latter seems to be specifically important for novice teachers like Caroline. However, the COOL teachers take the idea of mentoring further by adding collaborative material development, biennial pilot projects, and regular social get-togethers at which professional and private conversations merge. As mentioned in the interviews, the team meetings and retreats add value to the teachers’ lives. In some instances, the work relationships have turned into longstanding friendships, and less experienced teachers feel comfortable and well looked-after within the community of COOL teachers. 6. Conclusions Based on the literature review and the qualitative information gathered, there are some conclusions that can be drawn. The simple fact that the teachers volunteer to apply COOL affirms their overall positive attitudes towards their 92 Carmen M. Amerstorfer jobs, which was also apparent in the interviews. All three firmly believe in the positive consequences of learner-centred teaching approaches and highly value their relationships with students and colleagues. They are convinced of their students’ capabilities and potential for self-directed learning and are consequently willing to hand over a considerable amount of control to their students. Like many others in the teaching profession, they are eager to make a difference in their students’ lives and ready to go the extra mile for their students’ benefit. Being part of a team of 25 teachers with compatible notions of teaching reinforces their basic educational beliefs and motivates them to perform well as (EFL) teachers, colleagues, role models, learning guides, confidants, and, in some instances, friends. The teachers’ positive job-related attitudes in combination with a framework in which they can realise their convictions seem to be expedient prerequisites for teacher wellbeing. COOL enables them to work in a system that suits their personalities, mindsets, and teaching philosophies. Here they can live out their creativity and enjoy an autonomy that they miss in conventional teaching approaches. Moreover, they have the support of a team and profit from the relationships that develop in the course of their collaboration. What appears to be most significant for their wellbeing, though, is the students. It is striking how prominently the students feature in the answers to the interview questions. The relationships that the three teachers have with their students and what they get back from them seems to make all their extra efforts worthwhile. The COOL approach enables classroom situations in which the teachers can create real bonds with their students and in which they see their skills and personalities grow. The three teachers affirmed that wellbeing in the teaching profession is, indeed, not a oneway street from teachers to learners but also works the other way round. Happy learners make for happy teachers, too. In addition to further qualitative research, it would be interesting to analyse numerical facts of COOL teachers in comparison to regular teachers (e.g., days of sick leave, number of teachers who leave the school or the teaching profession altogether) in order to find out more about teacher wellbeing in relation to COOL. A quantitative study conducted in all 60 COOL schools in Austria, perhaps similar to the design of the wellbeing study by Dewaele, Mercer, and Gkonou (2023; see the following chapter), could investigate the relationship between the teachers’ positive attitude towards COOL and their wellbeing. Teacher Wellbeing, Contentment, Motivation, and Positive Relationships 93 References Amerstorfer, Carmen M. 2018. “Mixing Methods: Investigating Self-Regulated Strategies in a Cooperative EFL Learning Environment.” In Language Learning Strategies and Individual Learner Characteristics: Situating Strategy Use in Diverse Contexts, edited by Rebecca L. Oxford and Carmen M. 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Wentzel, Kathryn R. 1997. “Student Motivation in Middle School: The Role of Perceived Pedagogical Caring.” Journal of Educational Psychology 89 (3): 411-19. Winnicott, Donald. 1962. The Child and the Family: First Relationships. London: Tavistock. 96 Carmen M. Amerstorfer Attitudinal, Motivational, and Socio-Biographical Predictors of EFL Teachers’ Well-Being Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, and Christina Gkonou 1. Introduction There has been a growing general interest in the well-being of teachers triggered by rising rates of attrition, levels of stress, and burnout across the profession (e.g., Borman and Dowling 2008; Grenville-Cleave and Boniwell 2012; Mercer and Gregersen 2020; Oxford 2020) which have been exacerbated during the pandemic (MacIntyre, Gregersen, and Mercer 2020). Roffey (2012, 15) pointed out that teachers’ and students’ well-being are really two sides of the same coin and that the promotion of teacher well-being is crucial for the profession as it is “likely to reduce the numbers of students needing intensive and expensive support.” Therefore, everyone in an institution benefits when the teachers enjoy high well-being and motivation in their professional roles. Teachers’ well-being is the cornerstone of their professional and personal sense of self, and it has important repercussions on their ability to perform well in the classroom. Indeed, happy teachers have higher levels of student attainment (Briner and Dewberry 2007), better relationships with learners (Spilt, Koomen, and Thijs 2011), and higher work engagement and professional motivation (Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2018; see also Amerstorfer 2023, in this volume). It is therefore crucial to understand the interplay of sociobiographical, psychological, and institutional factors that are linked to teachers’ well-being in order to develop strategies for institutions to protect, support, and nurture their well-being (Gkonou, Dewaele, and King 2020). 2. Literature review - 2.1 Teacher well-being In this study, we define well-being as one facet of trait emotional intelligence (EI; Petrides and Furnham 2001; Petrides, Pita, and Kokkinaki 2007). The factor “well-being” is characterized by the ability to feel cheerful and satisfied with life (happiness), to be self-confident (self-esteem), and to be able to look on the bright side of life (optimism). Trait EI has been utilised in a number of studies in the language teaching context. For example, Dewaele and Mercer (2018) used an online questionnaire to gather data from an international sample of 513 EFL/ ESL teachers, on which the present study is also based. The authors considered the effect of trait EI on self-reported attitudes towards their students. Higher levels of trait EI were associated with more positive attitudes towards students and stronger enjoyment of lively students. In a further analysis of the same database, Dewaele, Gkonou, and Mercer (2018) considered the link between trait EI variation and teachers’ self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management, and pedagogical skills. A positive relationship emerged between levels of trait EI and all of these dependent variables. Dewaele (2018a) worked further on the same dataset to focus on the relationships between global trait EI and the four facets of trait EI and all dependent variables. Global trait EI and emotionality were significantly positively linked to the language proficiency of users of English as a foreign language (FL) but not to that of first language (L1) English speakers. The first two facets, well-being and sociability, were significantly positively correlated with the love of the English language, the institution, and the students. High scores on well-being and sociability were also linked to more creativity, enjoyment of lively students, a feeling of control over the curriculum, and to better pedagogical skills and classroom management. The third and fourth facet of trait EI, emotionality and self-control, were significantly correlated with fewer dependent variables. In sum, the studies showed that well-being was significantly connected to key teaching behaviours and positive teaching attitudes. Both psychological and social factors shape teachers’ well-being. Well-being is often defined as a personal characteristic; however, it is known to also be critically defined by contextual factors. This has led some authors to call for research which better accommodates a view of well-being as both personally and socially determined (Benesch 2020; Mercer 2021a, b). In particular, there is evidence that institutions play a key role in determining teacher well-being. School culture, relationships with colleagues including leadership, relationship with parents, degrees of autonomy in terms of what and how teachers teach, support for professional development, job security, status, as well as infrastructure and resources are some of the key issues which can affect teacher well-being (e.g., Aelterman et al. 2007; Budzińska 2018; Budzińska and Majchrzak 2021; Mercer and Gregersen 2020; Price and McCallum 2015; Zhu, Devos, and Li 2011). However, a number of psychological variables also affect teacher levels of well-being including their self-efficacy 98 Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, and Christina Gkonou (Zee and Koomen 2016), motivation (Abós et al. 2019; Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2018), emotional intelligence (Fernandéz-Berrocal et al. 2017; Mérida-Lopez and Extremera 2017), and resilience (Proietti Ergün and Dewaele 2021). As Gregersen et al. (2020) demonstrated, the well-being of foreign language (FL) teachers is not linked to a single personality trait, but rather to a complex combination of psychological and emotional factors interacting with daily stressors both in the workplace and at home. The authors selected six teachers who scored particularly high or low for well-being from a sample of 47 teachers in order to gain a better understanding of “the relationships between overall well-being, chronic stressors and stressful life events, the experience of daily stressors, and perceptions of health” (2020, 1). The picture that emerged was messy in the sense that the relationships between the variables in the workplace and at home turned out to be both complex and dynamic. - 2.2 Teacher motivation Teacher well-being and psychological fulfilment are at the basis of teacher motivation, which according to Dörnyei and Ushioda (2011) consists of two dimensions, namely, the motivation to teach and the motivation to remain in the profession. The first dimension is particularly linked to intrinsic motivation or the inherent interest of teaching; the second dimension comprises social contextual influences, the ability to sustain a lifelong commitment, and to overcome demotivating factors. In their review of the recent research in this area, Han and Yin (2016) reported on the factors linked to teacher motivation, on its effects on teaching effectiveness, and on student motivation. They point out that self-determination theory (SDT) has been particularly influential in the field. One measure of teacher motivation that has been developed in this framework is the Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers (WTMST; Fernet et al. 2008) drawing on feedback from 609 Canadian teachers in Quebec City. The authors point out that SDT distinguishes between self-determined and controlled types of motivation and pays attention not only to quantity but also quality of motivation. Teachers whose motivation is self-determined may have a feeling of choice, “which may lead to well-being,” whereas controlled types of motivation involve “compliance with an external source of control, which may generate ill-being” (2008, 257). Han and Yin (2016) emphasize that there is an urgent need for more research on the relationships between teacher motivation and student motivation. Attitudinal, Motivational, and Socio-Biographical Predictors of EFL Teachers’ Well-Being 99 2.3 Learner and teacher enjoyment Teacher emotions and behaviours have been found to affect learner emotions but not all emotions to the same extent. Teacher behaviour has relatively little effect on learners’ FL classroom anxiety but has a much stronger effect on their levels of FL enjoyment (FLE; Dewaele and Dewaele 2020). Humour, friendliness, praise, and encouragement by the teacher are frequently mentioned by learners as sources of their FLE (Dewaele and MacIntyre 2014, 2019; Dewaele, Magdalena, and Saito 2019; Jiang and Dewaele 2019). Moskowitz and Dewaele (2021) found that students’ perceptions of their teacher’s happiness were positively linked with their attitude toward English and their motivation to acquire the language. Students who perceived their teacher as happy also had a more positive attitude toward the teacher. The authors interpret this relationship as an illustration of positive emotional contagion between students and teachers. Focusing on FL teachers themselves, Proietti Ergün and Dewaele (2021), col‐ lected data on FL teaching enjoyment. They found that the teaching enjoyment of Italian FL teachers was most strongly predicted by their resilience and, to a lesser degree, their well-being. The authors speculate that resilience might in fact act as a shield for teachers’ well-being, and that the combination of both allows teachers to feel confident and happy and to enjoy their teaching. Teachers may try to hide their low level of well-being from their students by using “emotional labor” strategies in order to display only appropriate positive emotions. The concept was developed Hochschild (1979, 7) who defined emotional labor as “the management of feelings to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display.” Acheson and Nelson (2020) investigated emotional labor among North American FL high school teachers and found that they reported moderate to high levels of emotional labor in their classes. Case studies have shown that not all unhappy teachers resort to emotional labor with some showing their irritation in class (Humphries 2020). In a large-scale study on emotional labor strategies of 594 Chinese EFL teachers, Dewaele and Wu (2021) found that the strategy “Expression of naturally felt emotions,” defined as the displaying of the felt emotion, was preferred to “Surface acting,” which combines suppression, amplification and faking of emotions. Statistical analyses revealed that attitudes towards students and Emotionality (a factor of Trait Emotional Intelligence) were the strongest predictors of “Expression of naturally felt emotions.” Teachers’ resorting to emotional labor may do so in interactions with students but also with hostile administrators (Oxford 2020). Benesch (2017, 2020) has argued that emotional labor is not just a private matter. Power relationships and institutional demands can push teachers into emotional labor, especially when 100 Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, and Christina Gkonou they feel the demands on their time are unreasonable or unfair and that they lack agency in curricular and pedagogical matters. In sum, this brief literature review has shown that teacher well-being has been investigated both as a dependent and an independent variable. It is shaped by a combination of teacher-internal and external factors and has a clear impact on classroom behaviour. Teacher well-being ultimately affects students’ perception of the teacher, the classroom atmosphere, and learners’ emotions. It further shapes their longer-term attitudes and motivation in FL learning. Considering the implications of teacher well-being on students’ learning, it is of crucial importance to gain a clear understanding of the role of various factors in strengthening or weakening teacher well-being. This is exactly what we will do in the present study, focusing on ESL/ EFL teachers for whom English was either an L1 or a FL. 3. Research question The present study aims to address the following research question: Is there a link between teachers’ socio-biographical background variables (age, gender, geographical location, years of teaching experience, degree of mul‐ tilingualism, status of English (first or foreign language), English proficiency), teachers’ socio-professional background variables (type of institution, attitudes towards institution, students, motivation) and their well-being? 4. Methodology - 4.1 Procedure Data were collected through snowball sampling, which is a form of nonprobability sampling. An anonymous open-access online questionnaire was used. Calls for participation were sent through emails to teachers, students, and informal contacts asking them to forward the link to colleagues. The questionnaire remained online from April to September 2016 and attracted 513 valid responses from monoand multilingual ESL/ EFL teachers across the world. Online questionnaires are ideal for collecting large amounts of data from participants from different parts of the world belonging to various age groups and language profiles (Dewaele 2018b). The geographical diversity boosts the ecological validity of the results, as the effects of local educational practices are averaged out. The research design and questionnaires received ethical clearance from the first author’s research institution. Participants started by completing a short socio-biographical questionnaire with questions about gender, age, Attitudinal, Motivational, and Socio-Biographical Predictors of EFL Teachers’ Well-Being 101 nationality, country of residence, language history, and number of years in the teaching profession. - 4.2 Participants A total of 513 participants (377 females, 131 males, 5 did not report their gender) filled out the questionnaire. All were EFL/ ESL teachers, and their experience in the profession ranged from one month to 52 years. On average, participants had been teaching for 15 years (SD = 10). The mean age was 40 years (SD = 10). The majority of female participants is typical in web-based language questionnaires (Dewaele 2018b). The largest group of participants were British (n = 71), followed by Americans (n = 40), Ukrainians (n = 37), Greek (n = 32), Azerbaijani (n = 26), Argentinian (n = 15), Chinese (n = 14), Indian (n = 14), and smaller groups of participants with another 68 nationalities. The sample of participants consisted of 15 monolinguals, 113 bilinguals, 174 trilinguals, 104 quadrilinguals, 81 pentalinguals, 22 sextalinguals, and 4 septalinguals. English was the most frequent L1 (n = 136), and the remaining 377 participants had English as a foreign language (FL). A majority of participants were teaching English at university (n = 290), with smaller numbers teaching in secondary schools (n = 154), primary schools (n = 63), and nursery schools (n = 6). Most participants were working in Europe (n = 267), followed by Asia (n = 127), Africa (n = 60), South America (n = 33), and North America (n = 26). - 4.3 Independent variables The next part of the survey consisted of the English version of the LexTALE (www.lextale.com), a 60-item lexical test developed by Lemhöfer and Broersma (2012). The authors describe LexTALE as a “a useful tool for the quick and valid assessment of vocabulary knowledge in English as an L2” (2012, 340). It consists of a simple un-speeded visual lexical decision task (Lemhöfer and Broersma 2012), which gives a good indication of participants’ overall English proficiency. LexTALE scores have been found to correlate highly with TOEIC test results, an established test of English proficiency (ibid.). Thus, even though LexTALE was not designed to capture general English proficiency fully, it is nevertheless a useful indicator of it (ibid.). According to Lemhöfer and Broersma (2012), scores below 59% on LexTALE correspond to the lower independent users and lower level descriptors of B1 and below in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR, n.d.). LexTALE scores between 60% and 80% correspond to upper independent users (B2), scores between 80% and 90% correspond to lower advanced (C1), and scores above 90% correspond to upper advanced (C2). Previous research has shown that English L1 users do 102 Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, and Christina Gkonou not score at ceiling on LexTALE but typically score within the C1-C2 range, i.e., a mean score of 87%, SD = 14 (Dewaele, Lorette, and Petrides 2019). Scores in the present study ranged from a minimum of 15 to the maximum possible score of 100. The Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers (Fernet et al. 2008) was adapted in order to focus on EFL teachers’ motivation to teach English. It consists of five dimensions, each consisting of 3 items with 5-point Likert scales. The section started with the following paragraph: “Indicate your degree of dis/ agreement with the following items concerning the reasons you teach English.” Possible answers were: 1) not especially, 2) so-so, 3) quite a lot, 4) a lot, and 5) very much. The first dimension is Intrinsic Motivation and is covered by the following statements: 1) Because teaching English is pleasant. 2) Because teaching English is interesting. 3) Because I like teaching English. The mean score was 4.3 (SD = .67). The Cronbach alpha value was .83, suggesting very good internal consistency. The second dimension is Identified Regulation, addressed by the items that follow: 1) Because it is important for me to teach English. 2) Because I believe teaching English is important for the academic success of my students. The mean score was 4.11 (SD = .74). The Cronbach alpha value was .63, which is rather low but still acceptable. The third dimension is Introjected Regulation, which is measured by the following statements: 1) Because if I don’t teach, I will feel bad. 2) Because I would feel guilty not doing it. 3) I would feel bad doing something different. The mean score was 2.73 (SD = .97). The Cronbach alpha value was .83. The fourth dimension is External Regulation. The following items describe this motivation dimension: 1) Because it is my chosen profession. 2) I teach English because I’m paid to do it. Attitudinal, Motivational, and Socio-Biographical Predictors of EFL Teachers’ Well-Being 103 The mean score for this dimension was 3.48 (SD = .75). The Cronbach alpha value was extremely low (.065) so this dimension was excluded from further analyses. The fifth and final dimension is Amotivation, addressed by the following statements: 1) I don’t know why because I don’t always see the relevance of teaching English. 2) I used to know why I was teaching English, but I don’t see the reason anymore. 3) I don’t know why as sometimes I don’t see the purpose of teaching English. The mean score was 1.72 (SD = .74). The Cronbach alpha value was .84. - 4.4 Dependent variable Participants filled out the short version of the Trait EI Questionnaire (TEI-Que Short Form; Petrides 2009), which contains a total of 30 items grouped into four main EI factors: well-being, emotionality, self-control, and sociability. For the present study, only the well-being scores were taken into account. The wellbeing factor/ scale includes the following items: 1. I generally don’t find life enjoyable. (reverse) 2. On the whole, I’m comfortable with the way I look. 3. On the whole, I have a gloomy perspective on most things. (reverse) 4. Given my circumstances, I feel good about myself. 5. I generally believe that things will work out fine in my life. The mean score was 5.63 (SD = 1.0), with scores ranging from 1.2 to 7 (absolute min = 1, absolute max = 7). The Cronbach alpha score was .84, which suggests very good internal consistency. A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test revealed that the distribution was not normal (KS = .127, p < .01). However, a Q-Q plot showed that the distribution is close to normal except at the extreme tail, namely values below 3.3 (see Figure 5.1). We thus opted for the more powerful parametric statistics (t-tests, ANOVA, Pearson correlation analyses, and multiple regression analyses). 104 Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, and Christina Gkonou Figure 5.1 Q-Q plot of well-being scores 5. Results Independent t-tests and an ANOVA were used to answer the first research question for the independent variables that were of a categorical nature. No significant difference was found for gender on well-being (Mean Females = 5.67, SD = 1.02; Mean Males = 5.57, SD = 1.09; t(506) = .097 p = ns). Also, whether participants had English as an L1 or an FL turned out to have no effect on wellbeing (Mean L1 users = 5.67, SD = 1.04; Mean FL users = 5.62, SD = 1.05; t(511) = .048 p = ns). Finally, a one-way ANOVA showed no effect of geographic location nor of type of institution on well-being (F(4, 508) = 1.2, p = ns) and (F(3, 509) = 1.38, p = ns) respectively). Moving to the link between continuous independent variables and wellbeing, we found that well-being was significantly positively correlated to five in‐ dependent variables and significantly negatively linked to a single independent variable (see Table 5.1). Attitudinal, Motivational, and Socio-Biographical Predictors of EFL Teachers’ Well-Being 105 Variable Well-being Age .062 Years of experience as a teacher .045 Number of languages known -.074 Attitude toward students .237** Attitude toward institution .295** Influence on content and skills .107* English proficiency .041 Intrinsic Motivation .300** Identified Regulation .229** Introjected Regulation .065 Amotivation -.302** * p < 0.05 , ** p < .01 Table 5.1 Pearson correlation analyses between continuous independent variables and well-being An inter-correlation of the six independent variables linked with well-being showed that none were too highly correlated (see Table 5.2). Shared variance varied between 1.7% and 19.4%. - 1 2 3 4 5 1. Attitude students 1 - - - - 2. Attitude institution .444** - - - - 3. Influence content .174** .175** - - - 4. Intrinsic motivation .303** .246** .143** - - 5. Identified regulation .173** .214** .131** .512** - 6. Amotivation -.230** -.195** -.188** -.345** -.218** ** p < 0.01 Table 5.2 Inter-correlations between the independent variables 106 Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, and Christina Gkonou Multiple regression analysis (enter) was used to test if the six independent variables that were significantly correlated with well-being in the correlation analyses significantly predicted well-being. A significant regression equation was found indicating that three variables predicted 18.2% of the variance (Adjusted R 2 = 17.2, F(16, 506) = 18.8, p < .0001). The strongest predictors were amotivation (a negative predictor), attitude toward the institution, and intrinsic motivation (positive predictors). On the other hand, attitude toward the students, influence over content, and identified regulation did not explain any unique variance in well-being (see Table 5.3). No evidence of strong multi‐ collinearity was observed (VIF < 1.54). Considering regression assumptions, the value for the Durbin-Watson’s test was 1.79, which is within the acceptable range. The partial regression plots for the significant predictors are presented below (Figures 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4). Variable B SE Beta t p Collinearity VIF Amotivation -0.271 0.062 -0.191 -4.373 0 0.844 1.184 Attitude institu‐ tion 0.198 0.049 0.184 4.009 0 0.771 1.297 Intrinsic moti‐ vation 0.213 0.078 0.136 2.73 0.007 0.65 1.539 Identified regu‐ lation 0.096 0.067 0.068 1.435 0.152 0.726 1.377 Attitude stu‐ dents 0.079 0.063 0.059 1.263 0.207 0.75 1.333 Influence over content 0 0.051 0 0 1 0.934 1.071 Table 5.3 Multiple regression analysis with well-being as dependent variable (sorted according to Beta value) Attitudinal, Motivational, and Socio-Biographical Predictors of EFL Teachers’ Well-Being 107 Figure 5.2 Partial regression plot for the effect of amotivation on well-being Figure 5.3 Partial regression plot for the effect of intrinsic motivation on well-being 108 Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, and Christina Gkonou Figure 5.4 Partial regression plot for the effect of attitude to institution on well-being 6. Discussion The multiple regression analysis showed that six out of the original eleven socio-biographical and socio-professional variables were significantly linked with teachers’ well-being, predicting 17% of variance, which can be described as a small effect (Plonsky and Ghanbar 2018). The strongest (negative) predictor turned out to be amotivation, which was linked to lower well-being, followed by positive effects of the attitude toward the institution and intrinsic motivation. Firstly, amotivation and lower well-being would fit with other research, which suggests that teachers with higher well-being are more engaged and more motivated and thus less likely to want to leave the profession (e.g., Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2018). This is important in light of rising rates of attrition (e.g., Borman and Dowling 2008) but also given how more engaged teachers are likely to also in turn through emotional contagion enhance the motivation and engagement of their learners (e.g., Moskowitz and Dewaele 2021; Spilt, Koomen, and Thijs 2011). Motivated and enthusiastic teachers make for motivated learners, just as happy teachers are likely to foster happy learners (Dewaele and Li 2021). Similarly, having an intrinsic motivation, passion for the profession, and finding meaning and purpose in the job have also been found to be positively connected Attitudinal, Motivational, and Socio-Biographical Predictors of EFL Teachers’ Well-Being 109 to teacher well-being (Kun and Gadanecz 2019; Kunter and Holzberger 2014; Moé 2016). In studies such as the current one, the focus on predictors of well-being implies a causal link from these socio-biographical and socio-professional variables to a psychological variable. However, as is often the case in these kinds of designs, the causality could in fact be multidirectional. In other words, it is not clear whether low motivation leads to low well-being or whether having low well-being threatens to undermine teacher motivation. In reality, it is likely to be a combination of both. In practical terms, it means that institutions should support both teacher well-being and motivation to ensure the best teaching and learning conditions for their staff and their learners. Indeed, personality traits are shaped by both nature and nurture (Dewaele and Botes 2020; Furnham and Heaven 1999), and we argue that a working environment can provide an enduring social effect that can shape person‐ ality. A positive attitude towards the institution is linked to higher wellbeing. Naturally, high levels of well-being, independent of the objective work environment conditions, could strengthen teachers’ job satisfaction and motivation. In other words, teachers who are by nature happy and optimistic are more likely to enjoy their institution and their students. They may also be more resilient and better able to withstand work pressure. Nevertheless, it is likely that the actual work conditions and environmental support (Benesch 2017, 2020) can override the effect of personality characteristics. While in the present research design, well-being was treated as the dependent variable, we acknowledge that it is hard to pin down causality. How teachers feel and behave in an educational institution depends in part on how the other actors in the institution (inspectors, heads, colleagues, administrators, students, parents) behave towards them (Acheson and Nelson 2020; Oxford 2020). The teachers’ own behaviour and feelings will in turn affect the people with whom they are in contact. In such a dynamic emotional system, fluctuations in well-being are interconnected through processes of emotion contagion (Dewaele and Li 2021; Frenzel and Stephens 2013; Moskowitz and Dewaele 2021). In other words, well-being is linked to both individual characteristics and external factors (Mercer 2021a, b). An interesting theoretical model that links both personal perceptions and ob‐ jective work conditions is known as the “person-organisation” fit model ( Jansen and Kristof-Brown 2006). This proposes that outcomes such as well-being “are a function of the interaction between individuals and their environments, where good fit typically results in positive outcomes for the individual” ( Jansen and Kristof-Brown 2006, 194). This model stems from a broader model known as 110 Jean-Marc Dewaele, Sarah Mercer, and Christina Gkonou “person-environment fit,” which comprises a number of possible dimensions such as person-vocation fit, person-job fit, person-organisation fit, persongroup fit, and person-person fit (ibid.). It is likely that well-being emerges from the interaction of these different relationships between an individual and their social context with different facets being of varying relative importance for different individuals. To the best of our knowledge, there is no work at all on this model in the context of language teacher well-being suggesting an exciting framework for future research. 7. Conclusion This chapter has sought to better understand some of the relationships around teacher well-being, especially in terms of personal and social determinants. It suggests a key connection between aspects of motivation and well-being as well as the nature of an individual’s workplace and their attitude towards it. Well-being is likely to emerge from the interaction of a range of variables that are personal, interpersonal, and contextual. There now needs to be an agenda of research within language teaching to understand the nature of those relationships so that individuals and social institutions can take steps to protect and support the well-being of all stakeholders involved in language education. It is particularly important for institutions to understand and act on their responsibility to provide a workplace which meets the needs and wants of its staff. As Mercer (2021a, 16) cautions, “well-being can never be considered solely the responsibility of the individual. It is a collective and systemic responsibility too.” When institutions nurture the well-being of their staff, they will also be generating ideal conditions for their learners to achieve to the best of their abilities. We would like to conclude that teacher well-being could be an illustration of the butterfly effect, namely, the idea that an isolated event such as the flapping of a butterfly’s wings could set off a chain of events leading to a typhoon in the future (Lorenz 1963). In other words, a teacher feeling happy in the classroom could have a positive non-linear and unexpected impact on the complex system of learners’ emotions, on the social dynamics within the classroom, on the wellbeing of colleagues in the staffroom, and it could have positive repercussions at some point in the future. 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This chapter explores criteria for kinaesthetic learning material and discusses how student teachers of English evaluate their potential for their future English language teaching (ELT) practice. It is based on previous projects of English as a foreign language (EFL) teacher education, in which such material was designed and produced with student teachers. When working as one of the first female doctors in an Italian hospital, Maria Montessori ([1909] 2019) observed young children with disabilities become deeply absorbed in learning activities with kinaesthetic materials designed by Edouard Séguin (Rohrmann 2009; Séguin 1846). Her experiences when providing such learning material for children who were developing normally motivated her to create an extensive range of materials including a limited set for foreign languages. Neither those materials nor their qualities have been discussed in ELT research although Montessori ([1909] 2019), when first introducing them, already critically described and analysed their characteristics as well as their principles of operation for effective learning. This chapter draws on the author’s experience as an EFL teacher, as a trained and experienced Montessori pedagogue, and as a preand in-service ELT teacher educator. To explore the potential of kinaesthetic learning material for ELT, its specific qualities need to be clarified. To this end, this chapter presents and illustrates the criteria established by Montessori ([1909] 2019) in the form they are still applied in Montessori practice today (Klein-Landeck 2009, Wipperfürth and Klippel 2015). In the second part, the results of a small-scale research project are discussed, in which student teachers of EFL explored such materials and were asked for their evaluations and reflections. 2. Kinaesthetic learning material in ELT and ELT teacher education When learning materials for ELT are discussed, the focus is often on questions of authenticity (e.g., Ellis and Shintani 2013; Gilmore 2019). Tomlinson (2020, 16) recommends that researchers and practitioners alike should “develop principledriven criteria for the development and evaluation of new materials.” Similar recommendations are provided in Tomlinson (2013a) and Tomlinson and Masu‐ hara (2017). This hints at the fact that those criteria are still in need of refinement and adaptation to concrete learning contexts. There is still not much research into how student teachers acquire material development skills (e.g., Augusto- Navarro 2015) despite existing research on material development and evaluation (e.g., Tomlinson 2013a) and teacher education programmes dedicating much time to discussing teaching material (Montijano Cabrera 2014). Research has focused instead on teachers’ decisions when manipulating material (McGrath 2013) or when deciding for or against certain material (Wipperfürth and Will 2019). One specific form of learning materials was developed by Maria Montessori ([1909] 2019), which continues to be a central element of ELT practice at Montessori schools today (Klein-Landeck 2009; Klein-Landeck and Pütz 2019). Despite a lively tradition of principled Montessori training courses including ELT, research on learning material in Montessori-based ELT practice is scarce. Moreover, it is either descriptive (e.g., Thaler 2008) or focused on pedagogical aspects and is primarily conducted in kindergarten or primary school contexts. Batubara et al. (2020) and Faryadi (2009) have investigated the general learning environment of ELT in Montessori settings but only mention learning materials as part of the prepared environment. Other publications can be considered resource books (Berger and Eßwein 2016; Forester 2016; Klein-Landeck 2009), naturally aiming neither at substantial theoretical discussions nor empirical research on the methods and materials used. Still, all provide introductory chapters discussing criteria for materials, the necessary integration of learning material into a complex prepared environment, and the role of the teacher. In contrast to the wide range of material for mathematics, there is only a limited number of original Montessori learning materials for foreign language learning that can be studied and purchased, for instance, via the Nienhuis Montessori (2020) catalogue or homepage (https: / / www.nienhuis.com/ int/ en/ ). Although some can easily be used until upper secondary level, there is no distinct material available for upper secondary ELT alone. Kinaesthetic approaches to ELT in which learning includes physical activity were developed in the 1970s and 1980s within the so-called humanist approaches (Richards and Rodgers 2001). Total Physical Response (Asher 1986) took the 120 Manuela Schlick combination of bodily movement and language learning furthest, taking inspi‐ ration from first language acquisition by children. Specifically for L2 pronunci‐ ation teaching, Acton, Baker, and Burri (2008) and Burri (2021) explored the role of kinaesthetic, primarily haptic, elements in teaching pronunciation combining movement, tone, and touch. In his resource book, Hancock (1995) presents numerous games for pronunciation teaching, of which a good many include kinaesthetic elements such as dominoes or card games. Research on teacher beliefs suggests that their influence on decision making is high (Borg 2018) and that they need to be acknowledged as highly influential, especially for less established methods as well as aspects of ELT like learner autonomy (cf. Borg and Al-Busaidi 2011). To research student teachers’ beliefs regarding kinaesthetic approaches to L2 pronunciation teaching, Burri and Baker (2017) followed Acton, Baker and Burri’s (2008) ideas and introduced student teachers to a haptic approach to pronunciation teaching. They explored the student teachers’ perceptions of the approach and concluded that, so far, we know little about how student teachers adopt innovative teaching methods in general. 3. Materializing teaching competence: Developing learning material In previous projects (Wipperfürth and Klippel 2015), pre-service EFL teachers were guided to design kinaesthetic learning material, for which the heuristic and conceptual considerations around Montessori’s kinaesthetic learning material proved highly efficient. In the following subsections, this type of learning ma‐ terial is first defined and later applied to the specific area of EFL pronunciation. - 3.1 Defining kinaesthetic learning material Within ELT, the term “material” refers to any material that is used to help teach language learners (Richards and Schmidt 2002; Tomlinson 1998). Tomlinson and Masuhara (2017, 2) state “that materials are anything that can be used by lan‐ guage learners to facilitate their learning of the target language.” Consequently, a suitable name for the materials discussed here needs further specification. The term self-study material would not be fully appropriate as learning material in Montessori pedagogy requires a teacher to introduce the material and be there to observe the learning process. Thus, the teacher is most active when learners work with the material and uses the opportunity to observe them learn. Montessori ([1909] 2019) reports that materials require a teacher who has fully understood their methodological value. She noticed that teaching material “proved to be of excellent assistance in the hands of anyone who knew how to Kinaesthetic Learning Material and Their Potential for Student Teacher Learning 121 use it, though left to itself it was passed over unnoticed by the […] children” (Montessori [1909] 2019, 35). Calling kinaesthetic learning materials games would also be unsuitable for various reasons. Firstly, game-based language learning is now often used to refer to digital games (e.g., Godwin-Jones 2014). Secondly, previous research on games and their great potential for language learning (Klippel 1980, 1986; Wright, Betteridge, and Buckby 2006) focuses on communicative games promoting (oral) interaction, which have little or only a secondary focus on kinaesthetic elements. In kinaesthetic learning material the physical activity of manipulating the elements of the material (e.g., cards, matchboxes, figures) should match the cognitive activity as closely as possible. Thirdly, “game” is very broad a term, and many materials and activities are subsumed under it in language learning. “Given the vast differences in scope and purpose, the most one can say in general about the utility of games is that in optimal environmental contexts, with appropriately selected and trained groups of users, playing a well-designed game, a number of positive and effective language learning experiences are possible” (Godwin-Jones 2014, 10). The fourth reason comes from Montessori ([1909] 2019) as she always highlighted that play is not (only) an idle activity. By claiming that play is the work of the child which “takes the form of a laborious effort of inner construction” Montessori ([1949] 2007, 175) wanted to stress the effort that children invest when learning. But then she herself occasionally calls her materials “games” (e.g., ibid., 260) and the children’s activity “play” (ibid., 260). She clearly saw the positive aspects of games and children playing freely, becoming totally absorbed in the activity, experiencing joy and satisfaction as described graphically in Montessori ([1909] 2019, 260-263). Focusing on the idea of the learners’ activity (Montessori [1909] 2019), “kinaesthetic language learning material” best describes the topic of this chapter as learners are encouraged to physically engage with the material in a way that they actively manipulate it, for example, by (re)assembling, sorting, or ordering its elements. Consequently, the aim of the material design is that these activities ideally reflect the required learning processes as such. - 3.2 Material development As was briefly discussed above, material development so far has focused more on the product and less on the (professional or commercial) developers’ decisionmaking processes. Even less is known about teachers’ decision making while designing ELT material. In this section, the specific potential of kinaesthetic learning material for investigating and promoting language teachers’ professional decision-making 122 Manuela Schlick competences is discussed. Tomlinson and Masuhara (2017, 52) argue that “[m]aterials evaluation is a procedure that involves attempting to predict or measure the value of the effects of language-learning materials on their users.” This can most likely be extended to the idea that also the development of material involves such predictions and thus requires the activation of a very broad professional knowledge base on the part of the material designer. - 3.3 Kinaesthetic learning material based on Montessori’s criteria The project described in this chapter focused specifically on the design of kinaesthetic learning material, which I consider a very rich and challenging opportunity for pre-service teacher education to train ELT decision making and methodological understanding on the one hand. On the other hand, the design of kinaesthetic learning material is highly principled as explicit criteria have been formulated (cf. Klein-Landeck 2009) and proven relevant for a substantial period of time in ELT practice at Montessori schools. Following Tomlinson’s (2003) definition, what Montessori ([1909] 2019) devel‐ oped can be called universal criteria as they should be relevant to a whole range of learning contexts, and it is for the learner and the teacher to decide how and when to use them. The defining criteria for Montessori learning material were summarized and elaborated on by Klein-Landeck (2009). Montessori ([1909] 2019) formulates five core principles that adequate and efficient kinaesthetic learning material needs to adhere to. Taking her metaphor of the attraction of a bee to a flower, the five principles are depicted in Figure 6.1 in the form of five petals on a flower: Any material (flower) should be designed to be as attractive as possible to a freely moving child (bee) (Montessori [1909] 2019). Figure 6.1 The five core principles of Montessori’s kinaesthetic learning material Kinaesthetic Learning Material and Their Potential for Student Teacher Learning 123 The criteria were developed by Montessori in 1909 through a process of obser‐ vation, which she called an “experimental method of education” (Montessori [1909] 2019, 13). They apply to all kinaesthetic learning materials in Montessori pedagogy and are not subject-specific. In Section 3.4, these criteria are applied to an ELT-specific learning content. 3.3.1 Scientific principle Already the name of Montessori’s method puts the scientific principle at its core as she called her pedagogy “The Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied to Child Education in the Children’s House” (Montessori [1909] 2019). Based on her anthropological considerations of the child’s development, Montessori stressed the close interrelation of children’s learning needs, their motivation, and the learning material. “A child […] is ready to discover his own environment and the inner wealth of impressions which he has of it. To satisfy this need, he should have an exact, scientific guide, such as that which is to be found in our apparatus and exercises” (Montessori [1909] 2019, 112). To offer clear guidance and allow for a coherent understanding of the learning content, materials need to accurately illustrate learning contents and be based on the best available state of academic knowledge of the field. This scientific principle also refers to the use of the material. Learners should be able to experiment with the materials, test their hypotheses, prove, verify, or correct them, and thus acquire a thorough understanding of the learning content represented in the learning material. Through their accuracy the materials should still the learner’s desire to arrive at a coherent understanding of being able to “order” (Montessori [1909] 2019, 112) their impressions and, consequently, use their newly acquired knowledge for their own purposes. 3.3.2 Isolation of a single quality Each material should allow learners to focus fully on one selected learning content. To this end, the teacher needs to carefully analyse the relevance of the learning content, establishing which aspect can be depicted in the learning material and which elements might be distracting. For language learning, this aspect is closely related to the notion of “noticing” (Schmidt 2012; VanPatten 1996), as the careful design of the material should allow learners to notice the relevant aspect by working with it. Ideally, learners should be able to understand the relation of this isolated learning content to the greater context (Montessori [1909] 2019). This can be supported by the teacher’s introduction explaining or illustrating the material’s 124 Manuela Schlick connection to other materials or learning content, including introductory and follow-up activities. 3.3.3 The control of error All kinaesthetic learning materials should ideally “contain in themselves a control of error” (Montessori [1909] 2019, 115), which goes beyond the idea of a solution sheet or corrective feedback from the teacher. As will be shown in the sample material, colours, groupings, or symbols can be used. This allows learners to remain absorbed in the activity and stay fully focused on their experimentation with the material. For language learning, this aspect also includes the idea of monitoring (Lichtman and VanPatten 2021), as the materialinherent correction should train learners’ monitoring skills beyond the current use of the material as well. “The control of error through the material makes a child use his reason, critical faculty, and his ever increasing capacity for drawing distinctions. In this way a child’s mind is conditioned to correct his errors even when these are not material or apparent to the senses” (Montessori [1909] 2019, 115). 3.3.4 Activity The central idea of becoming physically active in language learning - in this case with kinaesthetic learning material - draws on the many ideas of motivation, processing information, and bilateral learning (i.e., learning that involves both halves of the brain), which cannot be repeated here but which have been discussed for pronunciation by Burri (2021) or for Total Physical Response in Richards and Rodgers (2001). Montessori ([1909] 2019) focuses on its fundamental effect on learners’ motivation. “The ability of a thing to attract the interest of a child does not depend so much upon the quality of the thing itself, as upon the opportunity that it affords the child for action” (Montessori [1909] 2019, 116). The research paradigm around self-efficacy as driving force behind human motivation (Deci and Ryan 2002) proves this aspect, which Montessori observed when developing and refining her learning material and method in this area. 3.3.5 Aesthetics The criterion of aesthetics is closely related to that of activity. The beauty of the material, which results from the diligence that the teacher afforded for their design and production, should be an invitation to the child and communicate the teacher’s respect and appreciation of learners’ efforts and “work” (Montessori [1909] 2019, 71) when learning. The function of this criterion is also to allow for Kinaesthetic Learning Material and Their Potential for Student Teacher Learning 125 its durability as already the object tells the child to handle it attentively (Klein- Landeck 2009; Montessori [1909] 2019). 3.3.6 Using kinaesthetic learning material within a prepared environment The above-mentioned criteria are core to the quality of kinaesthetic learning material, yet it is their use in practice that will determine their actual efficiency for English language learning. Ideally, learners can choose the most relevant material for themselves because “[a]t any particular moment a child is attracted to the object that corresponds to his greatest need at the time” (Montessori [1909] 2019, 116). It is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss all interrelations between Montessori’s ([1909] 2019) learning theory, anthropology, and, most of all, her ideas about the role of the Montessori teacher (Klein-Landeck 2010; Wipperfürth 2020), her ideas behind the prepared environment, other considerations relating to the role of exercises in silence and mixed-group learning as well as her more general deliberations on learning goals and the purposes of education (see, e.g., Klein-Landeck and Pütz 2019). For this study, the focus lies on the defining criteria for the design of kinaesthetic learning material which will be illustrated for one sample material in the next section. - 3.4 Application of Montessori’s criteria in a kinaesthetic learning material for pronunciation: “Match the sounds” It takes much time as well as cognitive and creative effort to successfully apply Montessori’s criteria to kinaesthetic learning material until it is finally produced and neatly stored in a box ready to be used by learners. In four 14-week courses at the universities of Munich and Salzburg, student teachers were introduced to concepts of individualization and differentiation in ELT and subsequently supervised when developing their own kinaesthetic learning materials. The student teachers also had the chance to try out their materials with pupils at a Montessori school (lower and upper secondary), to observe them experimenting with the materials, and to later informally talk to the learners and their teachers about their impressions and experiences with the kinaesthetic learning materials. They could furthermore use this occasion to ask any additional questions they had about English language learning at the Montessori school. It was a pleasure and deeply insightful to understand and support the student teachers’ decision-making processes in the courses. Designing kinaesthetic learning material constantly draws student teachers’ attention to fundamental questions, such as: What learning content is relevant for a specific group of 126 Manuela Schlick learners? How does it need to be arranged so that it becomes graspable? What activities and tasks are suitable to guide the learners to “notice” (Montessori [1909] 2019, 140, 164) the new aspect, which can arguably be reinterpreted as the notion of noticing as explained by Schmidt (2012) for SLA? How can the learners check for themselves whether they are able to use the new aspect correctly? In the following, these considerations will be illustrated for one sample of kinaesthetic learning material (see Figure 6.2). It contains 15 matchboxes with pictures of (mostly) monosyllabic words on them. The task is to form five groups of three matchboxes with each group sharing the same vowel. The aspect of English pronunciation covered by this material is individual sounds; the skill trained is sound discrimination. The learners are implicitly introduced to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) through further aids when working with the material by opening the envelope that contains the five vowels as IPA symbols on laminated cards or by opening the matchboxes that contain IPA symbol cards of all the sounds in the word (in this case according to Received Pronunciation). Figure 6.2 Elements of the material “Match the sounds” 3.4.1 Isolation The key information to be covered by kinaesthetic learning material can be identified on the basis of a critical analysis of academic knowledge available for a particular learning content as well as effective ways of acquiring and teaching it. This reduction to the most fundamental aspect is the most important step when designing kinaesthetic learning material as all further decisions are affected by it. In this case, working with the material will sensitize learners to discriminate Kinaesthetic Learning Material and Their Potential for Student Teacher Learning 127 between English sounds. When trying to solve the task, they will notice that very different words can include the same sounds, which can lead to the insight that there is only a limited sound inventory. Secondly, they can learn that some pairs of English sounds are easier to discriminate between than others. The intention was to isolate the phenomenon of sound discrimination as much as possible through the following considerations. The words are high frequency, so the difficulty of prior lexical knowledge is minimized. Moreover, the words (mostly) consist of only one syllable, which should also help identify the sound in question. Last but not least, the orthographic form of the words as a possible source of distraction is omitted. Practising English pronunciation allows for the use of visual aids. The five vowels were also chosen deliberately. As this learning material is meant to be one of the first to introduce learners to the concept of phonemes, the five sounds were chosen according to the following principles: The set should contain two vowels that are more challenging and three vowels that are easy to discriminate between. Thus, the vowels are two closed vowels / æ/ and / ʌ/ . The other three sounds are easy to distinguish because their places of articulation differ greatly, and their lengths are different from the first two (/ ɜ: / , / i: / and / ɔ: / ). 3.4.2 Activity This material requires a lot of activity from learners. They start arranging the matchboxes with the aim of forming five groups of three matchboxes. This involves taking individual boxes into their hands and finding their right places, which corresponds with the cognitive activity of analysing the word’s vowel sound, comparing it to others, and finally matching the right ones. Ordering the boxes on the table corresponds to ordering the sounds in one’s understanding of the sound system. Continuously, learners arrange the matchboxes, try out, juxtapose, pronounce the sounds or words, reject an order, and re-arrange the matchboxes, and possibly compare them to the laminated symbol cards provided in the envelope or inside the matchboxes. In this kinaesthetic learning material, single vowel sounds and their systematics become feasible and are learned in relation to their similarity and diversity with other sounds. 3.4.3 Control of error The material already contains the means to self-correct since the sound groups may contain only three words, that is three matchboxes. As learners should match the sounds, they need to become aware of (“notice,” Schmidt 2012) the quality of the vowels in the words and use their (emerging) skills to recognize similarities and differences between different vowels. If they should make a 128 Manuela Schlick mistake, the groups will not form accurately into five sets of three boxes, which gives learners immediate feedback that they need to re-order the boxes and revise their understanding. They are encouraged to finally check their answers by opening the boxes. That means they will notice any remaining possible mistakes, for instance, having mismatched two boxes and hence ending up with five sets of three despite the error. To offer learners further help, they can find the relevant sound symbols in the envelope with the IPA symbols, and even inside the matchboxes (see Figures 6.3 and 6.4). This method allows learners to implicitly acquire the IPA symbols. If that should be beyond their current capacities, they can still use them as arbitrary symbols. - - Figures 6.3 and 6.4 Aids and control of error in “Match the sounds” 4. Introducing ELT student teachers to kinaesthetic learning material In a small-scale empirical study, a workshop was offered to three cohorts of ELT student teachers at the University of Vienna to explore twelve kinaesthetic learning materials for pronunciation teaching. Similar to the study design of Burri and Baker (2017), student teachers were introduced to these innovative teaching materials for pronunciation teaching, asked to state their beliefs on kinaesthetic learning material, and evaluate their experiences afterwards. - 4.1 Study design and methodology The workshop, together with concise information on the study, was advertised via email among student teachers of English at the Department of English and American Studies of the University of Vienna in the summer of 2021. 31 students responded to the call, of which 24 participated in the workshop. It was held in small groups of 5-12 participants to allow for enough distance between them, and with a strict hygiene concept required due to the Covid-19 Kinaesthetic Learning Material and Their Potential for Student Teacher Learning 129 pandemic. In the 90-minute workshop, the participants were introduced to kinaesthetic learning material and the teaching contexts in which they had been used. The participants had time to work with the materials and ask questions about them. Before and after the workshop, they filled in a survey, in which they expressed their expectations and previous experiences with open-learning settings, evaluated the material, and re-evaluated their expectations expressed before the workshops. For the workshop, the materials were arranged in a way that encouraged the participants to become active with the material in a structured and efficient way. Each material had its own table and was laid out ready to use. There were four rows of tables according to the pronunciation aspects covered: one row for material using the IPA, a second row for those on individual sounds, a third for stress and intonation materials, and a fourth row for material contrasting English and German pronunciation. The link to the questionnaire that was issued prior to the workshop (which will be referred to as the pre-survey in the remainder of the text for simpli‐ fication) was distributed via e-mail to all participants three days before the workshop. The link to the second questionnaire (the post-survey from now on) was distributed right after the workshop. Both questionnaires contained a mix of open and closed questions, with 5-point Likert scales (not agree - fully agree) or semantic differential scales (e.g., very helpful, helpful, unsure, not helpful, not at all helpful) for the closed questions. For this chapter, the results of six of the questions asked in the preand post-survey were selected and analysed to shed light on the participants’ perceptions of Montessori’s ([1909] 2019) criteria, and their changing beliefs around the potential of kinaesthetic learning material for L2 pronunciation: the participants’ previous experience with open-learning settings, their evaluation of the criteria for Montessori learning material, their beliefs as to which aspects of pronunciation can best be learnt through kinaesthetic learning material, and which materials they would choose for their own ELT practice. These closed questionnaire items were analysed using Microsoft Excel to calculate descriptive statistics for frequency counts and percentages. - 4.2 Results 4.2.1 Criteria for kinaesthetic learning material During the workshop, the participants acted in a double role, as they initially experienced the materials as learners to be able to judge their qualities and then as (future) EFL teachers as they naturally wanted to judge the suitability of the materials to be used in ELT practice. To first experience the material and 130 Manuela Schlick understand more about its rationale, the participants were introduced to one kinaesthetic learning material in a detailed way and in the form of a Three- Period Lesson (Montessori [1909] 2019). In a Three-Period Lesson the teacher first names the material and then the relevant parts of the material. Second, the teacher asks the learners to point to or take the parts he or she names for them. Third, the learners are asked to name the respective parts of the material and to perform the required actions themselves (e.g., sorting, matching, ordering). They should by then be able to work with the material independently. Within the workshop, this introduction allowed to make references to and illustrate further principles underlying Montessori’s ([1909] 2019) material criteria and their use in education. Unstructured observations during the workshop showed that the participants worked with two to four materials intensely, completing the activities asked for, and managed to get to know all of the materials by studying their descriptions and at least having a go at the activities. In the post-survey, the participants were asked the following questions relating to Montessori’s criteria, which reflect the double perspective of active users experiencing the material and future EFL teachers: • How positive do you evaluate the aesthetics of the material? (aesthetics) • How much do you think students would be appealed to working with such hands-on material? (attractiveness) • How helpful do you find it for learners that they can become very active with the material (sorting, laying, matching, etc.)? (activity) 05 10 15 20 very positive positive neutral little positive not positive very appealed appealed neutral little appealed not appealed very helpful helpful neutral little helpful not helpful aesthetics attractiveness activity Evaluation of material criteria (aesthetics, attractiveness, activity) Figure 6.5 ELT student teacher evaluation of aesthetics, attractiveness, and activity Kinaesthetic Learning Material and Their Potential for Student Teacher Learning 131 The kinaesthetic aspect (activity) of the materials was ranked highest as 76.2% of the participants evaluated it as being very helpful. Both activity and attractiveness reach a remarkably positive result of 95.2% when “positive” and “very positive” are combined. The aesthetics of the materials are also evaluated positively with 85.7% of positive evaluations if “positive” and “very positive” are combined. Yet, compared to the other two aspects, the aesthetics could be improved even further. This can be interpreted as a sign of how important that criterion really is. Next the criterion control of error was evaluated by the student teachers. The fact that learners are able to self-correct does have an effect on the learning process as it frees capacities for the teacher to observe and monitor, when otherwise they would have to compare the results and help learners to find the correct solutions. The participants were asked: • How helpful do you find it that learners can self-correct with the learning material for their learning processes? (self-correction, learners) • How helpful do you find it for you as a teacher that learners can self-correct? (self-correction, teacher) 0,0% 10,0% 20,0% 30,0% 40,0% 50,0% 60,0% 70,0% very helpful helpful neutral little helpful not helpful very helpful helpful neutral little helpful not helpful self-corr (l) self-corr (t) Evaluation of material criteria (selfcorrection) Figure 6.6 ELT student teacher evaluation of control of error When both positive answers (very helpful, helpful) are combined, the results for both questions were very positive, yet more so for the learners’ perspective with an accumulated 83.3% than for the teacher’s work at 66.7%. The participants could apparently not see the potential of self-correction for their own teaching as much as the benefits for learners. This might be due to their lack of experience 132 Manuela Schlick with actual in-class use of the materials. In fact, the participants had been asked in the pre-survey whether they had any previous experience with open-learning settings. Figure 6.7 shows the results of the question, “Have you had experience with open learning environments so far? ” 02468 10 12 14 Previous experience with open-learning settings Figure 6.7 Previous experience with open-learning settings No participant had apparently attended a school with regular open-learning phases (extensive experience during primary or secondary education), but 21 (87%) had at least occasionally experienced such formats as pupils. Eight participants (33%) said they would occasionally or rarely organize open-learning formats in their own teaching. What is surprising is that only four participants (17%) felt prepared for open-learning formats by their teacher education pro‐ gramme (“knowledge TE”). As Montessori ([1909] 2019) made clear, the impact of learning materials depends on a well-trained teacher using them in a reflected and targeted way. This close relationship between the qualities of materials and how teachers use them in their classrooms needs further attention. The sociomaterial approach described in Guerrettaz, Engman, and Matsumoto (2021) validates such claims on the basis of empirical studies as it acknowledges the importance of how learning material is introduced, used, and monitored, which is an aspect that is very much in line with Montessori’s ([1909] 2019) claims. 4.2.2 Beliefs about kinaesthetic learning material for pronunciation A second research interest was to track changes in the beliefs of the participants concerning the potential of kinaesthetic learning material for pronunciation teaching. To this end, the participants were asked which aspects of pronuncia‐ Kinaesthetic Learning Material and Their Potential for Student Teacher Learning 133 tion they find suitable for kinaesthetic learning material, both before and after the workshop. Figure 6.8 Results from preand post-survey for the question: What do you think (now): What elements of pronunciation can be taught through kinaesthetic learning material? For this illustration, the 11 aspects were arranged according to the results in the pre-survey (light grey bars) from highest (left) to lowest (right). The bars reflect the absolute number of how often the participants ticked the respective aspects. One interesting result is that in the pre-survey the participants chose 4.54 aspects on average (n=109 divided by 24 participants), whereas in the postsurvey they ticked 8.08 (n=194), which equals an increase of 78%. In other words, before the workshop the participants only found 41% of the given aspects of pronunciation suitable for kinaesthetic learning material, compared to 73% after the workshop. Furthermore, in the pre-survey no aspect of pronunciation was selected by all participants, which also hints at individual differences in their judgements. The aspect chosen most frequently was word stress, which was selected by two thirds (67%) of the participants. In the post-survey, 8 aspects (out of 11) were ranked as high as or higher than the maximum value in the pre-survey. The lowest results in the pre-survey were obtained for final devoicing (n=2, 8%). The lowest results in the post-survey were for aspects of connected speech and prosody, which were both still ticked as being suitable by 10 (42%) and 11 (46%) participants respectively. To explore the judgements further, Figure 6.9 shows the difference in evaluation before and after the workshop. 134 Manuela Schlick Figure 6.9 Differences between preand post-survey in %. The only aspect that was chosen less frequently in the post-survey than before the workshop was connected speech, which was selected by 15 participants (63%) compared to 11 (46%) in the post-survey. This can at least partly be explained by the fact that for these workshops no materials with sound files were provided for hygienic reasons necessitated by the pandemic. For the material covering final devoicing the results stand out with an increase of 950%, which requires further explanation. It is based on the idea of minimal pairs for final devoicing (e.g., pick/ pig, bride/ bright) being used in a bingo game for three or four learners working together. In combination with an introduction by the teacher, all learners study an explanation sheet on the phenomenon of final devoicing and the relevance of vowel length for marking the difference between voiced or unvoiced word-final obstruents. One learner is the bingo caller. The others each receive one bingo board (with four words in each row and column) each containing a different set of words from the list of minimal pairs. The bingo caller finds a list of all the words on the bingo cards in the material box and chooses himself/ herself which to pronounce for the players until one of them can call “Bingo! ” to end the game. For the participants, working with minimal pairs apparently seemed very logical after they had been introduced to the material. This can be interpreted as an indication of the complexity of finding appropriate activities in kinaesthetic learning materials. Before the workshop, the participants could not imagine how to make final devoicing tangible. Kinaesthetic Learning Material and Their Potential for Student Teacher Learning 135 What is also noteworthy is that the participants’ evaluations even increased for aspects that were not part of any of the presented material like prosody (from 6 > 11, △ = 5) or sentence stress (9 > 17, △ = 8). Apparently, the participants learned to transfer their learning experiences in the workshop as they were introduced to a whole range of kinaesthetic learning activities that can be used for other aspects of pronunciation as well. 5. Conclusion In the first part of this chapter, Montessori’s ([1909] 2019) criteria for kinaesthetic learning material were introduced and briefly discussed on the background of previous ELT research. For one sample material on sound discrimination skills, it was illustrated how those criteria were applied when designing it. Designing such material within ELT teacher education has great potential to train and focus student teachers’ methodological decision making. In the second part, the results of a small-scale empirical study were presented and discussed. Within a university-based workshop, student teachers of EFL were introduced to kinaesthetic learning material and asked to evaluate their experiences and learning growth. A substantial increase in their understanding of kinaesthetic learning material and their ability to envisage its use in their future practice is reflected in the fact that after the workshop, the student teachers could imagine that 78% more aspects of pronunciation were suitable to be covered in kinaesthetic learning material. In line with Burri and Baker’s (2017) findings, it appears that personal learning experiences with innovative or less familiar teaching methods are highly effective to influence student teachers’ beliefs of their relevance for ELT practice. Acknowledging the fact that the participating student teachers did not have much training or personal experience with an open-learning context, it is appropriate to conclude that the active use of kinaesthetic learning material has great potential to promote pre-service EFL teachers’ knowledge about a broader range of teaching methods. Through their rankings, the student teachers implicitly reported that they could generate more ideas on how to teach even difficult learning content, such as final devoicing, using the IPA, or teaching learners about pronunciation. They could even transfer their understanding to aspects that were not covered in the materials such as prosody and sentence stress. Although the kinaesthetic learning materials are designed for openlearning contexts, the student teachers could see their potential for being transferred and used in regular teaching settings. 136 Manuela Schlick Teachers’ attitudes and beliefs heavily influence their preferred way of teaching (Borg 2018). Often, prior experience, and thus expectations, of ‘how one teaches’ pronunciation perpetuate - sometimes limited or customary - methods of pronunciation instruction and hinder innovation. The careful analysis and design of learning material during teacher education can help increase awareness of and sensitivity towards core aspects of learning pronun‐ ciation and, consequently, support good pronunciation instruction. In further research, the actual decision-making and learning processes of (student) teachers when designing kinaesthetic learning material should be explored empirically. References Acton, William, Amanda, A. Baker, and Michael Burri. 2008. “Haptic Approaches to English Intonation Instruction.” Paper presented at the 42nd annual TESOL conven‐ tion, New York, NY. April 2008. Asher, James. 1986. Learning Another Language through Actions: The Complete Teacher’s Guidebook. Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks Productions. Augusto-Navarro, Eliane Hercules. 2015. “The Design of Teaching Materials as a Tool in EFL Teacher Education: Experiences of a Brazilian Teacher Education Program”. Ilha do Desterro. 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Introduction Peer response, also referred to as peer feedback, peer review, or peer evaluation (Armstrong and Paulson 2008), is a classroom activity where “learners assume roles and responsibilities normally taken on by a formally trained teacher, tutor, or editor in commenting on and critiquing each other’s drafts in both written and oral formats in the process of writing” (Hansen and Liu 2018, 1). The practice is generally associated with Vygotsky’s social constructivism, which recognizes the significance of social interactions in learning. It has been shown to foster metacognitive, cognitive, socio-affective, and linguistic developments in the language learner (see Hansen and Liu 2018 for a review). Although peer response is usually employed, teachers are often hesitant about the effectiveness of the activity. This reluctance may result from either a lack of understanding of the practice (Lundstrom and Baker 2009) or the challenge of negotiating classroom roles during a peer response session. Indeed, the effectiveness of the task ultimately depends on how the teacher and their students handle the changeover of classroom authority, which may change the conventional teacher-fronted class. Another reason for the lukewarm endorsement of peer response could be the teacher’s disbelief in their students’ ability to be reviewers. Literature (see below) shows that most peer response sessions bear a heavy influence of the teacher and/ or the researcher, in the form of training, modelling, response sheets, or, least intrusively, detailed instructions. What if students are given the opportunity to try the task on their own? Very little is known as to the usefulness of peer response without guidance. 1 Second language is used as a generic term, including ESL, EFL, and EAL. This chapter reports on an exploratory study with an unguided peer response task in a second language (L2) 1 composition class at a university in Vietnam. It is hoped that the outcome of the study will give teachers more evidence to embrace peer response. 2. Literature review Most researchers agree on the benefits of using peer response as a necessary component of teaching writing in an L2. The practice has been found to enhance students’ awareness of their strengths and weaknesses as writers (Tsui and Ng 2000), improve the rhetorical structure of their writing (Hedgcock and Lefkowitz 1992), facilitate the acquisition of evaluative skills (Berg 1999; Lundstrom and Baker 2009), and instigate post-task revisions (Villamil and de Guerrero 1998). As “an important complementary source of feedback” (Villamil and de Guerrero 1998, 491), peer response has been proven to offer benefits over teacher feedback ( Jacobs et al. 1998; Tsui and Ng 2000). According to Tsui and Ng (2000, 147), for example, the practice can “enhance a sense of audience, raise learners’ awareness of their own strengths and weaknesses, encourage collaborative learning, and foster ownership of text,” dimensions that extend and enrich teacher comments. However, there are reservations about whether L2 students can benefit from the peer response, citing uncertainties about limited proficiency language (Liu and Sadler 2003; Villamil and de Guerrero 1996), feedback quality (Hyland 2000; Liu and Sadler 2003; Nelson and Carson 1998), and participants’ unwillingness to incorporate peer feedback (Nelson and Carson 1998). It has been suggested that the effectiveness of peer response depends on the writers’ proficiency (Mangelsdorf 1992), writers’ trust in the reviewer’s abilities, and group interac‐ tions (Mangelsdorf 1992; Nelson and Murphy 1992). It depends especially on the sources of feedback available (teacher, peer, and self), i.e., learners may prefer one type of feedback over others. These reservations are further consolidated with the inconclusive findings about whether peer response can result in improvement in writing quality. On the one hand, either learners incorporated a very limited amount of their peers’ feedback (Connor and Asenavage 1994) or the uptake did not result in significant differences in writing quality (Prater and Bermudez 1993). On the other hand, peer response could accumulate as much as 53% of revisions (Mendonça and Johnson 1994). 142 Ha Hoang and Peter Gu A similar inconsistency has been found in research investigating learner perceptions of the activity. In some studies, the results are disheartening. According to Leki (1991), of all sources of help available, the teacher was the best, and the L2 peer was the least helpful, far behind a native speaker friend, and not even equal to a grammar book. Many other studies also showed a clear preference for teacher feedback (Sengupta 2000; Zhang 1995; Zhao 2010). Zhang (1995), in particular, reported that 94% of the participants favoured teacher feedback over peer feedback. Interestingly, Jacobs et al. (1998) found an almost equal but opposite percentage of participants (93%) appreciated peer feedback. The participants in many other studies (Hu 2005; Mendonça and Johnson 1994; Tsui and Ng 2000) also welcomed peer feedback. The value of peer feedback is seriously challenged in studies which compared the outcomes of teacher and peer responses. In Paulus (1999), peer feedback accounted for 13.9% of all revisions while teacher feedback contributed to 34.3%. Most disappointingly, Connor and Asenavage (1994) were able to attribute only 5% of the revisions to peer comments as compared to 35% to teacher feedback (and 60% to other sources such as self-revision). It can be said that while learners may believe that peer feedback is beneficial, uptake of teacher feedback is more established. The reluctance to accept the value of peer feedback among teachers mentioned earlier seems to repeat itself among students. These mixed results have, among other reasons, given rise to the idea that L2 learners need training before a peer response session. The methods used for coaching have been abundant, ranging from extensive discussion of writing (Stanley 1992), longitudinal training (Berg 1999), conferences (Zhu 1995), to video watching (Zhu 2001). Min (2008) conducted arguably the most thorough training programme where the participants were exposed to in-class demonstration, explicit coaching, and after-class customized teacher feedback. Generally, the results have suggested that careful preparation and training are essential for successful peer response. The most common finding is that trained reviewers are enabled to provide more feedback with richer quality (Berg 1999; Rahimi 2013; Villamil and de Guerrero 1996), better positioned to see their own texts from a reader’s perspective (Lundstrom and Baker 2009), and transformed into active reviewers (Braine 2003). Min (2006), for example, reported that 77% of the trained peer feedback was incorporated, constituting 90% of the total revisions (as compared to 39% pre-training). Min (2008) corroborated these findings, maintaining that training not only enhanced revision quality but also changed the participants’ attitudes from seeing revision as a correction task of a finished product to embracing it as part of the writing process. Unguided Peer Response 143 However, it has been argued that a peer response session without training might lead to similar results. Berg (1999, 233) rightly observes that researchers have yet to discover “the exact characteristics of trained and untrained peer talk and their relationships to revision strategies and writing outcomes.” Most of the findings above have actually been reported in the absence of a control group. Rahimi (2013) made an attempt to compare two groups in a paragraph revision task, but the “untrained” group received detailed instructions about which aspects of the paragraph to focus on. This leaves some questions unanswered: Would peer response be effective if learners are engaged in an unguided experience? When learners are free to “make their way” through the experience, that is, without teacher guidance or prior training, would they be able to provide desired comments for their peers? Would learners incorporate peer feedback during revision, and would the quality of their writing improve thanks to the feedback? 3. Research design - 3.1 Research questions In this study on an unguided peer response task in a composition class at a university in Vietnam, we attempt to answer the following research questions: 1. In an unguided peer response session, what types of comments do inter‐ mediate L2 learners give to their peers’ essays? 2. To what extent do they take up their peers’ comments in their revisions? 3. To what extent do they perceive improvement in their writing thanks to peer comments? - 3.2 Participants 23 students (all females, aged 20-22) doing a four-year B.A. in English at a university in Vietnam participated in the study on a voluntary basis. The data was collected when the participants were in the first semester of their third year. For writing, they met once a week for a 90-minute class of a 15-week course in Basic Essay Writing. - 3.3 Data collection The data collection was conducted in weeks 13 and 14 of the course and was integrated into the programme routine. In the first meeting, the participants were asked to write a 250-word essay in 60 minutes, a type of task they were familiar with. The topic was on the differences in themselves at the present and 144 Ha Hoang and Peter Gu when at high school. Their teacher collected the essays. In the second meeting, the teacher randomly distributed the essays among the participants. They were then asked to read and give feedback (in English, Vietnamese, or a combination of both) on their peer’s essay. Other than this general instruction, the teacher did not offer any other form of assistance. After that, the teacher returned the essays to the original writers and asked them to revise their essays. After the revision, they filled in an open-ended questionnaire, which asked them whether they considered the peer feedback in the revision, whether they made changes to their writing based on the peer feedback, and whether their writing improved thanks to receiving feedback from and giving feedback to a peer. Both drafts were rated holistically by the class teacher and another writing teacher at the university. The grades mentioned in the findings were the average of the grades given by the two raters. Within-participant drafts were compared to investigate the effects, if any, of peer response. A multiple-construct coding scheme, adapted from Faigley and Witte (1981), was employed for this purpose. The scheme focused on three aspects of a revised piece of writing: the response (a span of text which received a written intervention from the reviewer), the peer-initiated revision, and the self-initiated revision. The coding scheme first characterizes the nature of the response. The response is coded as a Direct correction (with/ without explanation) when the reviewer suggests a solution to a span of text of interest. The response is an Elicitation (with/ without explanation) when the reviewer indicates that there is a problem but does not provide a solution. This is a new feature that has not been studied in the literature of peer response. Each response is then classified by its focus, whether on a global feature (organization, ideas, and cohesion) or a local feature (morphosyntax, vocabulary, and mechanics). Finally, the quality of the response is judged to be correct, not necessary, or incorrect. As an example, in (1) below the writer received three responses: the first one (crossing out and replacing has with have) is an unexplained direct correction, focusing on morphosyntax, and is a correct response; the second one (circling things) is an unexplained elicitation, focusing on morphosyntax and is a correct response; and the third one (underlining has) is similar to the second one. Note that all examples are taken as is from the participants’ writing. Musterdatei NFA_Sammelband.dot 1 ces have (1) I think that I has more experience in my life and a special things I has found a closest friend in my life. (2a) When I was a student of high school, a complete lack of self-confidence.  the clause doesn’t have a main verb (2b) There was a complete lack of self-confidence when I was a student of high school. (3) During three years in high school was the best beautiful time of me. I had a lot of happiness, many best friends. I was happy and got on well with everybody.  similar to previous idea. (4) Clear organization. The essay is easy to follow. The topic sentence for each paragraph is clear but a bit short and dry. You should add some colours and flavours for the essay to be more interesting and lively. As for grammar, there are places I corrected according to what I think. Rewrite and make the writing look more beautiful. (5a) In conclusion, there are many different between the person today with the person in 5 years ago in myself. The notable point differ is adult in my thought, development in my knowledge and change in character. However, I must rispectful what I have and must try for the future. (5b) In conclusion, I really changed in the thought, the character and the knowledge. Maybe, it is both bad and good changes. However, I want to talk to my friends that I am still myself. Moreover, I will respect what I have and try more in the future. (6) I may have written confusing sentences. Therefore, only when another person reads my essay and point out the ideas they can’t understand I can rewrite to make those sentences clearer. (7) If I thought I really made a mistake, I corrected it. But for ideas, I was sure, so I kept my own points of view, I didn’t change them. Unguided Peer Response 145 Second, the coding scheme captures peer-initiated revisions, which refers to a revision made as a result of a peer response. The scheme inspects whether the response is incorporated into the revised draft, and whether this act of revision has led to writing improvement. The quality of the revision is judged as substantial improvement, limited improvement, no improvement at all, or detrimental to the original. In (2a) below, the writer received a comment on a missing verb and made the change in (2b). In this instance, the writer fully incorporated the comment, and the revision led to substantial improvement of the text. Musterdatei NFA_Sammelband.dot 1 ces have (1) I think that I has more experience in my life and a special things I has found a closest friend in my life. (2a) When I was a student of high school, a complete lack of self-confidence.  the clause doesn’t have a main verb (2b) There was a complete lack of self-confidence when I was a student of high school. (3) During three years in high school was the best beautiful time of me. I had a lot of happiness, many best friends. I was happy and got on well with everybody.  similar to previous idea. (4) Clear organization. The essay is easy to follow. The topic sentence for each paragraph is clear but a bit short and dry. You should add some colours and flavours for the essay to be more interesting and lively. As for grammar, there are places I corrected according to what I think. Rewrite and make the writing look more beautiful. (5a) In conclusion, there are many different between the person today with the person in 5 years ago in myself. The notable point differ is adult in my thought, development in my knowledge and change in character. However, I must rispectful what I have and must try for the future. (5b) In conclusion, I really changed in the thought, the character and the knowledge. Maybe, it is both bad and good changes. However, I want to talk to my friends that I am still myself. Moreover, I will respect what I have and try more in the future. (6) I may have written confusing sentences. Therefore, only when another person reads my essay and point out the ideas they can’t understand I can rewrite to make those sentences clearer. (7) If I thought I really made a mistake, I corrected it. But for ideas, I was sure, so I kept my own points of view, I didn’t change them. Finally, the coding scheme captures the self-initiated revisions, which refers to a revision made because the writer judged it as necessary. The coding of the selfinitiated revisions is similar to that of the peer-initiated revisions mentioned above. A trained second rater coded 20% of the data. Inter-rater agreement was 94%. The differences in the coding were resolved in a reconciliation meeting. 4. Findings and discussion - 4.1 Responses The 23 essays received 403 in-text responses, 185 (45.9%) of which are Correc‐ tions and 218 (54.1%) of which are Elicitations. The participants tended to respond without giving an explanation: 94.6% of the Corrections, and 63.3% of the Elicitations were not explained. While it was not completely clear why and when the reviewers chose to explain their responses, engagement with the author of the text was evident. The participants explained the Elicitations more, probably because they felt the need to clarify these responses to the readers, but they instead seemed to assume that their peers would understand the Corrections. The findings on the focus of the responses (Table 7.1) show a large discrep‐ ancy between feedback on global features and local features, 16.1% as opposed to 83.9% respectively. 146 Ha Hoang and Peter Gu Feedback focus N (%) M (SD) Global Organization 1 (.2) .04 (.2) Ideas 53 (13.2) 2.3 (2.2) Cohesion 11 (2.7) .5 (.7) Local Morphosyntax 213 (52.9) 9.3 (7.2) Vocabulary 57 (14.1) 2.9 (2.5) Mechanics 68 (16.9) 2.96 (3.7) Table 7.1 Focus of responses As can be seen, the reviewers paid most attention to morphosyntactic features, which accounted for more than half (52.9%) of the responses and was consistent across all 23 essays (M = 9.3). It could be either that the writers made more mis‐ takes with morphosyntax or that the reviewers found it within their language competence to respond to these mistakes. This over-focus on morphosyntactic features might have also resulted from the influence of the teacher’s style of giving feedback. There is evidence that despite their belief that textual coherence is more significant, L2 teachers tend to emphasise accuracy (Hyland 2003; Lee 1998), and their feedback mostly focuses on grammar and mechanics (Cohen and Cavalcanti 1990). Previous studies on students’ feedback preferences also found students expected comments on this aspect of their writing (Ferris 1997; Hyland 1998) and were most concerned about their grammar mistakes because they believed that their teacher prioritized grammatical accuracy (Hedgcock and Lefkowitz 1994). The participants in the present chapter held similar beliefs about writing accuracy, as shown in the questionnaire responses. On the contrary, global features, which demand higher cognitive processing (Tsui and Ng 2000), did not receive as much attention. Only one out of 403 intext comments was on organisation. Attention to cohesion was also low (N = 11; M = .5). Ideas received more comments (N = 53; M = 2.3), the majority of which aimed to draw the writer’s attention to a lack of clarity or relevance in idea development. It should also be noted that 81.1% of the comments on ideas took the form of Elicitations, as shown in (3). Musterdatei NFA_Sammelband.dot 1 ces have (1) I think that I has more experience in my life and a special things I has found a closest friend in my life. (2a) When I was a student of high school, a complete lack of self-confidence.  the clause doesn’t have a main verb (2b) There was a complete lack of self-confidence when I was a student of high school. (3) During three years in high school was the best beautiful time of me. I had a lot of happiness, many best friends. I was happy and got on well with everybody.  similar to previous idea. (4) Clear organization. The essay is easy to follow. The topic sentence for each paragraph is clear but a bit short and dry. You should add some colours and flavours for the essay to be more interesting and lively. As for grammar, there are places I corrected according to what I think. Rewrite and make the writing look more beautiful. (5a) In conclusion, there are many different between the person today with the person in 5 years ago in myself. The notable point differ is adult in my thought, development in my knowledge and change in character. However, I must rispectful what I have and must try for the future. (5b) In conclusion, I really changed in the thought, the character and the knowledge. Maybe, it is both bad and good changes. However, I want to talk to my friends that I am still myself. Moreover, I will respect what I have and try more in the future. (6) I may have written confusing sentences. Therefore, only when another person reads my essay and point out the ideas they can’t understand I can rewrite to make those sentences clearer. (7) If I thought I really made a mistake, I corrected it. But for ideas, I was sure, so I kept my own points of view, I didn’t change them. Unguided Peer Response 147 Apart from in-text comments, many reviewers gave end-of-text comments which described their overall impression of their peer’s essay, as shown in (4). Musterdatei NFA_Sammelband.dot 1 ces have (1) I think that I has more experience in my life and a special things I has found a closest friend in my life. (2a) When I was a student of high school, a complete lack of self-confidence.  the clause doesn’t have a main verb (2b) There was a complete lack of self-confidence when I was a student of high school. (3) During three years in high school was the best beautiful time of me. I had a lot of happiness, many best friends. I was happy and got on well with everybody.  similar to previous idea. (4) Clear organization. The essay is easy to follow. The topic sentence for each paragraph is clear but a bit short and dry. You should add some colours and flavours for the essay to be more interesting and lively. As for grammar, there are places I corrected according to what I think. Rewrite and make the writing look more beautiful. (5a) In conclusion, there are many different between the person today with the person in 5 years ago in myself. The notable point differ is adult in my thought, development in my knowledge and change in character. However, I must rispectful what I have and must try for the future. (5b) In conclusion, I really changed in the thought, the character and the knowledge. Maybe, it is both bad and good changes. However, I want to talk to my friends that I am still myself. Moreover, I will respect what I have and try more in the future. (6) I may have written confusing sentences. Therefore, only when another person reads my essay and point out the ideas they can’t understand I can rewrite to make those sentences clearer. (7) If I thought I really made a mistake, I corrected it. But for ideas, I was sure, so I kept my own points of view, I didn’t change them. Remarkably, these end-of-text comments usually addressed global features of the writing. Although not always specific and not frequent, the comments were informative, constructive, and critical. Caulk’s (1994, 184) observation that student comments “rarely contained suggestions for the whole piece of writing” did not totally apply to these students. In terms of feedback quality, our findings corroborate previous studies (Berg 1999; Paulus 1999): 79.2% of the feedback was rated as correct. As such, in the absence of training and assistance, the participants made good reviewers and gave quality feedback. Were they good revisers too? We discuss their revision behaviours in the next section. - 4.2 Revisions The participants showed a selective approach to feedback uptake. Overall, 26.1% of the responses were ignored, and 73.9% were incorporated (59% fully incorporated, 2.2% partly incorporated, and, interestingly, 12.7% expanded). Similar uptake behaviours have been observed in studies where the participants received training (Mendonça and Johnson 1994; Min 2006; Villamil and de Guerrero 1998), often interpreted as participants’ scepticism about peer abilities to provide quality feedback. However, a closer look into each type of incorporation reveals that the participants were actually critical about which comments to incorporate into their second draft. Indeed, 82.1% of the correct responses were used in the revision. When the response was deemed not necessary or not correct, the percentage of uptake was much lower, 40% and 45.5% respectively. Data from the questionnaire confirmed this pattern. Asked whether they made changes to their first draft based on the responses, most participants said they would if the comments were seen as correct. Hu (2005, 338) similarly observed that his participants “made good efforts to incorporate peer suggestions in their revisions but did not take up peer advice without careful thinking.” It can be said that the task not only trains the reviewers to be critical readers (Lundstrom 148 Ha Hoang and Peter Gu and Baker 2009) but also trains the writers to be critical revisers. This selective uptake of feedback, therefore, should be read as a positive indication that the participants were active in their learning process to make critical judgments about peer feedback. Peer response would probably be meaningless to learners’ writing development if they readily accept peer comments. In the absence of teacher feedback, peer response naturally received due attention as the sole source of feedback and thus inspired extended revisions beyond their scope (see also Villamil and de Guerrero 1998). Examples (5a) and (5b) below show that the peer responses must have motivated the writer to further develop or refine the points they made in the first draft. Musterdatei NFA_Sammelband.dot 1 have (1) I think that I has more experience in my life and a special things I has found a closest friend in my life. (2a) When I was a student of high school, a complete lack of self-confidence.  the clause doesn’t have a main verb (2b) There was a complete lack of self-confidence when I was a student of high school. (3) During three years in high school was the best beautiful time of me. I had a lot of happiness, many best friends. I was happy and got on well with everybody.  similar to previous idea. (4) Clear organization. The essay is easy to follow. The topic sentence for each paragraph is clear but a bit short and dry. You should add some colours and flavours for the essay to be more interesting and lively. As for grammar, there are places I corrected according to what I think. Rewrite and make the writing look more beautiful. (5a) In conclusion, there are many different between the person today with the person in 5 years ago in myself. The notable point differ is adult in my thought, development in my knowledge and change in character. However, I must rispectful what I have and must try for the future. (5b) In conclusion, I really changed in the thought, the character and the knowledge. Maybe, it is both bad and good changes. However, I want to talk to my friends that I am still myself. Moreover, I will respect what I have and try more in the future. (6) I may have written confusing sentences. Therefore, only when another person reads my essay and point out the ideas they can’t understand I can rewrite to make those sentences clearer. (7) If I thought I really made a mistake, I corrected it. But for ideas, I was sure, so I kept my own points of view, I didn’t change them. ces The participants were deeply engaged in a complicated thinking process to handle the comments they received. According to their survey responses, they needed to reflect on why they received a comment, consider whether they needed to incorporate it, and evaluate if they needed to expand the original point. More data is needed to gauge the extent to which peer response may inspire these expanded revisions, but peer response clearly can benefit writing beyond the scope of a response point. It is also evident from the questionnaire that the participants engaged in the task hoping to improve both the current text and their future writing. In this way, the task, albeit unguided, has the potential to benefit long-term learning and foster independent problem solving (see also Tsui and Ng 2000; Yang, Badger, and Yu 2006). - 4.3 Peer versus self-initiated revisions On average, each writer made 25 changes to her second draft (Table 7.2). The average number of revisions initiated by peers was 12 (48%) and, surprisingly, by self was slightly higher - 13 (52%). Unguided Peer Response 149 Focus of revisions Peer-initiated revisions M(SD) Self-initiated revisions M(SD) Global Organization .04 (.20) .13 (.35) Ideas 1.39 (1.27) 3.87 (2.91) Cohesion .35 (.71) 1.57 (1.62) Local Morphosyntax 7.48 (6.62) 3.87 (2.91) Vocabulary 1.35 (1.56) 1.52 (1.67) Mechanics 2.62 (2.63) 1.74 (1.98) Table 7.2 Focus of revisions The knowledge that L2 learners can generate self-initiated revisions is not new. However, in guided peer response studies which do not involve teacher feedback, there are often more peer-initiated revisions than self-initiated ones: 61% and 39% respectively in Villamil and de Guerrero (1998), and 53% and 37% respectively in Mendonça and Johnson (1994). Comparing the high percentage of self-revisions among our participants and the lower percentage in others, one must agree with Yang, Badger, and Yu (2006) that perhaps it is the teacher intervention, even implicit and indirect in the form of a response sheet, that has reduced students’ self-reliance. Nevertheless, there has been little research comparing self-revision to peer revision in an unguided task. Concerning the focus of the revisions, the heavy emphasis on morphosyntax in the responses foretold the high frequency of text changes related to these features. This behaviour again points to the participants’ beliefs about accuracy in writing. While Raimes (2001) commented that unskilled L2 writers do not edit as much as unskilled native speakers because they are not worried about errors, we found that the opposite was true. From the high amount of attention given to morphosyntactic features in the responses, in the revisions, and in the answers to the survey questions, we could tell that the participants were preoccupied with mistakes. 14 out of 23 participants cited grammar mistakes as the reason they incorporated peer response; and 13 explicitly reported making morphosyntactic changes. What should also be noticed is the ubiquity of morphosyntactic features as the major focus of their revision process. Interestingly, this insistence on local features is also prevalent in other groups of L2 learners irrespective of systematic training (Fan and Xu 2020) and explicit instructions to shift revision focus to global concerns (Villamil and de Guerrero 150 Ha Hoang and Peter Gu 1998), environments of revision (Liu and Sadler 2003), and language of revision (Stevenson, Schoonen, and de Glopper 2006). The participants’ preoccupation with morphosyntactic revisions was at the expense of attention to global features. But other factors may have played a part as well. For instance, their low proficiency (Stevenson, Schoonen, and de Glopper 2006) and the limited text length (Ferris 2003) may have inhibited higher level revisions. Villamil and de Guerrero (1998) also suggest that L2 learners sometimes see content elaboration as organisation revision. Yet it is interesting to observe the higher frequency of self-initiated global revisions as compared with peer-initiated ones, which occurred in organization, ideas, and cohesion. In particular, the number of self-initiated idea revisions was almost three times higher than that initiated by peer response (M = 3.9 and 1.4, respectively). The participants were eager to receive comments on ideas, as stated in responses similar to (6) below, but they also felt strong ownership of their text and tended to be conservative about making idea changes based on peer feedback (see (7) below). Writing ownership may be challenged by the teacher, but not so readily by classmates. Musterdatei NFA_Sammelband.dot 1 ces have (1) I think that I has more experience in my life and a special things I has found a closest friend in my life. (2a) When I was a student of high school, a complete lack of self-confidence.  the clause doesn’t have a main verb (2b) There was a complete lack of self-confidence when I was a student of high school. (3) During three years in high school was the best beautiful time of me. I had a lot of happiness, many best friends. I was happy and got on well with everybody.  similar to previous idea. (4) Clear organization. The essay is easy to follow. The topic sentence for each paragraph is clear but a bit short and dry. You should add some colours and flavours for the essay to be more interesting and lively. As for grammar, there are places I corrected according to what I think. Rewrite and make the writing look more beautiful. (5a) In conclusion, there are many different between the person today with the person in 5 years ago in myself. The notable point differ is adult in my thought, development in my knowledge and change in character. However, I must rispectful what I have and must try for the future. (5b) In conclusion, I really changed in the thought, the character and the knowledge. Maybe, it is both bad and good changes. However, I want to talk to my friends that I am still myself. Moreover, I will respect what I have and try more in the future. (6) I may have written confusing sentences. Therefore, only when another person reads my essay and point out the ideas they can’t understand I can rewrite to make those sentences clearer. (7) If I thought I really made a mistake, I corrected it. But for ideas, I was sure, so I kept my own points of view, I didn’t change them. Hyland (2000) found that teachers too often deprived learners of autonomous learning by giving them excessive and unnecessary feedback. If focus on global features is desirable to text improvement, the fact that learners generate more global revisions on their own should be celebrated. The participants in our study were driven to generate more ideas when given the opportunity to revisit their writing in light of peer response. Thus, the unguided peer response task has encouraged self-directed revising behaviours, a meaningful outcome of the writing process and a prerequisite of successful writing. The absence of teacher intervention has created space for the presence of critical evaluation skills among learners. The very act of reading and commenting on peer texts can develop in learners the ability of evaluation and self-evaluation as a result of the combined role as both the reviewer and the self-reviewer. Unguided Peer Response 151 4.4 Text improvement As shown above, despite the absence of teacher guidance, the participants were able to provide quality feedback, incorporate peer feedback, and generate revisions on their own accord. This section examines whether the feedback uptake led to text improvement. 91% of the revisions were effective. Peer response seemed to create more quality revisions than self-revisions (see Table 7.3), probably because these revisions were the result of two stages of reflection from the peer and the self (Lu, Zhu, and Cheong 2021). In addition, 81% of the revisions led to text improvement with respect to the span of text in consideration. In other words, the condition of the task did not seem to deprive the participants of any learning opportunities. Quality of revisions Peer-initiated revisions M(SD) Self-initiated revisions M(SD) Substantial improvement 8.4(6.3) 5.9(2.6) Limited improvement 2.1(1.9) 3.9(3.4) No improvement .9(1.0) 1.4(1.6) Detrimental effect .7(.7) 1.5(1.6) Table 7.3 Quality of revisions The participants also responded positively about the peer feedback session. 22 out of the 23 participants perceived the task as very helpful in improving their writing. Only one participant said the task was not useful, and it was because she did not receive as many global comments as expected. While participants in other studies did not report similar positive experience (e.g., Nelson and Carson 1998; Sengupta 2000; Tsui and Ng 2000), or reported only somewhat positive experience (Cao, Yu, and Huang 2019), ours believed that they benefited from the peer response task as both writer (8a) and reader (8b). They believed that thanks to the peer responses, they expressed themselves better, corrected their mistakes, and learned from their peers. They also perceived that the task would help them with future writing tasks. Musterdatei NFA_Sammelband.dot 2 (8a) Of course working with a friend is better than working on one’s own. The friend showed me a number of vocabulary items and mistakes so that I could correct them. (8b) I will avoid my friend’s mistakes. Besides, reading more of friends’ essay will help me to have more ideas to write my essays in the future. (9a) And I am today, there are many thinking differences. I always think over before I do. I have thinking about life, friends. when I were in high school, I think simple about life but now I think differ life is very complex. I must try my best, life is to be good. And friend is also complex, It is difficult to find a best friend. but if we treat with anyone is good, we will receive this thing. (9b) But Now I am differ from before. I always think over before I do. I have think about life and friends. When I were in high school, I think simple about life, but now I think differ life is very complex. I must try my best so that my life is will be better. And relationship of friends is complex. It is difficult to find a best friend. 152 Ha Hoang and Peter Gu It should be noted that although the participants believed that the session helped them improve their writing, they were not able to indicate how much better their writing had become. Their judgement about the experience, while uplifting, was holistic and suggestive. That said, the question of how good a piece of writing is, how much better it has become, and which part has improved is not easy for learners to report as it requires a different level of writing expertise. The fact that the participants recognised their peers’ contributions to their writing development was by itself an invaluable gain. The revised essays did not gain dramatically higher grades. Eleven students received the same mark, eight gained 0.5 mark, and four gained one mark for their revised drafts. As one may have noticed in the quoted texts so far, the mistakes are “wild,” repeatedly occurring in a range of text levels. The participants tried hard to revise; they made effective changes, yet they also made more mistakes of a similar nature. Consequently, their products were similar, as shown in the first draft (9a) and the revised draft (9b) below. Musterdatei NFA_Sammelband.dot 2 (8a) Of course working with a friend is better than working on one’s own. The friend showed me a number of vocabulary items and mistakes so that I could correct them. (8b) I will avoid my friend’s mistakes. Besides, reading more of friends’ essay will help me to have more ideas to write my essays in the future. (9a) And I am today, there are many thinking differences. I always think over before I do. I have thinking about life, friends. when I were in high school, I think simple about life but now I think differ life is very complex. I must try my best, life is to be good. And friend is also complex, It is difficult to find a best friend. but if we treat with anyone is good, we will receive this thing. (9b) But Now I am differ from before. I always think over before I do. I have think about life and friends. When I were in high school, I think simple about life, but now I think differ life is very complex. I must try my best so that my life is will be better. And relationship of friends is complex. It is difficult to find a best friend. Raimes (2001, 51) rightly remarks that “the act of producing L2 writing seemed to be so involving and exhausting that production of a new draft was rare.” Indeed, we believe that the learning outcome should be judged more fairly. It is unreal‐ istic to expect learners, even those at an advanced level, to produce an errorfree text after some revision. Besides, a positive change to the text, no matter how trivial, is still an improvement because it represents a learning effort. More importantly, learning is an incremental process, and in the process approach to writing instruction, these small improvements should be appreciated and more opportunities for improvements should be provided. Unguided Peer Response 153 5. Conclusion This chapter has reported on a study of a peer response task conducted in the absence of guidance in any form. The findings show that, on average, the participants gave 18 responses and made 25 revisions, and the quality of their responses and revisions were higher than those previously reported. The participants took the opportunity of the peer response task to activate their self-reflection and critical thinking, improve their texts, and enjoy the learning experience. The findings above were the results of a convenient sample, so they should be interpreted in consideration of the fact that all participants were female, who arguably tend to have more positive reactions towards peer response (Pennington, Brock, and Yue 1996). In addition, the data did not allow insight into the factors that might have influenced the participants’ strategic decisions regarding their responses and revisions. For example, the teacher’s way of providing feedback to the students’ writing might have an effect on the way they give feedback to their peers. It is also important to gain an insight into why certain comments led to further revision or why learners decided to rely on selfrevision. Research techniques like verbal reports (Suzuki 2008) and keystroke logging (Thorson 2000) might help answer these questions. Also, data in this study could not measure the long-term effect of the task or represent writing as a process. Future studies on unguided peer response could address these issues. Finally, we would like to emphasise that it is not our purpose to deny the benefits of training students for peer response tasks: focused and targeted feedback is important to achieving specified writing goals. However, we believe that this chapter has identified a missing piece of the peer response puzzle, adding more evidence to confirm that peer response, even in its most liberal form, is beneficial to the learning process. Therefore, learners need to be exposed to peer response in class and employ it as a learning habit outside class. Most importantly, the writing teacher should feel confident that their students can provide sensible feedback. They should articulate this belief in class to help students build trust in each other’s ability and create stronger task responsibility, which will contribute to the effectiveness of peer response. This can be done by a negotiated understanding of the benefits, goals, requirements, and procedures of the practice between the teacher and students. An opportunity to have oral conferencing would also enrich the learning gain. 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Such reflection is also mirrored in the content covered in textbooks aimed at intro‐ ducing students or professionals to the field at various levels of sophistication. In any case, what to teach in a course on Language Testing and Assessment is a question that course instructors face in institutions worldwide, Austria being no exception. Since the mid-2010s, Language Testing and Assessment has been firmly anchored as a compulsory subject in secondary-level teacher education programmes for English at Austrian universities and university colleges of teacher education with the aim of equipping future language teachers with the relevant type and amount of Language Assessment Literacy (LAL) for their careers. However, precisely what constitutes LAL in the Austrian context remains a matter of some interpretation among individual clusters of institutions providing pre-service language teacher education in the country. Therefore, attempts to clarify the question are both legitimate and timely. In particular, it would be interesting to see how individual aspects of LAL develop, or are thought to develop, in pre-service teachers of English. This study aims, in an innovative approach, to shed light on the developmental aspect of LAL in secondary-level teacher education at Austrian universities. In this study, we take a pronounced developmental perspective by postulating that the perception of stakeholders’ degrees of ability, knowledge, or under‐ standing (AKU) in the 71 aspects of LAL tapped by Kremmel and Harding’s (2020) tool are indicative of the degree of perceived difficulty of each individual aspect of the construct. Construct aspects in which the respondents feel they have little competence are thus considered to be difficult and to be acquired or developed later than those aspects with high ratings of confidence, which are considered to develop earlier. At the same time, our study does not include as wide a variety of stakeholders as possible but, on the contrary, focuses on pre-service teachers of English at Austrian universities and university colleges of teacher education. It thus does not aim to compare LAL competence profiles across stakeholder groups but, by using multi-facet Rasch measurement as an analytic tool, rather addresses differences in difficulty among aspects of assessment-related AKU. Conclusions about difficulty are reached on the basis of student teachers’ self-estimates of their AKU, the basic assumption being that a perceived lack of skill in an aspect of LAL is symptomatic of this aspect being developed later than other aspects and hence being more difficult to perform. Difficulty is thus construed as a challenge expressed in the item rather than intrinsic difficulty to be overcome when acquiring the requisite AKU. In order to shed light on the difficulty of individual aspects of LAL, we transformed Kremmel and Harding’s (2020) items into AKU statements and gathered data from Austrian pre-service teachers of English. We analysed their responses to the questionnaire items using multi-facet Rasch measurement, thereby placing each of the 71 items on a common scale of item difficulty / person ability. Using this scale, we describe a tentative developmental path of the progression of LAL in the Austrian context and draw conclusions for the teaching of Language Testing and Assessment. 2. Literature review Since Lado’s textbook on language testing (1961) gave the field “early credibility” (Davies 2008, 329), various models of what has come to be known as LAL have been defined by national education systems, educational or testing associations, and individual scholars alike for practitioners both in and outside the classroom. Whether theoretical or empirical in nature, these models divide up the necessary AKU into a number of components or factors. Austria is maybe in the special position of having had some aspects of LAL described for primary and secondary education, in accordance with Taylor’s “local community of practice” (2013, 407), since the mid-1970s, in the form of the Leistungsbeurteilungsverordnung [Act on the Evaluation of Performance] (BMB 1974-2020). Formalising teacher-led assessment, the 15-page document focuses mostly on the “how,” namely what kinds of tests can be used in particular 160 Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott subjects and how often per semester but mostly without providing any detail on what constructs are to be operationalised in the tests. The “why” relates to some of the pedagogical functions of summative and formative assessment while the “what” is defined in the curriculum in force at any one particular time. Courses on testing and assessment for pre-service teachers, which would prepare them for their legal responsibilities, lagged far behind, however, and it was not until 2007 that one was added to an English degree programme for secondary school teachers at the University of Vienna (Berger and Heaney 2019, 188). The importance of LAL only began to be recognised in the first decade of the millennium, when standardised diagnostic language tests for German and English as well as a standardised school-leaving examination for language subjects were introduced (for details see Sigott 2018). As a relatively early outline model of LAL, the Standards for teacher compe‐ tence in educational assessment of students (American Federation of Teachers 1990) defined seven general points relating to the (1) choice, (2) development, (3) administration, scoring, and interpretation, and (4) use of assessment methods as well as (5) grading procedures, (6) communication of results, and (7) ethical issues associated with testing. Ten years later, Brindley’s (2001) proposal for a professional development course was one of the first of an increasing number of descriptions of the specific assessment needs of in-service secondary-level lan‐ guage teachers. It consists of two core units, “The social context of assessment” and “Defining and describing proficiency,” which are complemented by “Con‐ structing and evaluating language tests” and/ or “Assessment in the language curriculum” as well as by “Putting assessment into practice” (Brindley 2001, 129-130). Brindley’s proposal is essentially based on his personal experience of teaching the named target group. In its Guidelines for good practice in language testing and assessment, the European Association for Language Testing and Assessment (EALTA 2006) states nine considerations relating specifically to pre-service and in-service teacher training in testing and assessment. As an international organisation, EALTA places special emphasis on the training being relevant to the assessment context (points 1-3). This is an important detail as many textbooks are either embedded in a specific national context (e.g., US or UK) or they focus on testing procedures which are not always as relevant in schools. The considerations also emphasise an appropriate balance between theory and practice (points 4-7) as well as the appropriacy and accuracy of assessment tools (point 8) and the fact that teachers of such courses should practice what they preach (“How far do assessment procedures used to evaluate the trainees follow the principles they have been taught? ”). Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty 161 This growing interest in the teaching of testing to teachers (see Brown and Bailey 2008, 350-351 as well as Inbar-Lourie 2008, 385-390 for an overview) may have been instrumental in dedicating the 25 th anniversary issue of Language Testing in 2008 to “some charting of new territory” (Editorial 2008, 292) in the guise of three articles on the topic from a historical, empirical, and class‐ room perspective. As part of his overview of “Textbook trends in teaching language testing” also covering teachers’ resources and practical manuals, Davies (2008) posits three broad areas, namely skills, knowledge, and principles, or the practical, descriptive, and theoretical (2008, 335-336), which are essential for increasing professionalisation. While skills are honed by methodological training involving “item writing, statistics [and] test analysis,” knowledge covers topics such as “measurement and language description as well as […] context setting,” and principles concern “questions of ethics and professionalism” (2008, 328). Over time, the weight accorded to these three areas shifted, in Davies’ view, from a focus on skills and knowledge to, ideally, one on “principles-informed knowledge [which] is operationalized and incorporated into skills” (2008, 335). In the same issue, Brown and Bailey (2008) analysed developments in the operationalisation of the “teaching testing to teachers” construct, reproducing a study carried out some ten years previously (Bailey and Brown 1996) on the features of introductory language testing programmes focusing on the course instructors, course characteristics, and participants to ascertain what, if anything, had changed. Their conclusion? That there certainly were new developments, from “Classroom testing practices” to “Validity as a unitary concept,” represented in the 20 items added to the second survey and seen in the responses to the open questions (2008, 370), but no major changes, as suggested by “the presence of a stable knowledge base that is evolving and expanding, rather than shifting radically” (2008, 371). Finally, Inbar-Lourie (2008) draws our attention to future developments, proposing a “core knowledge framework” (2008, 385) for language assessment courses revolving around potential components in a “knowledge base” for language assessment literacy, a term she coined as an extension of Stiggin’s (1988) concept of general assessment literacy and certainly in tune with the idea of a “growing list of ‘literacies’ to be acquired in contemporary life” (Taylor 2013, 404), amongst others by pre-service language teachers. In Inbar- Lourie’s paper, a clear distinction is made between the needs of language testers and the needs of language teachers, who carry out tests and assessments in a classroom setting. Like Davies (2008), Inbar-Lourie distinguishes three dimensions for the content of such LAL courses, the “what” (the trait), the “how” (the method), and the “why” (the rationale) of testing and assessment, 162 Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott drawing on Brindley’s (2001) proposals and complemented by views expressed in more recent publications. (For details see Inbar-Lourie 2008, 390-394.) Like Davies, her aim is increased professionalisation, although she does point out that “mastering proficiency in the discrete skills of language assessment […] will not necessarily lead to acquiring LAL” (2008, 397). Unlike Davies, she specifically suggests how the development of such expertise might be supported, namely by “learning, negotiating, discussing, experiencing and researching [the] core language assessment framework” (2008, 396), not just as a one-off course but as part of life-long learning, particularly in connection with acquiring and honing additional competencies [our emphasis], so development along the horizontal axis. Fulcher’s (2012) aim to create teaching materials promoting LAL to reflect the changing responsibilities of language teachers in the 21 st century was the motivation behind carrying out a needs analysis with stakeholder involvement (practising teachers) which would go beyond previous data collections both in its methodology and scope (e.g., Brown and Bailey 2008; Vogt and Tsagari 2014). Fulcher (2012) also included Likert-scale items, but one innovation was to start off the survey with two constructed response items, where participants first reflected on the most relevant topics and then on skills which they would like to follow up on, thus encouraging them to “formulate their own ideas and create a personal frame of reference” (2012, 118). Exploratory factor analysis identified four factors, which were then used in a data-coding matrix for the qualitative analysis, along with three additional coding categories. Fulcher labelled the four factors “test design and development,” “large-scale standardized testing,” “classroom testing and washback,” and “validity and reliability,” with ethics loading on both the second and third factor (2012, 121). These subject areas should then be covered by the textbook-to-be in relation to (1) the appropriate knowledge and skills for language testing, (2) awareness of the processes and principles of best practice, and (3) an understanding of the social dimensions of testing from various perspectives. As Harding and Kremmel point out (2016, 418), Fulcher’s analysis broadens the conceptualisation of LAL by “imply[ing] a hierarchy in his model […], where practical knowledge appears as the bedrock, with principles and then contexts at higher levels.” In 2013, Language Testing again showcased language assessment literacy, this time in a special issue inspired by the 33 rd Language Testing Research Colloquium on the topic held in 2011 (Taylor 2013, 403). The contributions which relate most closely to LAL for preand in-service language teachers (Malone 2013; Scarino 2013) continue to explore the three-pronged construct which “balance[s] theoretical assessment knowledge with practical know-how while Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty 163 still allowing some place in the mix for attention to ethical principles” (Taylor 2013, 407). Continuing in Fulcher’s footsteps, there is a growing emphasis on how different stakeholders require different types and degrees of knowledge and/ or skills. Pill and Harding (2013, 383), for example, focus on the necessity of improving LAL in “non-practitioner stakeholders,” in this case Australian politicians passing laws on the gate-keeping function of English proficiency tests for doctors with overseas qualifications. In their discussion of how much LAL politicians need, they turn to an approach from scientific literacy which regards it as a continuum rather than a dichotomy (2013, 383) involving “illit‐ eracy, nominal literacy, functional literacy, procedural and conceptual literacy and multidimensional literacy” (Bybee 1997 quoted in Pill and Harding 2013, 383), which is certainly of interest in relation to pre-service language teachers as well. Drawing on the other contributions in the special issue, Taylor exemplifies “differential assessment literacy” for four major groups (test writers, classroom teachers, university administrators, and professional language testers) in the form of radar charts with eight dimensions and five stages of literacy (Taylor 2013, 409-410). Yet, she admits that not much is known about how LAL may develop over time in stakeholders, in the sense of a “novice” acquiring a higher level of proficiency (2013, 407), along a vertical dimension, as opposed to merely expanding their knowledge base. This concept of a vertical dimension is taken up in Kremmel and Harding’s (2020) empirical exploration of profiles of LAL across different stakeholder groups. The intention behind their Language Assessment Literacy Survey was to build on and validate Taylor’s (2013) “speculative” profiles (Kremmel and Harding 2020, 103). The final version included 71 items covering Taylor’s (2013) eight dimensions. In the first part of the survey, participants could select multiple identities, as applicable, ranging from language teachers and various kinds of testing professionals to test takers and parents of test takers. They were then asked to select one identity, judge how experienced they thought themselves to be in that role in connection with language assessment (novice, competent, or expert; Kremmel and Harding 2020, 105), and proceeded to respond to the items in terms of how important they thought specific knowledge and skills are within that role. The five-point scale ranged from “not knowledgeable at all” to “extremely knowledgeable” (Kremmel and Harding 2020, 103-106). Each of the 71 items was attributed to one of 10 hypothetical dimensions of LAL. After factor analysing their data, they arrived at nine empirical dimensions of LAL. However, how these dimensions are to be placed on a scale of difficulty remains unaddressed. 164 Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott 3. Methods - 3.1 Participants and procedures To recruit participants for the study, instructors in English departments at all Austrian tertiary-level institutions offering courses in Language Testing and Assessment in the framework of pre-service teacher education were contacted by email. Altogether, instructors at five universities and two university colleges of teacher education agreed to facilitate data collection. The instructors were sent a description of the purpose of the study and an invitation to forward a link to the online questionnaire (Google Forms, n.d.), which was created in several loops of feedback and revision, to the students in their Language Testing and Assessment classes. Students were informed that the survey was not a test for which there are right or wrong answers but that the researchers were interested in their personal opinions. Participation was voluntary. Some participants agreed to take part in the survey only on condition that the data remain fully anonymous. This request was complied with. Consequently, the data can be traced back neither to individual institutions nor to individual students. Comparisons among institutions are neither intended nor possible with the data currently available. Eventually, 172 teacher education students participated in the online survey, which was conducted between February 2020 and March 2021. All students participating in the survey had English as one of their subjects. - 3.2 Instrument The data on students’ perceptions of assessment-related AKU were collected by means of an adapted version of Kremmel and Harding’s (2020) questionnaire. In the original tool, the questions aim at respondents’ estimates of how important individual aspects of LAL are for particular stakeholder groups. The instrument includes nine empirical dimensions of LAL: (1) developing and administering language assessments (DALA); (2) assessment in language pedagogy (ALP); (3) assessment policy and local practices (APLP); (4) personal beliefs and attitudes (PBA); (5) statistical and research methods (SRM); (6) assessment principles and interpretation (API); (7) language structure, use, and development (LSUD); (8) washback and preparation (WP); (9) scoring and rating (SR). Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty 165 In our tool, we shifted the focus from estimates of importance to estimates of competence, namely levels of perceived AKU, which we ultimately interpreted as perceived difficulty. Therefore, we reformulated the 71 items into statements of ability (I can …), knowledge (I know …), or understanding (I understand …). For instance, how to use assessments to evaluate progress in language learning became I can use assessments to evaluate progress in language learning; how assessments can be used to enforce social policies (e.g., immigration, citizenship) became I know how assessments can be used to enforce social policies (e.g., immigration, citizenship); and the structure of language became I understand the structure of language. The 71 items are shown in Appendix 1. Participants were asked to answer each item on a 5-point Likert scale with an additional category to choose if a participant felt they could not answer the question. Table-8.1 lists the definitions of the categories. Answer category Definition 1 This is clearly above my level of expertise/ knowledge/ understanding. I cannot do it/ do not know it/ do not understand it. 2 This is slightly above my level of expertise/ knowledge/ understanding. I may be able to do it/ make use of my knowledge/ understanding provided that circumstances are favourable (e.g., with support, in low-stakes contexts). 3 This reflects my level of expertise/ knowledge/ understanding ade‐ quately. I can do it/ make use of my knowledge/ understanding without support in normal circumstances. 4 This is something I can do/ know/ understand even in more difficult circumstances (e.g., under time constraints, with limited resources). 5 This is something I can do/ know/ understand very easily in all circum‐ stances. 0 I cannot answer this item. Table-8.1 Definitions of answer categories in our LAL survey (cf. North 2000, 206) - 3.3 Analysis The main research question we sought to answer was: How easy or difficult do Austrian pre-service teachers of English consider assessment-related AKUs to be? In order to scale the activities, we conducted a multi-facet Rasch analysis (Linacre 1989) using the computer program FACETS version 3.83.0 (Linacre 2019). Rasch models are probabilistic measurement models that can calibrate the relevant parameters of the assessment situation. While in the context of dichotomous scoring the basic 166 Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott Rasch model estimates the probability of a response as a function of candidate ability minus item difficulty, multi-facet Rasch analysis is an extended Rasch model which takes into account not just the impact of candidate ability and item difficulty but of any other variable, or facet, that can potentially influence the scores. Multifacet Rasch analysis allows us to compute difficulty estimates for each facet, place these estimates on a single common interval scale referred to as facets map, and calculate the probability of any candidate responding to any item for any category (Bond and Fox 2007). As such, this approach is eminently suitable for the purpose of generating an empirical difficulty continuum of assessment-related AKUs, which is more informative than simple rank orders based on average ratings for each item. Our analysis included three facets, namely students, items, and empirical dimensions of LAL. Each response in the survey was considered to be a function of the interaction between the pre-service teachers’ perceived ability, the difficulty of the assessment-related AKU, and the difficulty of the nine empirical LAL dimensions suggested by Kremmel and Harding (2020), with the removed items considered to be the tenth dimension. Among many other statistics, FACETS routinely provides parameter estimates for each element of a facet and standard errors indicating the confidence we can have in the estimates as well as fit statistics for quality control indicating how well the data fit the expectations of the measurement model. The first two FACETS analyses were run to clean the data by isolating par‐ ticipants who responded markedly differently from what the model expected. Students who failed to reach acceptable fit values between 0.5 and 1.5 were removed from the dataset (Bond and Fox 2007). While 11 students showed overfit, indicating that the observed ratings were closer to the expected ratings than the model predicted, 21 showed underfit, suggesting noise in the data or idiosyncratic response patterns. All misfitting participants were removed although overfit is usually considered to be less problematic than underfit (McNamara 1996). This process resulted in a final sample of n = 140. The cleaned dataset was subjected to another FACETS analysis. The purpose of this rerun was to obtain the final difficulty estimates. 4. Results and discussion The relationships between the elements of each facet are displayed visually in the facets map in Figure 8.1. The map shows, from left to right, the relative ability of the pre-service teachers (student), the relative difficulty of the AKUs (item), and the relative difficulty of the empirical dimensions (emp.dimension), measured in logit units. This representation facilitates a direct comparison of Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty 167 the elements: a candidate plotted at the same point along the scale as an item would have a 50% probability of succeeding with that item. In accordance with the research question, the following discussion focuses on the item facet. Figure-8.1 Facets map showing the relationships between the elements of each facet The 71 items are listed in the third column in Figure 8.1, with the most difficult one at the top and the easiest one at the bottom. The same information is given more precisely in the item measurement report in Appendix 1. As can be seen, item 39 (I can accommodate candidates with disabilities or other learning impairments) is the most difficult activity, with a measure of 1.79 logits, while 168 Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott item 17 (I can score closed-response questions, e.g., multiple choice questions) is the easiest one, with a measure of -1.56 logits. The items differed significantly with respect to perceived difficulty, as suggested by the high reliability (.97) and strata indices (7.65) as well as the significant chi-square statistic, X 2 (70, n = 140) = 2094.6, p < .00. The analysis reliably separated the items into approximately eight levels of difficulty. To answer the research question more fully, the item measurement report was examined qualitatively. Two aspects of the report are particularly interesting for the purposes of this chapter, namely clusters or patterns among the calibrations and the plausibility of the continuum. The types of activities clustering at certain points along the scale describe the nature of achievement at those points, thus potentially defining particular levels of difficulty or ability in an empirical way (McNamara 1996, 200). On closer inspection, several related items were found to cluster together. Firstly, all items about training others in assessment-related skills (items 11, 47, and 35) cluster, quite expectedly, at the upper end of the scale. This is hardly surprising given that these activities are, by their very nature, associated with teacher educators preparing others for their professional roles as teachers and testers rather than with participants pursuing a teaching career. Secondly, several items relating to assessment policy and local practice (items 52, 66, and 44) cluster in the top quartile of the calibrations. Thirdly, a number of technical skills relating to statistical and research methods (items 50, 4, 61, and 68) have remarkably similar difficulty measures at the upper end of the range. This finding is not unexpected either because language teachers are not primarily concerned with statistical analyses and, perhaps for this reason, assessment courses in Austrian teacher education programmes usually cover only the most basic statistics. The clusters at the upper end of the difficulty spectrum are not only intuitively plausible, but there is also an obvious parallel in Kremmel and Harding’s (2020, 111) study on LAL profiles for different stakeholder groups, where language teachers rated the required expertise in statistical and research methods as well as in assessment policy and local practices to be significantly lower vis-à-vis other dimensions. While the participating teachers judged their role as requiring a high level of knowledge or skill in most LAL dimensions, they thought that they needed to be only “moderately knowledgeable” in statistics and assessment policy. This finding is also in line with Vogt and Tsagari’s (2014, 383) observation that statistics for the purposes of language testing and assessment received little attention in teacher education programmes across Europe. These parallels suggest a relationship between the required level of expertise, the training received, and the perceived level of difficulty of certain assessment-related Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty 169 AKUs: Those AKUs which are less strongly associated with the day-to-day work of language teachers and which are therefore not extensively covered in teacher education programmes tend to be considered more difficult. The clusters observed at the lower end of the spectrum reinforce the idea that there is a link between needs, training, and difficulty. Several items which are strongly connected to the classroom context cluster together at the bottom of the scale. Firstly, items relating to formative assessment (items 37, 2, and 63) have strikingly similar difficulty measures. Secondly, some items relating to washback and test preparation (items 36 and 55) turned out to be calibrated close to one another at the easier end of the scale. Thirdly, all items representing personal beliefs and attitudes (items 53, 40, 48, and 60) cluster within 0.31 logits at the lower end of the scale. While these calibrations appear entirely plausible, another finding was rather unexpected: The two items relating to the use of proficiency frameworks (items 28 and 29) were calibrated at the very bottom of the scale. Although the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR, Council of Europe 2001) features prominently in Austrian teacher education programmes, the perceived easiness of these activities is somewhat surprising given how complex and multidimensional the question of linking assessments to the CEFR can be (see Council of Europe 2009). This finding may indicate that Austrian pre-service teachers of English are indeed well acquainted with the CEFR and how it can be applied in assessment contexts, but another, arguably more likely, explanation is that some results are skewed because preservice teachers lack the professional experience to fully understand what some of the AKUs actually entail. Another observation is notable: While many related items were found to cluster around similar difficulty measures, items connected to Kremmel and Harding’s (2020) empirical dimension of developing and administering language assessments are scattered across the entire difficulty range. To be able to see the distribution at a glance, all items belonging to this category are printed in bold type in Appendix 1, where the factors onto which the items loaded in Kremmel and Harding’s study are given in the third column. The widespread distribution of these items may have to do with the fact that the number of activities in this category is considerably higher compared to other categories. At the same time, the activities reflect an eclectic mix of roles and responsibilities, which, from a developmental perspective, calls for a more differentiated view of this dimension. There seem to be clear differences in difficulty between selecting assessment instruments, developing assessment instruments, and training others in assessment-related activities. 170 Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott In order to characterise the general progression from easier to more difficult activities, the logit scale was divided into bands and the salient features of each band were identified. In view of the calibrations and content clusters outlined above, there seem to be five distinct, roughly equal interval bands, as shown in Table-8.2. Level Salient features Instructional LAL • Special needs • Training others Technical LAL • Use of statistics and research methods • Assessment policy Generative LAL • Development and design • Assessment principles • Score use and interpretation Operational LAL • Assessment purpose, construct, and method • Selection of assessment materials • Pedagogically related routine activities • Personal beliefs and attitudes towards language assessment Emergent LAL • Isolated activities • Receptive knowledge Table-8.2 Salient features of LAL at five levels At the most basic level, termed emergent LAL, students master a few isolated competences, such as scoring closed-response questions and understanding the advantages and disadvantages of standardised testing. The next higher level, operational LAL, reflects classroom-based language assessment literacy characterised by three features. Firstly, students seem to be able to make essential choices in relation to the classic triad of language assessment: purpose, construct, and method. They can distinguish different language assessment purposes, decide on what aspects of language to assess, and select assessment instruments accordingly. The focus is on the appropriate selection of existing assessment materials as opposed to the development of new materials. Secondly, they can perform a number of pedagogically related routine activities which are crucial to day-to-day work in the classroom, such as evaluating learner achievement and progress; giving constructive feedback; making use of selfand peer-assessment; preparing learners for language assessments; and communi‐ cating assessment results to students, parents, and fellow teachers. And thirdly, students can draw on their personal beliefs and attitudes towards language assessment. The next level, generative LAL, reflects an emphasis on the devel‐ Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty 171 opment of language assessment instruments and procedures. Students operating at that level are able to design items and tasks on the basis of specifications, write good quality items, determine cut-scores, and pilot assessments before their administration. They can do so in a principled, reasoned, and informed way by considering key qualities such as validity and reliability. Another new emphasis at this level is score interpretation and score use. Students can use assessments for diagnostic and motivational purposes, to draw inferences about language ability, and to guide a number of professional decisions. The next higher level, analytical LAL, is characterised by an ability to use statistics and other research methods for language assessment purposes, for example, to analyse the difficulty and the quality of assessment tasks. Students also understand the social, political, and legal dimensions of language assessment both in their local contexts and beyond. Finally, the highest level, instructional LAL, allows students to move beyond the standard procedures in language assessment as enacted in the previous levels. They can take on the role of LAL educators, helping others to acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to be effective in language assessment as well as to accommodate candidates with special needs in non-standard situations. 5. Conclusion This chapter contributes to recent discussions of LAL by providing a calibrated list of assessment-related AKUs. Previous research has focused mainly on componential views of LAL with the aim of identifying key components of the relevant knowledge and skills for different stakeholder groups. Developmental views of LAL, however, remain rare and largely hypothetical; if anything, they provide theoretical accounts of how LAL increases from a more basic to a more advanced level. This chapter, in contrast, set out to generate an empirical continuum of assessment activities. Austrian pre-service teachers’ self-assessments on a range of AKU statements were scaled by means of multifacet Rasch measurement, which resulted in a list of calibrated assessment competences ordered according to perceived difficulty. The calibrations show a clear progression. In general terms, the difficulty increases along the following lines: isolated (receptive) assessment activities; fundamental choices in relation to assessment purpose, construct, and method; operational activities relevant to the language classroom; ability to use personal beliefs and attitudes to good effect; principled development of language assessments; score interpretation and score use; the use of statistics and other research methods; assessment 172 Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott policy; instructional activities; and catering to special needs in non-standard situations. Although the research presented here has gone some way towards enhancing our understanding of the vertical dimension of LAL, the approach taken has limitations. Methodologically, the research is purely quantitative in nature, with pre-service teachers’ perceptions of difficulty being calibrated mathematically onto a common scale. The approach thus lacks triangulation with qualitative procedures as a means of overcoming possible methodological biases. Further‐ more, the fact that the participants were limited to Austrian pre-service teachers of English makes the findings less generalisable to other contexts. In fact, as we believe that we could largely incentivise participation only in our own contexts, the results are most likely indicative of the situation at the universities of Vienna and Klagenfurt. Generalisations to Austria at large should be made with due caution. A major conceptual limitation lies in the fact that the vertical dimension is operationalised in terms of perceived difficulty. The calibrations are based on students’ perceptions of the difficulty of assessment-related AKUs, rather than on what students can actually do, and there seem to be at least four possible reasons why an activity was calibrated at a certain point: (1) The activity is inherently easy or difficult; (2) The activity was treated more or less extensively in the assessment course the student attended; (3) The activity is intrinsically tied to the work of language teachers or is more likely to be associated with other stakeholder groups; and/ or (4) The activity is beyond the horizons of pre-service teachers. For these reasons, although the research is developmental in orientation, the calibrations do not represent an invariable, developmentally determined trajectory describing the natural order in which these competences are acquired over time but may well, at least in part, reflect local teaching traditions. However, these limitations offer opportunities for further research: Future work could employ qualitative methods to determine how the participants interpret individual items and to generate deeper insights into the question of difficulty. To improve the representativeness of the results, future studies could seek to recruit a larger number of participants, possibly from different stakeholder groups, in a more systematic and balanced way. Another avenue for possible research is to conduct longitudinal studies on how assessment-related competences are acquired over time. Such research could strive to engage in-service teachers with a view to modelling the effect of experience and on-the-job training. In spite of its limitations, the study has potential implications for teacher education and LAL programmes. Specifying the vertical dimension of LAL allows educators to strengthen the connection between teaching and learning Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty 173 in their programmes. In line with contemporary constructivist approaches in teacher education, an ordered sequence of constructs can help instructors and programme designers to build systematically on students’ prior knowledge, identify possible bottlenecks to learning, and support growth in LAL at the right level. In practical terms, such progressions can provide a sound basis for instructional decisions such as defining outcomes, prioritising content, sequencing tasks, selecting materials, tracking gains, providing feedback, and certifying achievement. Given this variety of uses, we hope that further research will follow to enrich our understanding of the vertical dimension of LAL. References American Federation of Teachers. 1990. 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Vogt, Karin, and Dina Tsagari. 2014. “Assessment Literacy of Foreign Language Teachers: Findings of a European Study.” Language Assessment Quarterly 11 (4) 374-402. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 15434303.2014.960046. 176 Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott Appendix 1 Item measurement report (items listed in descending order of difficulty) Item ID Item Dimension* Measure (in logits) Model standard error Infit mean square 39 I can accommodate candidates with dis‐ abilities or other learning impairments. 1 1.79 0.12 1.73 57 I know how to interpret measurement error. - 1.62 0.12 1.02 11 I can train others about language assess‐ ment. 1 1.36 0.12 1.16 65 I can use assessments to evaluate language programmes. - 1.24 0.12 0.96 47 I can train others to write good quality items (questions) or tasks for language assessments. 1 1.18 0.12 1.25 52 I can determine if a language assessment aligns with a local system of accreditation (e.g., whether a language certificate from a foreign university conforms with the re‐ quirements at an Austrian university). 3 1.10 0.12 1.00 35 I can train others to use rating scales (rubrics) appropriately. 1 1.00 0.12 1.14 33 I understand the history of language assess‐ ment. - 0.98 0.12 1.25 70 I can develop portfolio-based assessments. - 0.67 0.11 1.04 66 I know how assessments can be used to enforce social policies (e.g., immigration, cit‐ izenship). 3 0.57 0.12 1.83 50 I can use statistics to analyse the difficulty of individual items (questions) or tasks. 5 0.56 0.11 1.17 4 I can use statistics to analyse the quality of individual items (questions) or tasks. 5 0.51 0.11 1.28 22 I can design scoring keys and rating scales (rubrics) for assessment tasks. 1 0.49 0.11 1.10 Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty 177 44 I know the relevant legal regulations for assessment in Austria. 3 0.41 0.11 1.34 45 I know how pass-fail marks are set. - 0.41 0.11 1.08 61 I can use techniques other than statistics (e.g., questionnaires, interviews, analysis of language) to get information about the quality of a language assessment. 5 0.36 0.12 1.54 10 I can pilot/ try out assessments before their administration. 1 0.34 0.11 1.40 23 I can apply the concept of validity (how well an assessment measures what it claims to measure). 6 0.34 0.11 0.80 68 I can use statistics to analyse overall scores on a particular assessment. 5 0.31 0.11 1.44 41 I can score open-ended questions (e.g., short answer questions). 9 0.28 0.12 0.74 56 I can use the specialist terminology related to language assessment. - 0.26 0.11 0.86 12 I can determine if the content of a language assessment is culturally appropriate. - 0.23 0.11 1.23 27 I can use assessments to motivate student learning. 2 0.21 0.11 0.81 14 I know how to identify assessment bias. 1 0.21 0.11 0.94 1 I can determine if the results from a language assessment are relevant to the local context. 3 0.20 0.12 1.18 26 I understand the philosophy behind the de‐ sign of a relevant language assessment. - 0.19 0.11 0.94 7 I know how social values can influence lan‐ guage assessment design and use. 7 0.19 0.11 1.33 43 I can use assessments to influence teaching and learning in the classroom. 8 0.09 0.12 0.55 42 I can determine if a language assessment aligns with a local educational system. 3 0.07 0.11 0.88 34 I can determine pass-fail marks or cutscores. 1 0.06 0.11 1.01 32 I can identify different stages of language proficiency. - 0.05 0.11 0.82 178 Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott 67 I know how assessments can influence the design of a language course or curriculum. 8 0.04 0.11 0.94 20 I know how language skills develop (e.g., reading, listening, writing, speaking). 7 0.04 0.11 0.82 30 I can use assessments to guide learning or teaching goals. 2 0.04 0.12 0.51 46 I can recognize when an assessment is being used inappropriately. - 0.00 0.11 0.72 69 I can find information to help in interpreting test results. - 0.00 0.11 0.74 5 I can interpret what a particular score says about an individual’s language ability. 6 -0.01 0.11 1.12 19 I can develop specifications (overall plans) for language assessments. 1 -0.04 0.11 0.94 18 I can apply the concept of reliability (how accurate or consistent an assessment is). 6 -0.09 0.11 0.65 51 I can use assessments to diagnose learners’ strengths and weaknesses. 2 -0.19 0.12 0.71 49 I can use specifications to develop items (questions) and tasks. - -0.19 0.12 0.65 21 I can use different forms of alternative as‐ sessments (e.g., portfolio assessment). - -0.19 0.11 1.16 71 I can write good quality items (ques‐ tions) or tasks for language assessments. 1 -0.23 0.11 0.63 8 I can consider the impact language assess‐ ments can have on society. - -0.23 0.12 1.52 60 I understand how my own beliefs/ attitudes may conflict with those of other groups involved in assessment. 4 -0.23 0.12 0.64 9 I can use rating scales to score speaking or writing performances. 9 -0.26 0.12 1.07 24 I can use assessments to evaluate progress in language learning. - -0.26 0.11 0.64 25 I understand the structure of language. 7 -0.28 0.12 1.04 48 I understand how my own knowledge of language assessment might be further devel‐ oped. 4 -0.32 0.12 0.80 Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty 179 58 I can communicate assessment results and decisions to fellow teachers. - -0.34 0.12 0.71 31 I can communicate assessment results and decisions to students or parents. - -0.36 0.12 1.05 55 I can prepare learners to take language as‐ sessments. 8 -0.36 0.12 0.75 64 I can use assessments to evaluate achieve‐ ment in language learning. 6 -0.37 0.12 0.57 40 I can express my own beliefs/ attitudes to‐ wards language assessment. 4 -0.38 0.12 1.13 15 I understand the assessment traditions in my local context. 3 -0.40 0.11 1.02 36 I know how assessments can influence teaching and learning materials. 8 -0.48 0.12 0.93 13 I can select appropriate ready-made assess‐ ments. - -0.53 0.12 0.80 53 I understand how my own beliefs/ attitudes might influence my assessment practices. 4 -0.54 0.12 0.88 6 I can select appropriate rating scales (ru‐ brics). 1 -0.55 0.11 1.01 62 I know how language is used in society. 7 -0.56 0.12 0.90 16 I know how foreign/ second languages are learned. 7 -0.57 0.12 0.90 3 I can make decisions about what aspects of language to assess. 1 -0.64 0.12 0.99 63 I can make use of self-assessment. 2 -0.65 0.12 0.86 59 I can distinguish different types of purposes for language assessment purposes (e.g., pro‐ ficiency, achievement, diagnostic). - -0.68 0.12 1.05 2 I can make use of peer-assessment. 2 -0.68 0.12 1.71 54 I can select appropriate items (ques‐ tions) or tasks for a particular assess‐ ment purpose. 1 -0.73 0.12 0.54 37 I can give useful feedback on the basis of an assessment. 2 -0.76 0.12 0.75 29 I can align tests to proficiency frame‐ works (e.g., the Common European Framework of Reference [CEFR]). 1 -1.01 0.12 0.93 180 Armin Berger, Helen Heaney, and Guenther Sigott 38 I understand the advantages and disadvan‐ tages of standardized testing. - -1.22 0.12 0.84 28 I can apply relevant language proficiency frameworks (e.g., the Common European Framework of Reference [CEFR]). - -1.48 0.13 1.05 17 I can score closed-response questions (e.g., multiple choice questions). 9 -1.56 0.14 1.58 - - - - - - - M (n = 71) - 0.00 0.12 1.00 - SD - - 0.65 0.00 0.29 - Strata: 7.65 Reliability: 0.97 - - - Fixed (all same) chi-square: 2094.6 df: 70 Significance (probability): 0.00 * Empirical dimensions as suggested by Kremmel and Harding (2020): (1) developing and administering language assessments (DALA); (2) assessment in language pedagogy (ALP); (3) assessment policy and local practices (APLP); (4) personal beliefs and attitudes (PBA); (5) statistical and research methods (SRM); (6) assessment principles and inter‐ pretation (API); (7) language structure, use, and development (LSUD); (8) washback and preparation (WP); (9) scoring and rating (SR). Items that were removed in Kremmel and Harding’s (2020) factor analysis are indicated by a minus sign. - Dimensions of Language Assessment Literacy and Their Difficulty 181 Implementing a Strategy Instruction Framework Challenges of Classroom-Based Research at the Elementary Level Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White 1. Introduction Despite an overall agreement that Strategy Instruction (SI) facilitates the process of language learning (Gu 2019), research with young language learners (YLLs) is scarce (Plonsky 2019; Ruiz de Zarobe and Zenotz 2018). In addition, SI research is traditionally “more concerned with outcomes than with the practicalities of implementing LLSI [Language Learning Strategy Instruction] in the classroom …” (Gu 2019, 33). To our knowledge, no research has examined the insights and practices of experienced teachers of YLLs regarding the practicalities of implementing SI. Without practitioners’ insights concerning the process of implementing SI with YLLs, research cannot effectively inform and aim to im‐ prove everyday classroom practice. In this chapter, we address these issues and examine experienced teachers’ behaviour in implementing a reading strategy instruction framework. We report two studies which attempt to implement a bottom-up, grounded SI framework (SIF), based on four years of research with learners aged 11-12 in different language learning contexts, involving classroom-based SI. The first study, situated in Quebec, Canada, where 80% of the population is Francophone and students study English as a Second Language (ESL), involved three experienced teachers and aimed to a) assess the use of the SIF and supporting tools and b) identify challenges in classroom-based research related to teacher practices in implementing the SIF. Results showed that teachers seemed to struggle with the implementation of the steps of the SIF that were novel to their pedagogical practice, namely, independent practice and post-task reflective feedback. They embraced the importance of these steps but did not appropriate their expectations. To address the limited application of independent practice and post-task reflective feedback found in the Quebec study, a second study was implemented in a different ESL context, namely a Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) environment in Spain, where students learn 40% of the curriculum in English. This second study aimed to ensure a higher level of compliance with each step of the SIF by gamifying the process. The gamified SIF included game elements such as framing the tasks as challenges, providing a visual representation of progression, and collecting goods (badges and rings). This study is innovative because, in addition to examining the pedagogical practices of experienced ESL teachers at the elementary level, it incorporates affordances of gamification with SI, which, to our knowledge, has never been researched before. We begin by presenting an overview of the literature on SI with YLLs, highlighting the paucity of research at this level, and the potential benefits of SI. This is followed by the process of developing the SIF, and its application in two language learning classrooms, with the results of the first study feeding the implementation of the second. We then discuss the affordances of gamification in general, experiences in gamification in education, and the concept of Gamified Strategy Instruction as it was implemented. Findings are shared and discussed, leading to future avenues of research. 2. Purpose of strategy instruction - 2.1 Strategy instruction in elementary language learning classrooms “It’s OK when the teacher shows us new strategies but when I am on my own, I do not know which ones to use.” (Grenfell and Harris 2017, 153) This quote from a student interview following a SI intervention underscores the importance of helping students transfer the strategies taught to new tasks and contexts that would lead to the development of learner autonomy (Gu 2019). Cohen (1998) posits that the main aim of SI is to empower students to take control of the learning process. However, traditionally, SI in language learning classrooms has focused on teaching strategies with a view to having students perform a cognitive task (Gu 2019). Helping students develop the three stages of self-regulation, namely forethought, performance, and self-reflection (Schunk and Zimmerman 2012), especially in the case of YLLs, involves providing them with explicit information about the nature, use, and transfer of a given strategy (Oxford 2017). Explicit SI has long-term effects on skills such as reading comprehension (Ruiz de Zarobe and Zenotz 2018). It also helps students develop 184 Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White flexibility in using strategies, more independence, and less reliance on teachers (Macaro and Erler 2008). However, Plonsky (2019) expressed reservations in his meta-analysis of SI with pre-adolescents due to the scarcity of research with this population. In an attempt to find reasons for the benefits of SI identified in their study, Macaro and Erler (2008, 114) hypothesized that the students’ skillful orchestration of strategy use “was a result of post-task feedback, which fed their metacognition.” The role of post-task reflection and feedback in SI has also been highlighted by Gunning and Turner (2018, 281), who posit that “[i]n order for learners to progress from guided practice of strategies to autonomous use, they need to reflect on their strategy use and to receive specific, descriptive feedback that will help them understand whether their strategy use was effective in matching their performance to the expected outcomes.” Whole class oral reflection and strategy sharing after each step of SI helps to make strategies accessible to YLLs as they hear their peers describe how the strategies help them, which broadens their repertoire of strategies (Gunning and Oxford 2014). Implementing transferrable SI requires gradually removing the initial support needed for YLLs to develop strategy awareness, relinquishing teacher-centred approaches and modifying engrained teaching habits. Due to teachers’ tendency to teach the way they were taught (Borg 2003), the required modification of in‐ grained teaching habits leading to effective implementation requires principled SI, built from evidence-based research conducted in the classroom, with the collaboration of the teacher. The following studies report on the development and implementation of a framework for SI with YLLs that specifically targets the challenges uncovered by previous investigations. - 2.2 Development of a framework for strategy instruction with young language learners To conduct evidence-based research on the effectiveness of teaching learning strategies to YLLs, researchers need to provide teachers with a reliable, practical SI framework that is applicable across contexts and to find ways to encourage teacher compliance and student engagement with the process of implementing the steps of the SI framework. In the process of developing such an implementa‐ tion framework, teacher input through authentic classroom practice is essential. To build such a framework, L2 reading strategies (predicting, inferencing, activating prior knowledge, skimming, and scanning) were implemented in two exploratory classroom-based L1-L2 reading strategy research projects over two years. Two teachers worked collaboratively with French L1 and English L2 grade six (11-12-year-olds) in Intensive English classrooms in Quebec, Canada Implementing a Strategy Instruction Framework 185 (Gunning, White, and Busque 2016; 2019). In this context, grade six students study ESL as a school subject intensively (about 400 hours) and the rest of their academic programme intensively in French (e.g., French language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, about 400 hours). In Year 1 we conducted an observation study to explore the feasibility and benefits of teacher collaboration in teaching strategies. The data showed inconsistencies in their SI approach. In Year 2, the follow-up study aimed to help the teachers teach strategies collaboratively and consistently. The data revealed students’ growing awareness of reading strategies and underscored the potential benefits of consistency of instruction on strategy choice and autonomous use. The results from these two exploratory classroom-based L1-L2 reading strategy research projects led to the development of an SIF, and tools for implementing the SIF in a consistent way in elementary schools across Quebec (Gunning, White, and Busque 2019). The design of the SIF and the tools to aid its implementation enabled us to pilot it in other elementary school contexts in Quebec. Considering that elementary school learners in Quebec experience learning ESL from different teachers from year to year, we wanted to find out if the implementation of each phase of the SIF, using the planning and tools, would help teachers conduct SI in a consistent way. We therefore carried out the Quebec Study, reported below. 3. The Quebec study: Methodology - 3.1 Context and participants This research project was conducted in two elementary schools in linguistically Francophone areas in Quebec, Canada, where students study ESL as a separate school subject for 1-3 hours per week. In School 1, two bilingual speakers of French and English taught the same grade six students (age 11-12) collabora‐ tively, one teaching French L1 and one teaching English L2. In this study, the L2 teacher provided three hours of ESL instruction, whereas the French L1 teacher, the homeroom teacher, was responsible for French language arts and the other core subjects. The ESL teacher had participated in a previous research project, and both were eager to collaborate in the research project reported here. In School 2, the ESL teacher taught one intact class of grade six students for 9 hours per week in an Intensive English program. Forty percent of the students’ instruction was devoted to ESL and the other 60% to the other school subjects in French L1. In both schools, the only condition for student participation in the study was written parental authorisation. 186 Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White 1 Originally referred to as a planning framework for conducting LLSI with YLLs (Gun‐ ning, White, and Busque 2019). 3.2 SIF tools and teacher training The SIF 1 (Gunning, White, and Busque 2019) intervention included the following steps, corresponding tools, and training process: a) Steps: 1. Awareness-raising - 2. Explanation and modelling - 3. Practice - - 3a. Guided practice - - 3b. Independent practice - - 3c. Progression and variation in practice activities - 4. Reflection - 5. Autonomous use - 6. L1/ L2 transfer of strategies - - - - b) Tools: - 1. PowerPoint presentation and video recordings of teachers carrying out each step of the SIF. - 2. Coding scheme for data analysis by the researcher of the videorecorded classroom observations identifying teacher and student be‐ haviours corresponding to each step of the SIF. - 3. A teacher planning template containing the steps of the SIF, a brief description of each step, and a space for the teacher to write the cor‐ responding pedagogical activity. The teachers were given an electronic copy of this template. - 4. An illustrated student strategy table (Figure 9.1) designed for YLLs, which allows teachers, students, and researchers to deconstruct and identify behaviours related to each strategy, thereby operationalizing the meaning of the strategy, and facilitating the explanation of stra‐ tegic behaviours related to the strategy being presented. Hard copies as well as digital copies were provided. Implementing a Strategy Instruction Framework 187 Illustrations Strategies PREDICTING SKIMMING Definition To make predictions and to readjust them as you read. Glance through a text quickly to get a general impression of its content and focus on the general meaning of the text. Examples of actions A) By reading the title and subtitles from the text, what can I predict? B) By looking at the illustrations from the text, what can I predict? C) I make connections with the topics/ themes introduced in the title, subtitles, and pictures and my prior knowledge in order to make predictions on the story. A) I read the title and subtitles to get the general meaning of the topics and themes from the text. B) I look at the illustrations to help me identify the general meaning of the text. C) I skim through the text quickly to get the general meaning of it. Figure 9.1 Excerpt from illustrated student strategy table © Reproduced with authorization of Gunning, White, and Busque (2019). c) Training process: The training lasted one hour. The participating teachers indicated on a background questionnaire that they had had previous in-service and/ or preservice training in conducting SI and that they felt confident about conducting SI with YLLs, so one hour was deemed adequate. 188 Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White 3.3 Data collection We used the following sources of evidence to address the complexities of classroom-based research on SI: a teacher background questionnaire regarding pre-service or in-service training in conducting SI and their experience teaching language learning strategies; observation and field notes; video-recordings of classroom proceedings and a teacher post-intervention interview; and the teacher documents used in the planning of SI. We visited each school once per month and video-recorded class proceedings. In the case of School 1, our visits were on days when both teachers taught the same students consecutively for one hour each, and we video-recorded both lessons. In both schools, the class period consisted of each teacher implementing reading lessons, including the explicit teaching of reading strategies. Each teacher gave us her completed lesson plan, using our planning template, which we later used in the data analysis for comparisons with the video-recordings of their actual lessons. During our school visits, we held informal discussions with the teachers about their lessons, answered questions, and discussed issues that might have arisen. At the end of the project, we interviewed the teachers about the SI experience and video-recorded the interviews. - 3.4 Data analysis procedures The research aims guided the data analysis and resulted in operationalized research topics (see Table 9.1). Research topics Operationalization Use of the SIF, planning and teaching resources. - • Evidence from data of teacher planning and imple‐ mentation of phases of the SIF. • Comparisons between teacher planning and actual teaching. Challenges related to teacher practices in applying the steps of the SIF • Evidence of discrepancies between teacher plan‐ ning templates and the actual teaching observed in the video-recordings or class observations • Possible explanations based on self-reported data. Table 9.1 Research topics and operationalization Implementing a Strategy Instruction Framework 189 3.4.1 Evidence related to the use of the SIF, planning, and teaching resources A qualitative approach was used to analyze the data sources related to this topic, as described below. Video data of class proceedings were analyzed using HyperResearch, a computer-assisted data analysis software, with segments tagged and coded according to the operationalization described in Table 9.1, the descriptions of the steps of the SIF on the teacher planning template and the corresponding video recordings of other teachers executing each one, previously described. These data were used to identify the steps of the SIF that the teachers in the study completed in the video-recorded lessons. These were subsequently triangulated with the completed teacher SI planning templates and the field notes from the observation. The video data contributed to documenting the teachers’ use of the students’ strategy table to present and explain the strategies. For example, the teachers projected the students’ strategy table on the interactive whiteboard and pointed to the illustration and the corresponding behaviours as they explained a strategy. 3.4.2 Evidence of issues related to teacher practices in applying SIF and using the resources Discrepancies uncovered between the SI teacher planning and their actual teaching were noted and possible explanations sought from the data. Issues were also discussed with the teachers during the teacher interviews. - 3.5 Findings and conclusions of the Quebec study Regarding the first research topic, the data allowed us to assess the use of the SIF and corresponding planning and teaching resources in a classroom context. All three teachers used the teacher planning template highlighting the steps of the SIF to plan their lessons. The pair of L1/ L2 teachers from School 1 used the electronic version of the planning template and reported this to be useful for collaborative planning of SI. In School 1, for progression in strategy practice, iterations of SI occurred when one of the teachers (L1 or L2) introduced the strategy, then the other reviewed the same strategy and had the students practise it in the other language, using different activities. The video data showed that they projected the student strategy table in their respective language of instruction on the interactive whiteboard and used it to explain behaviours related to each strategy to the students. In School 2, for progression in strategy practice, the teacher reviewed the strategies from one class period to the next and conducted iterations of strategy practice. Across the board, 190 Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White there was consistency in the explanations of the strategies. All three teachers, from School 1 and School 2, gave the students strategy explanations congruent with the strategy table and provided each one with this resource, which they consulted when they practised that strategy. Our second research topic involved identifying issues related to teacher practices in applying the SIF and using the tools. The data showed that, whereas all three teacher participants used our planning template to plan all the steps of the SIF, the video recordings of class proceedings and the field notes from the observations revealed that, in practice, they only partially completed these steps. Tracking data over time demonstrated that they typically did the teacher directed steps and stopped after the guided practice step. Independent practice was difficult to observe as the teachers intervened frequently during this step, and they often did not do the reflective feedback step that they had planned. Whenever reflection was done, this consisted mainly of having the students complete a written self-evaluation sheet, and there was no strategy sharing and feedback. During our informal interactions with the teachers, they acknowledged the importance of removing the teacher-directed scaffolding during independent practice and implementing the reflection and feedback, but they cited a lack of time as an impediment. The analysis of the implementation of the SIF highlighted key issues linked to the practicality of its requirements. First, an important requirement of SI is reflective feedback, which allows students to compare their performance with expected criteria (Purpura 2016) and contributes to their independent use of strategies (Macaro and Erler 2008). Teachers tended to omit this step. Second, the video data sometimes showed weak engagement on the part of some students. Since strategy development and its direct benefits are hard to quantify and represent visually, it is difficult for teachers to provide observable evidence of students’ progression (Gunning and Oxford 2014), which might translate into weaker commitment. And third, the iterations of the processes in SI involve an investment in time and effort, which teachers and students generally perceive as competing with time constraints and other instructional and educational demands (Chamot 2018; Griffiths 2013; Gunning 2011). The weaker commitment to these steps of the SIF, especially reflective feedback, the low engagement on the part of some students, and the required investment of effort and time present important challenges in the practical implementation of SI with YLLs. We hypothesised that if teachers were pre‐ sented with an implementation method that a) increases engagement and the perceived worthiness of the time investment and b) provides support for putting reflective feedback at the centre of the process, SI might be easier to apply in Implementing a Strategy Instruction Framework 191 ESL classrooms. In search of such an implementation method, we explored the affordances of gamifying the SIF and designed a Gamified Strategy Instruction approach, which we carried out in a Spanish context in Study 2. 4. Interface between the SIF and gamified strategy instruction Early explorations of “intrinsically motivating” software and “enjoyable user interfaces” (Malone 1981) have been followed up with theorizations about the “gameful experience” (Huotari and Hamari 2017) that generates positive and motivating engagement (Majuri, Koivisto, and Hamari 2018). A growing tra‐ dition of research, labelled as gamification, has explored why videogames are enjoyable and engaging and how these effects can be recreated outside the-videogaming world. Gamification has shown positive results in education (Dichev and Dicheva 2017) as an approach to motivate and engage students (Zichermann and Cun‐ ningham 2011). However, the efficacy of gamification in improving learning is still insufficiently explored (Hanus and Fox 2015) and needs further exploration to unpack the link between different game elements in the learning process ( Jagušt, Botički, and So 2018). Despite the lack of robust research conclusions to support the incorporation of game elements into learning processes, the positive trends observed so far (Bai, Hew, and Huang 2020) motivate the attempt to gamify-the SIF. Recent research efforts in gamification favour “bundles” of game elements that can be tested against each other in terms of correlation with engagement gains (Berger and Jung 2021). Following this path, the bundle of game elements used in piloting the gamified SIF were the following: game framing, visual representation of progression, immediate performance-contingent feedback, and the collection of goods. • Game framing suggests that framing an activity as a game leads to in‐ creased intrinsic motivation (Lieberoth 2015). Adding game framing to the SIF can hence increase the students’ engagement throughout the iterations needed for the strategies to become internalized.-- • Visual representation of progression towards a goal seems to motivate actions that lead to completion ( Jahfari and Theeuwes 2017; Wulf and Lewthwaite 2016) and is widely used on the Internet in the form of progression bars or shape completion (Werbach and Hunter 2020). Adding a visual represen‐ tation of the progression throughout the stages of the SIF, as well as the repetitions of the process, can lead to a sense of completion and mastery over the process.- 192 Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White • Immediate performance-contingent feedback makes players feel incompe‐ tent but also drives them to keep trying to overcome that sense of incompetence (Brühlmann 2016). Low-stakes performance-related imme‐ diate feedback, related to the “optimal” challenge embedded in their de‐ sign (Abuhamdeh and Csikszentmihalyi 2012) generates a true sense of competence (Ryan and Deci 2000). Adding immediate performance-contin‐ gent feedback to the SIF can give students and teachers timely information about the students’ progression in their strategy development and produce a positive feeling of overcoming the optimal challenges that the process entails.- • Collecting goods: Even though the acquisitiveness of objects is part of human psychology, the theoretical exploration of this multifaceted phenomenon is limited. Regardless of the psychological underpinning of this human drive, videogames have traditionally capitalized on it, motivating the pro‐ gression of the player through the game while accumulating goods and creating metaphors to attach value to them (Zichermann and Cunningham 2011). Accumulating badges as teachers and students complete the stages in the SIF offers a visual representation of their progression, as well as a reward system that triggers learners’ desire to act and offers a moderate challenge that helps to improve the level of mastery (Richter, Raban, and Rafaeli 2015). In addition, collecting a ring to place around each badge when providing examples of strategy use during the reflection stage of the SIF will make this final stage more salient and will motivate stronger students to model strategy use to their classmates. To explore the premise that GSI can motivate teachers and students to comply with the steps of the SIF during reading tasks, the researchers gathered infor‐ mation about the procedures and tools teachers found most useful, and the level of engagement of the students throughout the process. To do this, we conducted a pilot study in a different context, an ESL elementary classroom in Spain. 5. The Spain pilot study: Methodology - 5.1 Context and participants This pilot study was conducted in a public school in Palencia, Spain, where a bilingual (English-Spanish) CLIL project has been in place since 1998. Based on the conclusions of the Quebec study, and to assess the use of the instruments and the procedures that will inform a multi-context longitudinal research project, we identified two intact ESL classes of communicatively confident grade six Implementing a Strategy Instruction Framework 193 students who had been exposed to the CLIL curriculum since pre-school levels. Each group had a team of teachers implementing the curriculum, including two English teachers, who shared teaching History, Natural and Social Sciences, English Language Arts, and Art and Crafts across both groups. Most of the time both English teachers were together in the classroom, one leading class proceedings, while the other assisted with classroom management, handling the rewards, and the video recording. They collaborated with the researchers in the design of the reading activities and-their-implementation. - 5.2 Data collection-tools- Together with the SIF, some-data collection-tools were piloted as well: -- 1. Strategy Questionnaire-(SQ)- 2. Self-confidence questions on paper with reading comprehension questions 3. Reading comprehension questions: Lessons 1, 2, 3, and 4- 4. Audio recorded interviews with the students-- 5. Video recordings: Lessons 1, 2, 3, and 4 6. Post-session discussions with-teachers-- The self-confidence questions, one at the beginning (“How do you feel about answering these questions today? ”) and one at the end (“How did you feel about answering these questions today? ”) aimed at assessing the students’ assurance level in each session. Emerging patterns were further explored through struc‐ tured and semi-structured interviews with learners and teacher. The reading comprehension questions consisted of five multiple-choice questions aimed at rating the level of comprehension of the text. The tool, Plickers (n.d.), was used with both groups to ensure that the amount and type of reading comprehension feedback was similar across the groups. The collection of goods (pieces of badges) after completing the stage was unique to the GSI group. A popular character from children’s literature, Geronimo Stilton, was the narrative to game-frame the GSI. The GSI group had to complete three pieces of a badge with the face of a character from the Geronimo Stilton series. Each of the three pieces of the badge corresponded to the first three steps in the SIF. Afterwards, the GSI group engaged in the reflection and strategy sharing stage, at which point the learners contributed to the discussion with examples of strategy use during the reading. At this point the GSI group received performancecontingent immediate feedback in the form of rings to place around their completed badges. The NGSI group spent an equivalent amount of time at the end of the session writing an answer to an open-ended question related 194 Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White to the passage. The sessions were video-recorded to assess compliance with the-procedures-of the SIF-and the level of engagement of the students. - 5.3-Procedures- This piloting experience was used to explore whether GSI increased compliance with the steps of the SIF during reading comprehension activities, which pro‐ cedures and tools teachers found most useful when implementing GSI, and the level of engagement of the students throughout the process. An experimental Gamified Strategy Instruction group (GSI group), and a comparison Non- Gamified Strategy Instruction group (NGSI group) were randomly assigned.- The four intervention sessions, implemented with both groups, consisted of-40-minute instructional blocks that were-divided according to Table 9.2. - GSI piloting SQ GSI group NGSI group Introductory-questions (paper) (5 min.) SI: Raising awareness Guided practice (10 min.) Writing activity (10 min.) Reading passage (10 min.) Answer questions (paper) (5 min.) Answer/ Check answers-(Plickers) (5 min.) SI: Reflection and strategy sharing (5 min.) Writing activity (5-min.) Table 9.2 GSI piloting sessions Before the GSI intervention, both groups answered a Strategy Question‐ naire adapted from The Children’s SILL (Gunning 1997), and translated into Spanish, to convey a baseline of their strategy awareness and use. At the beginning of each session, both groups of students were asked general ques‐ tions related to the topic of the reading in order to activate their prior knowledge and mentally engage with the reading content. After this, the GSI group started the SIF stage of raising awareness, followed by guided practice. Meanwhile Implementing a Strategy Instruction Framework 195 the NGSI group completed a writing activity related to the reading topic. Afterwards, both groups read the passage,-answered comprehension questions on paper, and reviewed their answers immediately using Plickers, a rapidresponse application that the teachers used to collect multiple-choice responses from students. Handouts with hand-written answers to the multiple-choice questions were collected to check the reliability of Plickers. The GSI group engaged in the reflection-stage while the NGSI groups had a follow-up writing activity with an open-ended short question related to the reading. - 5.4-Findings and discussion- The piloting of the tools, the recordings of classroom procedures, and the in‐ terviews with the students and the teachers yielded positive results in terms of compliance with the SIF and levels of engagement with the process. The first stage of the GSI, awareness raising, was carried out smoothly in all the sessions. Students answered the questions posed and seemed to be able to follow the teacher’s explanations. Getting the first part of the badge was received with enthusiasm. After the second session, some of the students had decorated the badge panel at home, showing some emotional attachment to the process. The next stage, explanation and modelling, was also received with eagerness. Many students raised their hands to volunteer answers and seemed to be listening carefully as the teacher modelled how to implement the strategy while reading the beginning of the text. The next stage, practice, first guided and then independent practice, was carried out without difficulty. Students did not seem to struggle with understanding the questions, nor did they with the process of repeating their answers using Plickers. A comparison between the answers provided on paper and using Plickers showed a 95-99% match between the two, suggesting that in future research Plickers could be used as the sole way of obtaining the data for reading comprehension questions. In line with previous research (Macaro and Erler 2008), the results of the Spain pilot study also show that post-task reflection and feedback help learners to rely less on the teacher as they develop more independence and flexibility in their strategy use. This step was typically omitted by teachers in the Quebec study, which is why one of the key aspects of GSI was to provide more saliency and space for the reflection stage of the SIF. Due to the visualization of the progression towards the completion of the badge, both students and teachers were motivated to arrive at this part of the framework and lingered there long enough to obtain extra rings, which entailed more mental engagement in providing examples of strategy use. This final stage of the SIF, where the teacher elicited examples of strategy use, yielded interesting conclusions. During the 196 Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White first session, the teacher felt less confident, uncertain of how to invite contribu‐ tions from the students. However, when some of the higher achieving students provided examples and their contributions were rewarded with badge rings, other students followed.- In addition, the teacher felt uneasy when students provided an example of strategy use that was not pertinent. For example, one student, when working on inferencing, said that he was able to understand the meaning of the word by remembering it from another day. The teacher wanted to reward the behaviour, as it demonstrated some strategy use. She decided to give positive verbal feedback but stated that it was not an example of the strategy at work in that session. The use of a tangible reward, the badge ring, allowed the teacher to maintain a positive working environment by verbally encour‐ aging the volunteering of answers, while still focusing on the specific strategy by providing a badge ring only to those offering pertinent examples. Towards the end of the four sessions, the steps of the framework were clearly marked and followed in the class procedures. The students seemed to be eager to participate, even some who, according to the teacher, were usually more hesitant to volunteer answers in whole-class discussions. The interplay of the four game elements introduced in GSI yielded positive results. Using the narrative surrounding the badges (Geronimo Stilton) to frame the procedures as a game created an environment that both students and teachers seemed to enjoy. The badge panel, with four badges to complete, three pieces per badge, and the possibility of gathering extra rings around the badges, created a visual representation of progression and seemed to be the most celebrated part of the process. Some students proudly showed their parents the badges as the they were accumulating them. Since every learner was able to complete each badge on every session by following the stages of the process, it did not create interpersonal competition, but simply stimulated them as a group to go through the steps. We believe this was a motivating factor for underachieving students as they were able to complete their badges like everyone else in the GSI group. On the other hand, obtaining rings, which was contingent on providing pertinent examples of strategy use, created some competition that fueled the contributions of some high-achieving students, creating a reinforcement for them as well as opportunities for modelling that the rest of the students in the group benefitted from. Implementing a Strategy Instruction Framework 197 6. Conclusion Practitioners’ input is essential in informing and improving instructional be‐ haviours in implementing SI, but classroom-based SI research with YLLs is scarce. We propose that, given the everyday demands of teaching and the reality that elementary school children typically learn ESL from different teachers every year, teachers need a practical framework and resources to conduct SI with YLLs across contexts in a consistent way. To this end, we reported two studies informing on the practicality of the implementation of a bottom-up SIF based on research conducted in grade six ESL classrooms in different contexts. The first study revealed that teachers used the framework and tools to teach strategies in a consistent way, but they typically applied only the teachercentred steps, which helped learners develop strategy awareness. They omitted the steps that have been shown in previous research to foster independent use of strategies and learner autonomy; namely independent practice and reflection including strategy sharing and feedback. Time constraints were often cited as a reason for omitting these steps. Many iterations of SI are necessary, but low engagement was noted on the part of some students. To address these issues, we hypothesized that some affordances of gamification namely framing the tasks as a game, visually representing competence in a progression chart, providing immediate feedback based on performance, and having learners collect goods as they progress could encourage teachers to complete all the steps of SIF and, simultaneously, increase student engagement. For this reason, we gamified the SIF. Piloting of the GSI in the second study, in two Spanish CLIL grade six class‐ rooms, revealed that teachers completed all the steps of the SIF, and students were engaged throughout the process. The visualization of progress through rewards students collected after each step helped maintain their interest. The quality of the reflection and strategy sharing, and the time spent on this step, was note-worthy, as students were engaged and eager to collect related rewards. The high-achieving students demonstrated their progress by sharing examples of their strategy use, after which they received positive feedback and reinforce‐ ment, thereby prompting other, lower-achieving, students to do likewise. This step, which previous studies have shown to contribute to learner autonomy, took on particular importance as students and teachers were mentally engaged; this responds to teachers’ concern that SI takes time away from content teaching. The study showed, however, that teachers need mentoring in conducting this step of the framework. 198 Pamela Gunning, Teresa Hernández-González, and Joanna White This chapter begins to fill the gap in the literature of SI with YLLs, as it provides evidence-based information about methods and resources that contribute to teaching strategies in a way that promotes learner autonomy. 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Planning vs. moments of discomfort in education settings “Life is what happens to you while you’re busy making other plans.” John Lennon’s astute observation may not only be about the contingencies of making plans for the future in general. They may also be applied to the uncertainties shaping even the most meticulously planned teaching and learning scenarios. A pre-planned lesson or lesson sequence may be disrupted, stalled, and even turned into disastrous chaos by unplanned student reactions. A single moment or a series of moments may function like a spanner in the works of a finetuned lesson sequence and demand a quick response by the teacher, calling for a re-arrangement of the lesson’s goals, design, and progress. However, such moment(s) of disturbance, irritation, embarrassment, awkwardness, or offense may also be quickly glazed over as a fleeting, momentous glitch. Or it (or they) may even pass unnoticed by the teacher and/ or by the students or some students. As a first step towards a more systematic approach to these moments of discomfort in teaching and learning, as I would like to call them for now, the following may be noted: discomfort may be triggered wittingly or unwittingly, by teachers and/ or students. It may be caused by the materials or texts used in class, and it may or may not interfere with a lesson’s usual or pre-planned design and the lesson in progress. Before approaching the issue of discomfort in a more theoretical and concep‐ tual manner as “perturbation” in the sense of a hermeneutics a lá Gadamer (1960) or Delanoy (2002) and then describe it as a deliberately implemented teaching technique, I would like to present four actual illustrative occurrences from my university seminars on teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL). All seminars are for future teachers of English as a foreign language and the incidents aptly demonstrate the possible scope of discomfort in teachinglearning scenarios. I will describe and briefly analyse them accordingly to provide examples for the ensuing task of placing the issue within the framework of hermeneutical approaches to understanding and creating meaning. 2. Four exemplary moments of discomfort in TEFL classes - 2.1 A moment of discomfort, unnoticed by some and not referred to in class Nobody raised an eyebrow, at least not perceptibly. In the first online session of a bi-national seminar on “Teaching the Climate Crisis” in the spring of 2021, students were asked to introduce themselves to the other students and the two instructors from Georgia College, USA, and Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena. As an ice-breaker and a first introduction, they were invited to either mention “something beneficial or something detrimental they did to the environment today” (or just say something about themselves, something “less personal”). In‐ terestingly, most of the sixteen participating German students stated something positive, like having eaten a vegan meal or using their bicycle for doing their daily chores. It was one American student who confided to the group that she had felt a bit under the weather this morning and, to cheer up, had decided to go for an hour’s drive in her car. With bated breath, I observed the other, specifically the German students’ reaction on the tiny tiles on the screen. Yet, no immediate verbal or non-verbal response was perceivable. However, in person to person online discussions with participants of the course some days later, two German students, unsolicited, explained the irritation this “confession” to an ecologically doubtful pastime had caused to them. We discussed practices of American students driving to university for one and a half hour to classes and one and a half hour back to their home somewhere in suburbia (as I had noticed during an excursion to Atlanta, Georgia). I mentioned once popular films about teenage practices of “cruising,” such as the iconic 1973 coming-of-age movie American Graffiti. Even in a seminar aimed at raising ecological awareness, any critical remarks from the German side, as the students decided, would have been deemed interculturally insensitive. The moment of discomfort thus became a starting point for interpersonal reflections between students and teacher about intercultural differences. Although it was not dealt with during the session, the two students explained that this moment had triggered very decisive, long-term thought-processes about teaching and learning, intercultural communication, and ecological thinking. 206 Laurenz Volkmann 2.2 An unnoticed moment of discomfort for the students, an irritated teacher, and the issue of whether to discuss this In an online seminar on “Global Issues” the student participants decided to feature two documentary films on important sub-issues of the environment, environmental education, and environmental literacy. In November 2021, the first film discussed among the students, initiated by an expert student presen‐ tation, the Netflix documentary Seaspiracy, was seen as potentially problematic and manipulative because of its alarmist mode. Students showed an awareness of its persuasive and manipulative narrative and film techniques, simplistic message, and lack of alternative perspectives. The second film was introduced by the presenting student as “controversial,” promising lively discussions and fact-checking research on the side of the participants. It was the pro-nuclear documentary Pandora’s Promise by director Robert Stone (2013), which can still be viewed on YouTube. The presenting student described some of the activities students could engage in to work with the film: brainstorming activities about nuclear energy, working with an “argumentations map” (a sort of placement map, with different angles to it: statement of problem, what should be done about it, why something should be done, how changes should be brought about). As a post-viewing activity, the student recommended a pro-con nuclear power debate based on the film’s input. What the student had not noticed was the blatant pro-nuclear slant of the film, evoking ideas about a sort of conspiracy of the nuclear industry as working hand in glove with the coal or fossil fuel industry, the inefficiency of alternative renewables, the use of dubious testimonials pro nuclear-energy. The student also had not noticed the overall narrative trajectory of showing how former opponents of nuclear energy were, by force of better arguments, converted to activists of it as a safe and sustainable plus economically viable energy. Moreover, the main argumentative strategy of the film, that is to show all arguments against nuclear energy first, only to prove them vacuous, biased, and obsolete, went unnoticed by the student in charge of presenting a lesson sequence for the film. All other participants also thought that a pro and con debate could be based merely on the information provided in the documentary. To me as the instructor, this was a clear case of students falling into the fallacy trap of what documentary theorists have called the “social contract, an implicit, unspoken agreement between the text’s producer(s) and the discursive community to view a film as nonfiction” (Platinga 1997, 40). This contract proves to be so powerful and deceptive because it is also an emotional, sentimental contract, which persuades the viewers that what they see is reality, especially with regard to the suggestions of how technological problems can be solved. Crucially, the real cause of irritation to the instructor, the students’ Trigger Warnings, Safe Spaces, and Taboo Topics 207 “suspension of disbelief ” or willingness to take a documentary at face value, in plain English: their lack of critical media literacy, was also a major education dilemma here. Do I admonish my students to see a documentary as a piece of well-constructed version of reality? And how could this be done? I decided to re-watch some striking episodes of the documentary with the students online to point out the manipulative techniques used in it. We finally agreed that a pro and con debate would need extra material, for example, based on a sound fact-checking of the film’s claims regarding the safety and economic viability of nuclear energy. What irked me, the instructor, though, was the fact that such insights had to be taught top-down, deductively, and that there was no time in an online session to get into the details of this irritating film and the problematic assumption that it could serve as the sole basis of a pro and con discussion about nuclear energy. - 2.3 A moment of well-intended discomfort on the side of the teacher, negative reactions by the students In another online seminar on “Online Projects in EFL” part of the course was taught by a colleague from an Eastern European university, a specialist on teaching German as a foreign language. In December 2020, German students attending the seminar and the sessions taught by the colleague gained deeper insights into the complexities of intercultural understanding. They were given various tasks to complete in breakout rooms, one of them asking them to work with short literary texts from the 19 th century. These textlets featured brief impressions by foreign visitors to the remote region in the Caucasian mountains and often entailed vivid depictions of the savage drinking habits and customs of the local populace. After their group sessions, the student teams presented their solutions to the task of how to use the textlets about the presenter’s home country in a foreign language class. As it turned out, the presenter was not content with most suggestions - instead, he pointed out that all the text presentations were full of national stereotypes and clichés and that this could and should have been at the centre of any discussion of the texts. The participating German students agreed demurely, and it seemed that this moment of discomfort had taught them a lesson: to be more mindful and careful with clichéd descriptions of foreign countries. After the online event, though, in a debriefing session without the guest presenter, the students expressed severe discomfort. They were offended by the educative technique of “leading them up the garden path” by deliberately hiding the true intention of the educational task from them. They felt unhappy with the guest presenter’s revealing the nature of this educational experiment only after they had presented their apparently 208 Laurenz Volkmann unacceptable solutions. While the instructor had had the best intentions, the method used was considered to be quite inadequate and counter-productive. But could it have been a lesson of how not to do it, how not to teach - especially for future EFL teachers attending this course? The answer may be affirmative and the whole critical incident may teach a lesson about the intricate and indirect ways instances of discomfort can function as educative stimuli (for a discussion of these complexities as “antinomies” see Volkmann 2020). - 2.4 Discomfort outside of the classroom, noticed by non-participants of an excursion group, with the group reticent to learn The proof of the pudding is in the eating, as an English proverb goes. The proof of intercultural learning in EFL classes is in real, person-to-person interaction, with the quintessential scenario being the encounter with native speakers in their native country, in only partly predictable situations. Such a moment of truth was encountered during an excursion to London, co-organized between university instructors from the universities of Jena and Paderborn in 2017. As part of a team building activity and to experience the great cultural diversity of the capital, a visit to an Indian restaurant near Soho was on the agenda. Organized by a team of students, all approximately thirty students and three instructors sat down merrily at a large, long table, had various Indian soups, curries, rice plates, chapatis, etc. It was all washed down with plenty of mineral water, lassie, or bottles of Kingfisher lager. Some consumed more, some consumed less. When the bill was asked for, the waiter presented a single bill - and had to learn, with some confusion, that each guest intended to pay individually. There would be no sharing of the bill, as is customary in Great Britain. In spite of the instructors’ suggestion that all should chip in the same amount (the bill being divided by the number of participants, plus everyone giving a tip), the students insisted on a “fair” and “just” separation method. It took more than an hour to collect the money for the bill. This gave me, as an instructor, ample time to inquire clandestinely with the head waiter of the Bengali restaurant if he had ever experienced such behaviour by any of his guests. Amused, he responded that such practices seemed a bit outlandish to him, indeed. After the meal and the laborious collecting of bills and coins, and having finally settled the bill, the group met outside the restaurant for a long discussion of sayings like “When in Rome, do as the Romans,” the different philosophies and traditions behind sharing and splitting the bill, and other related matters of manners and decorum. In the end, the students remained unconvinced regarding demands to do it the British way. They pointed out that issues of fairness should be considered and that different financial means and differently priced orders should be accounted for. A lesson learned? Rather, it appeared that a discussion of this Trigger Warnings, Safe Spaces, and Taboo Topics 209 moment of intercultural disturbance, which first went unnoticed by the students, may have remained merely theoretical. What follows from the four instances of discomfort outlined above is clearly that theoretical and conceptual approaches to discomfort in education will always have to stand the test of reality. The results of this litmus test remain unpredictable, whether the moment of discomfort was unintended or not. After all, the best intentions may backfire. Interestingly, this insight into the problem of the unanticipated consequences of purposive social or educative action was discussed as early as 1936 by the American anthropologist and sociologist Robert K. Merton, who referred to a bevy of theorists and thinkers. Among them he cited Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and his drama Faust, referring to the intention of Mephistopheles, who declares to do evil but ever creates beneficial results (Merton 1936). Before considering the purposive use of discomfort as perturbation in education, a short discussion of these adverse effects may be asked for. This is specifically needed in the light of recent discussions about the classroom as a “safe space” and that “trigger or content warnings” are in demand when it comes to extremely discomforting, that is disturbing, topics and moments in film, texts, or any other teaching-learning material. 3. Current reservations regarding discomfort in the classroom Interestingly, recent political documents in education and particularly teaching foreign languages seem to neglect and even disfavour elements of discomfort or disturbance as an educative tool. In the world of competence development, from intercultural communicative competence to media literacy, there is little to no mention of how or if moments of discomfort could be beneficial. To take a paradigmatic example, the 2018 PISA Global Competence (OECD 2018) descriptions state that students are “meant to engage in open, appropriate and effective interactions with people from different cultures, and to act for collective well-being and sustainable development.” Regarding definitions of “global compe‐ tence,” one notices the abundance of typical buzz words like tolerance, empathy, understanding, appreciation of the other, etc. The issue of discomfort or how to deal with it would appear to be completely misplaced in this context: Global competence can help young people: • develop cultural awareness and respectful interactions in increasingly diverse societies; • recognise and challenge cultural biases and stereotypes, and facilitate harmonious living in multicultural communities; 210 Laurenz Volkmann • prepare for the world of work, which increasingly demands individuals who are effective communicators, are open to people from different cultural backgrounds, can build trust in diverse teams and can demonstrate respect for others, especially as technology continues to make it easier to connect on a global scale; • capitalise on inherently interconnected digital spaces, question biased media representations, and express their voice responsibly online; • care about global issues and engage in tackling social, political, economic and environmental challenges. (OECD 2018, n.p.) Moreover, it seems that the element of discomfort has been given a bad, even pernicious name in recent years. The operative terms “trigger warning” and “safe spaces” come to mind here. Originally conceptualized in the field of trauma therapy, trigger warnings have become a familiar way of warning the audience on TV, YouTube, and streaming platforms that the content presented to them in the following may be upsetting: sexual content, nudity, alcohol or drug abuse, the use of expletives, even smoking, etc. In education contexts, such trigger warnings and demands for “safe spaces” are increasingly being used as well. For example, in an exhibition on “Global Berlin” at the Humboldt Forum in Berlin (2021), a film passage shown on a large screen was accompanied by a warning on a poster. The poster also shielded the screen from direct viewing so that visitors had to read the warning first, before being able to position themselves in front of the screen (bold print in the original, parts of the text were in red, the text had a different layout): Warning The film Entertain Berlin contains racist imagery and film footage. Racist images are: images from a white perspective showing Black people and People of Colour in a derogatory, ridiculous or exoticising way, or as victims of violence. Such images are hurtful and (re-) traumatising for many people. In addition, they can - often subconsciously - reinforce racist ideas in viewers’ minds. This warning is meant to prevent visitors from encountering the images unprepared or unwillingly. (Personal observation, quoted verbatim from photo) It is essential to point out here that such warnings are not intended to protect students from emotionally engaging with difficult topics. Taking the issue of racism or racist presentations in films or texts, there is no denying that educators should feel ethically responsible to consider the content of the material their students are to peruse. Could it leave students upset, shocked, offended, or emotionally disturbed? A recommendable approach was suggested by Elaine Trigger Warnings, Safe Spaces, and Taboo Topics 211 Showalter (2002, 126) two decades ago when she advised a “clear labelling” of content, mentioning themes of a text which could be potentially distressing. A different angle to the issue at hand has been offered by Grit Alter. Arguing that in many recently recommended texts of young adult fiction “ethnic and national others are usually represented within issueand problem-laden paradigms, which reduce them to certain problem-identities” (Alter 2015, 14-15), she draws attention to the problems of text selection in the context of fostering interand transcultural learning: That the endeavour of increasing cultural competences with multicultural young adult fiction also entails challenges and limitations can be illustrated by the anecdotal experience of a colleague of mine. She reported that after she and her students had finished discussing a ‘multicultural book,’ which described the hardships of a protagonist of color and his struggle against disapproval, discrimination and racism in a ‘mainstream’ society, one of her students had left the classroom commenting ‘I’m glad that wasn’t about me! ’ Although the protagonist’s fight was successful in the end, his pain and despair were overwhelming, causing this student to feel pity, shame, and conscious non-identification with the ethnic other. These responses run counter to common objective of interand transcultural learning as both are actually supposed to develop students’ ability and willingness to identify with others, to be open toward them, and engage in respectful negotiations of meaning and communication […]. (Alter 2015, 13) Alter’s proposal seems intriguingly easy: changing the literary canon of the EFL classroom by prioritizing text which depict (ethnic, gender etc.) minorities in a positive light. Instead of presenting these protagonists as victims, strugglers or stigmatized “others,” such texts offer plentiful positive identification potential. Such text selection could focus on Canadian novels like Little Voice, Run, and The Water of Possibility - “the reader can engage with alterity beyond limited perspectives that entail stereotypes, generalisations and shallowness” (Alter 2015, 314). Other texts recommended by Alter (2015, 311) range from Niki Daly’s Once upon a Time (2004) to Melanie Prewett’s Two Mates (2012). Yet even if the overall impression of these texts is described as advantageous for interand transcultural learning by providing positive examples of alterity, the issue remains whether certain text passages could generate moments of discomfort or disturbance. Such text passages might be associated with “taboo topics,” which opens up another perspective for the issue under discussion in this chapter. Only recently has the notion of certain “taboo topics” as being notoriously and partly deliberately absent or excluded from curricula, textbooks, and teaching practices been brought to the attention of the foreign language teaching 212 Laurenz Volkmann community. In an online conference organized in November 2020, more than twenty presenters provided input on various aspects of taboo topics in the foreign language classroom. As the organizers of the conference, Christian Ludwig and Theresa Summer, surmised in the flyer announcing the conference (see also Ludwig and Summer, 2023): In the context of critical language education, taboos are often subsumed under the acronym ‘PARSNIP’: politics, alcohol, religion, narcotics, sex, isms, and pork - topics that are commonly underrepresented in learning materials and textbooks. Moreover, only some materials have so far been published that specifically deal with taboo issues in (foreign) language education. Thus, we would like to provide teachers and learners with opportunities to get engaged with taboo topics that are central to their human experiences such as addictions, death, disabilities, LGBTQ/ gender issues, sexting, migration, radicalism, conspiracy theories and fake news, and violence. Rather than provoking negative emotional responses or creating conflicts in the classroom, pedagogic ways should be found that enable learners to develop a greater understanding of controversial topics from different perspectives. (Ludwig and Summer 2020) Discussing a wide range of typical taboo topics, the presenters agreed that, for example, more working class and non-normative gender and sexual identities should be featured in language teaching materials. Alternative texts were also suggested, such as Andra Day’s Rise up (Katrin Thomson) or Thirteen Reasons Why (Christine Gardemann). All participants agreed that taboo topics should be presented in a manner which effectively and appropriately empowers learners rather than (unintentionally) oppresses them or enhances problematic feelings. There does not seem to be a one-size-fits all model solution to dealing with taboo topics. Indeed, it was agreed that taboo topics need to find their place in “mainstream” foreign language teaching. In the following I will outline relevant theoretical-conceptual underpinnings not only for including taboo topics in teaching-learning scenarios, but most of all for utilizing the pedagogic element of discomfort, which is here conceptualized as perturbation. Keeping in mind the caveats delineated above - the need for a sensitive learning environment and positive offers for emphatic encounters with alterity - I will move from critical theory to constructivism to hermeneutical angles on perturbation. Trigger Warnings, Safe Spaces, and Taboo Topics 213 4. Theoretical approaches to perturbation: pedagogies of discomfort, constructivism, and critical hermeneutics Interestingly, research results reveal that the term “perturbation” as a theoretical construct, an approach to reading texts, or as a technique used in teachinglearning scenarios has hardly been used outside the disciplines of constructivism and hermeneutics. Entries in Wikipedia.org point to the use of the terms “irritation” and “perturbation” in the natural sciences. For “irritation” the following brief definition is given: “Irritation or exacerbation, in biology and physiology, is a state of inflammation or painful reaction to allergy or cell-lining damage.” Concepts of “perturbation,” similarly, are used in theories of geology, astronomy, quantum mechanics, and biology. Most prominently, in theoretical mathematics, perturbation theory comprises “mathematical methods that give approximate solutions to problems that cannot be solved exactly” (Wikipedia: Perturbation theories). All these entries hint at the physical and sensory impact of seemingly “irritating” or “perturbing” stimuli - and may partly explain why the use of irritating, perturbing, or discomforting elements in education settings can cause emotionally hurtful, maybe even physically perceptible results. For theories of education, similar key terms need to be considered. A term which appears most frequently is that of a “pedagogy of discomfort.” Michalinos Zembylas outlines the contours of a “pedagogy of discomfort” in the following: A pedagogy of discomfort […] is grounded upon the idea that discomforting feelings are valuable in challenging dominant beliefs, social habits and normative practices that sustain social inequities and thus create openings for individual and social transformation. A major requirement, then, of pedagogy of discomfort is that students and teachers are invited to embrace their vulnerability and ambiguity of self and therefore their dependability on others. (Zembylas 2015, 8) Zembylas asserts, though, that the classroom should be a zone of mutual respect and that problematic or controversial topics or passages in texts or media should be handled with care. This does not necessarily imply that it should also be devoid of stress and discomfort. “Safe space […] is not about the absence of discomfort, but rather it is a way of thinking, feeling, and acting that fosters students’ critical rigor.” (ibid., 4). Proponents of a pedagogy of discomfort (see, for example, Boler 1999; Zembylas 2015) frequently anchor their positions in theories of liberation, emancipation, and transformation (Freire), pedagogies of positionality (Maher and Tetreault), the pedagogy of crisis (Kumashiro), theories of deconstruction and critical discourse analysis (Foucault), critical gender theories (Butler), 214 Laurenz Volkmann postcolonialism (Spivak), and critical literacy (McLaren). What they share is the aim of asking students to challenge their cherished and “naturalized” beliefs and understandings. Engaging in a pedagogy of discomfort, educators are admonished to consider posing some hard questions, as Zembylas (2015, 11) remarks: “How can I minimize the ethical violence exerted on students? Is the cost of causing students discomfort and pain worthwhile pedagogically, politically, and ethically? ” As to perturbation, one of the main proponents of radical constructivism, the philosopher Ernst von Glasersfeld, used the term in a key passage of an introductory article on constructivism. Harking back to central ideas of Piaget, von Glasersfeld discussed the example of a theoretical experimental setting, in which a subject observes a number of objects which are marked by the sameness of a, b, and c, and where there is no observation of change: The situation, however, changes if an object, in spite of the fact that it manifests a, b, and c, turns out to behave in a way that is different from the behavior which, on the basis of prior experience, is expected of a-b-c-objects. If that happens, it causes a disturbance (perturbation) that can lead to the examination of other properties or components. That opens the way towards a discrimination of the disturbing object (i.e., the object that is no longer acceptable) on the basis of some hitherto disregarded element x. (von Glasersfeld 2008, 16) This passage needs to be regarded in the context of theories of constructivism: that the individual mind does not mirror the world but actively “constructs” models of the world on the basis of sense data (cf. Meyer, Volkmann, and Grimm 2022, 51-52; Wendt 2002, 25-26). There is no objective truth outside the observer or a reality as such, but the only reality is the one “realized” by the individual and negotiated interpersonally. Learners of a foreign language do not find meaning in words but attribute meaning to them and test it. For example, they need to perceive the difference between the sound of a burp and that of a word, but the difference does not make sense unless they attribute sense to the sound as a bodily function or lexical item. Consequently, in educational settings, “[e]very learner of a language must construct his or her word meanings out of elements of individual experience and then adapt these meanings by trial, error, and hanging on to what seems to work in the linguistic interactions with others” (von Glasersfeld 1995, 137). In turn, an item of language directs the receiver to build up a conceptual structure, but there is no direct transmission of the meaning the speaker or writer intended. The only building blocks available to the interpreter are his or her own subjective conceptualizations and representations (ibid., 141). In the constructivist perspective, learning does not Trigger Warnings, Safe Spaces, and Taboo Topics 215 simply mean processing input in linear progression (Wendt 2002, 27). On the contrary, experience triggers cognitive constructions, which develop in leaps (the so-called Aha-Erlebnis). Learning is motivated by interaction and through perturbation. From a constructivist view, perturbation is therefore deemed an essential element confronting the learner with cognitive problems that need to be negotiated in order to modify schemata. “In simple terms, one needs to change schemata and behavior upon noticing that what one has done does not work, what one has read does not make sense, or what one has said is not understood. If individuals ignore rather than face the challenge, learning does not take place.” (Meyer, Volkmann, and Grimm 2022, 51) The changing of habitualized schemata of perceiving or reading is at the core of theories of hermeneutics, with Gadamer’s objective of a “melting of horizons” (Horizontverschmelzung) as a key hermeneutical trope. The princi‐ ples of dialogue, the acceptance of alterity, and the negotiation of meaning are paradigmatically presented in Werner Delanoy’s study Fremdsprachlicher Literaturunterricht: Theorie und Praxis als Dialog (2002). Aligning himself to the tradition of Hans-Georg Gadamer (1960), Lothar Bredella (1976, 2010), and Hans-Herbert Kögler (1992), Delanoy describes how in classroom interaction instructors are forced to grapple with their own preconceived notions about teaching literary or cultural texts. Delanoy sums up the position of hermeneutics as an interactive process of negotiation as follows: Aus seiner hermeneutischen Position, wie ich sie über Gadamer, Bredella und Kögler kennengelernt habe, bietet eine verstehende Auseinandersetzung mit anderen die Möglichkeit um Gewinnen neuer Einsichten. Dabei wird Verstehen als ein offener Interaktionsprozeß gedacht, in dessen Rahmen historisch wie kulturell situierte sowie in ihren Verstehensmöglichkeiten begrenzte Subjekte einander begegnen. Ein Einlassen auf die Sichtweise des Gegenübers erlaubt das Überschreiten der eigenen Begrenztheit. Dadurch kann das Verstehenssubjekt sich eigener Verstehensvorausset‐ zungen verstärkt bewußt werden, andere Sichtweisen erfahren und eine zunehmend dialogfähige Kommunikationsbasis entwickeln. (Delanoy 2002, 58) Reflecting the example of a lesson sequence based on a comparison between Kris Kristofferson’s and Janis Joplin’s versions of the country rock song “Me and Bobby McGee,” Delanoy relates how students’ reactions differed critically from the instructor’s interpretation of the versions. Rather than understanding the learners’ interpretations as lacking in meaning and being in demand of rigorous text analysis, the researcher-cum-teacher explored how “distancing oneself from one’s own preconceived interpretations allowed for the entering of 216 Laurenz Volkmann a qualitatively different field of experience” (Delanoy 2002, 59, my translation). In line with tenets of hermeneutics, the teachers’ perturbation was defined as triggering a fruitful process of meaning negotiation. Delanoy’s deliberations circle around the question of how moments of “being disappointed” (Enttäuscht‐ werden, ibid., 40) in the classroom can and must be seen as learning opportu‐ nities. Functioning as stimuli to open up “new insights and to allow for new learning processes,” they ask for “retheorising and reformulating on the basis the reflection of observations” (ibid., 55). Such hermeneutic processes, as Delanoy explains, can be aligned to positions of ideology critique, gender studies, and, markedly, a hermeneutics of scepticism (Skepsis, Verdacht, see Bredella 1976) or a hermeneutics of resistance (Widerstand, Kögler 1992). Both are described as essentially interested in exposing “manipulative discourse strategies” (sensu Foucault) which disguise “invisible designs, deep-seated value judgments and unquestioned power positions” (Delanoy 2002, 102, my translation). 5. The hermeneutics of literature, teaching literature, and the role of perturbation As already indicated in the example of a country music song, Werner Delanoy and other scholars (see, for example, Antor 2010) have been influential with regard to extending the focus of hermeneutics in literary studies and its concomitant discipline, the teaching of literature and culture (Literatur- und Kulturdidaktik). While Gadamer and Bredella - among other proponents of critical hermeneutical approaches such as Adorno and Horkheimer - prioritized and privileged canonical literature (or at least Literature with a capital L), Delanoy (2005) expanded the focus of his critical hermeneutics to “literature with a small l” such as popular novels or pop lyrics and other artifacts of pop culture (from soap operas to TV series, see Delanoy 2005; Delanoy, Eisenmann, and Matz 2015; Delanoy and Volkmann 2006). The influence of Anglophone directions of reader-response theories, media studies, and cultural studies - from critical “consumer” studies by Stuart Hall to postmodern appreciations of the popular by John Fiske - on a new generation of scholars of hermeneutics is clearly tangible here. Lothar Bredella, arguably the most influential force in literature didactics of the last decades and Werner Delanoy’s mentor, was still deeply influenced by the tradition of Gadamer’s concept of literature as an aesthetic art form. Traditionally, hermeneutics was conceived as the exegesis of biblical texts or the explication of complex religious or legal texts. In the second part of the 19 th century, in an age of increasing secularization, the influential British Trigger Warnings, Safe Spaces, and Taboo Topics 217 poet and critic Matthew Arnold famously described the role of literature as a substitute for meaning-giving religion. As a “substitute for what religion can no longer do” (Kaplan and Anderson 2000, 333), literature could provide compensation, guiding its readers like a “beacon” for life. For him, it was the task of the interpreter to unveil the shrouds of language and to explicate the true meaning of a literary work. Reader-response scholars such as Wolfgang Iser (1976) drew attention to the essential role of the reader in the process of meaning creation, thus shifting the focus to the “negotiation of meaning” between various poles. Still, Literature with a capital L was prioritized: semiotic density, artfully created gaps and indeterminacies, intricate “appellative structures” all elicit different responses in individual readers which need to be negotiated by the “interpretive community” (as the reader-response scholar Stanley Fish called it). As Gadamer himself had stated, canonical literature comprises “a more complex case of hermeneutic difficulty, i.e. of the alien nature and its very overcoming” (“gesteigerter Fall hermeneutischer Schwierigkeit, d. h. von Fremdheit und Überwindung derselben,” Gadamer 1965, 365, my translation). In theories of reader response and teaching literature, this concept of literature’s intricate appeal to be deciphered by its readers has frequently been aligned with M. M. Bakhtin’s theories of dialogism and, more specifically, with those of Russian formalists. Namely, Viktor Shklovsky’s concept of defamiliarization as one of literature’s main characteristic of language use (ostranenie, Verfremdung) has been extremely influential. Literature disrupts accepted and naturalized uses of language and ways of perception, as his article “Art as Technique” from 1917 explains. “The technique of art is to make objects ‘unfamiliar’, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception, because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged.” (Shklovsky [1917] 1965, 24) Recent publications on teaching literature have again pointed to the “strange‐ ness” or “distant nature” of literature for reasons of its historical, cultural, and spatial distance to the learners’ “horizon of expectation” (see, for example, Koller 2012; Schiedermair 2017). Foreign language literature, of course, adds another layer of difficulty or “strangeness.” Crucially, the key argument against literature in the classroom has been put on its head - by pointing out the chances of literature’s “strangeness” (Fremdheit, Koller 2012, 184; Schiedermair 2017, 33). This is reflected in the following observations related in a standard article on teaching literature: “Teachers and learners often cite literary language as being particularly problematic because it does not adhere to accepted norms of use, 218 Laurenz Volkmann but exploits and even distorts the accepted conventions in fresh and unexpected ways.” (Lazar 1990, 205) A hermeneutical approach favouring the perturbing elements of literature would thus stress just how positive results can be gleaned from this disruption of expectations and perceptions. A recent publication on teaching young adult fiction describes this as follows: “Fiction can be seen as a valuable ethics labo‐ ratory where complex scenarios and issues are dramatized, allowing its readers to extrapolate from those fictional scenarios and consider the consequences of those actions in ethical terms.” (Ferreira 2019, 252f.) The ethical nature of this interaction with literature is also underscored in Werner Delanoy’s writing, as illustrated in the following passage, relating to a novel: “[…] readers can live through the traumatic experience of these characters from a relatively secure position. Furthermore, participation in these secondary worlds may help readers develop empathy with and solidarity for the characters portrayed. Thus, such an aesthetic response also has a strong ethical dimension.” (Delanoy 2005, 57) Working with the text, students need a lot of “sense-making activities” (Lazar 1990, 205) that help them create meaning out of the reading material. Moreover, hermeneutic insights have been confirmed by empirical studies, revealing that reading fiction provides exercises in “perspective-taking imagination” (Keen 2018, 126). Reading can enhance the reader’s affective Theory of Mind, the “the ability to detect and understand others’ emotions” (Kidd and Castano 2013, 377). In addition, it has been shown (see, for example, Iacozza, Costa, and Duñabeitia 2017; Morawetz et al., 2017) that reading literature in a foreign language generates more affective distance und thus an emotionally “safer space” than reading in one’s native language would. The distancing effect established through the use of another language could even be an effective way to lessen psychological disturbance in learners reading potentially upsetting fictions. 6. Integrating global competences and perturbation As discussed in the second part of this contribution, recent pedagogical recom‐ mendations about trigger warnings and the creation of safe spaces need to be seriously considered when it comes to actually planning perturbing moments in teaching-learning scenarios. However, it has also been argued that the avoidance of taboo topics and potentially discomforting stimuli may prevent learners from leaving their “comfort zone.” In terms of the hermeneutical approaches outlined above, teachers need to offer opportunities for negotiation of meaning, tackling Trigger Warnings, Safe Spaces, and Taboo Topics 219 alterity, and broadening students’ minds. There still needs to be a place for perturbation in the age of “global competences,” where, as already quoted above, students are “meant to engage in open, appropriate and effective interactions with people from different cultures, and to act for collective well-being and sustainable development” (OECD 2018). Regarding literary and cultural artifacts, productive ways of dealing with their perturbing potential need to be explored - be it the language, the narrative, the film style, the topics dealt with, the methods used for dealing with them, etc. One recommendable approach could be to design tasks and activities that help learners to become aware of the key elements of perturbation and the significance and function of these perturbing elements. Literature, films, and other media could thus serve as an invitation for learners to discuss what they understand, like, or dislike, and what elements of a text (or any medium) they find perturbing. As amply pointed out above, both teachers and learners should not refrain from exposure to perturbation through potentially controversial materials and suitable tasks. As hermeneutic scholars have stressed time and again: if you are not perturbed, you haven’t left your comfort zone. 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May issue. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 17449642.2015.1039274 222 Laurenz Volkmann 1 United Nations (n.d.). 2 Delanoy (2017, 175). Rethinking Cultural Learning in Light of “Response-Abilities” Shifting Language Education “onto a Sustainable and Resilient Path” 1 Frauke Matz and Daniel Becker Preface: Language learning as “continuous engagement with issues of global significance” 2 This chapter is written in honour of Werner Delanoy, whose valuable contribu‐ tions demonstrate the wide-reaching dimensions of cultural learning within the context of language education in a dynamic, fluid, and globally connected world shaped by risks (see e.g., Delanoy 2006, 2012, 2014, 2017, 2020). As English has a particular relevance in the context of our global age, this theoretical contribution will propose a form of language education in which learners are “given insight into the complexity of contemporary living conditions, and where language is creatively used to meet situation-specific and changing demands” (Delanoy 2012, 163). It will also inquire whether educators and curriculum designers should reconsider - at least in part - the purpose of cultural learning itself, namely to aid students in facing the demands that the world risk society poses to the young individuals growing up within it. Hence, this contribution strives to open a dialogue about cultural learning, which is based on a “differentiated understanding of human life-worlds with reference to the cultural and noncultural factors co-shaping them” (Delanoy 2020, 30) and thereby focuses on emotional aspects. With this text, we pay tribute to Delanoy’s stance that there “is no denying that a globalised modernity requires new concepts of culture and cultural learning” (Delanoy 2017, 171) by widening the new concepts he has developed and by exploring the concept of resilience as a still rather unchartered territory both of and for cultural learning. 1. Introduction: Rethinking cultural learning - Preparing young adults for the world at risk “At the beginning of the twenty-first century, we see modern society with new eyes […]. All genuine threats have become global threats. The situation of every nation, every people, every religion, every class and every individual is also the result and cause of the human situation” (Beck 2009, 19). Ulrich Beck’s introductory words to World at Risk appear daunting when rereading them today: not only the Covid-19 pandemic, during which schools had to be closed for months and the education of young adults was reduced to a bare minimum on a global scale, but also disastrous events related to climate change such as the devastating floods which hit parts of Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, the US, and China and the raging fires in Europe, Australia, and the US show their relevance and urgency. We live in a world at risk, and our “fluid times” are shaped by what Beck calls the “cosmopolitan moment” of the world risk society: “We are all trapped in a shared global space of threats without exit” (Beck 2009, 56). It is important to recognise that in light of this condition and the destructive impact global crises such as the current pandemic or the climate crisis have on human beings, societal change is of the essence; the anticipation of catastrophe is shaping to be a guiding denominator of cultural meaning-making. All spheres of life need to adapt as “a new kind of global order, a new kind of society and a new kind of personal life are coming into being, all of which differ from earlier phases of social development. Thus, sociologically and politically, we need a paradigm shift, a new frame of reference” (Beck 2010, 218). This also holds true within the context of (language) education, where young adults need to be prepared to become citizens in such fluid societies who can cope with the notion of inevitable change and uncertainty as a default mode of being. However, while at an international level the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the OECD’s Learning Compass 2030 have been proposed as new frames of reference, a necessary paradigm shift has been noticeably absent from curricular guidelines for secondary language education so far, both at a European and German national level (see e.g., Küchler 2014; Matz 2020, 2021; Roemhild 2021; Roemhild and Gaudelli 2021). Thus, educators and their students are encouraged to include global challenges in their thematic repertoire, but questions of agency, of how to cope with the current crises and those still to come remain to be addressed. The present chapter can be perceived as a further attempt to fill this current gap. It reconsiders the project of cultural learning as an important part of English language education, arguing that learners do not only have to discuss global topics, but also need to be 224 Frauke Matz and Daniel Becker 3 Delanoy emphasises that the “link between responsibility and “response-ability” makes communicative competence a major objective for all education” (ibd.). 4 Delanoy (2020, 30). 5 Council of Europe (2001, 1). enabled to negotiate and endure change and vulnerability as an important prerequisite of cultural participation in a world at risk. For that purpose, the chapter expands and revisits cultural learning through the concepts of resilience and civic education and, in doing so, proposes a set of knowledge, attitudes, and abilities learners need in order to be “response-able” (Delanoy 2017, 169) cultural agents. 3 With this goal in mind, we first summarise the current goals of cultural learning and the conceptual deficits they entail. On this basis, the approach of civic education will be introduced as an alternative framework for a timely notion of cultural learning in times of risk. 2. The challenge of rethinking goals of cultural learning: Widening the perspective “in line with a (post)humanistic and cosmopolitan agenda” 4 This section briefly recounts the current aims and objectives of cultural learning within the European and German context of language education. It does so in reference to the question of the extent to which they prepare students to live “in a globalized modernity” (Delanoy 2017, 169) before considering alternative concepts. These include civic education and resilience as vital parts of a contemporary concept of cultural learning. - 2.1 “Otherness in language and culture: ” 5 The Common European Framework of Reference Following an intercultural approach mostly informed by Michal Byram (1997, 2020), the objective of language education as envisioned by the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) is first and foremost to help students to “promote the favourable development of the learner’s whole personality and sense of identity in response to the enriching experience of otherness in language and culture” (Council of Europe 2001, 1). Its model of the intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is largely based on Byram’s concept of an intercultural speaker (Byram 1997). The focus and emphasis on “otherness” has raised persistent academic concerns, objections, and reservations which have accompanied this model of ICC ever since its first publication (see e.g., Antor 2006; Blell and Doff 2014; Delanoy 2006; Freitag-Hild 2010; Hallet 2002; Rethinking Cultural Learning in Light of “Response-Abilities” 225 6 The educational standards to higher education mention the “use of English as lingua franca” but do not specify this further (KMK 2012, 19). Matz, Rogge, and Siepmann 2014; Roemhild and Matz 2021). Yet despite these concerns the understanding of cultural learning in the CEFR remains based on the assumption that there are “differences in values and beliefs, politeness conventions, social expectations etc.,” which are “difficult to bridge” (Council of Europe 2001, 51). The type of intercultural awareness at the heart of this concept of cultural learning is thought to be produced through the “[k]nowledge, awareness and understanding of the relation (similarities and distinctive differences) between the ‘world of origin’ and the ‘world of the target community’” (Council of Europe 2001, 103). Hence, from a theoretical standpoint the main objective appears to be the ability to “manage” cultural alterity and not to prepare students to understand themselves as part of a global community and as part of the world risk society. Considering the wealth of more power-critical, cosmopolitan, and transcultural theoretical concepts (e.g., Bhabha 1994; Said 1978; Welsch 1999), which could have served as a foundation as well as alternative frameworks (e.g., Bîrzéa 2000), it seems surprising that the model of ICC was the final choice, as these alternative notions view cultures as dynamic and fluid entities, human beings as globally connected, and could thus allow for cosmopolitan approaches to cultural learning (Matz 2021). Nevertheless, this model of ICC has influenced cultural learning and teaching in EFL classrooms for over two decades and, hence, still serves as the basis for language education in the German context. - 2.2 Foreign cultural perspectives and acting communicatively: The German educational standards for language education Both the educational standards for language education for lower and higher secondary education put forth by the German Standing Conference of the Ministers of Culture (KMK) are based on the CEFR and hence on its model of ICC as outlined above. In describing the areas of intercultural competences students should master, both guidelines do not explicitly refer to globalisation processes and the specific role English plays in this context (KMK 2003, 16-17; KMK 2012, 19-20). 6 Instead, in line with the CEFR, the educational standards for lower secondary education mostly emphasise the “foreignness” of other cultures (see e.g., KMK 2003, 16), while the educational standards for secondary education focus more on the students’ abilities to act communicatively in intercultural encounters (see KMK 2012, 19-20). The underlying concept of cultural learning as outlined in these guidelines thus remains essentially functional and “directed 226 Frauke Matz and Daniel Becker 7 Despite all criticism as outlined above, the postulated goal is for learners to “acquire the prerequisites to develop empathy as well as critical distance towards cultural characteristics, to make a well-founded personal judgement and to shape their own communicative actions appropriately for the situation and the addressee” (KMK 2012, 19). towards understanding and acting in contexts in which the foreign language is used” (KMK 2012, 16, own translation). 7 The only reference to “the increasing globalisation,” which can be found in the outline of the general aims of this school subject, underlines this functional and essentially Eurocentric approach in stating that in “view of Europe as a cultural and economic region and increasing globalisation, foreign language learning with the aim of individual multilingualism is becoming more and more important. The internationalisation of private and professional relationships requires comprehensive communica‐ tion skills in various foreign languages as well as intercultural competence” (KMK 2012, 11; own translation). In short, the educational standards read as guidelines for “learning to communicate with the other” as they focus on “foreignness” and reference globalisation as a justification for multilingualism and as one topic amongst many others in which students can engage in order to practise their communicative competences (e.g., KMK 2012, 19). In light of the risks students face and their vulnerability in these times of uncertainty, this focus needs to be revised. Instead of expecting students, for example, to “relate linguistically and culturally unfamiliar things to their respective backgrounds and deal with them constructively and critically” (KMK 2012, 19-20), educators should encourage students to focus on crises that connect human beings so that they can voice their angst and respond constructively in a global community in which the clear separation of cultural spheres is no longer the dominant paradigm. Intercultural learning, as outlined above, fails in supporting students to develop a sense of interconnectedness, which can be viewed as a prerequisite for resilience. - 2.3 Designing civic education: Alternative educational frameworks In summary, despite the immense societal changes over the last two decades no revision of the concept of ICC has so far been put forth by either the European Council or the German Standing Conference of the Ministers of Culture to allow for a deeper consideration of what it means to live (together) in a world risk society (for further discussion, see Jackson 2019; Starkey 2015). So the ever present and persistent criticism also prevails in this chapter, since the chapter is in accordance with proponents of a “cosmopolitan agenda” (Delanoy 2020, 30), envisaging cultural learning as an essential part of civic education, Rethinking Cultural Learning in Light of “Response-Abilities” 227 which - in turn - goes beyond concepts of democratic education as currently conceptualised at the European level (Matz 2021) or as outlined in the German national educational guidelines (Matz 2020): Civic education allows all students “to learn to consider the wider implications of their actions, to act mindfully in the world, and to reflect and adapt as the world changes” (Fadel, Bialik, and Trilling 2015, 21). German curriculum designers would not even need to go back to the drawing board, as the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG; United Nations 2015), which are inherently connected with cosmopolitan civic educational aims and which Germany adopted back in 2016, could serve as a constructive basis. The SDG represent “a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity” while seeking to “strengthen universal peace in larger freedom, [and] to take the bold and transformative steps which are urgently needed to shift the world onto a sustainable and resilient path” (see United Nations, n.d.). Similarly, the OECD has recently developed the Learning Compass 2030, which “defines the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that learners need to fulfil their potential and contribute to the well-being of their communities and the planet” (OECD, n.d.). In addition, the US-based Centre for Curriculum Redesign (CCR) has also recently put forth the model of Four-Dimensional Education, which seeks to “re-examine the dimensions of what is worth learning in the 21st century” (Fadel, Bialik, and Trilling 2015, 70). While these frameworks are meant to be cross-curricular, the importance of foreign language education in this context for achieving their agendas cannot be denied (Diehr 2021). These initiatives serve as forward looking examples of new frames of reference in the context of civic education, and although the jury is still out on whether these can prove successful curriculum designs, they recognise both societal and individual well-being as essential aspects of educational programmes and might be worth considering. Cultural learning needs to be recognised as an essential part of civic educa‐ tion, which appreciates that the future and the risks it brings are unpredictable, but that helps students to learn, “to adapt to, thrive in and even shape whatever the future holds” (OECD, n.d.). However, the question remains how they can be supported in living in a world of uncertainties and still follow “long-term goals that contribute to collective well-being” (OECD, n.d.). We argue that cultural learning in the EFL context, as a part of an overarching civic education, can support learners in this effort through the development of resilience. 228 Frauke Matz and Daniel Becker 3. The self in the social world of uncertainty: Conceptualising resilience in a world at risk In recent decades, “resilience” has become a prominent traveling concept. After first being used in the field of ecology in the 1970s to describe the adaptive behaviour of ecological systems to environmental disturbances (Holling 1973), the term subsequently ventured out into different academic territories and can now be found in a wide array of disciplines including sociology, psychology, safety studies, engineering, and medicine (Guarnieri 2017) as well as in the educational context. Given this transdisciplinary setting, it does not come as a surprise that a universally accepted definition of resilience does not exist. Rather, the concept has adapted “a diverse assortment of meanings” (Bonanno and Diminich 2013, 378) over the years as each discipline defines resilience in its own discursive context. Yet, despite these differences, many disciplines still share a common argumentative ground: On the most fundamental level, they understand resilience as an ability to cope with some form of adversity. In its most basic conception, the term resilience can hence be understood as a “dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation within the context of significant adversity” (Luthar, Cicchetti, and Becker 2000, 543), which ultimately aims at empowering “individuals, groups or systems” to maintain functionality despite “disruptive events” in their environment (Marquis 2019, 108). Following these general definitions, one can more precisely describe and classify resilience on three intersecting levels, which will be discussed in the following section. - 3.1 Level I: Agents of resilience (Who is resilient? ) A distinction may be drawn between individual resilience and social resilience. While individual resilience refers to a single person and their “individual ca‐ pacities, behaviours, and protective processes associated with health outcomes despite exposure to significant risk” (Obrist, Pfeiffer, and Henley 2010, 286), social resilience “emphasizes the role of connections with other individuals, groups, and large collectives as a means of fostering adaptation through new learning and growth” (Cacioppo, Reis, and Zautra 2011, 44). With the social group at its centre, the latter can further be subdivided into different forms depending on the size of the collective in question. It can encompass small groups such as families or peer groups, medium collectives such as regional communities or large groupings such as global collectives coping with global challenges. As Cacioppo, Reis, and Zautra (2011) point out, individual and social resilience are not mutually exclusive concepts but must rather be perceived as closely interdependent processes; having access to coping mechanisms of a Rethinking Cultural Learning in Light of “Response-Abilities” 229 social group can have a positive effect on how individuals deal with adversity in their personal realm, whereas strategies developed on the individual level can help to further adapt a collective’s response to disturbances. - 3.2 Level II: Types of adversity (Resilience to what? ) On the level of the adversities that individuals and/ or groups are likely to face, three types of resilience regularly occur in academic debates: first, the resilience to immediate threats that require immediate adaptive action such as “[n]atural disasters, pandemic disease, terrorist attacks, economic recession, equipment failure and human error” (Bhamra, Dani, and Burnard 2011, 5375). Based on Obrist, Pfeiffer, and Henley’s terminology, this type may be labelled “reactive resilience” (2010, 289; emphasis added) since it is concerned with direct reactions to imminent disturbances. Second, the resilience to “chronic adversity” (Bonanno and Diminich 2013, 378), that is, the ability to continuously adapt to threats that accompany individuals or groups “over the broad sweep of time” (e.g., poverty, domestic violence; ibid., 379). Bonanno and Diminich call this type emergent resilience, as it refers to “more enduring patterns of variability” (ibid., 380) that emerge from permanent perturbations. Finally, resilience can also be developed to the very idea of disturbance in general. In contrast to the first two types, this third type is less concerned with concrete shocks than with being prepared for “the inevitability of change” (Ponomarow and Holcomb 2009, 126) itself by proactively finding options for dealing with the notion of uncertainty and any new threat that might come with it in the future. Accordingly, this type can be labelled proactive resilience. In sum, from the perspective of adversities, resilience can be further specified as referring to both short-term and long-term as well as concrete and abstract adversities. In the context of individual and social resilience, these different types are interconnected: As Bohle (2008, 437) argues, strategies and procedures that are developed in concrete situations as responses to shortor long-term adversities establish the knowledge and “ecological memory” from which individuals or groups can subsequently construct resilience to living with uncertainty on a more abstract level. - 3.3 Level III: Components of resilience (How can resilience be established? ) Finally, resilience can be defined in more detail when looking at the ability of coping with adversity itself. Many resilience studies share the conviction that being resilient usually entails various components and processes. Resilience, in other words, is seen as an inherently complex ability which rests on the interplay 230 Frauke Matz and Daniel Becker between different features. Some of these features, which are most frequently mentioned in relevant studies, can be described as follows: • Preparedness: First, resilience relies on a specific attitude towards adversity. Rather than being afraid of disturbances, resilient individuals or groups commonly perceive adversity as a regular part of life, which allows them to develop a “crisis preparedness” mindset (Ponomarow and Holcomb 2009, 128). • Self-Organisation and Control: Furthermore, resilience rests on the ability of individuals or groups to successfully uphold and maintain activities, processes, and responses in times of severe upheaval and imminent threat. As such, resilience usually encompasses “the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change” (Walker et al. 2004). Resilience, in other words, entails keeping one’s agency alive in a time and context in which the very ideas of agency and functionality are being threatened. • Adaptability: Finally, the aforementioned components come together in what is often considered the core element of resilience: adaptability. Defined as “the flexibility to change in response to new pressures” (Bahmra, Dani, and Burnard 2011, 5387), adaptability can be said to entail two elements: First, there is risk assessment, which refers to the process by which individuals or groups capture the nature and properties of a problem and thus translate an often chaotic disturbance into a more manageable and structured entity. Second, based on this assessment, individuals and groups make use of a diversity of individual and communal resources and knowledge foundations in order to tackle the issue they identified before (Fiksel 2003). More to the point, as each problem has different requirements, resilient agents are defined by their ability to “combine experience and knowledge” from different individual and collective sources in creative ways, so they can continuously “adjust […] responses to changing external drivers” (Folke et al. 2010) and find appropriate solutions for different issues. As the following section will show, this understanding of resilience already informs current approaches to civic education and can therefore also serve as a foundation for cultural learning in the context of foreign language education (see Section 5). Rethinking Cultural Learning in Light of “Response-Abilities” 231 8 When compared to the competence models in the European context, character qualities can be essentially related to the area of attitudes, but go beyond them, as they offer a holistic view of the emotional lives and minds of students. 9 Delanoy (2017, 169). 4. Resilience as part of a humanistic approach to cosmopolitan education Looking back at the one-and-a-half years prior to the composition of this chapter, students have already faced and continue to face at least two distur‐ bances on a global scale which require students’ reactive resilience: natural disasters and a pandemic. Based on the Sixth Assessment Report of the Inter‐ governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2021), students will need to have emergent resilience in the long run to be able to live with permanent perturbations due to the climate crisis. Moreover, it should be in the interest of this shared global space that children are supported in developing proactive resilience so that despite all the adversities they might face, they are able to be proactive in finding constructive ways for dealing with uncertainty in a global age. While resilience plays no part in European or German educational guidelines, it is explicitly mentioned in both the SDG (United Nations 2015) and the Four-Dimensional Education (Fadel, Bialik, and Trilling 2015, 137-140). While the former makes only brief mention of it, the latter explicitly lists resilience amongst character qualities 8 and states that “knowledge and skills are not sufficient to prepare learners for their future challenges, and character qualities may be much better predictors of student success in further learning” (Fadel, Bialik, and Trilling 2015, 127). In the following section, we will take a closer look at the role cultural learning could play in supporting students in developing individual and social resilience. 5. Being “response-able: ” 9 Resilience in the context of English language education In reference to Baumann (2012), Delanoy stresses the importance of grasping one’s own role within this world risk society and that this “personal responsi‐ bility implies accountability for issues of translocal/ global relevance” (Delanoy 2012, 163). He recognises that in a liquid modernity responsibility for success and failure lies with the single person who is constantly faced with the need to make decisions […]. Moreover, since people 232 Frauke Matz and Daniel Becker as social beings need to articulate and negotiate their needs and interests in their decision-making processes, these responsibilities are connected to ‘response-abilities’, i.e. to communicative competences. (ibid.) In other words, in the face of constant change, learners are increasingly asked to develop a form of “communicative resilience,” understood as the ability to continuously negotiate and adapt one’s identity through communicative acts (in a foreign language) in an ever-changing globalised world. Cultural learning could, in our view, play an essential part in helping students to become and continue to be “response-able” (Delanoy 2017, 169) and thus (communicatively) resilient. As with more general and interdisciplinary approaches, this “is a workin-progress” and needs to “be further explored as a deep dive into developing the educational goals” for our discipline (Fadel, Bialik, and Trilling 2015, 102). But as a first conceptualisation, we claim that one of the goals of English language education should be to support students in developing agency, specifically in participating communicatively in meaning-making processes despite the adversities they face. In the following section, we will consider what this could mean in terms of knowledge, skills, and character. - 5.1 Knowledge Globalisation and dystopian visions of the future appear to be constant thematic threats, serving as a basis for classroom discussions especially for higher secondary school level (e.g., Matz 2020; MSB NRW, n.d.). We argue that students need to gain deeper knowledge in this field and that this should also be addressed already in lower secondary school. Learning about global risks should be a part of life-long learning and go far beyond the recourse to communicative competences. In line with Obrist, Pfeiffer, and Henley (2010), students could then explicitly learn to examine risks closely and in a reflective way, which is connected to following aspects within a possible knowledge domain: Students could learn to • develop an awareness that living in a world risk society means that states are no longer able to offer security and that they need to “deal with global crises as a ‘global’ citizen” ( Jackson 2019, 143); • understand events related to risks which will have repercussions across the world; • recognise that communities and nations are essentially hybrid, character‐ ised by diversity, and will remain to be affected by global risks; Rethinking Cultural Learning in Light of “Response-Abilities” 233 • discern the nature of these risks, that is, whether they are environmental-, individual-, community-based, or a life-event type (Cacioppo, Reis, and Zautra 2011); • judge whether the effect of the risk could be short or long term; • perceive themselves as social agents. If the perception of adversity was a regular part of life, then maybe this would allow students to develop a “crisis preparedness” (Ponomarow and Holcomb 2009, 128). - 5.2 Abilities As Delanoy (2006, 2012, 2014, 2017, 2020) has rightly pointed out, English is of particular relevance in this world risk society, and students will need to negotiate meaning and take part in meaning-making processes in these uncertain times. He insists that the “link between responsibility and response-ability” is the key to developing (communication) skills in the context of resilience, as it “makes communicative competence a major objective for all education” (Delanoy 2012, 163). Students need to have a voice because they will inherit this world full of risks. Hence, we argue that students need to have the ability to: • engage in risk assessment while still recognising that the assessment “of overall adaptation in chronically stressful circumstances are necessarily relative, tempered by time and changing context” (Bonanno and Diminich 2013, 380); • find structure in chaos; • voice their emotions in light of the disempowerment; • recognise and speak about their responsibilities; • remain response-able; • construct meaning and become active parts in meaning-making processes; • engage in reflecting and assessing the validity of news about threats (“fake news”). - 5.3 Character This aspect goes far beyond the concept of “attitudes” as described by the CEFR or the German educational standards and also encompasses “agency […], behaviours, dispositions, mindsets, personality, temperament, values, beliefs, social and emotional skills, non-cognitive skills, and soft skills” (Fadel, Bialik, and Trilling 2015, 127). As research into supporting resilience in educational contexts is still in its initial stages, we tentatively propose the following aspects, which are essentially based on the understanding that “our collective well-being 234 Frauke Matz and Daniel Becker is based on our individual awareness” (Fadel, Bialik, and Trilling 2015, 125). Thus, students should be supported in developing • a readiness mindset as they begin to learn to live with the anticipation of uncertainty; • a sense and understanding of connectedness as they learn to see themselves as part of this shared global space; • an open mindset which allows for joint problem-solving; • self-organisation, which might support them in (re-)gaining (a sense of) control. One could argue that adaptability is at the heart of individual resilience and social resilience as it “captures the capacity […] to learn, combine experience and knowledge, adjust its responses to changing external drivers and internal processes” (Folke et al. 2010). In terms of character development, one of the most vital aspects appears to be the need for students to develop dynamic responseability. 6. Conclusion This chapter joins Werner Delanoy in his continuous strive for a “timely concept for culture-and-language learning” (Delanoy 2017). In light of the “increasing interdependence of people around the world,” (Sant et al. 2018, 3) and the risks humans face, we argued that it is time to put both underlying concepts and the overarching goals of cultural learning on a test-bench. Policy making and curricular developments in cultural learning might need to undergo a shift towards concepts which enable learners “to envision a more just social world, and effectively consider how to influence the existing world […] in line with such visions” ( Jackson 2019, 13). Cultural learning is an essential part of civic education; thus, we envisage resilience as an essential part of the individual development in language education. 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As an educational initiative, DCE is a supranational priority that seeks to empower children - and hence, learners - to thrive in a world that is thoroughly changing in light of digital advancements. While these initiatives and concepts rightly entail aspects as wide as creativity, active participation, information literacy, or critical reflection, their link to cultural and global learning in English language education has remained less clear, as this chapter will show. Questions that spring to mind, for example, include in what ways cultural diversity can become a classroom focus through the aid of digital media, in how far interand transcultural learning can be renegotiated in light of the digital, or how learners can engage with global topics - including digitalization itself - from a participatory perspective. This chapter will therefore retrace research on DCE, identify how discourses on DCE and cultural as well as global learning can be merged, and present a multidimensional four-plus-one model for anchoring DCE within foreign language education and teaching practice. 2. Renegotiating cultural and global learning through a digital lens Any account of cultural and global learning in EFL education today would be grossly incomplete if it did not take into account digital transformations currently underway in society, affecting all strands of our daily social and civic lives, and the contexts in which we work, learn, and teach. Consider, for example, how the usage of and access to digital media has shrunk the world into a global-digital village, and otherwise distant cultural spheres, phenomena, or developments are literally in front of our eyes through the swiping of a screen. At the same time, digital channels are leveraging com‐ munication practices that make it possible for everyone to share worldviews, make their voices heard, and connect with like-minded people - be it for the better when social progress is achieved through joint digital activism, or be it for the worse when people resort to their filter bubbles or echo chambers and shut themselves off of conflicting opinions. The latter point, in turn, might influence the trustworthiness of cultural, social, or political information that comes from diverse digital sources, often operating with easier means of publication than more traditional print-and-paper media. To add another thought, people can use digital technologies to become cultural agents - or “produsers,” to use a frequently used word coinage (Bruns 2008) - to produce and express themselves online for aesthetic, identity-related, economic, or other purposes rather than “just” consuming digital content. Such “produsing” is certainly facilitated through the advent of digital media that were “born digital” from the start rather than being digital counterparts of otherwise analog resources, a distinction that is often made in English through “digitalization” and “digitization” (see Lütge, Merse, and Stannard 2021, 234). While the distinction is not always clear-cut, digitization broadly refers to the creation of a digital version of a physical item, for instance when converting analogue content into a digital format. Digitalization, on the other hand, may comprise aspects of digitization but transcends this notion addressing digital practices of various kinds. Such developments indicate that an instrumental or technical view on digitalization is insufficient to capture the intricate relationship between digitalization, culture, and cultural and global learning as it is envisaged in EFL education. Against the backdrop of these starting points, we emphasize that cultural competences also need to be re-thought and re-negotiated in light of digital transformations. Most recently, Alter (2021) has engaged with Byram’s (1997) influential model of Intercultural Communicative Competence in order to expand on and problematize his five competence dimensions - or savoirs - through a digital lens (see also Alter 2023, in this volume). When it comes to Byram’s skills of discovery and interaction, for example, Alter argues that learners need to navigate a multitude of resources in digital environments to find reliable cultural information, or that learners need to reflect on building an online identity through which they communicate and interact with others while drawing on diverse modes of meaning-making afforded through digital 242 Christiane Lütge and Thorsten Merse media. This, in turn, indicates that digitalization itself needs to become a topic in the classroom, or indeed a global issue for global learning, covering phenomena that span the world irrespective of national notions of citizenship. In addition, what it means for learners to develop attitudes of curiosity and openness towards cultural differences will change when digital media present an increasing diversity of voices, standpoints, affiliations, or collective and individual identities. Indeed, such growing cultural diversity, which learners need to relate to and interpret in digital spaces, is closely aligned with the diversification of digital media and digital pathways into communication and self-representation online (Lütge and Merse 2020, 2021). For the classroom, the challenge remains to capture this growing digital and cultural diversity in learning arrangements, tasks, and carefully selected texts and media. Other approaches focus on the “globalized” and “internationalized” world and emphasise education for intercultural citizenship beyond nation states and their borders (Byram 2008; Byram, Golubeva, and Porto 2023). Most recently, Starkey (2023) describes Global Citizenship Education (GCE) as a pedagogical project with the power to transform approaches to language learning. He points out that as highly competent language learners themselves, language teachers have experienced the emancipation that comes with being able to access new cultures and make new relationships beyond the confines of a single language, often identified with a single nation state. In view of such developments in research, both concerning notions of cultural learning and their digital realizations, we would like to go back to 1996 and remind of John Perry Barlow who published his Declaration of Independence of Cyberspace to point out that the digital realm is “a world that all may enter without privilege or prejudice accorded by race, economic power, military force, or station of birth” (Barlow 1996), thus emphasising the potential for personal empowerment, participation, and individual agency. However, written 25 years ago and set in a digitally completely different world, Barlow’s manifesto certainly did strike a chord that has ever since been eagerly lamented by critics of internet libertarian positions. In retrospect, it seems complacent to refer to Barlow’s position as simply naïve but, in fact, a rather euphoric or over-enthusiastic notion might be identified here. In 1997, Katz took up some of Barlow’s thoughts in his similarly positive account of the digital citizen, modelling cyberspace as “a force for good” (Katz 1997). To be sure, the discourses that followed suit were not unanimously positive, and the impacts of the global on the digital as well as of the digital on the global went through different phases and still are in flux. Not surprisingly, this changing and developing nexus between the global and the digital is among the most relevant topics today, both Digital Citizenship in English Language Education 243 in education in general and for teaching culture in particular (see Lütge and Merse 2023). In the following section, we will argue for the potential of DCE - as a still relatively recent concept - to rethink cultural and global learning through increasingly digital lenses. 3. Digital citizenship education: Challenges and perspectives DCE has been undergoing different phases and indeed paradigm shifts with pendulum swings visible in all directions, which this section will explore in more detail. This has added to a feeling of blurriness of the very concept or to a rather one-sided and partly instrumentalist perspective (see Becker 2019; Ohler 2010), which is a tendency that is also retraced by Frau-Meigs et al. (2017). As Lütge and Merse put it: Digital Citizenship Education often refers to issues concerning the protection of learners facing some kind of digital anarchy, which might best be approached with a stern attitude and an unyielding commitment to follow the right path. (….) In an attempt to safeguard pupils from the atrocities of the digital sphere, a certain dominance of the risk and safety paradigm may be seen as one of the cornerstones of DCE in the first place. (Lütge and Merse 2023, 235) Indeed, as Vivienne, McCosker, and Johns (2016, 1) argue, “the notion of digital citizenship is involved negatively to address problems” and is “frequently anchored in anxieties about users’ vulnerability online.” In fact, one may even argue that over the last decade, the concept of “digital citizenship” has begun to programmatically substitute “cybersafety,” as Third and Collin (2016, 41) suggest. Due to the normative character of such a concept, and particularly so in an educational setting, it is vital to systematically approach the concept in its broader context. In his discussion of the historical context of digital citizenship, Becker (2019) identifies both a pessimistic and an optimistic discourse on cyberspace. Accord‐ ingly, he refers to these notions as underlying currents in a terminologically difficult field that sometimes seems to be wavering around a precise definition of the digital citizen and identifies digital citizenship as an “umbrella term for a dynamic set of competences and skills” (Becker 2019, 168). As Vivienne, McCosker, and Johns (2016, 1) put it, digital citizenship is not simply a set of rights and responsibilities or appropriate behaviors, but “emerges as a fluid interface that connects control mechanisms with people and practices within even the most intimate of cultural contexts.” 244 Christiane Lütge and Thorsten Merse In recent years, much of the work on DCE has in fact been meandering be‐ tween a potential-oriented and an appropriacy-focused position. Summarizing the discourse up to this point, we identify the three following categories, all of which are connected to what may be called either a pessimistic or a deficitoriented discourse on cyberspace in various publications and positions (Lütge and Merse 2023): • A technological notion of DCE Based on some kind of division of a human user and a mechanical tool that needs to be tamed or taken control of, this perspective takes an instrumentalist stance. A human agent (preferably with a philosophically humanist, and ethical and freedom-oriented agenda) thus makes use of digital devices or objects and requires some basic expertise on an operational level. Such a perspective fails to integrate more comprehensive views of an autonomous user in continuously developing digital contexts. • A protectionist notion of DCE Such a view highlights the dangers of the digital world and cyberspace such as identity theft and password fraud etc. However, this notion - at least indirectly - implies the existence of other human users who operate digital devices themselves or impose challenges and even threats by their digital practices. Protectionist approaches fail to integrate the creative and dynamic potential of the digital and cannot appropriately leverage creativity, participation, and agency, which are formulated as key issues in the Digital Citizenship Education Handbook by the Council of Europe (CoE 2019). • A moralistic notion of DCE This notion stresses appropriate behavior only, for example, with a view to netiquette, and a strong normative dimension comes into play. In this notion, the digitally enabled tenets of contemporary social life are in the foreground. However, digital practices beyond “appropriate behavior” are neglected in such a discourse and should be supplemented by a more complex view integrating diversity and interaction. These categories are not completely distinct and have overlaps in some parts. However, with their emphasis on the challenges and deficiencies, and being partly rooted in a skeptical or critical perspective concerning digital encounters, they shape a mindset that may be less helpful for leveraging a fruitful discourse in foreign language education. Models of DCE are often static and do not account for the flexibility of a digital culture in constant movement. In fact, because much of what we discuss Digital Citizenship in English Language Education 245 in terms of priorities and teaching goals can be seen as a “moving target,” it is DCE that has the potential to pave the way towards a much more interactional (see Becker 2019) or discursive model. Definitions of digital citizenship still are under negotiation. Embedded in a multi-dimensional web of power, discourse, and emergent meanings, digital citizenship implies fluidity and multiplicity and, in fact, may be unlikely “ever to settle into a stable status quo” (Vivienne, McCosker, and Johns 2016, 15). Here, parallels with the discourse on interand transcultural learning are obvious and will be traced in the following section. 4. Towards new elements of cultural and global learning? The impact of digital citizenship In educational contexts, we need adaptations that pay tribute to the fact that practical implications and curricular manifestations are required in order to bring about some real sense of transformation. Furthermore, what is needed is an understanding for subject-specific contexts. With a view to both demands we will be discussing two major publications in the field, namely Ribble’s (2015) engagement with DCE and the Digital Citizenship Education Handbook by the Council of Europe (CoE 2019). Ribble (2015, 16-17 and 23-60) puts forward nine elements that are part and parcel of DCE: • Digital Access is concerned with ensuring full participation for all users in a digital society if they choose to do so; • Digital Commerce addresses the knowledge and protection users need to buy and sell goods in the digital world; • Digital Communication focuses on enabling users to exchange information digitally, to understand various digital communication methods, and to choose appropriate means of communication depending on the context; • Digital Literacy deals with processes of teaching and learning about tech‐ nology and the use of technology, alongside sharing that knowledge with others; • Digital Etiquette is concerned with adopting and implementing standards of good conduct and procedures in considerate ways when engaging and interacting with others online and through digital media; • Digital Law means to take on responsibility for one’s actions and deeds performed in the digital sphere, which includes an awareness of laws, rules, and policies that govern the use of digital technologies; 246 Christiane Lütge and Thorsten Merse • Digital Rights and Responsibilities, which seems to be closely connected to the element of Digital Law, is about protecting and defending one’s digital rights and freedoms; • Digital Health and Wellness addresses the well-being of users in a digital technology world and aims at ensuring that users consider both physical and psychological risks when using digital technologies; • Digital Security explicitly focuses on guaranteeing safety and protecting data, which includes taking necessary precautions while being online or while using digital media. Ribble’s framework covers digital citizenship holistically rather than singling out individual concerns and issues. Even though he focuses to a great extent on issues of laws, protection, appropriacy, and responsibility, as reviewing Ribble’s description of each element reveals, the nine elements of the frame‐ work are neither to be seen as “ironclad rules” (Ribble 2015, 17), nor are they linked to specific technologies that might be outdated all too soon anyway. Instead, they are conceptualized as flexible issues that underlie our digital landscapes as they are constantly changing in dynamic ways. Interestingly, our own understanding of digital citizenship education is also echoed in Ribble’s position as he considers the potential of his framework to redefine citizenship into “new meanings beyond our normal understanding of geographical nations, states, and communities” and a “new citizenship [that] is global in nature” (2015, 19). With this, it appears, the words “global” and “digital” seem to collapse into exactly the same sense, with “the digital” being increasingly global, and “the global” being facilitated and tangible through digital processes (see Lütge and Merse 2023). The Digital Citizenship Education Handbook (CoE 2019) is issued by the Council of Europe in the context of a supranational priority to strengthen the general profile of DCE. This handbook puts forward a competenceoriented and structural approach to DCE that entails the values, attitudes, skills, knowledge, as well as critical understanding for acting and interacting online and for navigating the digital world. Tellingly, we would like to stress that the DCE handbook is explicitly rooted in the Council of Europe’s Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture, from which the competence-oriented terminology is derived. Hence, the handbook also aims at empowering people to live together and cooperate as equals in diverse societies, following democratic principles, with the “active contribution of […] citizens towards shared goals within a democratic culture” (CoE 2019, 10). Adding a digital layer to this democratic vista, the handbook arrives at defining a digital citizen as “someone who, through the development of a Digital Citizenship in English Language Education 247 broad range of competences, is able to actively, positively and responsibly engage in both onand offline communities, whether local, national or global” (11). In our understanding of this handbook, this extrapolation from digital competences of an individual “digital citizen” to an indeed global sphere is indeed noteworthy. It stresses the notion that “the digital” and “the global” are intrinsically and inseparably linked in what can safely be called “the global digital citizen” (see also Bielby 2015; Crockett and Churches 2017), acting in a world where digital media and online worlds increasingly deconstruct and overcome boundaries of all sorts, including “school walls” as well as “national frontiers” (CoE 2019, 5), and one may add cultural affiliations (for instance, ethnic, gender and sexual identities, political positions, or socioeconomic and educational backgrounds, to name a few). In its design, the handbook structures its DCE-oriented competences into ten digital domains, which in turn are allocated to three distinct areas: • “Being online” relates to “how we engage and exist online” and entails three domains: access and inclusion, learning and creativity, media and information literacy. • “Well-being online” addresses “how we feel online” and includes the do‐ mains of ethics and empathy, health and well-being, as well as e-presence and communications. • “Rights online” relates to “being accountable online” and comprises the four domains of active participation, rights and responsibilities, privacy and security, and consumer awareness. (adapted from CoE 2019, 11) The DCE handbook develops an encompassing definition of digital citizen‐ ship that focuses on a wide range of competences and activities. Accordingly, digital citizenship entails “creating, consuming, sharing, playing and social‐ izing” as well as “investigating, communicating, learning and working” (CoE 2019, 12) in and through digital worlds. Furthermore, “competent digital citizens are able to respond to new and everyday challenges related to learning, work, employability, leisure, inclusion and participation in society, respecting human rights and intercultural differences” (12). Interestingly, the DCE handbook does not take the form of an instrumental toolkit (similar to Ribble’s framework) or a list of do’s and don’ts. Rather, it develops a broader sociocultural stance towards digital citizenship in which partic‐ ipatory, communicative, creative, intercultural, and also critical notions are implicated in a digital citizen as an active social agent in the digital sphere. We argue that this particular emphasis makes the DCE handbook a 248 Christiane Lütge and Thorsten Merse highly suitable starting point for application and implementation in foreign language pedagogies - and cultural and global learning in particular. To clarify this standpoint, we will now discuss in more detail some selected domains of the DCE handbook that we consider most relevant for learning and teaching foreign languages: • Media and information literacy The need to engage meaningfully with digital media and interact through information channels; this includes moving from understanding to creating to criticizing information circulating through digital and online media. It also entails choosing suitable media for the purpose one is pursuing, for instance, finding and interpreting information, sharing a viewpoint, or creative self-expression (see CoE 2019, 48-54). • Ethics and empathy Building respectful and responsible relationships with other people and in diverse communities through digital means is important in this context and revolves around “the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within the other person’s frame of reference” (CoE 2019, 60). This is of particular significance for foreign language education, where such perspective-taking is the backbone of any interor transcultural learning and of any discovery of cultural aspects in foreign language communities (Blell and Doff 2014; Byram 1997). • E-presence and communication This domain covers two components. One is about managing and main‐ taining one’s online identity or presence in digital media in order to craft a well-developed e-presence, to reflect on what could impede one’s online reputation, and to decide on one’s own privacy protection. The other is about interacting and communicating online and digitally, for example, when sharing and exchanging ideas and information on social media or in a gaming environment, and in doing so, considering the communicative conventions specific to a certain medium (see CoE 2019, 78-84). • Active participation Empowering learners to become active agents in the digital world and the democratic cultures they are immersed in is strongly associated with an orientation towards the freedom of “speaking their mind, sharing their opinions and putting their views on display” (CoE 2019, 92) in order to make a difference in communities. While notions of protection and security are certainly still relevant to any concept of DCE, we endorse the competence-oriented focus of the DCE hand‐ Digital Citizenship in English Language Education 249 book because it positions learners not merely as being “in danger” in light of “digital threats,” but as empowered users of digital media, active members of online communities, and creative designers of their own self-expression. One might cautiously argue that this positive horizon mirrors the goals rather than the starting points of any digital citizenship education. Yet at the same time, the normative and encompassing orientation of the DCE handbook can serve to initiate novel educational processes that harness the potentials of being immersed in digital worlds. As our discussion has shown, such processes can also play out productively in foreign language education. Even though such links to concrete subjects are still rare in the overarching nature of the DCE handbook, it does invite researchers and practitioners alike to transfer what it means to educate digital and global citizens into their subject-specific realms while simultaneously acknowledging that what the digital or global citizen means is in itself fluid and changeable. 5. A model for teaching digital citizenship in a foreign language context In this section, we identify five dimensions relevant to foreign language education (FLE) and connect them with digital and global considerations. In doing so, we explore and establish a theoretical-conceptual model for projecting global digital citizenship - and educating global and digital citizens of the future - within the horizon of foreign language learning and teaching (see Lütge and Merse 2023). Below, we discuss the five dimensions included in this model. As is illustrated in Figure 11.1, we envisage these dimensions as a four-plus-one model: There are four distinct FLE dimensions that are coupled with “global digital” priorities such as participation, interaction, or diversity. Additionally, the fifth dimension of critical reflection is transversal in nature as it cuts across, and leans into, all four other perspectives collected in this model. 250 Christiane Lütge and Thorsten Merse Figure 11.1 The four-plus-one model of digital citizenship for educating the global citizens of the future in contexts of foreign language learning and teaching (Lütge and Merse 2023) - 5.1 Communication dimension: Global and digital literacies Probably the most obvious connection between DCE and FLE is the learners’ - or the developing digital citizens’ - acquisition of language competences and language means that empowers them to participate fully in the digital world. This communication dimension of DCE entails a receptive dimension, including competences of listening, reading, and viewing, that gives learners access to digital media content and helps them understand and decipher such content in other languages, for example, as it is found in blogs, microblogs, social media sites, video platforms, and chat tools. From a productive point of view, learners Digital Citizenship in English Language Education 251 can also actively use and produce language as agents and participants in their digital environments. Rather than being passive consumers of digital content (even though receiving digital content most certainly is never just a passive action), learners can unfold more creative cultures of digital practice and digital engagement and should not be restricted or discouraged from doing so in overprotectionist approaches. Such agency and participation through language can take many imaginable forms, ranging from commenting on someone else’s social media post to sharing a self-made YouTube video to becoming engaged in civil society by following and joining digital-activist campaigns, for instance, on climate change. However, as meaning is conveyed and communication is achieved, learners can use increasingly multimodal forms of expression that do not just rely on spoken or written language as the sole mode of meaning-making. Indeed, digital technologies enable new forms of production and consumption as well as learner engagement where learners can come to understand how they can best convey and receive meaning and content through deliberately combining modes of meaning-making in the digital media they are creating or using themselves (see Beavis 2013; Kress 2015; Lütge, Merse, and Stannard 2021). Such practices have been framed in research as digital literacies, and we argue here that fostering the language dimension in digital citizens must ideally be connected with developing digital literacies, which can be defined with the words of Dudeney, Hockly, and Pegrum (2013, 2) as “the individual and social skills needed to effectively interpret, manage, share and create meaning in the growing range of digital communication channels.” Learners can also draw on such new forms and practices of meaning-making for creative and aesthetic self-expression. In fact, creative and active notions of digital citizenship are implicated in new and evermore digital practices, highlighting the dynamic nature of digital environments. - 5.2 Interand transcultural dimension: Global and digital interaction For teaching and learning in a foreign language classroom, and in digital exten‐ sions that go beyond classroom walls, it needs to be considered how otherwise geographically distant cultural spheres can be experienced more immediately in a world that is seemingly and metaphorically shrunk by digital media in what could be called a “global-digital village.” Obviously, learners can use digital channels such as YouTube, Twitter, and Instagram, including the more personal digital accounts and narratives found on such sites, to remain in touch with current and dynamic sociocultural developments, ranging from almost standard cultural themes such as food, sports, and youth trends to more controversial is‐ sues such as anti-racism movements, activism against homophobia and sexism, 252 Christiane Lütge and Thorsten Merse or political debates surrounding environmental protection. However, such a positive horizon of cultural learning needs to be juxtaposed with more cautious viewpoints. On one level, cultural information found online can be influenced by one-sided and possibly distorted digital filter bubbles and echo chambers. Hence, digital cultural encounters and exchanges are ideally accompanied by critical questioning and evaluating or establishing multiple perspectives and voices on a shared cultural theme. On another level, we argue that we are currently experiencing dynamic cultural shifts facilitated through digital media that might result in more cross-cultural encounters either bridging traditional cultural affiliations or re-enforcing differences and even cultural clichés. Such developments, especially in the digital world, need careful examining from interand transcultural viewpoints, which is why established priorities of cultural learning and democratic education such as empathy, changing perspectives, or critical awareness will continue to remain relevant in digital environments - and they might become even more important in the future. - 5.3 Identity dimension: Global and digital participation Within foreign language education discourses, identity aspects have been researched and discussed in view of how language learning can affirm and empower learners’ individual identities, and how they can become invested in the learning process with their respective identity facets as their resource (e.g., Norton and Toohey 2011). For DCE, engaging with identities can come to matter on various levels. Hintz, Dencik, and Wahl-Jorgensen (2019, 20), for example, take on a performative stance on digital citizenship and focus on the “self-enactment of digital subjects” who construct and build their identities on digital acts. According to Becker (2019, 179), such interplay between individuals, digital spaces and their identities is the most obvious direction from which to approach the aspect of identities in DCE as it “becomes directly visible in online contexts in which identity formation and self-presentation are at the very centre of attention,” that is, individuals control their identity performances and use digital media actively for these performances. We believe that these various ways to conceptualize and approach the rela‐ tionship between DCE and identities can be harnessed productively in FLE from a participatory vantage point (see also Mattson 2017): learners can be empowered to learn about diverse cultural identities online (also those that are often underrepresented elsewhere), to self-express their own diverse identities through digital media (if they choose to do so), and to reflect on the complex and mutual negotiation of identities between the self and the digital world (e.g., in terms of how we shape the digital world, and how the digital world shapes us). Digital Citizenship in English Language Education 253 5.4 Content dimension: Global and digital contexts In foreign language education, there is some good degree of freedom to choose the content (i.e., themes and topics) for the classroom upon which language learning can be hinged. From the perspective of content orientation, the preference is for personally meaningful and socially relevant themes (Nieweler 2017), which in the context of global education and global citizenship education are often framed as “global issues” (Cates 2002, 41). Such issues represent urgent themes of our times that matter globally and that cannot be contained within certain regions or nation states. In view of content orientation in FLE, this means that current themes and global issues can be explored in terms of how they are negotiated in and across digital media. Here, however, digital media are not just to be instrumentalized as windows into such themes. Rather, we argue, digital media can provide multi-perspectivity that represents the discourses surrounding such themes (including digitalization itself) in multifaceted, controversial and also contradictory ways. - 5.5 Critical and reflective dimension: Awareness for global and digital diversity In our model, we argue for a strong critical and reflective component that makes it possible to reflect on the increasing digitalization of learners’ lifeworlds. Ultimately, all links between DCE and FLE discussed above demand a transversal approach of thorough critical reflection that cuts across aspects of communica‐ tion and language use, interand transcultural learning as well as engaging with identities and content issues in the digital world. We would like to emphasize that becoming a digital citizen cannot be reduced to managing appropriate online behavior or sticking to normative digital rules and regulations (even though such aspects remain relevant). Rather, what is needed is a critical and reflective dimension in addition to more pragmatic approaches to DCE (see Becker 2019; Lütge and Merse 2023). This way, being a competent user or consumer of digital media is coupled with a deeper layer of understanding the complexities and diversities of the digital world. Including this critical and reflective component into the scope of DCE in FLE addresses the need to turn digital media themselves into a subject of reflection, and it will be the role of educators to support learners in critically reconsidering and evaluating the roles and effects of media in their own lifeworlds and in society at large (see Lütge and Merse 2021; Schmidt and Strasser 2018). 254 Christiane Lütge and Thorsten Merse 6. Moving digital citizenship education into the EFL classroom When it comes to moving DCE into the EFL classroom, we argue, the challenge is to identify relevant digital texts and to design engaging tasks that give learners the opportunity to explore and reflect on issues of language, culture, identity, and content vis-à-vis digitalization. We further posit that such texts and tasks can be combined into pedagogic ensembles, to use Delanoy’s (2015) and Decke- Cornill’s (1994) terminology, that make for holistic learning arrangements. To provide an exemplary impulse of how such transfer into the classroom can be achieved, we address how queer identities as a facet of cultural diversity are negotiated and represented in digital worlds. In particular, we focus on queer autobiographical narratives as they can be found on digital platforms (see Merse 2018, 2022), and couple their use with tasks that are oriented towards the DCE principles in foreign language education developed above. We Are the Youth (http: / / wearetheyouth.org) and I’m from Driftwood (htt ps: / / imfromdriftwood.com) are both elaborated digital story archives where people who identify themselves among the queer spectrum as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or non-binary (LGBTQ+) use the digital space to present deeply personal and engaging narratives about being or becoming queer as their social and cultural identities. Interestingly, these digital archives do not, however, single out LGBTQ+ identities. Rather, they often take an intersectional stance in which sexual and gender identities as well as norms are related to other identity aspects such as ethnicity, age, socioeconomic background, or religion, and in achieving this, form complex stories of life-making ranging from optimistic empowerment to experienced oppression. We Are the Youth represents individual people in profiles by way of a photograph and an as-toldto interview, while I’m from Driftwood works with video sequences in which LGBTQ+ people share and narrate their life experience. Given the complexity and diversity of the narratives found in these digital environments, they form unique digital text ensembles that lend themselves to DCE-oriented engagement in the EFL classroom, for example, by considering the following practice-oriented suggestions: • To understand the content of these digital story archives, learners need to decipher how meaning is conveyed here not through written or spoken language alone, but also through visual impulses, still or moving. In the digital space, these modes work together to bring the people that are repre‐ sented here to life. When describing the various multimodal dimensions of the profiles or videos, learners can retrace how digital technologies enable Digital Citizenship in English Language Education 255 new forms of production for people to make their voices heard and share ideas and outlooks on life. • From a reflective viewpoint, learners can discuss how digital media afford queer people with (more easily accessible) tools and practices to write themselves into visibility and thus counter possible social marginalization with digital means of “queer worldmaking” (West et al. 2013, 54). At the same time, however, learners can also reflect critically in how far queer digital visibility may actually lead to improvements in “real” life, or whether gaps between virtual and real life might in fact be difficult to bridge. • By their nature of being digital spaces, We Are the Youth and I’m from Driftwood also invite participatory and interactive practices by learners. They offer contact options via e-mail, comment, or blog post so that learners can respond to the digital narratives by sharing own worldviews, questions or words of support, similar stories, or reflections on what they have learned from these narratives. From a production-oriented viewpoint, learners could adopt the digital meaning-making practices of these environments to share their own life stories or their positioning towards current themes of the time (going beyond the queer content focus of these sites). • In view of cultural learning, digital spaces such as We Are the Youth or I’m from Driftwood facilitate access to “new” themes in the scope of interand transcultural learning that might be more challenging than allegedly “standard” (and “safer”) topics. Changing and coordinating perspectives while engaging with queer identity narratives found online, learners can reflect on their own norms and values or reflect on whether such identitybased digital spaces might diversify or re-binarize cultural affiliations and senses of belonging. Certainly, these exemplary suggestions can and should be remixed and adapted to focus on DCE priorities in different ways, for instance, by highlighting other content areas, or by addressing the use of digital literacies in more creative ways. In this sense, the teaching and learning suggestions provided above can establish a methodological matrix in which ensembles of other digital texts and media and other digitally-attuned tasks can be combined to facilitate DCE practices in foreign language education. 7. Conclusion Foreign language education with its globally relevant and internationally situated transcultural contexts depends on both pragmatic hands-on approaches as well as an awareness of differences and diversity. Interand transcultural 256 Christiane Lütge and Thorsten Merse learning over the last 20 years has certainly helped foster more reflective pedagogies. Similarly, the discourse on multiliteracies (see Kalantzis et al. 2016) has further developed an understanding for the variety of competences necessary for learners’ empowerment. Digital literacy and global competences seem to be merging in models of digital citizenship education, and, as we have argued, might even overcome one-sided or binary approaches to teaching. Starting out from a rather fuzzy understanding of both its components, digitality and global citizenship, we concede that an integrative approach combining existing instrumental aspects with a more interactional perspective on digital citizenship education can be a first step towards a less fragmented and allencompassing trajectory for teaching and learning. Following Third and Collin (2016), we argue against addressing digital citizenship as a synonym for cybersafety and instead advocate for rethinking global citizenship through the digital. In fact, limited framings are criticized by them when they argue “for a focus on the ways that the imbrication of the digital with the time-space of “the every-day” (de Certeau 1988; Lefebvre 2000) opens up productive possibilities for disrupting and contesting citizenship” (Third and Collin 2016, 41). 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Introduction Two incidents reveal how racist thinking, insensitivity, and a lack of awareness toward racism manifest in seemingly well-meant and innocent contexts: On November 30, 2020, the WDR, a German broadcasting station, aired a talk show in which five white upper-class celebrities talked about and made fun of racism, race-sensitive language, and experiences of discrimination (Letzte Instanz 2020). 1 On February 1, 2021, the Tiroler Tageszeitung, a regional Austrian newspaper, reported that the online platform of the education board in Tyrol, Austria, contained a worksheet for young learners with handwriting exercises. The resource was labelled with the German “n”-word and depicted a “Black African” (Nindler 2021). Both incidents left me shaking my head in disbelief; I wondered how something like this can happen at a time in which #BlackLives‐ Matter is ever present on the news and social media, reporting on crimes and discrimination against Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPoC). I am very sure that by the time this essay will be published, further such instances will have occurred, with only a few of them documented and reported on the news. While I could engage in a critical discussion of the content and surrounding discourse on racism of both incidents, I am afraid that this will add little to the existing discourse on racism and harassment of BIPoC in public, legal, and administrative spheres. Sadly, these are only two of countless examples. Rather, I would like to contemplate on current conceptualizations of the broad spectrum of critical cultural awareness and certain changes that surface in cultural learning. As readers may recognize, Quo Vadis Cultural Learning 2.0 is a reference to Werner Delanoy’s chapter “From ‘inter’ to ‘trans’? Or: Quo Vadis Cultural Learning” in which he critically reflects the necessity of a paradigm shift in EFL teaching. This shift regards a movement from an interto a transcultural approach to cultural learning and is grounded in differing effects the prefix “trans” has, or has not, had on culture, language, and identity. For engaging with cultural learning 2.0, I would like to use current contexts of cultural learning as a starting point and then focus on digitization and how it has shifted the way people communicate with one another. Here, I elaborate on three main dimensions in which I see these shifts, namely de-localization, detemporalization, and disembodiment. I will close with a brief reflection on the competences and literacies needed to comprehend and deal with recent sociocultural developments. 2. Current contexts of cultural learning When considering cultural learning in the 21 st century and attempting to reflect on what is or could be new about the concept, one should regard the context in which cultural learning takes place. “Quo vadis cultural learning 2.0? ” indicates that the current concept of cultural learning has undergone changes that make it necessary to think about its current state and future development. Metaphorically speaking, cultural learning seems to have reached a junction from which several paths could lead. This image likewise means that there is a path that cultural learning is coming from. I would like to anchor my reflection on this current context of cultural learning in the societal and the academic sphere: I consider the increased diversification of societies and the ubiquitous availability of information as a result of digitization to be two of the main factors that have influenced the way we (need to) reconsider cultural learning. Socio-political and educational-political developments have increased the diversity of societies and classrooms in which cultural learning takes place. Socio-politically, globalization has been a driving force in this process as it has added to individual mobility and (in)voluntary migration, options for trade, and international industrial cooperation. Similarly, disparate distributions of capital and power as well as a mismatch of participation in processes of decisionmaking continuously lead to (inter)national conflicts and gruesome atrocities, which in turn cause further migration. The potential of globalization on the one hand and its challenges on the other have resulted in an increasingly diverse makeup of society as people 262 Grit Alter from various walks of life cross borders, be it, for instance, to benefit from new employment options or to join partners, or due to inner-political conflicts or persecution in their respective home countries. While one may need to distinguish between rural and urban areas, there is hardly any society that nowadays is not multicultural, at least to a certain extent. Such socio-political developments have led to an increased presence of learners with migration biographies on all levels. If we consider cultural learning to be about developing skills and competences in communicating with others, already the very makeup of current societies and classrooms offers plenty of reasons and incentives to do so. In terms of developments with regard to education policies and strategies, inclusion as a policy has further increased diversity in schools. Inclusion refers to a pedagogic approach in which all students are welcome to regular schools so that diversity and heterogeneity are considered a norm (UNESCO 2009). Students with mental and/ or physical varieties are entitled to participate in education with everyone else and no longer have to go to separate schools in which they receive special needs education. This primarily demands a school environment that accommodates learners with learning differences so that everyone’s skills and competences can be fostered (Burwitz-Melzer et al. 2017; Kormos and Smith 2012), not only in terms of the architecture of the school building, but also in terms of methodology when materials and task need to be differentiated and individualized. The socioand educational-political developments indicated above offer potential for cultural learning because students meet other students from various walks of life. They get to negotiate meaning within potential language and cultural diversity, which is one of the main elements of cultural learning. Furthermore, schools are to recognize multilingual identities and represent these in all spheres (Hu 2003; Meißner and Reinfried 1998). Actively recognizing and welcoming all students to classrooms where they can learn, work, and live together, bares the potential of engaging in cultural learning beyond a narrow understanding of cultural alterity (see below). A large part of the context of cultural learning is determined by the scholar‐ ship within this field. A look into recent introductions to or lecture series on cultural learning (e.g., by Lotta König at Bielefeld University in 2020 or Birgit Schädlich and Carola Surkamp at Göttingen University in 2021) reveals that within the past decades intercultural learning has branched out into broader concepts. In order to trace some of the steps taken, the following section offers a short overview of concepts that can be regarded as a furthering of Michael Being Culturally Competent 263 Byram’s seminal text Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Com‐ petence (1997). As to advance the concept of interand transcultural learning (e.g., Alter 2015; Delanoy 2012; Volkmann 2011), current conceptualizations move beyond a para‐ digm of “us” and “them.” This needs to be adjusted to socio-cultural and sociopolitical developments as it remains within narrow cultural determinations which are still afflicted with nation-based assumptions. Particularly the concept of the transcultural has taken steps toward overcoming such dichotomies by focusing on topics and issues that are of transcultural concern. Even so, it implies the notion of how “we” and other cultures act, for example, with regard to expressions of friendship, family life, and love. Against this background, concepts such as discourse awareness and Global Education avoid a terminology of “culture” altogether, both of which will be explored below. Discourse ability (Hallet 2008) and discourse awareness (Plikat 2017) can be regarded as clusters of competences that allow people to participate in public and private discourses. These are increasingly characterized by multimodality, multiple perspectives, and complex topics (Hallet 2008) as well as fluidity, reflexivity, and educational and ethical-political dimensions (Plikat 2017). Thus, it is paramount that people can navigate those, build an opinion based on critical reflections, and contribute to respective discourses themselves. Plikat (2017) suggests discourse awareness as an objective for cultural learning in foreign language teaching that enables learners to critically consider current developments and negotiate meaning with others. Even so, Hu (2018) challenges in how far it is even possible to conceive of language education beyond references to concepts of culture. After all, culture, whether understood as a narrow or broad concept, as well as the need for cultural anchoring and identity are part of a learner’s self-concept and can thus not be neglected. A second pathway of conceptualizing cultural learning leads to Global Education (GE) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). GE tries to integrate global and local perspectives on politics, the economy, ecology and human rights into holistic language learning that emphasizes its linguistic, cultural, and literary dimensions. Compared to the strong empathic notion of interand transcultural learning, GE puts more emphasis on political and social aspects of a common and harmonic existence. Selby (2000, 2) defines GE as a “holistic paradigm of education predicted upon the interconnectedness of communities, lands, and peoples, the interrelatedness of all social, cultural and natural phenomena, the interpenetrative nature of the cognitive, affective, physical and spiritual dimensions of the human being.” Accordingly, learners are to be enabled to act responsibly in this interconnected world and to shape 264 Grit Alter 2 Please refer to Wehrmann (2021) for a critical discussion of ESD. their future to that effect their own, their local, and their global community’s future. Hence, it is inevitable that GE carries with it a political notion, as learners understand themselves as active participants in designing the future by cooperating with others. For this, they need to be able to think critically, creatively and beyond national borders (cf. Alter and Wehrmann 2021). In this sense, global competence is defined as “the capacity to examine local, global and intercultural issues, to understand and appreciate the perspectives and world views of others, to engage in open, appropriate and effective interactions with people from different cultures, and to act for collective well-being and sustainable development” (OECD 2018b, 7). Regarding the increased diversity of societies in all kinds of identity markers, it is imperative that “others” here refers to other people in general, beyond a narrow understanding of other ethnicities (Alter 2015). Intracultural diversity is increasing as well, which is not necessarily related to different ethnic origins but also to socio-economic status, sexuality, gender, age, and abilities. ESD and its Goals are a promising program for realizing GE as it “empower[s] individuals to reflect on their own actions, taking into account their current and future social, cultural, economic and environmental impacts, from a local and a global perspective” (UNESCO 2017, 7). ESD is anchored in a justice discourse, as the idea of ‘sustainable development’ understands so-called ‘environmental’ issues as problems of justice in two dimensions: as a regionally unequal use of resources and as the potential destruction of the living conditions of future generations. It is an important accomplishment to describe sustainability as a problem of global and intergenerational justice, rather than as a mere technological or technocratic issue. (Wehrmann, 2021, p.-18) Wehrmann emphasizes a “global gaze” with which to take account of local and global challenges. Humans are to take mutual responsibility for creating a world which benefits from and is beneficial for its diverse people and the environment. 2 As to “secure a sustainable, peaceful, prosperous and equitable life on earth for everyone now and in the future” (UNESCO 2017, 6), the Sustainable Development Goals define 17 areas for which cognitive, socio-cultural and behavioral competences are suggested. These aim at ending poverty, combating climate change, or conserving and sustainably using the oceans, for example. It is imperative to understand that these challenges are interconnected: Causes and effects are visible in all regions and everyone can contribute to solving these. Being Culturally Competent 265 Hence, a re-establishment of the aforementioned dichotomy of “us” and “them” needs to be avoided. On the contrary, it needs to be acknowledged that issues such as poverty and gender equality most certainly exist in front of people’s doorsteps and one should not make the mistake of moving these to other ends of the world. 3. Digitization and cultural learning Apart from a diversification of societies and classrooms, digitization has im‐ pacted cultural learning as well. Digitization has become the driving force of globalization as it allows individuals and companies to connect around the world, and as it has provided many people with access to information, education, and opportunities on the labor market. Digitization has made it possible to immediately exchange information and to participate in public discourses that are taking place on the other side of the globe. The world itself seems to be available with a click of the computer mouse or a swipe of one’s fingertips. Local as well as global issues have thereby gained a new publicity that allows people to draw attention to severe injustices they themselves or the public are facing. A girl from Sweden starting a global mass movement that raises awareness of the climate crisis or regional ethnic groups reporting on institutionalized genocide, for instance, the persecution and internment of the Uyghurs in China are but two current examples. In this sense, digitization has been a central means for people to participate in the world and, thus, to actually be global citizens. When digital media that can have such effects is coupled with cultural learning, certain shifts and changes can be observed. I have recently elaborated on how digitization may influence the objectives and teaching practices of developing cultural competences (Alter 2021). In the following, I would like to offer a more fundamental reflection on how digitization has changed cultural learning. Such changes are particularly relevant for a de-localized, de-temporal, and disembodied nature of cultural learning. While sections on de-localization and de-temporalization rather focus on the potential of such developments and reflect their meaning for cultural learning, disembodiment adds a critical perspective. - 3.1 Cultural learning has become de-localized Digitization has de-localized cultural learning. Given that people have access to the internet, they can share and receive information independent of where they are located. People can thus gain insights into events and discourses 266 Grit Alter simultaneously to when these are taking place, even though they may occur thousands of miles away. A further part of de-localizing cultural learning is that the internet itself has become a discursive space of cultural learning, a space that allows people to share stories beyond national, cultural, and ideological borders. Certainly, foreign language classrooms can benefit from methods such as telecollaboration (Dooly Owenby and O’Dowd 2018). Even so, situating the negotiation of global issues in the digital sphere allows new means of participating and reflecting on global issues. Three examples shall exemplify this: • Some people’s sexual or gender identity is not accepted in their analog surroundings so that the digital world provides them with a safe space to be who they are. There, they may be able to express themselves, get into contact with others who are in similar situations, and find a place of belonging where people support one another (Merse 2015). • The Fridays for Future-movement benefits from various social media chan‐ nels and communication apps which allow members to organize, plan, and coordinate their events and demonstrations (Wegner and Amend 2020a). In fact, it was a single post on Instagram and Twitter showing Greta Thunberg holding a sign “Skolstreik för Klimatet” in August 2018 that has started the global movement for which the internet has become a digital meeting point. • For communities such the pro-democracy activists in Hong Kong, the digital has become a space to share unfiltered information about the government’s restrictions of human rights. This example proves to be significant in that the protesters’ use of social media reflects an increased awareness of cybersecurity, for example, in terms of remaining anonymous to avoid being arrested by authorities (Shao 2019). The digital has become a space of belonging for people who do not find space in their analog world, a space to coordinate local and global activism, and a space to inform the public about political or socio-cultural abuses of power in places that restrict the free press. In foreign language teaching, learners can benefit from these de-localized opportunities for cultural learning on several levels. Using the internet and exploring digital spaces, they may inform themselves about events, movements, or global issues. They can use digital media to participate in discourses and visit spaces without actually leaving their classrooms. In this sense, the internet becomes a window into the world to which they may otherwise not have access. Teachers and learners have the option to broadcast respective content into their classrooms and include it in their learning processes. What is more, they can use Being Culturally Competent 267 this space themselves, be it to voice their concerns on global issues or to explore individual processes of identity formation, for example, through blogging or vlogging. These examples illustrate how cultural learning has become de-localized. It is no longer necessary to leave one’s own locale to engage with other people, but one can still get holistic insights into current issues. In turn, this has contributed to the diversification of contexts and identities that can be encountered online. - 3.2 Cultural learning has become de-temporalized Digitization has led to a growing de-temporalization of cultural learning. One indicator of this is the ubiquitous availability of information. Increasingly digital mechanisms of storing and sharing information have made it possible to create online archives to which users have immediate access from wherever they are. User accounts allow readers to personalize these archives and to save content to personal devices. As such websites often include a comment section, it is possible to discuss events and opinions online even when these lie in the past. While the internet makes it possible to immediately receive information about events around the world, thus enabling a simultaneous flow of information parallel to the occurrences of events, it also allows to access information long after these events have passed. This de-temporalization of access to information allows language educators to gain almost unlimited access to authentic materials. In classroom settings, learners can inform themselves about global events and negotiate meaning independent of their immediate present as they are able to use the technology to reach into the past. This appears to be particularly relevant at times of political or climate crises which are often the result of historic developments and decisions made in the past. A challenge that cannot be ignored, however, is posed by the risk that not all of the information to be found is reliable. This and further challenges entailed in the effects of digitization for cultural learning are summarized as a disembodiment of cultural learning as explored below. - 3.3 Cultural learning has become disembodied Digitization has disembodied cultural learning. By this I mean that users of the internet, particularly of social media, may extend their real-life identities with new features and characteristics, or create new identities. While the two changes reflected above underline the benefits for cultural learning, the disembodiment of communication partners in digital discourses leads to more controversial aspects. This is based on a certain degree of anonymity that the 268 Grit Alter digital world offers. On the one hand, this anonymity accounts for the way in which information can be published and shared; on the other hand, this accounts for the way in which online identities are constructed. Two examples shall illustrate this: Applications such as Wikipedia, WordPress, or YouTube allow individuals to publish and share content either anonymously or by using nicknames; and even when clear names are used, users cannot be sure whether this is a person’s name or not. As indicated above, this offers socio-culturally oppressed individuals a chance to stand by themselves, at least digitally. Even so, this possibility to publish content without necessarily revealing real-life identities simultaneously bears the risk that discriminatory content is published. Then, it is only through complex tracing and legal persecution that those responsible can be held accountable. Nowadays, programs such as “hassmelden.de” support people in reporting hate speech. In terms of creating identities, several means can be applied to construct virtual selves, be those inventing user names, selecting photos, or sharing and liking information from specific resources. All of these can contribute to a certain optimization of identity, but likewise to blurring who people are online and how they want to be seen by others. This constructedness of identities implies that users cannot be really sure who they encounter online, who shares information, and in how far they can be trusted (e.g., Gündüz 2017). Collaborations, acquisitions, and the merging of companies and interest groups make it challenging to identify who the agents behind certain websites are and which intentions they have. In this context, sourcing has become an essential part of the critical media literacy. A term borrowed from management and economy, sourcing here refers to tracing and locating the source of information and to identify and critically reflect available metadata to information found online. Sourcing also includes assessing the degree to which the pieces of information are relevant and plausible for the content one is looking for (Brante and Strømsø 2018). Online, this is mainly done by investigating the imprint of webpages to find out to which larger company or interest group a host belongs. Such doublechecking of authorand ownership is crucial because there is an increasing number of webpages that, on first sight, appear to offer reliable and fact-checked information, but which actually follow a specific agenda to implement a certain mindset and ideology in their readers. One may, for example, think that one reads neutral information on homeland security only to find out that the page is tinted with a right-wing ideology. Due to the vast options for publishing and linking content, and the use of a specific rhetoric, for example, professional images and layout or references to apparent experts and statistics, it has become Being Culturally Competent 269 increasingly difficult to estimate in how far information is reliable, which makes sourcing an important skill. For cultural learning, this has two major consequences: a) cultural learning needs to be extended to include the competences of critical thinking and digital literacy, and b) cultural learning needs to (re)consider principles such as respon‐ sibility, ownership, and authenticity. While a) refers to an extension of Byram’s (1997) model of intercultural communicative competence to a digital component that I discussed elsewhere (Alter 2021), I would like to elaborate on b) in more detail. It may be that the way in which learners express themselves through their constructed identities could diverge from the way they do in their real-life identities, and rather perform an identity. Still, users and learners are certainly responsible for the content they publish. One could even argue that not knowing the communication partners personally increases the level of sensitivity with which messages need to be read and written. Online, communicative means such as mimics, gestures, and intonation, which usually help to identify, for instance, irony and sarcasm, are often missing; and even the odd emoji may not always clarify how a message is meant. Thus, it is necessary that learners abide to rules that equally apply to analogue communication, such as being polite and respectful, asking for clarification, and using precise formulations. If misunderstandings occur, they need to consider whether and how they can contribute to solving these, for which respective language structures such as apologizing or offering explanations, and personality traits such as selfconfidence and courage are important. Furthermore, this disembodiment of communicating in digital spaces and the disembodiment of communication partners can have detrimental effects. First, one could question in how far such online discourses with participants who can largely remain anonymous or at least creatively construct identities, are still authentic. In fact, users and learners are unlikely to know the person with whom they communicate. In some cases, it may even be that people are substituted by bots that engage in conversations. Automated responses given by artificial intelligence programs are becoming increasingly sophisticated, so that even experts have difficulty distinguishing whether they communicate with a person or a bot, for example, when these are as elaborated as Google Dublex, which uses natural language and understanding and is based on deep learning (cf. Wegner and Amend 2020b). When learners see through practices of substituting real people with artificial intelligence-based bots, they may develop an underlying skepticism of online communication and feel less motivated to participate in these discourses. 270 Grit Alter Second, one could challenge how participants position themselves to the discourses in which they take part. Because they do so from the safe distance and comfort of their screens, one could assume that the learners could be less engaged with the content they reflect. Because the communication partners do not really know each other and as it is seldom the case that pen pals actually meet in person, they may also feel less responsible for the content they contribute to conversations. Such processes of detaching oneself from subject-matters due to a certain disembodiment that digitization provides, could actually limit the outcome of cultural learning. A further issue that continuously moves along the issue of digitization, and which has surfaced above, is participation in general. Whenever this chapter addresses that almost any content can be accessed by almost anyone, this needs to be limited to individuals who actually have the possibility to do so in the first place. Certainly, one needs access to respective technological devices and infrastructure to be part of and participate in the discourses that got transferred to the digital sphere. Thus, participation becomes a question of the individuals’ socio-economic and socio-cultural background. As the im‐ plementation of distance teaching and learning in the context of the Covid-19 crisis has revealed, access to a device at home has been a barrier to education for a certain percentage of students (e.g., Pelikan et al. 2021; Schleicher 2020; Trültzsch-Wijnen and Trültzsch-Wijnen 2020). Additionally, in some cultures the option to access technology and the digital world is grounded in gender (cf., Broadband Commission Working Group on Broadband and Gender 2013; OECD 2018a). Participation also refers to the question of who is actually able to present their content online and find an audience. Simply publishing content and sharing information online does not make much of a difference if it is not considered and productively received. Here, petitions shared on platforms such as change.com could serve as examples. While these are shared online, they may still not find enough supporters to be successful. Questions of being (in)visible online or (not) having the power to broadcast opinions address the perception of the internet as a safe space. The recent withdrawal of BIPoC politicians in Germany is but one dramatic example of how the public discourse is affected by radical positions made public online (Bündnis 90/ Die Grünen 2021). These aspects raise the larger question of who can really access and participate in cultural and global discourses. Who can benefit despite such disembodiments? Who is empowered to contribute to such discourses? Who can make their voices heard? Who decides which contents move center stage? These questions indicate how digitization may have created an elite and a power-based Being Culturally Competent 271 idea of public discourse. The relevant online content is produced by few people while many do not have the energy, time, infrastructure, or simply the skills and resilience to actually be part of technological progress. Similarly, the critical reflection on GE and ESD (Alter and Wehrmann 2021, Wehrmann 2021) reveals that such inequalities cannot be overcome by individuals themselves, but are grounded in complex systemic conditions. Hence, the elaboration on current conceptualizations of cultural learning above needs to be further extended to notions of decolonizing cultural learning (Despagne 2020; Macedo 2019) so as to critically reflect which perspectives and issues of cultural learning are discussed and presented by who and for whom. 4. Competences and literacies within cultural learning 2.0 Conceptualizations of cultural learning and the effects of digitization on its practice aside, this section offers a short outlook on the competences that are part of cultural learning 2.0. Which cultural competences do (young) people need in order to navigate a world that is increasingly dominated by the opportunities the internet offers but also the challenges it poses? What is essential in the current discourse, to my mind, is not so much the question of agreeing on a conceptual compromise (section 2) but rather a critical awareness of where education leads us. Cultural learning that faces the shifts and changes mentioned above can still be based on prior competence models, for example, Byram’s model of intercultural communicative competence (ICC; 1997). Even so, I believe this needs to be extended by the competences ESD focusses on and which refer to the cognitive (knowledge and skills, critical thinking), socio-emotional (values, attitudes, motivation, soft-skills), and behav‐ ioral (action) domain (UNESCO 2014, 2017). Furthermore, I would couple this with the 21 st century skills suggested by Battelle for Kids (2019). These include learning and innovation skills (critical thinking, communication, creativity, collaboration), information, media, and technology skills, life and career skills, as well as the 3Rs (Reading, wRiting, aRithmetics) and 21 st century themes. It is imperative that young people develop the skills and competences necessary to maneuver through an increasingly complex world in which alterity is ever present and in which omnipresent information flows pose challenges for individual identity formation, particularly so in the context of socio-cultural and socio-economic ambiguity. This ability to tolerate ambiguity not only refers to one’s individual life plan, but to larger social contexts as well. Apparently, nowadays it is, for instance, possible to live in a country which is led by an openly racist and misogynist president, while simultaneously, the CEOs of 272 Grit Alter the three largest and most influential companies are BIPoC or gay (Google’s Pichai Sundararajan, Microsoft’s Satya Narayana Nadella, and Apple’s Tim Cook). On an individual level, ambiguity tolerance may refer to withstanding unpredictably fast and sudden changes to one’s own prospects in life. Certain trends, clothes, games, or the popularity of celebrities nowadays tend to have a rather ephemeral nature, which demands individuals to be either persistent or flexible with their identification with these. Within a world that is becoming increasingly unreliable, it is paramount to ensure that young people find orientation and a solid foundation upon which to realize themselves and create meaningful lives. A potential model for cultural learning 2.0 that is based on these approaches would need to address holistic communication (oral, written, body language, gestures, mimics, online), critical thinking, empathy, self-reflection, and ambiguity tolerance. 5. Summary This essay considered prevailing socioand educational-political developments to align these with current (re)conceptualizations of approaches to cultural learning. Certainly, inventions have always caused movements in a society’s social and cultural makeup. Even so, the ubiquitous digitization of almost all dimensions of public and private life has had an essential influence on the way we communicate with one another, locally, regionally and globally. While the internet provides plenty of advantages for cultural learning and allows classrooms to benefit from the vast options it offers, phenomena such as hate speech, fake news, and deception spread erratically as well. Hence, it is crucial that people are willing and able to critically deal with new communication pat‐ terns that are characterized by a de-localized, de-temporalized, and disembodied dimension. Cultural learning, with its main focus on respectful communication with all forms of alterity, plays a particular role in developing the skills and competences that allow individuals to navigate the (online) world safely, to benefit from its vast advantages, and to deal with the challenges it provides. A short reflection on concrete competences indicates that Byram’s (1997) approach to ICC remains a solid foundation, even though social and technological shifts demand extensions toward critical and media literacy, holistic communication as well as the digital. On a larger scale, the ideas presented here unveil how much the question “Quo vadis cultural learning 2.0? ” is intertwined with further educational spheres and how paramount it is to consider such thoughts from an interdisciplinary perspective a perspective which has always taken center stage in Werner Being Culturally Competent 273 Delanoy’s thinking as well (e.g., Delanoy 1999, 2000, 2006, 2012, 2017a, 2017b, 2018, 2020). It is my hope that when such awareness is raised and cultural competences in all their complexity are developed, incidents such as the ones mentioned in the introduction of this chapter are finally part of the past. References Alter, Grit. 2015. 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Being Culturally Competent 277 Part 4: Engaging EFL Learners Aesthetically and Politically through Literary Texts 1 The play was first published by Eyre Methuen in 1960, which is also the year when the play had its first British premiere in London. Originally, Pinter wrote The Dumb Waiter in 1957, and before it reached its British audiences, the play was given its first production in 1959 in Germany, at the Städtische Bühnen Frankfurt in translation, with the title Der Stumme Diener. Command of Language and Interpersonal Positioning A Literary Linguistic Analysis of Dialogue in Harold Pinter’s The Dumb Waiter with Insights for English Language Education Nursen Gömceli and Allan James 1. Introduction The present chapter is intended to indicate how a combined close literary and linguistic analysis of a play-text presented in the form of a dialogue in the style of casual conversation can reveal the subtleties of how characters as interlocutors strive to position themselves with regard to each other through command of language, in this case a positioning which involves a dimension of dominance/ subservience. It is shown how play-texts are particularly appro‐ priate data sources for concentrated English language work at advanced levels, since they in any case highlight the subtleties of linguistic manoeuvring and expression which naturally occurring conversational data might not obviously reveal. The play taken for analysis is The Dumb Waiter by Harold Pinter. 2. The Dumb Waiter Harold Pinter’s iconic play of the post-war period, The Dumb Waiter (1983), 1 which has been the subject of numerous scholarly works and staged worldwide since its initial encounter with audiences, hardly needs any introduction. The play which sets with its dramatic and linguistic features one of the earliest examples of Pinter`s theatre is accepted as a well-known representative of Absurd drama, which at the same time reveals some typical characteristics 2 The four plays premiered in the UK in the period between 1957 and 1960 are The Room (1957), The Birthday Party (1958), The Dumb Waiter (1960), and The Caretaker (1960). The two other plays broadcast on television during this period are A Night Out, shown on the BBC in March 1960, and Night School, by Associated Rediffusion in July 1960. For the full list of the plays produced by Pinter, refer to the web page dedicated to Harold Pinter on the weblink: http: / / www.haroldpinter.org/ plays/ index.shtml. of Realistic drama in its portrayal of real characters using ordinary language, creation of a real setting, and use of real props. With its dual nature as such, The Dumb Waiter appeals both to the audiences expecting a theatre experience in the conventions of traditional theatre and to those prepared to enjoy the absurd situations and dialogues to be encountered in the world of the Absurd Theatre. With the subtle blending of comedy and menace, as well, which is the landmark feature of his so-called Pinterland, Harold Pinter’s plays still continue to fascinate the readers and theatre audiences who embark upon his world. Pinter’s achievement in drama does not only lie in the creation of a theatrical space where the rational and the irrational are artfully mixed and comedy is created out of a disturbing situation, such as the exercise of verbal or physical violence (e.g., as in The Room, The Birthday Party, The Caretaker), but also in his peculiar use of language, which put him immediately in the beginning of his career to the level of writers whose name became an eponymous adjective, known as the Pinteresque. Used to designate Pinter’s linguistic form of expression and identify the atmosphere of the comedy of menace in his plays, the term ‘Pinteresque’ was already used by drama critics in the early 1960s to describe the works of other playwrights influenced by Pinter’s style. For example, according to the Oxford English Dictionary online, for the first time in September 1960, when it had been only three years that Pinter met his audiences as a young dramatist with only four plays produced on stage and two plays on the screen, 2 the term ‘Pinteresque’ appeared in print in The Times in the review of a play by Rhys Adrian Griffiths. Three years later, in 1963, the term appeared headlined in reference to a Pinter play reviewed by the Daily Telegraph (Shaw 2009). With such critical attention for his dramatic style immediately in his early career, Harold Pinter also made it to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), where the word ‘Pinteresque’ was granted an entry with the definition, “[o]f or relating to Harold Pinter; resembling or characteristic of his plays. Also occasionally as n. Pinter’s plays are typically characterized by implications of threat and strong feeling produced through colloquial language, apparent triviality, and long pauses.” 282 Nursen Gömceli and Allan James Indeed, as given in the above definition, the ‘Pinteresque’ style can be broadly described as a type of dramatic style which is characterised by pauses, silences, illogical repetitions in the dialogues of the characters, who to a large extent lead a life confined to their rooms with fear from the external world and exude a sense of fear and menace with the belief that the intruder from the outside world will be a threat to their quiet lives inside their rooms (Gömceli 1998). These elements recurrently observed in Pinter’s plays, particularly in the early phase of his dramatic career, characterise the main features of the ‘Pinteresque’ dialogue and character, which decades later, in 2005, motivated the Swedish Academy to award the playwright the Nobel Prize in Literature, announcing him as the artist “who in his plays uncovers the precipice under everyday prattle and forces entry into oppression’s closed rooms” (Svenska Akademien 2005). As Ronald Hayman (1968, 2) noted, Pinter’s dramatic dialogue, which was “so realistically full of bad syntax, tautologies, repetitions, pleonasms, non-sequiturs and self-contradictions,” proved to be successful largely because it was a form of language which had developed out of Pinter’s belief that everyday speech itself was neither flawless nor always logical. So in his widely discussed Pinteresque style of dialogue, the playwright had actually aimed to recreate the complexities of everyday language and patterns of everyday speech through the frequent use of illogical repetitions, interruptions, pauses, silences, and colloquialisms. Hence as Uchman (2017, 387) has observed in a more recent study, “Pinter may be called an innovator as far as the introduction of a new kind of realistic dialogue is concerned.” 3. Interpersonal positioning: Ben and Gus The present discussion of The Dumb Waiter, a two-hander one act play remark‐ able for its linguistic forms of expression and quintessential Pinteresque scenes, dialogues and characters, argues that in this play Pinter not only shows his mastery of everyday speech but also how the command of language can function as a means of interpersonal positioning. With this focus, we aim to offer insights for English language education by suggesting ideas on how this play can help as an authentic source of material to raise an awareness of everyday speech and command of language as a means of interpersonal positioning that might involve hierarchy. At the initial reading, as Pinter unpretentiously expressed in an interview, The Dumb Waiter can indeed be regarded as a “relatively simple piece of work” (Bensky 1967, 362). The play, which has a running time of approximately fifty minutes, dramatizes one typical workday in the lives of the two gunmen called Command of Language and Interpersonal Positioning 283 Ben and Gus. As the play opens, they are in the basement room of a place supposed to be a restaurant and are waiting for the ‘next order of killing’ from their mysterious figure of authority. Revolving around the events happening in the basement room during that time, the play largely demonstrates an absurd situation where orders of different foods and drinks mysteriously descend into the room via the serving hatch - the ‘dumb waiter’ - and comes to an end with the indication that the selected victim to be executed this time is Gus. In the final scene of the play, as “the door right opens sharply,” Ben is ready to shoot at the target with “his revolver levelled at the door.” At this very moment, Gus “stumbles in,” “stripped of his jacket, waistcoat, tie, holster and revolver./ He stops, body stooping, his arms at his sides./ He raises his head and looks at BEN./ A long silence./ They stare each other./ Curtain” (Pinter 1983, 165). Thus, the play concluding as such has an uncomplicated plotline, it presents only two characters on stage, the language they employ is a representation of ordinary, everyday speech, and the play has a simple linear structure that develops within chronological order. In its essence, however, The Dumb Waiter is a highly thought-provoking play that ingeniously draws attention to questions of authority, power, subservience, and dominance, while underlining the importance of logical reflection and search for truth. The artistry of Pinter in tackling such fundamental questions beneath the structural simplicity of the play lies both in his masterly crafted dialogue and in his construction of characters, where the interaction between them functions to demonstrate how language command and linguistic expression can serve to indicate the active role the interactants might be assuming and/ or occupying in their positioning relative to each other. A play about “the nature of partnership,” as characterised by Michael Bill‐ ington (1996, 90), the biographer of Harold Pinter and the renowned Guardian theatre critic, The Dumb Waiter opens suitably with implications of the relation‐ ship between Ben and Gus as ‘partners in business.’ As the expository stage directions impart, “Both are dressed in shirts, trousers and braces” and “BEN is lying on a bed, left, reading a paper. GUS is sitting on a bed, right, tying his shoelaces, with difficulty” (Pinter 1983, 129). We later hear it in the speech of Gus that it is Friday and the two gunmen are on duty, this time in Birmingham. Soon after the play begins, the ‘nature of the partnership’ between the two characters is exposed as one that is not based on equality but dominance. This is largely observed in the way Ben communicates with Gus, whom he obviously regards only as a functional partner to be useful in a subordinate role in their partnership since their boss Wilson communicates his messages and instructions always directly to Ben and never to Gus. Thus, “believe[ing] he has legitimate authority 284 Nursen Gömceli and Allan James over Gus” (Mandala 2017, 24), in his interaction with him, Ben mainly adopts a domineering style with a conscious sense of superiority, as reflected in such examples as, “Who took the call, me or you? ” (136), “Who is the senior partner here, me or you? ” (142), “What are you doing, criticizing me? ” (146), or “Let me give you your instructions” (158). Moreover, by extension, he almost always has his directives ready for Gus, expecting him to immediately carry out his orders or fulfil the ‘tasks’ he assigns to him: “Well, go on, make [the tea]” (130), “When are you going to stop jabbering? ” (135), “You’ll have a cup of tea afterwards” (145), “Fetch one of those plates” (150), “Get dressed, will you? ” (152), “Give me that! ” (155). Taiwo, Akinwotu, and Kpolugbo (2021, 125) state with reference to the Politeness Theory of Brown and Levinson (1987) that “[d]irectives have a way of undermining interpersonal relationships because they are a rhetorical feature that often signal bald-on-record threat to the target’s face.” In other words, the imperative style in speech can often serve to indicate an explicit threat to the recipient of the message. Hence, by adopting the imperative form in the grammatical expression of his thoughts, Ben also poses a threat to his partner. Furthermore, in his exchanges with Gus, at times when he does not give him any command or instruction but simply responds to his searching questions, Ben very often assumes the role of an all-knowing superior, feeling dull with the ignorance of the ‘dumb associate.’ This is disclosed in the stage directions that function to expose his non-verbal communication: Ben talks to him “tonelessly” (Pinter 1983, 138), “wearily” (143), “angrily” (146) or “pityingly” (147), which all disclose his lack of emotional involvement and sense of supremacy in his relation to Gus. As can be clearly observed in the play, with his language use, verbal and non-verbal manner of speech, and his self-image, Ben positions himself as the superior partner who is not only in control of the ‘job’ but also of the partner whom he thus has positioned as the subordinate one. However, as it has been shown in recent research, too (e.g., Krüger 2009; León 2001; Mandala 2017), a closer reading of the play and detailed examination of the characters and their use of language reveals that far from being the subordinate member of this partnership, Gus is actually the one with more influence, since he has the rational capacity to act as an intellectually dominating discourse participant in his interaction with Ben. This is a position which Gus achieves primarily through his inquisitive nature - a feature which Ben does not have and which manifests itself in the way Gus commands language. When Gus first appears on stage, the way he is introduced to the audience through his set of actions might indeed lead the audience to think that Gus is Command of Language and Interpersonal Positioning 285 and will probably remain as the ‘junior one’ of the two partners. As the detailed expository stage directions delineate, with his slow movements and repetitive behaviour of tying and untying his shoe-laces in “[s]ilence” (129) and following exactly the same pattern of behaviour with each shoe he is wearing (e.g., slowly taking off the shoe, looking inside it, revealing a flattened matchbox in one pair and a flattened cigarette packet in the other, shaking each item, then examining each item in his silence), Gus initially makes the impression of a foolish dumb man who can even be perceived as a childlike figure that hardly reinforces the stereotypical image of a gunman. Ben, on the other hand, makes us feel through his reaction to Gus that he is the one with authority. Throughout this opening scene, there are no words exchanged between the two, but Ben’s forbidding nonverbal language communicates his annoyance with Gus. For instance, each time Gus comes to the stage of shaking and examining the item he discovers in one shoe, “[t]heir eyes meet. Ben rattles his paper and reads” (129), as if commanding Gus to stop acting foolishly. However, Gus continues to perform his repetitive acts without taking any notice of Ben’s signalled threats, and only after he makes sure that he has put on both of his shoes and tied the laces, he “wanders off” (129) into the lavatory, without seeming to have been affected by Ben’s non-verbal exertion of control. Once again, Ben observes that Gus has undermined him by ignoring his authority and so he this time responds to Gus’s disobedient manner in a more aggressive tone: he “slams the paper down on the bed and glares after him” (Pinter 1983, 129). This minor detail immediately in the opening scene of the play can actually be read as a foreshadowing of the contest for positioning between the two characters, which unmasks a desire for dominance and which determines the rest of the performance. In this scene, it is not only implied that Gus will not assent to Ben, as consistent with his character development in the play, but also his personality trait as an inquisitive mind is disclosed. What follows Ben’s hostile act towards Gus in the reigning silence hints at this latter feature of Gus. As conveyed in the subsequent stage directions, while in the lavatory, Gus pulls the lavatory chain twice, but to his surprise, it “does not flush” (129) in either case. When he re-enters the room, his non-verbal language tells us that rather than being a character who takes such ordinary situations for granted, Gus is a curious figure who enquires into the reason of things: he “halts at the door, scratching his head,” which demonstrates that he is trying to understand why the lavatory did not flush even though the “chain [has been] pulled twice off” (Pinter 1983, 129). Consistent with this portrayal of Gus immediately in the beginning of the play, in successive scenes throughout the performance, he indeed unfolds as an inquisitive character with a sceptical mind, who questions almost everything, 286 Nursen Gömceli and Allan James from the most trivial to the more serious issues, until he has found some logically convincing explanation for them. For example, as different from Ben, who “not only does not question, [but] it does not even occur him to do so” (Dukore 1962, 50), Gus is almost constantly in a contemplative state of mind: • He reflects on their work circumstances, for example, “I mean, you come into a place when it’s still dark, you come into a room you’ve never seen before, you sleep all day, you do your job, and then you go away in the night again. … You can’t move out of the house [during your holidays] in case a call comes” (Pinter 1983, 134). • He ponders on the mysteries surrounding their job, for example, “You go to this address, there’s a key there, there’s a teapot. There’s never a soul in sight - … nobody ever hears a thing, have you ever thought about that? We never get any complaints, do we, too much noise or anything like that? You never see a soul, do you … All you do is wait, eh? ” (145); “Yes, but what happens when we’re not here? … What happens when we go? ” (151). • He takes in all the details about their physical surrounding, for example, “He [Wilson]’s laid on some very nice crockery this time, I’ll say that. It’s sort of striped. There’s a white stripe. … Then the plates are the same, you see. Only they’ve got a black stripe -the plates- right across the middle” (131); “No, I mean, I say the crockery’s good. It is. It’s very nice. But that’s about all I can say for this place. It’s worse than the last place we were in (135); “Have you noticed the time that tank [in the lavatory] takes to fill? ” (133); “Who clears up after we’ve gone? I’m curious about that. … What if they never clear anything up after we’ve gone” (147); “Have you seen the gas stove? … It’s only got three rings … you couldn’t cook much on three rings” (151). • And finally, it is not Ben but Gus who can be critical about their boss Wilson, for example, “He doesn’t seem to bother much about our comfort these days” (135), “He’s not laying on any gas now either” … “Half the time he doesn’t even bother to put in an appearance, Wilson” (145); “(thoughtfully) I find him hard to talk to, Wilson” (145); “What about me? I’ve been wanting a cup of tea all night! […] I’m thirsty, too. I’m starving. And he wants a cup of tea. That beats the band, that does” (157). Gus’s inquisitive nature is also revealed in his enquiring language, where he several times expresses to Ben that he wants to ask a question to him as well as to Wilson. “There are a number of things I want to ask him. But I can never get round to it, when I see him” (Pinter 1983, 146), he complains. Or addressing Ben, and formulating a linguistically different strategy each time, he announces: Command of Language and Interpersonal Positioning 287 “I want to ask you something” (130), “Well I was going to ask you something” (132), “Eh, I’ve been meaning to ask you” (135), “Oh, I’ve been wanting to ask you something” (143), to select a few. However, not only such frequent announcements of questions but also the numerous direct or indirect enquiries that Gus initiates infuriate Ben since he either does not have the answer or cannot provide an explanation for them to Gus’s satisfaction. At such moments, regarding Gus as a threat to his authority, Ben either ignores Gus or he adopts an authoritarian language in order to stop him: “What the hell is it now? ” (135), “You are always asking me questions. What’s the matter with you? ” (143). Moreover, his reaction to Gus gradually takes on a more rigorous style that can also be accompanied by physical violence: “Stop wondering. You’ve got a job to do. Why don’t you just do it and shut up? ” (143), “Shut up! ” […] BEN hits him viciously on the shoulder” (161-62). What can be clearly observed is that at times when he fails to cope with Gus’s intellectually demanding enquiries, Ben retaliates by commanding him, where he adopts an explicitly authoritarian language occasionally combined with physical violence as an exit strategy. However, such confrontational moments do not put Gus off and, refusing to stay silent and submit to Ben’s exercise of power, he continues to ask his searching questions. By this means, Gus makes Ben realize that he actually lacks the necessary knowledge and information that a figure of authority should have. Correspondingly, it can be argued that while Ben poses a threat to Gus with his directives, Gus does the same through his interrogative clauses. By this means, he “successfully counters and neutralises Ben’s attempts to assert authority” (Mandala 2017, 22). It should also be underlined that in the play it is not only Ben whose authority Gus questions. In his contact with Wilson, that is, the controlling power at the top, unlike Ben, who blindly follows all the instructions they are given and never questions things, Gus with his capacity for logical reflection always searches for the rationale behind the weird orders and instructions they receive: “(Violently). Well, what’s he playing all these games for? That’s what I want to know. What’s he doing it for? ” (Pinter 1983, 162), he asks in one scene. Likewise, revealing his impatience with the bizarre situation in which they have found themselves, he fearlessly shouts through the speaking tube at the invisible addressee of the mysterious orders of food, who he knows is Wilson: “WE’VE GOT NOTHING LEFT! NOTHING! DO YOU UNDERSTAND? ” (162). Ben, however, in a situation similar to this in an earlier scene, “grabs the tube” and adapting the position of the ‘subservient’ and with a display of his respect for authority, “(Speak[s] with great deference): Good evening. I’m sorry to -bother you, but we just thought we’d better let you know that we haven’t got anything left” (155). Thus, while 288 Nursen Gömceli and Allan James Ben believes in hierarchy and the power of authority and so tries to preserve the ‘organizational hierarchy,’ knowing that it will in return enable him to maintain his own position of authority, Gus very often disrupts this hierarchy by questioning, criticising, and undermining authority, as evinced in his interaction with Wilson and Ben. At the end of the play, it is perhaps because of this reason that Gus as the figure who poses a ‘threat to authority’ is chosen as the victim to be terminated. Shown in this close analysis presented so far, and as pronounced by Pinter in an interview, The Dumb Waiter is a play that tackles the “question of subser‐ vience and dominance” (Bensky 1967, 362), where not only characterisation but also the language attributed to the characters appear as a reification of this central theme. As suitable to their characterisation which portrays Gus as the ‘inquisitive partner’ and Ben as the ‘domineering one,’ the two figures remain also linguistically consistent characters throughout the play. Correspondingly, Ben profiles himself as the ‘commanding interactant’ largely by his use of directives grammatically as imperative clauses. Gus, on the other hand, takes the stance of the ‘questioning interactant’ by predominantly employing the interrogative form in his grammatical expression. His enquiries, however, as has tried to be shown, do not result from a state of ignorance but of ‘awareness,’ which therefore make him only deceptively the ‘subordinate’ one. Consequently, the ways in which the characters employ and command language function for them as a means of making clear their individual stance and establishing their interpersonal positioning, contributing thus to their characterisation at the same time. At this stage, it would not be wrong to state that the outcome of such a pattern of interaction that is based on subservience and dominance is a cycle of command and interrogation rather than a real conversation, which ultimately lends itself to Gus and Ben’s contest for positioning that centres on the dominance/ subservience dichotomy. Myriad discussions arguing who the superior one or the winning part of this contest is have been held so far, largely concluding that Ben is the succeeding partner. For instance, Burton (1980, 88) claims that he is “the winner,” Prentice (2009, 144) argues that “Gus’s acquiescence establishes Ben as the senior partner,” and Norman (2009, 175) describes him as “the victor inside the room.” However, we support the view that in their interpersonal relationship Gus is the ‘achiever,’ hence the succeeding one for several reasons. In the first place, Gus manages to establish himself via his questioning style of speech, which also has a manipulative power, as the discourse participant who is intellectually challenging and therefore has more influence. By this means, with the numerous questions he asks to Ben Command of Language and Interpersonal Positioning 289 either directly or indirectly (e.g., about their job, their work circumstances, and Wilson), he skilfully addresses the issues to be raised, determines the course of their verbal interaction, and makes Ben confront his own epistemic stance of ‘not knowing.’ Thus, he successfully positions Ben as the ‘incomplete authority’ failing to supervise. Moreover, while Gus’s positioning of Ben as such does not prove to be wrong in the development of the play, the position which Ben sets for Gus, as the ‘subordinate one,’ proves to be fallacious since Gus neither submits to his exercise of power nor shows any readiness to obey his commands. Likewise, in their contact with Wilson - the authority at the top - Gus maintains his stance as the enquiring and challenging figure, whereas Ben adopts the stance of the submissive. Thus, while Gus makes his stance as ‘not yielding to authority’ clear, Ben unquestioningly ‘submits to authority.’ Furthermore, Gus also proves himself to be linguistically more versatile than Ben. As a discourse participant, Gus not only occupies the position as the lead interactant by means of his many interrogatives, but as Mandala (2017, 26-27) has shown, he also “successfully challenges” Ben’s “directives [by ignoring his commands]” and “informatives [by questioning and deconstructing his views]” on various occasions throughout the play. To further support the argumentation on Gus’s linguistic competence, the scene where Ben and Gus are confronting each other on the correct use of the idiomatic expression “light the kettle” (Pinter 1983, 141) can be given as an example. In agreement with Short’s (n.d.) and Mandala’s (2017) observations on this widely discussed scene, where the former presents a conversation analysis and the latter a pragmatic stylistic analysis of it, we share the view that this exchange between Ben and Gus is a clear demonstration of Gus’s linguistic victory over Ben. In this scene, where they are discussing which usage is the correct one - “light the kettle,” “put on the kettle,” or “light the gas” - Gus also shows how skilfully he can manipulate a discussion: GUS. Eh? BEN. Go and light it. GUS. Light what? BEN. The kettle. GUS. You mean the gas. BEN. Who does? GUS. You do. BEN (his eyes narrowing). What do you mean, I mean the gas? GUS. Well, that’s what you mean, don’t you? The gas. BEN (powerfully). If I say go and light the kettle I mean go and light the kettle. GUS. How can you light a kettle? BEN. It’s a figure of speech! Light the kettle. It’s a figure of speech! 290 Nursen Gömceli and Allan James GUS. I’ve never heard it. BEN. Light the kettle! It’s common usage! GUS. I think you’ve got it wrong. BEN (menacing). What do you mean? GUS. They say put on the kettle. BEN (taut). Who says? They stare at each other, breathing hard. (Deliberately.) I have never in all my life heard anyone say put on the kettle. GUS. I bet my mother used to say it. BEN. Your mother? When did you last see your mother? GUS. I don’t know, about - BEN. Well, what are you talking about your mother for? […] GUS. Yes, but I’ve never heard - BEN (vehemently). Nobody says light the gas! What does the gas light? GUS. What does the gas -? BEN (grabbing him with the two hands by the throat, at arm’s length). THE KETTLE, YOU FOOL! Gus takes the hands from his throat. GUS. All right, all right. Pause. BEN. Well, what are you waiting for? GUS. I want to see if they light. BEN. What? GUS. The matches. He takes out the flattened box and tries to strike. No. He throws the box under the bed. BEN stares at him. GUS raises his foot. Shall I try it on here? BEN stares. GUS strikes a match on his shoe. It lights. Here we are. BEN (wearily). Put on the bloody kettle, for Christ’s sake. (Pinter 1983, 141-43) At the end of their verbal dispute, it is striking that Ben finally adopts Gus’s version of the ‘kettle’ expression, “put on the kettle,” which he has claimed not to have heard before. As the succeeding stage directions clearly indicate, this Command of Language and Interpersonal Positioning 291 is actually an unconscious utterance of Ben which can be seen as a sign of his acceptance of his personal defeat and Gus’s linguistic victory over him: “BEN goes to his bed, but realising what he has said, stops and half turns. They look at each other. GUS slowly exits, left.” As Short (n.d.) has argued, Ben might not be telling the truth when contending that he has “never in all his life heard anyone say put on the kettle” (Pinter 1983, 142) since it is, in Short’s words, a “very common usage.” Additionally, considering the meaning implied in the stage directions preceding this line of Ben, where his manner of speech is given as “deliberately,” Ben indeed might be lying “in order to preserve his authority” (Short, n.d.). However, it should also be noted that, strikingly, very shortly before this verbal dispute begins, Gus himself uses the expression which he negates exactly in the same way as Ben has used it. In this preceding scene, he says, “I can light the kettle now” (Pinter 1983, 141), but not ‘I can put on the kettle now’ or ‘I can light the gas now.’ As Walters (2010, 121) observantly points out, Gus’s actual use of this phrase here evinces the fact that he actually has “heard the contested phrase” before and thus discloses the “deliberateness” of their argument over the ‘kettle’ expression. So considering this detail, it can be argued that in this contest just as Ben, Gus, too, might be telling a lie, whereby he aims to manipulate and position Ben as the ‘incomplete authority’ that lacks sufficient knowledge. In this connection, Short (n.d.) concludes that this argument between Ben and Gus over a trivial issue “has more to do with status than it does to do (sic.) with whether particular idiomatic expressions are commonly used or not.” Agreeing with Short’s (n.d.) observation, we conclude that this exchange between Ben and Gus is actually a demonstration of superiority, which, too, serves the purpose of their interpersonal positioning and ends up with Gus’s victory over Ben. 4. “Casual conversation” aka “everyday prattle” (Swedish Academy) This intense engagement with the language dexterity of Ben and Gus’s constant interpersonal jostling for position as dominance has highlighted the value of a detailed script analysis for an understanding of how ‘command of language’ is the verbal prerequisite for the realisation of desired social goals. The ‘command of language’ examined so far in particular concerns the unabating use of direc‐ tive speech acts (Searle 1969) in the form of imperative as well as interrogative and declarative constructions on the part of Ben addressed to Gus, and the latter’s equally consistent use of directives in the form of interrogative (as well as declarative) constructions addressed to Ben, thereby almost always resulting in a dysfunctional dialogue between the two. And whereas the present linguistic analysis has so far focussed on the syntactic-semantic nature and 292 Nursen Gömceli and Allan James pragmatic effects of these constructions in effect as speech acts as such, they additionally, and crucially, gain further impact as being (part of) sequential turns in an ongoing conversation between the two characters. For example, the combination of one interlocutor’s interrogatives and declaratives being followed by the other interlocutor’s interrogatives as response results in a totally dysfunctional ‘conversation’ in that the responses to interrogatives (i.e., questions) are not the expected declaratives (i.e., answers), as in the following, with reference to the problem with the lavatory’s water supply BEN. Well, what about it? <interrogative> GUS. What do you think’s the matter with it? <interrogative> BEN. Nothing. <declarative> GUS. Nothing? <interrogative> BEN. It’s got a deficient ballcock, that’s all. <declarative> GUS. A deficient what? <interrogative> BEN. Ballcock. <declarative> GUS. No? Really? <interrogative> (Pinter 1983, 133) Similarly, as will be seen in the example below, where Ben and Gus are in an exchange with reference to the appearance of the matches, one interlocutor’s imperatives and interrogatives being responded to by the other’s interrogatives again results in a dysfunctional conversation in that imperatives (i.e., orders) are expected to be responded to by declaratives (i.e., as acceptances or refusals): BEN. Well, go on. <imperative> GUS. Go on where? <interrogative> BEN. Open the door and see if you can catch anyone outside. ---------<imperative> GUS. Who, me? <interrogative> BEN. Go on! <imperative> (Pinter 1983, 140) Indeed, in desperation at Gus’s constant interrogatives, Ben himself asks of Gus: “You never used to ask me so many damn questions” <declarative>. “What’s come over you? ” <interrogative> (Pinter 1983, 143). In other words, the conversational sequencing between Ben and Gus breaks the rules of conventional statement-response combinations, described in lin‐ guistic Conversation Analysis as “adjacency pairs” (Schegloff and Sacks 1973, 295) - further examples being statement-agreement/ disagreement <declarativedeclarative>, order/ request-acceptance/ refusal <imperative-declarative>, ques‐ Command of Language and Interpersonal Positioning 293 tion-answer <interrogative-declarative>, but not including ‘question’ <interrog‐ ative> as response item. The presence of the unconventional adjacency pairs in the dialogue between Ben and Gus points to the way in which Pinter manipulates patterns of everyday conversation for dramatic effect, here in the first place for the characterisation of the two protagonists as (confrontational) interpersonal positioning. As the discourse analyst Scollon (1998, 33) confirms: “Linguists… sociolinguists… anthropologists… linguistic pragmatists… sociolin‐ guists… and critical discourse analysts have all pointed out that any social encounter, including any of those in which talk is engaged, has as its logically first and interactionally ongoing highest priority to position the participants in the social encounter in relationship to each other.” This interpersonal positioning, however, requires a baseline of shared verbal behaviour (i.e., a linguistic consensus) of the interlocutors upon which an (inter-)personal sociolinguistic profiling may be developed. And with The Dumb Waiter, this is very obviously the case. Also for this purpose Pinter adopts linguistic patterns of everyday conversation, intensifies them and uses them to characterise the speech style of both Ben and Gus. The type of casual conversation which they engage in varies between the speech genres of “comment-elaboration” and “debate and argument.” While the former is described as “People giving casual opinions and commenting on things, other people, events, etc. around them and in their daily lives, without any set conversational agenda,” the latter is described as “[d]ata in which people take up positions, pursue arguments and expound on their opinions on a range of matters” (Carter and McCarthy 1997, 10). In Ben and Gus’s conversation(s), however, ‘comment-elaboration’ almost inevitably segues into ‘debate and argument’ as a result of Gus’s persistent questioning. Fundamentally, the speech of both characters evidences in an intensified form the linguistic characteristics of casual conversation, already referred to in Sec‐ tion 2 as Pinter’s “masterly crafted dialogue,” which re-creates “the complexities of everyday language and patterns of everyday speech through the frequent use of illogical repetitions, interruptions, pauses, silences and colloquialisms.” And indeed these constitute some of the more salient features of informal conversation and occur in concentrated form in the play’s dialogue. For example, phonological, lexical, and grammatical repetitions and parallelisms, both within and across speaker turns, serve to bind the conversants and the meanings/ topics they are addressing together - as Biber et al. (1999, 1049) conclude in a fundamental work on the linguistics of spoken language, “conversation has a 294 Nursen Gömceli and Allan James restricted and repetitive repertoire,” which in a linguistic perspective has its own structuring function as “dialogic syntax” (Du Bois 2014, 160). Also interruptions, pauses and silences serve as marker points in the ongoing discourse, extending or adjusting the ongoing reference frame (interruptions) or signalling topic closure (pauses, silences). Furthermore, ‘inserts’ of various kinds - interjections (e.g., Ben’s “Kaw”), response forms (e.g., Gus’s “Go on! ”), attention signals and response elicitors (e.g., Ben’s “What about that, eh? ”), expletives (as in e.g., Ben’s “Put on the bloody kettle, for Christ’s sake.”) and turn-initial discourse particles (e.g., “Well”) - serve to structure the ongoing discourse. However, the most striking lexicogrammatical characteristic of the language used by both Ben and Gus is its abundance of fixed or semi-fixed idiomatic expressions, that is, ‘colloquialisms,’ largely typical of the casual speech of 1950’s British English: examples of the numerous instances include Gus’s “He’s laid on some very nice crockery,” Ben’s “Time’s getting on,” Gus’s “I think I’ve run out,” (Pinter 1983, 131; emphasis added), Ben’s “You’ll get a swipe round your earhole, if you don’t watch your step” (146), “You just get on with it” (146), Ben’s “Have a bit of common [sense]” (147), Gus’s “This is some place” (152), and Ben’s “Just the job” (154), to name a few. Such expressions have indeed been identified as being frequent in informal conversation (McCarthy 1998) not only as tokens of a stylistic/ sociolinguistic consensus between interlocutors, but, crucially, typical of observation-comment contexts of discourse expressing evaluative meanings (131ff.). Thus, Pinter chooses to flood Ben’s and Gus’s speech with a constant evaluative force with respect to the immediate environment they find themselves in. Nevertheless, it should also be noted at this point that other linguistic features characteristic of casual conversation are not present or not prominent in the script - for example, there is no backchannelling (simultaneous verbal feedback), few anacoluthons (change of structure midway in phrase or clause), and few direct overlaps, which do not typically occur in play scripts in any case, since they impair the intelligibility/ followability of the conversation on stage. Furthermore, there are few question tags and turn-medial or turn-final discourse particles (e.g., “sort of/ kind of,” “you know”), few ‘tails’ (e.g., Gus’s “I hope it won’t be a long job, this one” (Pinter 1983, 131; emphasis added), and relatively few direct address forms, indicating perhaps the absence of a more cooperative style of interaction between Ben and Gus. However, at the same time, the script shows a usual level of grammatical ellipsis for speech and very largely standard syntax - despite often-made claims to the contrary (see e.g., the quote from Hayman 1968, in Section 1). Command of Language and Interpersonal Positioning 295 5. Insights for English language education In a discussion of the value of plays as scripts in the context of drama education in English language education, Surkamp (2015, 143) concludes that learners “gain the insight that social relations as well as individual and social identities are not given, inherently and permanently fixed, but that they are rather products of continually updated and modified actions that can be negotiated and therefore changed.” And while these observations are directed in the first instance to intermediate level learners of English, they nonetheless ring true also for advanced learners, who, though, by exposure to suitable data, may confirm their awareness of, rather than actually “gain the insight” stated. Indeed it is very much in this spirit and with these intentions that the present analysis is offered, at the same time concurring with Surkamp and Nünning (2015, 221), who argue in drama analysis for a “Sowohl-als-auch von textzentrierten und kreativen Zugangsformen,” in other words, for a combining of text-focussed and creative (i.e., performing) approaches. Following the languageand character-focussed analysis of the play pre‐ sented here, we believe that The Dumb Waiter as a playscript can be used as educational material to develop among learners an appreciation for the language of drama as a major tool to encourage dialogic interaction between speakers and to build a heightened awareness of how (verbal and non-verbal) language can function as an effective instrument to indicate the ways in which individuals might relate to each other. Furthermore, with its linguistic features and capacity to represent the dynamics of casual conversation, the playscript stands out as a rich source material that offers potential for language practice targeted at showing the learners how elements of casual speech can turn into a powerful medium for interpersonal positioning. With such considerations, the present study has not aimed to propose a model analysis of the play for the English language classroom as such, but has attempted to contribute to the literature that has considered Pinter’s The Dumb Waiter as an authentic source of material for English language students at the tertiary level (e.g., León 2001). In this regard, we recommend the adaptation of an experiential model when using The Dumb Waiter in the classroom, consistent with Volkmann’s (2021) “discourse paradigm” (123) of using drama in English language education, which promotes both the analysis and acting out of dialogues “as exemplary of sociocultural negotiations of meaning” (124) and which inter alia “offer exam‐ ples of ‘speech acts’[…] both as material for study and for skill development” (124). By applying an experiential model, learners will be put in a position to learn and reach a new level of awareness through directly experiencing 296 Nursen Gömceli and Allan James any given situation from the play. Starting out with Surkamp and Nünning’s (2015) proposed idea, classroom activities developed for this purpose should indeed aim for a combining of text-focussed and creative (i.e., performing) approaches. For instance, while role-playing selected extracts from the playtext can be implemented as one of the more widely practised methods in drama-for-language didactics, students can also be assigned the task to work in pairs and write their own dialogues with the purpose of demonstrating how interpersonal positioning can be signalled through language (as well as nonverbally), given the respective intentions of participants involved, and asked to act out their own script. As another practical exercise for language use, students can be asked to analyse selected extracts from the play-text and formulate their own casual conversations by using the forms of speech they will have seen in the extracts they have analysed (e.g., colloquialisms, idiomatic phrases, repetitions, interruptions with pauses and silences, imperatives, interrogatives). By working with the playscript applying such experiential methods, learners will not only develop an awareness of the significant role of language command in interpersonal relationships but at the same time will discover their individual potentials for creative thinking and creative writing at an advanced level. 6. Conclusion Without developing a full curriculum or lesson plan for working with the playtext of The Dumb Waiter in tertiary level English language education, it is hoped that the above insights derived from the close analysis of how interpersonal positioning is achieved via the social goal-oriented language manipulation of motivated interlocutors can provide a suitably sophisticated level of language awareness, reflection, and use for classroom practice. As such, ‘command of language’ accrues a significant interpersonal dimension beyond the strictly personal one. 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Command of Language and Interpersonal Positioning 299 “Memory Is the Most Unreliable of Faculties” Literature in English Teacher Education Michael C. Prusse 1. Literature and English teacher education A general narrative turn in education could be postulated as the imminent effect of relatively recent research in neuroscience and neuropsychology which pro‐ claims what literary scholars have always known and emphasized, namely that in human lives stories are essential tools to construct reality and to support the brain in retaining facts, boosting memory, and learning in general (Armstrong 2020; Kucirkova and Cremin 2020). With regard to teacher education, reacting to such insights necessitates that student teachers must not only be conscious of the significance of narrative for the learning of their future pupils by and large, in other words that narration is “at the heart of all our perceptions of the world around us” (McRae 2008, 66), but also of how literary narratives have the potential to bring “the world into the classroom” and to take “the classroom out into the world” (Mallan 2017, summary). When learners peruse a fictional text, they bridge a cultural gap, encounter alternative assumptions of reality, and open up their respective “idioculture to possible alteration” (Attridge 2004, 52). Thus, stories continually “entail doubling processes whereby my world is brought into relation with a world it is not” (Armstrong 2020, 7). However, and this is a relevant fact for student teachers to grasp as well, the processes between reader and text are complex and the link between them is not simply a matter of cause and effect. Nevertheless, the engaging qualities of literary texts provide the focal point for the argument to bring literature back into English language teaching (ELT) since classrooms still constitute “the main institutional context for cultural learning” (Delanoy and Volkmann 2006, 11). Despite a long tradition of teachers and teacher educators who have maintained their belief in the expediency of literature, the necessity to clamour for a return to using literary texts results from the still widespread “institutionalized dichotomy between literary studies and language training” (Kramsch and Nolden 1994, 28). This separation resulted in a domination of linguistic perspectives in ELT and, simultaneously, a decline in the relevance of literature for language learning purposes. The development of these attitudes can be pinpointed by referring to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) which, depending on the point of view, could be described as one of the causes of or, alternatively, the supreme expression of this disjunction. The original CEFR (2001) has justly been criticized for relegating culture and literature to the sidelines and for reducing language learning to functional and utilitarian perspectives (e.g., Decke-Cornill 2007; Volkmann 2010). The Council of Europe, the driving force behind the original framework, attempted to amend this deficit seventeen years later by publishing the new CEFR Companion Volume (Council of Europe 2018), which includes descriptors that refer to the reading and mediating of literature. Hence, the relevance of culture and literature for language learning has also been re-established in one of the arguably most influential publications within an ELT context. The other dichotomy that needs addressing in teacher training is the gap between learning a language and education. This rift coincidentally also results from focussing too much on the linguistic challenges of the language acquisition process while neglecting the cognitive demands of the content. The ELT classroom entails both, language learning and education, as Paran (2008) and Hall (2016) point out. If the content truly matters (and is not merely a convenient pretext to practise language structures), then narrative, in particular literature, may reclaim its central position in language learning and its “mesmerizing power” (Chatman 1993, 1) as well as its properties of “international, transhistorical, transcultural … like life itself” (Barthes 1977, 79) can exert a positive influence. Learners in the English classroom are then not only confronted with the challenges of the language as such but also with the challenge of decoding complex narratives. Such traits can already be found in children’s books that are characterised by the three strengths that Bate (2010, 2) lists as the trademark of literature, namely “the storytelling, the characterization, and the quality of the writing.” The use of literature also permits addressing a range of topical issues such as hybrid identities or cultural conflicts (Prusse 2009b; Volkmann 2010), which are likely to generate a more enthusiastic response from learners than “run-of-the-mill textbooks” (Nünning and Surkamp 2010, 13). Since literature can indeed “inspire, excite and intrigue” (Hall 2016, 456), a desirable outcome in any educational setting, it may sustain the acquisition and learning of a second language. In other words, “[i]ntelligent content and relevant input are stimuli to thinking, and this leads on to spoken and written output” (McRae 2008, 65) in the ELT classroom. 302 Michael C. Prusse 2. Why focus on a text from Singapore? A cultural studies approach is at the core of teaching literature in the twentyfirst century (Peel 2007, 91). The reality in many societies around the globe is formed and influenced by migration, hybrid identities, and the mingling and intermingling of distinct cultures. Frequently, as a reaction to such constel‐ lations, ethnocentrism, paternalistic attitudes, and stereotypical views rise to the surface. Accordingly, it can be an advantage to allow students to tackle issues of diversity and prejudice unfettered by personal experience and local fault lines. The choice of a society on the other side of the globe with its own manifest history may provide an opportunity that - because of the physical and emotional distance - leads to a clearer analysis and to more rewarding discussions. Engaging literature from any context can procure dilemmas “to which the answers are not clear or simple” and, hence, the learners in the classroom will engage in “deep communication around issues that participants feel matter in a significant way” (Hall 2018, 262). Most students in teacher education in Switzerland will be familiar with English literature that originates from the British Isles or from the United States - from societies that are deeply influential in the mass media and that are different, and yet not extremely different, from the students’ own cultural environment. Depending on their English syllabus at grammar school, they might also have encountered texts from a wider range of English-speaking countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, India, or Nigeria (to name just the most frequently found ones). Singapore, by contrast, with respect to its culture and literature, is unknown territory to almost all of them. The element of novelty, however, is just one argument in favour of focusing on this nation within a cultural studies framework. While there are evident differences between a small tropical island state, close to the Equator, that is ruled by just one political party and, by contrast, a landlocked mountainous country in the temperate zone, the cradle of “direct” democracy, there are also some parallels that could kindle an interest in Swiss student teachers. Singapore and Switzerland are similar in that they are small and innovative nations that share a solid standing in the financial sector and, as a result, both nations are comparatively wealthy. The high standard of public transport as well as a reputation for cleanliness are further trademarks they have in common and last but not least, in Singapore and in Switzerland, there is, at least numerically, a similar linguistic situation. The two societies are host to four distinct speech communities each, and these languages are recognized as official means of communication. Whereas in Switzerland the locally predominant idiom is bound to the territory due to “Memory Is the Most Unreliable of Faculties” 303 historical developments (there are German-, French-, Italianand Romanshspeaking regions), in Singapore the different languages are the result of various ethnicities - principally speakers of Chinese, Malay, and Tamil - living together on the island with English as their common lingua franca. Singapore is a comparatively young nation from a European perspective, even though, from a local point of view, its history dates back much further. There was a Malayan settlement on the island long before the arrival of the first British traders. This means that Western records largely fail to acknowledge the pre- European existence of Singapore and this failure could certainly constitute the grounds for the claim that memory is an unreliable faculty. In any case, British historians record the founding of modern Singapore in the year 1819 when Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles perceived the strategic position and the economic potential of the island’s port. The settlement prospered and rapidly became one of the “jewels” of the British crown and a fortress of the Empire. In the course of its history, the British Empire transported large numbers of people across the globe as cheap labour. The various ethnic groups that form the population of Singapore today are a direct result of the Empire’s economic needs. In the Second World War, when the threat of a Japanese invasion became imminent, the island was rapidly reinforced with British, Indian, and Australian troops. However, the ensuing campaign failed miserably and turned into a major setback for Britain and her allies. This defeat later found a haunting echo in fictional accounts, often inspired by the fates of the large number of prisoners of war captured by the Japanese army and their ensuing struggle for survival. One example would be David Lean’s movie adaptation of Pierre Boulle’s 1952 eponymous novel, The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957); another one Nevil Shute’s A Town Like Alice (1950), later also adapted for the cinema (Lee 1956) and as a television series (Stevens 1981). Again, the focus on British and Australian soldiers and civilians in Japanese prison camps results in an almost entirely Western perspective, in which the story of the non-European population is largely sidelined, omitted, or simply forgotten. This problematic exclusion has been addressed by J.G. Farrell in The Singapore Grip (1978) and, more pointedly, by Amitav Ghosh in The Glass Palace (2000). Both novelists provide a detailed and vivid fictionalized insight into the fall of Malaya and Singapore, not just from European but also from Asian perspectives (Prusse 2009a). It is this specific period, the capture of the city by invading Japanese forces, that forms the backdrop for the beginning of the short story Japanese Girl (Baratham 2001a). The larger part of the narrative is set in modern Singapore after its independence from Britain in 1959 and from the federation of Malaysia in 1965. The creator of the text, Gopal Baratham (1935-2002), was “a neurosurgeon by profession and a writer by choice” (Choon 304 Michael C. Prusse 2001b, 7), whose legacy, in total, encompasses three novels and four collections of short stories. 3. The short story Japanese Girl Japanese Girl is introduced as a key text into an ELT classroom for student teachers to raise their awareness of perspectives from the English-speaking world outside their range of experience. The relevance of such a change of perspective for intercultural and transcultural learning has been established by several teacher educators (e.g., Delanoy 2015; Surkamp and Nünning 2009). Baratham’s short story challenges learners not just on the linguistic but also on the cognitive level because it is multifaceted and is characterized by ambiguity and indeterminacy and allows student teachers to develop critical reading abilities (Bland 2013; Hall 2018; Prusse 2018). Reader response criticism permits establishing a dialogue between the learners and the selected text, and this process can make narratives such as Japanese Girl come alive (Delanoy 2017b). The story itself is fortuitously also framed by two dialogues, one that is rather one-sided and features the narrator’s mother who tells him about his father’s death and, the other one, an imagined one between the narrator and his Japanese lover, in which, yet again, the female protagonist dominates the conversation. Japanese Girl begins with the memories that Christian’s mother is intent on imparting to him. She relates to the narrator how his father, an eminent member of Singapore’s Eurasian community, was executed by the Japanese during the occupation of the city in the Second World War. Her skilfully woven narrative instils a deep-set hate in her son who learns his lesson from her indoctrination and rejects and avoids any Japanese product that is readily available in Singapore in the post-war economic boom. Christian is convinced that his wife, Yolanda, understands and shares his passionate hostility towards the former occupiers and, hence, is quite amazed when she introduces him to Kaori, the Japanese girl of the title. Rather to his own surprise, Christian falls head over heels in love, and he and Kaori indulge in an illicit affair, which “has him discover passion - not just for the girl but also for the culture she comes from” (Prusse 2009b, 385). She teaches him about various aspects of Japanese civilization and, just as the first-person narrator is on the brink of proposing to her, she informs him that she is bound to return to Japan to be married. Christian then resumes his former life with Yolanda, fathers two daughters and, as one outcome of his affair, becomes an “expert on Japanese language and art” (Baratham 2001a, 367). “Memory Is the Most Unreliable of Faculties” 305 In addition to the bare facts of this summary, the narrative contains a number of notable aspects that student teachers and, in turn, learners of English at secondary level II can be alerted to. Firstly, it is remarkable that a text, in which the faculty of remembering historical events assumes such a significant position, was reprinted in a collection with the title The City of Forgetting (2001c; it was originally published in Memories that Glow in the Dark in 1995). It is certainly also noteworthy that its author, a neurosurgeon by profession, must have been fully aware of the functions of the brain. Already in his first, unpublished novel he had displayed “a fascination with memory” (Choon 2001b, 19). Any sweeping statements on the functions of memory by the narrator must therefore be taken with a grain of salt. Secondly, the attitude of the protagonist towards the Japanese swings like a pendulum from one extreme to another, namely from hate to love, and eventually settles somewhere in the middle in a position that could be called “respect,” which results from knowledge and having lived through strong emotions, a kind of katharsis. Thirdly, the names in the narrative have obviously been chosen with great care and are allegorical: Christian’s father, commonly known as JC, which stands for “Jasper Cuthbert” (Baratham 2001a, 360), could just as well be renamed “Jesus Christ.” In a further allusion to the Bible, he is betrayed by somebody close to him, the Judas-like “sneak Selvam” (Baratham 2001a, 361). It is also in tune with the New Testament that JC is tortured by the Japanese before he is condemned to death. Moreover, while Jesus is made to carry his cross, JC is forced to dig his own grave. The name of his son underlines the Christian allegory, which is then further corroborated in the text by describing the account of his father’s execution as an “excruciating” experience (Baratham 2001a, 360). The choice of this specific adjective is a thinly veiled allusion to the crucifixion. And yet, the protagonist behaves in a very un- Christian fashion by refusing to forgive. By means of his illicit affair the narrator touches upon another biblical reference, namely the story of Adam and Eve in Genesis. “Savouring” Kaori is like tasting “forbidden fruit” but, in consequence, he becomes directly acquainted with the Japanese and their culture. Leaving the “Eden” of his mother’s memory behind him, he learns about Japanese people through personal experience and, hence, he no longer “believes” in stories but has acquired in-depth knowledge himself. At the same time, his expertise is the result of betraying his wife, and betrayal is an altogether salient theme of the story: Selvam betrays JC; the Japanese accuse JC of having betrayed their Emperor by protecting influential citizens of Singapore’s Chinese community; Kaori and Christian betray Yolanda, and, because of the affair, Christian also betrays his mother and her treasured memory of his father. Eventually, Kaori 306 Michael C. Prusse betrays Christian by returning to Japan to get married (and, because of her affair just before that event, she also betrays her future husband). Baratham himself described his novel Sayang (2014; first published in 1991) as “an ill-disguised allegory lifted from the New Testament” (Choon 2001a, 379); in Japanese Girl he expertly toys with allusions but consciously mixes allegories to infuse the narrative with complexity and, in addition, he also provides his readers with numerous symbols and signals. In an interview the writer insisted that he told “stories with morals but I need my reader to understand my symbols to get the point” (Choon 2001a, 379). Some of the symbolic features of the narrative are straightforward: JC’s execution at the beginning of the narrative, for instance, functions as a foreshadowing of the unhappy end of his son’s love affair. The “bells and butterflies” that Christian associates with Kaori whenever he comes into her presence, may require some additional probing. While the bells might either allude to a fool’s cap (Christian is duped by Kaori who enjoys her sexual relationship with him even though she will eventually return to Japan to get married) or to the tolling of the bell as a signal of mortality ( JC is shot; Christian’s love is “killed”), the butterflies provide a rather complex bundle of symbolic references. On the one hand, the idiomatic expression “to have butterflies in the stomach” refers to the narrator’s excitement about the girl but, on the other hand, Kaori’s carefree attitude with regard to having an affair with Christian may well imply that she is a “social butterfly.” When the narrator attempts to focus mentally on his first encounter with Kaori, his memory fails him, leading to the surprising statement that it “is the most unreliable of faculties” (Baratham 2001a, 364). The moment their relationship becomes physical, the narrator’s amnesia is even more pronounced: “I lost recall of events” and “I had no power of recall” (Baratham 2001a, 366; 367). It is rather telling that the emotional entanglement between Christian and Kaori results in amnesia while, by contrast, the narrator’s mother recalls every small detail of her husband’s execution. 4. Construing symmetry On top of its allegorical and symbolical features, Japanese Girl is a study of contrasts, proceeding in the established dialectical format by moving the argument from one extreme (thesis: hate) to its opposite (antithesis: love), only to conclude with a compromise that is, however, on a more enlightened level (synthesis: knowledge, informed and moderate respect). The dichotomy of memory and amnesia described above is just one of numerous opposites in the story that buttress this basic construction: “hate” and “love,” “male” “Memory Is the Most Unreliable of Faculties” 307 and “female,” “stink” and “fragrance,” “death” and “life,” “war” and “peace,” or “East” and “West” could be listed as supplementary examples (some of these are further elaborated below). Baratham’s use of dichotomies in many of his texts is, according to Chin (2007, 16), indicative of “the state of the local writer’s imagination, which has been subjected to” the normative policy of Singapore’s ruling party, “the binary discourse that underpins its rhetoric of ‘Asian Values’” (ibid.). The author himself was in fact an outspoken critic of the government’s homily of persuasion, the campaign for “Asian Values” to strengthen an authoritarian one-party rule, and promoted liberal democracy and the autonomy of the individual instead (Holden 2006, 60). In the construction of Japanese Girl these dichotomies are evident: the story appears to have been assembled with a strict sense of symmetry. Readers will probably notice the juxtaposition of the hate, generated by the story of JC, which is coupled with his smell of excrement, and the love induced by Kaori and her perfume - her name is translated as “fragrance” (Baratham 2001a, 364). Moreover, across the narrative and, even at the level of individual paragraphs, the text is carefully composed to provide further instances of symmetry. This is mostly achieved by means of chiasmic constructions, a rhetorical figure that is derived from the Greek letter X and refers to a mirror-symmetrical arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses around a focal point. It is more commonly found in poetry but may also be detected in prose as some striking examples in the texts of Ernest Hemingway or John McGahern demonstrate (Prusse 2012). In Baratham’s case, the four short, almost clipped opening sentences of Japanese Girl may serve as a first illustration: “I was not present at my father’s execution. That is not to say that I was spared its details. Mum made sure of that. She was” (Baratham 2001a, 360; original italics). A closer look at this excerpt, especially when numbering the relevant aspects, reveals how the writer construes the balance by means of two interlaced chiasmic patterns while, at the same time, propelling the narrative forward by switching the agency from the narrator to the mother. The two instances of chiasmus repeat the same syntactic pattern and thus imbue the passage not only with a symmetrical construction but also with a repetitive rhythm: 1 I was (not present …) 2 That (is not to say) 2 that 1 I was (spared its details) 3 Mum (made sure of) 2 that 3 (1) She was. 308 Michael C. Prusse This passage introduces the first-person narrator and relates how, in a cascade of three instances of “that,” he is indoctrinated by his mother. She turns him into a follower of her story (Christian becomes a disciple of her narrative). Notwithstanding, the reader is alerted to the fact that the mother’s tale, which Christian treasures to such an extent, must be read with caution, as the author patently makes clear when he renders the description of JC, also meticulously patterned, in ironic terms: “He was well over six feet tall, had a moustache that outran his chin, and a paunch that outran his chest” (Baratham 2001a, 361) - this portrayal is chiasmic as well: “1 moustache 2 outran 1 chin / 1 paunch 2 outran 1 chest.” The notion that he could have joined the Greek gods on Olympus, “naked and unashamed” (Baratham 2001a, 361), is clearly ridiculous since his physical features do not correspond to the ideal measures of Greek classical statues. And yet, the author deliberately modelled his narrative on classical modes of symmetrical constructions - it is tempting to label the effect as Palladian prose architecture. The last sentence, where the narrator has lost Kaori, establishes a parallel to the loss of his father in the opening passage and, at the same time, reveals how the protagonist has matured with the experience he gained throughout the story. Imagining how Kaori would dismiss him if he could find her, he surmises: “I guess she is right but that knowledge does not make me the least bit happier” (Baratham 2001a, 368). Thus, both at the beginning of the story and at its end Christian bows to female authority. However, whereas he initially sets out as a fervent believer of his mother’s truth, he turns into a sceptic after tasting the “forbidden fruit.” He no longer believes in certainties and concedes that Kaori might be right. The narrator’s musing on whether this awareness makes him happier could imply that this protagonist joins the ranks of those that adhere to the notion that “paradise lost” is at the root of human progress, of knowledge, science, and culture (but these achievements do not necessarily entail happiness). According to the author himself, doubt is essential because any kind of faith is only feasible on the basis of uncertainty (Choon 2001a, 382). To underline the formal significance of symmetry in Japanese Girl, the chiasmic construction of another paragraph, which displays a different part of the mother’s memories, can be quoted as additional evidence: He was a doctor, Christian, and a graduate of Edinburgh University. The first from this part of the world. The English treated him as an equal. He talked with them, hunted with them, boozed with them. An equal, you understand, Christian, one who was allowed to run his own nursing home without any European doctor supervising him. (Baratham 2001a, 361; emphasis added) “Memory Is the Most Unreliable of Faculties” 309 The parts in italics in this paragraph demonstrate how the author fashions a chiasmus by arranging these words in a mirror sequence so that they frame a central sentence that, according to the mother, epitomizes JC’s parity with the British. The three verbs that she selects to establish her husband’s equivalent status refer to communication (talk), a blood sport that is the privilege of the upper classes (hunt), and the consumption of alcohol, presumably in an exclusive environment such as a club (booze). In being allowed to partake in these pastimes of the colonial ruling class, he is acknowledged as an equal. As a rule, student teachers will not perceive the construction without some visual support. By representing the chiasmus as follows, they can become fully cognizant of the arrangement and understand how it works: 1 He 2 doctor 3 Christian … English 4 an equal He talked with them, hunted with them, boozed with them. 4 An equal 3 Christian … European 2 doctor 1 him As the sequential representation of the relevant words above demonstrates, this elaborate chiasmus is perfectly balanced, thus mirroring the mother’s message of equity on a verbal level. The hate she instils in her son is based on ignorance (neither she nor he has any notion of what Japanese culture encompasses); the love that Christian develops is due to the knowledge he acquires in his intimate relationship with Kaori. Hence, ultimately, taking all the dialogues within the text together, they proceed from indoctrination (the mother) to teaching (Kaori). These dialogues transmit the quintessence of the story to its readers: it is only once they learn to respect the “diverse, dynamic, overlapping, (globally) interconnected and permeable” nature of cultures (Delanoy 2017a, 175) and understand the necessity to interact democratically with others that they can become thoroughly acquainted with a context that is different from their own. Nevertheless, the narrative is literary and, as such, will not yield all its secrets to its inquisitive readers, particularly since Baratham considers an ambivalence about certainty as an essential quality of his writing (Choon 2001a). Accordingly, the dialogue with the story will continue as long as it is perused, the interaction with it “never ends” (Attridge 2004, 134). 310 Michael C. Prusse An in-depth analysis of Japanese Girl by means of close reading, not just for its contents but also for its formal construction, has a twofold purpose. The first is that student teachers can be alerted to stylistic elements, in particular chiasmus, and that they learn to appreciate a short story not merely as a short prose text, “a slice of life,” but by and large as a carefully constructed and polished verbal gem, closer to the lyrical poem than to the novel. The Singaporean poet and critic, Kirpal Singh (1984, 10), fittingly describes the short story’s advantage as being “able to fuse the energy of poetry with the comfort of prose.” The second purpose of close and alert reading is preparatory: future teachers acquire analytical skills, which serve as an essential tool when developing multiliteracies and when they are tasked with dissecting narratives across a range of media formats (Prusse 2020). 5 Further directions As mentioned previously, it is intriguing that Baratham describes memory as unreliable and, what in fact proves to be unreliable (since it does not provide the whole picture), is the mother’s one-sided story of how Singapore was conquered by the Japanese and how their arrival affected the local population. The Singaporean writer thus implicitly criticizes Western historiography, which proves to be biased because it ignores other experiences of history, particularly of how the Second World War impacted on Asian communities. It follows that Baratham’s position must be considered as rather the opposite of “a disconcerting nostalgia for lost empires” that Clark (2017, 85) diagnoses after reading Japanese Girl. It is the protagonist’s mother, Eurasian herself, who sides with the British version of history; the precarious situation of mixed-race communities in the British Empire may arguably explain her motivation to take that stance, which culminates in her delight of JC’s equity with the colonizers. In another story, The Personal History of an Island, Baratham’s criticism of European perceptions is rather more palpable: “When the British say they have ‘founded’ something they are merely telling us that they have taken it over and consider it their own” (Baratham 2001b, 136). According to Choon (2001b, 19), the “unyielding hegemony” of the colonizers succeeds because they make it the “key aim” of their policy to exploit divisions among communities and nations. A selective or unreliable memory is a recurrent trait in the historiography of the British Empire (as of many other empires) and its traces permeate English literature. The imperial posture can already be discerned in the attitudes of that very first colonialist in fiction, the eponymous protagonist of Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719), and in the way he “presses” Friday into the service of “Memory Is the Most Unreliable of Faculties” 311 the Crown. From a broader cultural perspective, it can still be seen to surface in the present day, when the descendants of the former colonizers eulogise Britain’s glorious past by singing jingoistic anthems like James Thomson’s “Rule Britannia” (1740) and A. C. Benson’s “Land of Hope and Glory” (1902) at the “Last Night of the Proms.” This event celebrates manifest “British values,” tinged with nostalgia for a no longer existing empire and without considering the perspective of those who were subjected. Robinson Crusoe and the heritage of patriotic ballads exemplify just two possibilities of how Japanese Girl can used as a springboard to explore numerous cultural and literary avenues in the ELT classroom. Student teachers learn that the meeting of cultures in colonial times was not characterized by a willing subordination to the hegemony of European civilisation but consisted of painful encounters with far-reaching consequences, right into the present age. Japanese Girl is merely one outstanding analysis of such effects. By means of selected further literature, a premeditated and critical examination of colonial history is feasible, and a discernment of certain contemporary phenomena can be nurtured. Simply by reading between the lines of literary texts, students may, for instance, perceive how Britain’s recent departure from the European Union, Brexit, is linked to such unreliable memories of the imperial past. Widespread hostility towards contemporary migrants is often coupled with Empire nostalgia (McLeod 2020). This can be exemplified with Caryl Phillips’s A Distant Shore (2003) which, as McLeod claims, sensitively explores undercurrents in society and epitomizes attitudes that will eventually lead to Brexit. Phillips relates the fate of a black migrant, who escapes civil war and barbaric atrocities in his African home country, struggles to survive in a French refugee camp on the Channel and, eventually, succeeds in making the crossing to Britain. His journey still unfinished, he ends up in a village in the North of England and manages to establish a life there, only to be brutally murdered by some xenophobic youths who, according to McLeod, cling to an imperial notion of supremacy and with their violent deed subvert the traditional picture of idyllic life in English villages. The wistful note in British nationalism, investing the colonial past with an aura of “the good old times,” could be juxtaposed to mythmaking in some of the former colonies, for instance, by contemplating extracts from Ashutosh Gowariker’s Bollywood movie Lagaan (2001). This film represents an Indian rewriting of colonial events in a valiant attempt to create a counter-mythology to the nostalgic English vision that is evident in revisionist cultural products from Britain as, for instance, in David Lean’s 1984 adaptation of Passage to India to the big screen (Prusse 2007, 135). A literary text ensemble of this kind - 312 Michael C. Prusse as Delanoy (2015, 41) labels it with reference to Decke-Cornill (1994) - might be complemented with excerpts from Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children (1981) and Amitav Ghosh’s The Glass Palace (2000); further extensions can be added by means of an excerpt from O’Donnell’s (1999) movie adaptation of Ayub Khan-Din’s play East is East (1996), Kipling’s poems The Ballad of East and West (1889) or The White Man’s Burden (1899) and, as a contrast, Chinua Achebe’s Dead Man’s Path (1953) or Things Fall Apart (1958). With regard to their future teaching duties and a transfer into the ELT classroom, an analysis of a picture of Captain Cook landing in Australia can provide further insights into representations of imperial domination (Prusse 2018). This may then be contrasted with the television adaptation of Tim Winton’s Lockie Leonard (Tilse et al. 2007), which alludes to this iconic imperial moment by converting it to the opposite. The fates of young refugees can be approached when the student teachers’ sensitivity with regard to history, cultural contexts, and the significance of different outlooks has been developed. Graphic novels such as Illegal (2017) by Eoin Colfer or When Stars are Scattered (2020) by Victoria Jamieson and Omar Mohamed portray migrants and their dilemmas on the move; novels such as Benjamin Zephaniah’s Refugee Boy (2001) or Morris Gleitzman’s Boy Overboard (2002) will supply additional facets to complement the picture. This brief sketch of a potential syllabus offers just one possible text ensemble based on narratives in various media formats. The last part, focussing on children’s and young adult literature, is included to make teachers aware of how they can successfully transfer cultural learning into their future classrooms. In addition, by means of intensive discussions on visible aspects of cultures and the invisible succubus that resides beneath the surface, they will discover the relevance of literary texts for the ELT classroom: “Language learning benefits from imaginative intelligent content, learner response and creativity benefit from having something to think about, to process, to evaluate - and there are very few correct answers” (McRae 2008, 71). References Achebe, Chinua. 1958. Things Fall Apart. London: Everyman, 1992. . 1953. “Dead Man’s Path.” In Girls at War and Other Stories, 70-74. London: Heinemann, 1972. Armstrong, Paul B. 2020. Stories and the Brain: The Neuroscience of Narrative. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. Attridge, Derek. 2004. The Singularity of Literature. London: Routledge. “Memory Is the Most Unreliable of Faculties” 313 Baratham, Gopal. 1995. Memories that Glow in the Dark. Singapore: Pipaltree Publishings. . 2001a. “Japanese Girl.” In The City of Forgetting: The Collected Stories of Gopal Baratham, edited by Ban Kah Choon, 360-68. Singapore: Times Books International. . 2001b. “The Personal History of an Island.” In The City of Forgetting: The Collected Stories of Gopal Baratham, edited by Ban Kah Choon, 136-41. Singapore: Times Books International. . 2001c. The City of Forgetting: The Collected Stories of Gopal Baratham, edited by Ban Kah Choon. Singapore: Times Books International. . 2014. Sayang. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. Barthes, Roland. 1977. Image - Music - Text. Essays selected and translated by Stephen Heath. London: Fontana. Bate, Jonathan. 2010. English Literature: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Benson, Arthur C., and Edward Elgar. 1902. Coronation Ode (“Land of Hope and Glory”). London and New York: Boosey. Bland, Janice. 2013. Children’s Literature and Learner Empowerment. London: Blooms‐ bury. Boulle, Pierre. 1952. Le Pont de la rivière Kwaï. Paris: Éditions Julliard. Chatman, Seymour. 1993. Reading Narrative Fiction. New York: Macmillan. Chin, Grace V. S. 2007. “Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam: A Comparative Study of Literary Developments in English.” Asian Englishes 10 (2): 8-28. https: / / doi. org/ 10.1080/ 13488678.2007.10801210. Choon, Ban Kah. 2001a. “An Interview with Gopal Baratham.” In The City of Forgetting: The Collected Stories of Gopal Baratham, edited by Ban Kah Choon, 378-82. Singapore: Times Books International. . 2001b. “Introduction.” In The City of Forgetting: The Collected Stories of Gopal Baratham, edited by Ban Kah Choon, 7-40. Singapore: Times Books Interna‐ tional. Clark, Steve. 2017. “A City Without a Nation.” In Singapore Literature and Culture: Current Directions in Local and Global Contexts, edited by Angelia Poon, and Angus Whitehead, 82-96. New York: Routledge. Colfer, Eoin, and Andrew Donkin. 2017. Illegal. Illustrated by Giovanni Rigano. London: Hodder. Council of Europe. 2018. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume with New Descriptors. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Accessed March 31, 2021. https: / / rm.coe.int/ cefr-companion-volu me-with-new-descriptors-2018/ 1680787989. 314 Michael C. Prusse Decke-Cornill, Helene. 1994. “Intertextualität als Literaturdidaktische Dimension. Zur Frage der Textzusammenstellung bei Literarischen Lektürereihen.” Die Neueren Spra‐ chen 93 (3): 272-87. . 2007. “Literaturdidaktik in einer ‘Pädagogik der Anerkennung: ’ Gender and Other Suspects.” In Neue Ansätze und Konzepte in der Literatur- und Kulturdidaktik, edited by Wolfgang Hallet, and Ansgar Nünning, 239-58. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier. Defoe, Daniel. 1719. The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. London: W. Taylor. Delanoy, Werner. 2015. “Literature Teaching and Learning: Theory and Practice.” In Learning with Literature in the EFL Classroom, edited by Werner Delanoy, Maria Eisenmann, and Frauke Matz, 19-47. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. . 2017a. “Building Bridges - towards a Timely Concept for Culture-and- Language Learning.” In The Polyphony of English Studies: A Festschrift for Allan James, edited by Alexander Onysko, Eva-Maria Graf, Werner Delanoy, Guenther Sigott, and Nikola Dobrić, 163-76. Tübingen: Narr. . 2017b. “Picturebooks, Comics and Graphic Novels: New Perspectives for Literature and Language Teaching.” In Picture That! Picturebooks, Comics and Graphic Novels in the EFL Classroom, edited by Karin da Rocha, Agnes Haidacher-Horn, and Amy Müller-Caron, 13-27. Graz: Leykam. Delanoy, Werner, and Laurenz Volkmann. 2006. “Introduction: Cultural Studies in the EFL Classroom.” In Cultural Studies in the EFL Classroom, edited by Werner Delanoy and Laurenz Volkmann, 11-21. Heidelberg: Winter. Farrell, J.G. 1978. The Singapore Grip. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Ghosh, Amitav. 2000. The Glass Palace. London: Harper Collins. Gleitzman, Morris. 2002. Boy Overboard. London: Puffin. Gowariker, Ashutosh, dir. 2001. Lagaan: Once Upon a Time in India. Aamir Khan Productions. Hall, Geoff. 2016. “Using literature in ELT.” In The Routledge Handbook of English Language Teaching, edited by Graham Hall, 456-69. London: Routledge. . 2018. “Afterword: Thoughts on the Way Ahead.” In Using Literature in English Language Education, edited by Janice Bland, 261-75. London: Bloomsbury. Holden, Philip. 2006. “Writing Conspiracy.” Journal of Postcolonial Writing 42 (1): 58-70. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 17449850600595665. Jamieson, Victoria, and Omar Mohamed. 2020. When Stars are Scattered. New York: Dial. Khan-Din, Ayub. 1999. East is East. London: Nick Hern. Kipling, Rudyard. 1889. “The Ballad of East and West.” In The Collected Poems of Rudyard Kipling, 245-48. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth, 2001. “Memory Is the Most Unreliable of Faculties” 315 Kipling, Rudyard. 1899. “The White Man’s Burden.” In The Collected Poems of Rudyard Kipling, 334-35. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth, 2001. Kramsch, Claire, and Thomas Nolden. 1994. “Redefining Literacy in a Foreign Language.” Die Unterrichtspraxis 27 (1): 28-35. Kucirkova, Natalia, and Teresa Cremin. 2020. Children Reading for Pleasure in the Digital Age: Mapping Reader Engagement. Los Angeles: SAGE. Lean, David, dir. 1957. The Bridge on the River Kwai. Columbia Pictures. Lee, Jack, dir. 1956. A Town Like Alice. The Rank Organisation. Mallan, Kerry. 2017. “Children’s Literature in Education.” In Oxford Research Encyclo‐ pedia, Education, edited by George W. Noblit. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1093/ acrefore/ 978019 0264093.013.157. McLeod, John. 2020. “Warning Signs: Postcolonial Writing and the Apprehension of Brexit.” Journal of Postcolonial Writing 56 (5): 607-620. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 174498 55.2020.1816688. McRae, John. 2008. “What Is Language and What Is Literature? Are They the Same Question? ” FLuL 37: 63-80. Nünning, Ansgar, and Carola Surkamp. 2010. Englische Literatur Unterrichten: Grund‐ lagen und Methoden. Seelze-Velber: Klett/ Kallmeyer. O’Donnell, Damian, dir. 1999. East is East. Film Four/ Assassin Films. Paran, Amos. 2008. “The Role of Literature in Instructed Foreign Language Learning and Teaching: An Evidence-Based Survey.” Language Teaching 41 (4): 465-96. https: / / doi. org/ 10.1017/ S026144480800520X. Peel, Robin. 2007. “The ‘Cultural Studies’ Model of English.” In Reviewing English in the 21 st Century, edited by Wayne Sawyer and Eva Gold, 86-92. Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Phillips, Caryl. 2003. A Distant Shore. London: Secker and Warburg. Prusse, Michael C. 2007. “‘East is East’ or Transcultural Cosmopolitanism? Positions on Cross-Cultural Encounters in Post-Colonial Theory and in a Series of ‘Passages to India.’” In Cultures in Contact, edited by Balz Engler and Lucia Michalcak, 129-47. Tübingen: Narr. . 2009a. “Imaginary Pasts: Colonisation, Migration and Loss in J.G. Farrell’s The Singapore Grip and in Amitav Ghosh’s The Glass Palace.” Transnational Literature 2 (1). . 2009b. “Towards a Cosmopolitan Readership - New Literatures in English in the Classroom.” In Transcultural English Studies, edited by Frank Schulze- Engler and Sissy Helff, 373-91. Amsterdam: Rodopi. . 2012. “Repetition, Difference and Chiasmus in John McGahern’s Narra‐ tives.” Language and Literature 21 (4): 363-80. 316 Michael C. Prusse . 2018. “Transmedial Reading: Tim Winton’s Lockie Leonard Trilogy.” In Using Literature in English Language Education, edited by Janice Bland, 121-37. London: Bloomsbury. . 2020. “Transmediales Erzählen im Fokus: ‘Close Reading’ Aktivitäten als Beitrag für Zukunftsorientierten Englischunterricht.” Babylonia 2 (2020): 20-27. Rushdie, Salman. 1981. Midnight’s Children. London: Jonathan Cape. Shute, Nevil. 1950. A Town Like Alice. London: Heinemann. Singh, Kirpal. 1984. “An Approach to Singapore Writing in English.” ARIEL 15 (2): 5-24. Stevens, David, dir. 1981. A Town Like Alice (Television series). Seven Network. Surkamp, Carola, and Ansgar Nünning. 2009. Englische Literatur Unterrichten: Unter‐ richtsmodelle und Materialien. Seelze-Velber: Klett/ Kallmeyer. Thomson, James. 1740. “An Ode (Rule Britannia).” In Alfred: A Masque, 42-43. London: A. Millar. Tilse, Tony, Wayne Blair, Roger Hodgman, James Bogle, and Peter Templeman, dir. 2007. Lockie Leonard, TV series. Chippendale NSW: Goalpost Pictures. Volkmann, Laurenz. 2010. Fachdidaktik Englisch: Kultur und Sprache. Tübingen: Narr. Winton, Tim. 1990. Lockie Leonard, Human Torpedo. Camberwell, Victoria: Penguin, 2007. Zephaniah, Benjamin. 2001. Refugee Boy. London: Bloomsbury. “Memory Is the Most Unreliable of Faculties” 317 Literary Learning and Political Education Exploring the Nexus of Aesthetic and Rhetorical Language Use Max von Blanckenburg Literature’s capacity of allowing readers to delve into worlds that may be any‐ thing from utterly realistic to clearly fictionalised opens up manifold pathways for language learning. Likewise, there is a necessity for scholars and educators to pin down the specific learning opportunities and subsequently the goals that may be achieved when harnessing a literary text of some sort in the classroom. This chapter sets out to explore one particular avenue in teaching literature in EFL (English as a Foreign Language), and discusses in what ways and to what ends literary texts may be used to foster political education. To begin with, being political centres around the notion of being affected by issues and actions emergent in a lifeworld that is somehow within reach. Having been impressed with an issue, in turn, allows to develop a response, from an emotional reaction to deliberate political action in its various forms. In this context, it is worthwhile to ponder on how literature can prove beneficial as a subject and genre to engage learners with current political themes, agendas, and forms of political communication. 1. Taking literary learning as a point of departure To follow this line of thought, it is imperative to identify those unique char‐ acteristics of literature and literary learning that may serve as tie points to political education. A key aspect to be mentioned here is that literary texts can resonate with readers in a particular way and hence lead to both cognitive and affective activation and engagement. Literature has been attributed the ability of giving us an understanding of imagined or real-world issues through characters, narrative, or poetic language. It invites fictional worlds to be created by writers and explored by their readership - inevitably against the background of one’s own world knowledge, experience, and state of mind (Delanoy et al. 2015; Lütge 2018; Steininger 2018). In this sense, a literary text may confirm or challenge what a person knows, feels, and believes to be true or right. In accordance with Delanoy (2015; 2018), it can therefore be argued that literature offers to engage with our (many and often contradictory) selves, with others, and with relevant and meaningful issues of our time. In a language learning setting, this creates room for speculation and creative envisioning as well as for subversion and critical reflection. As a result, one of the major benefits of literary texts is that they allow for individual responses to become subject of classroom discourse (Paran and Robinson 2018). Among others, the aims of literature teaching in EFL are that learners should develop an ability for aesthetic judgement and experience joy and immersion throughout the reading process (Diehr and Surkamp 2015; Weskamp 2019). In addition to fostering a generally open and positive attitude towards literature as such, a pivotal aspect is that learners are likewise educated to contextualise and question fictional texts. It is through this set of competences that they become autonomous readers, capable of making informed decisions about going along with or dissociating themselves from what they are reading (Delanoy 1996). For the purposes of this chapter, it is worth exploring Weskamp’s (2019) notion that the impact of literary texts on a person can extend from experiencing entertainment to understanding the world around us as well as presenting an incentive to bring about change where necessary. 2. Political education in EFL: A focus on understanding language use From these deliberations on literary texts, a link can be established to desired learning outcomes when engaging students with political themes and discourses within and beyond EFL teaching. Generally, such an endeavour may be under‐ taken with reference to different theoretical foundations and conceptual vantage points. Scholars have suggested terms such as democratic, citizenship, global, or cosmopolitan education (Brinkmann 2018; Delanoy 2020; Gaudelli 2016; Lütge 2015; Matz 2021; Matz and Becker 2023), to name but a few. What these concepts have in common is that they theorise notions of individual agency and respon‐ sibility within cultural and political spaces, and they delineate implications for learner roles and subsequent desiderata for goals and approaches in (language) education. A focus that is of particular interest within this chapter is the question of how political discourses are realised through the deliberate use of language, which may lean more towards rhetorical or aesthetic language use, depending on context and communicative or textual genre. Amongst other models, the Refer‐ 320 Max von Blanckenburg 1 A similar approach is visible also in German state curricula, for instance, in the concept of political education at Bavarian schools, which applies across all school subjects (ISB 2019). 2 Over the last years, a tendency of falling support for populist sentiment could be observed across European countries, which may, however, not necessarily be a hopeful sign but could be explained through higher radicalisation or influences of the Covid-19 pandemic (Henley 2021). ence Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture provides competence descriptions that are thematically relevant in this field (Council of Europe [CoE] 2018). It postulates that learners be supported in “[m]aking judgments about whether or not materials under analysis are valid, accurate, acceptable, reliable, appropriate, useful and/ or persuasive” (ibid., 47). Moreover, they should engage not only with the literal meaning of materials, but also with their broader rhetorical purpose including the underlying motives, intentions and agendas of those who produced or created them (in the case of political communications, this includes the ability to identify propaganda and the ability to deconstruct the underlying motives, intentions and purposes of those who have produced the propaganda) (ibid.). With this array of competences, the CoE defines a broad range of cognitive operations that learners should be capable of executing by means of both close analysis as well as ethical reflection. 1 The overall rationale sketched out here amounts to the ability to examine how language is used to convey messages and target audiences via a multiplicity of text types and communicative genres, and to review whether this is done in an effective and legitimate way. Especially the inclusion and highlighting of notions related to threats to democracy may be linked to the worldwide omnipresence of populist rhetoric (Espenshade 2020; Lewis et al. 2019). 2 It therefore becomes apparent that learners should be equipped to analyse the ethical foundations, the strategic functions, and the so‐ cial implications of language use to ultimately arrive at an informed judgement about whether a communicative expression is justified and appropriate. Here, the fields of argumentation, narrative structure, style, and linguistic framing provide a heuristic to assess and evaluate goals and discursive practices in rhetorical communication (von Blanckenburg 2022). Surely, a democratic system “allows for dissent and expects its citizens to be resilient to pressures, political, economic, and social, in the process of maintaining democracy” (Print 2015, 40). In this sense, negotiation of meaning through language is at the heart of democratic and political discourse, while it simultaneously needs to rest on some set of common values that allow for reasonable, transparent, and respectful interaction. Hence, civic engagement builds on knowledge, skills and attitudes Literary Learning and Political Education 321 that are linked to an understanding of rhetorical communication as well as to the ability to articulate oneself effectively and by doing so contribute to finding consensus or compromise (Brett and Thomas 2014; Sharer 2011). 3. Engaging with political issues through literature: The nexus of rhetoric and aesthetics How exactly may those two fields of literary learning and political education be linked? Responding to this question is inevitably founded on a certain understanding of literary theory and meaning-making. Depending on the conceptual starting point, literature may be approached differently in the context of political education. A reader response-oriented view tends to focus on individual interpretations and reactions while the perspective of New Criticism would emphasise inner-textual aspects and treat a literary text, first of all, as independent of the outer-textual world or readership (Delanoy 2015; Lütge 2018). In this regard, it is especially the vantage point of New Historicism that proves useful in connecting political discourse and literature as the theory aims to “integrate historical and literary interpretation” (Gallagher and Greenblatt 2000, 3). Literature, in this understanding, is part of a complex network of cultural and political dynamics, commenting on these and, in turn, being commented on (Robson 2008; Weskamp 2019). As a consequence, the nature and impact of a literary text goes beyond it being an aesthetic expression, and instead it becomes a contribution to the societal negotiation of currently pressing themes and issues. This reciprocal relationship between literary texts and their sociocultural contexts becomes a key concern from a New Historicist viewpoint. As such, literature may be considered as a political expression, fiction as a mode of political meaning-making and of envisioning hopeful or deplorable political futures. In this regard, the unique characteristic of literature being of particular interest here is its way of constructing meaning and creating impact through purposeful and often intricate forms of language use. Literary texts can, thus, lend themselves to being read from a rhetorical perspective - against the background of understanding rhetoric as the “study of the persuasive and expressive resources of language: the techniques of language and thought that can be used to construct effective discourses” (Culler 2000, 69; emphasis added). It is via such a rhetorical focus that literary and political analysis can be intertwined, rather than treating these two as separate fields. A poignant example of an intersection between aesthetic and rhetorical language became apparent at the inauguration of US president Joe Biden in 322 Max von Blanckenburg January 2021. Amongst the different parts of and contributions to the celebration were Biden’s inaugural speech, a benediction by Reverend Silvester Beaman, and the now famous poem The Hill We Climb written and recited by poet Amanda Gorman. While the speech clearly stood in the tradition of US inaugural addresses, painting a vision of a brighter future for the country and its citizens, it is notable that the two other contributions - within their respective genre - can be likewise understood as political statements in their own right. All three put centre stage a theme of unity and reconciliation as well as the rejection of social division and resentment. The latter two did so more pointedly through religious and poetic language, but all of them marked a clear and arguably deliberate distinction from the previous administration and a realignment towards a more inclusive conception of society and politics. A rhetorical analysis of speech, benediction, and inaugural poem can therefore not only unpack the aesthetic composition, but it can also reveal how each of these texts, through their oral as well as medial delivery, create a persuasive appeal and subsequently a discursive impact within a certain context and situation. This impact becomes visible and accessible, for instance, in the successive responses, notably in digital spaces including news broadcasting sites or social media platforms. Moreover, an inauguration exemplifies that political events are not only shaped by the contributions on a particular day but also by texts and discourses surrounding it. For instance, as part of the Biden and Harris campaign, an official playlist featuring artists such as Mary J. Blige, Bruce Springsteen, Bob Marley, or SZA was released, aiming to “reflect the relentless spirit and rich diversity of America” as well as being “the score to a new chapter […] as the Biden-Harris Administration begins its important work to unite our country”, said Tony Allen of the Presidential Inaugural Committee (see Blistein 2021). At closer look, one can note that this playlist is a (pop)cultural product simultaneously expressing a political agenda, communicating values, and emphasising themes such as female and black empowerment - all through musical and literary expression. Consequently, combining literary learning and political education becomes productive when an aesthetically crafted text of some sort bears rhetorical potential that can be examined with students by analysing how a literary text creates a particular perspective on and evaluation of a political theme or issue through its design, dissemination, and through the responses it evokes in a discursive space. This is worth mentioning as political, or more generally, rhetorical communication does not need to build on aesthetic language, and vice versa, there is arguably no inherent and clear political dimension in a literary text by necessity. Literary Learning and Political Education 323 The nexus between rhetorical and aesthetic language use can be delineated as an intersection between literary expression and persuasive appeal, and is sketched out via the following core dimensions below (see Figure 16.1). memorability openness appropriateness resonance perturbation playfulness conciseness rhetorical & aesthetic language use Figure 16.1 The nexus of rhetorical and aesthetic language use - core dimensions These dimensions are not meant to be necessarily comprehensive and neither do they all apply to every literary text by default. Instead, they present a heuristic that provides analytical categories to be made fruitful in educational scenarios. Hence, the rhetorical potential of literary language can be unravelled by focusing on the following dimensions and their respective guiding questions: • memorability: How is language used in a way that directs readers’ attention to its form and supports the processing and remembering of information? • conciseness: Adding to the previous point, how are key (political) messages condensed within meaningfully charged and aestheticised expressions? 324 Max von Blanckenburg 3 For a more fine-grained discussion of the notion and relevance of perturbation in the field of language education, see Volkmann (2023) in this volume. • playfulness: How does a text spark engagement and enjoyment through innovative, creative, or unexpected linguistic structures and figures of thought? • perturbation: Where does a text create moments of surprise or irritation? How does it challenge the reader’s beliefs, make someone stop and think, or offer a counter-intuitive view on an issue? 3 • resonance: In what ways is language used to evoke emotional appeals, help addressees to follow a line of thought, and participate in the perspective sketched out be the author / text? • appropriateness: To what extent do form and content of a text present a fair and justified representation of a matter at hand? In how far does a text pursue a transparent and legitimate goal? • openness: At what points does a text leave room for individual interpretation and application to one’s own lifeworld? How does it nudge addressees to personally identify with a cause? Exploring literary texts through the lens of rhetorical analysis can promote competence development on different levels and in various regards. Learners develop an awareness and understanding of the aestheticisation of politics through the combined investigation of literary and political meaning-making processes. In addition, they are sensitised for the sociocultural interplay between political developments and their literary repercussions. Political education in EFL, in this sense, is realised at a junction of literary, language, and cultural learning. At the same time, however, it is of the essence to stress that even political literature remains (at a minimum to some degree) open in meaning and requires interpretation as well as application to real-world settings and issues. In turn, the question of what makes literature political - whether it is primarily the author, the text itself, the context of reception, or the readership as such - can become a fruitful subject for classroom discourse. In any case, rhetorical literary expressions do not per se and necessarily lead to a certain, desired effect. On the contrary, scholars of rhetoric and persuasion have been aware that one cannot comprehend rhetorical impact in terms of a stimulus-response logic, but invariably needs to incorporate a number of persuasive anchors such as beliefs, values, or attitudes ( Jowett and O’Donnell 2015) as well as situational and contextual dimensions (Knape 2012; Ziegler 2015). Approaching, for instance, political songs and poetry, as will be done in the following, is Literary Learning and Political Education 325 therefore subject to an interesting duality between literary openness versus the deliberate conveying of a message through a text. The aim of analytical tasks may, first and foremost, revolve around bringing to light the rhetorical potential of a text, and, in a second step, if applicable, its discursive impact that is rendered visible within reception processes. 4. Approaching political issues through poetry and music Providing a rationale why she uses a poem in every single classroom, former New Zealand Poet Laureate Selina Tusitala Marsh (2021, 223) writes: A poem is a rubiks cube red next to yellow next to green a 6-sided, palm-sized puzzle colouring different modes of meaning forestalling foregone conclusions by twists of ambiguity and turns of uncertainty. With this poem, Marsh captures, in my view, two key characteristics of poetry, which make it an apt genre for political education within EFL. For one thing, a poem can encode - as well as juxtapose - political positions and perspectives in the densest manner, scaling down even complex matters and conflicts into the size of a metaphorical palm of a hand. This relates back to the previously described dimension of conciseness (see above). For another thing, however, poems almost paradoxically have the potential of complexifying a theme or issue by adding depth through aesthetic form. Hence, they can prompt readers to question their own view on and attitude towards a matter, leaving room for the possibility that one’s own convictions may need revision or sharpening. Hallet (2020) argues that contrary to prose or drama, poetry - instead of creating a fictional world - expresses a need, hope, or desperation emanating from the very world that we live in. This is precisely what can make poetry political in a very direct sense. On the level of text structure and design, its political potential is further emphasised in the close relationship between rhetorical and poetic speech: “Poetry is related to rhetoric: poetry is language that makes abundant use of figures of speech and language that aims to be powerfully persuasive” (Culler 2000, 69). Thus, poetic texts are capable of purposefully addressing audiences and of speaking to current discourses, arguably with a potential to effect social and political change. 326 Max von Blanckenburg As discussed above, this comes with a renewed interest in the role of the poet. Amanda Gorman frames this role in her poem Ship’s Manifest (Gorman 2021, 2) as follows: [T]he poet, the preserver Of ghosts & gains, Our demons & dreams, Our haunts & hopes. Here’s to the preservation Of a light so terrible. In this conception, poetry takes up, expresses, and hereby brings to the surface especially those real-world issues that are culturally and politically charged, and it encapsulates the vast range of thoughts and emotions people are facing as they become affected by their lifeworld. This is in line with the notion of literature as an informant of a particular time, making use of a rhetorical structure (Weskamp 2019). Gorman herself and her texts form a prime example of the immediacy and topicality that poetry can showcase. In the New Yorker, this is described with reference to her person in the following way: “In an era as urgent as ours, many poems strive for timelessness precisely by being timely. Poetry can preserve the fleeting present, encircle the past, and help envision alternative futures” (Young 2021). Gorman does exactly that when she writes in the previously mentioned The Hill We Climb (2021, 208f): “If we’re to live up to our own time, then victory / Won’t lie in the blade, but in all the bridges we’ve made” and some lines later “We’ve seen a force that would shatter our nation rather than share it […] / But while democracy can be periodically delayed, / It can never be permanently defeated.” Especially the last lines lend themselves to being interpreted as a response to the attack on the Washington capitol on 6 January 2021, merely two weeks before Biden’s inauguration, hence rooting in a specific political setting and contributing to discourse on that issue. Likewise, her writing exemplifies how poetry can have a distinct moral foundation as well as a moral rationale directed at an audience, which ties back to the dimension of resonance (see Figure 16.1). As Anselm (2019) argues, poetry may confront readers with worldviews different from one’s own and thereby stimulate a reflection on how to act responsibly within a particular social environment. It is noteworthy in this context that there has been a substantial diversi‐ fication and democratisation in the field of poetry, influenced through the rise of spoken word artists as well as through digital and multimodal poetic genres on social media platforms. Poetry sales, in general, have increased drastically in recent years, fuelled by moments of crisis to which poetic texts Literary Learning and Political Education 327 were seen as a timely response, especially by “political millenials search[ing] for clarity” (Ferguson 2019). It seems it is particularly during unsteady times that the aesthetic density of poetry unleashes a potential to provide a sense of identification and orientation, perhaps more than ever for a generation of young adults. Instagram poetry, for instance, has turned into a global trend with prominent writers such as Rupi Kaur, currently having 4.5m followers and putting social and political topics such as beauty standards and self-worth, female rights and abortion, or labour conditions on the agenda (Kaur 2022). Such poems, which are often accompanied by images or drawings, can encapsulate brief political statements, creating discursive impact in a digital space closely linked to learners’ lifeworlds and therefore finding entrance into EFL teaching as well (Passler 2020; Weiland 2020). In accordance with Weiland’s suggestion to explore the genre characteristics of Instagram poetry with language learners, it seems sensible to raise awareness for the multimodal design principles as well as for socio-political and commercial rationales that underpin the creation, dissemination, and reception of such texts. Thematising poetry in digital spaces can be framed by analytical and reflective questions, such as the following: • Who is an author targeting and reaching with their poetry in a particular digital space? What themes and issues are focalised in their writing? • How do such poetic texts create meaning through their interplay of e.g., written text, visuals, and commentary to the post by the author themselves? • Who reacts to posts in what ways? How do audiences respond to a moral or political appeal expressed in a poem? • What rationales, attitudes, and beliefs become visible and are negotiated within both texts and subsequent discourses, e.g., on social media platforms? One particularly interesting genre that has gained momentum on Instagram is erasure poetry which makes meaning by blanking out parts from an original text, hence creating a new form of poetry and message. In doing so, erasure poetry symbolises the notion of “having / not having voice” by redefining and repurposing a textual source, and it makes clear that cancelling out someone or something is meaning-making in itself. These poems often draw on a current political context, such as racial violence in the case of George Floyd’s murder, and may pursue various rhetorical rationales ranging from playful redefinitions over emancipatory writing to fierce attacks on others (Rumens 2021). Poetry therefore powerfully exemplifies how literature accompanies, emerges from, and impacts the political discourses of our time. In a world where political communication is increasingly multimodal, this is more than ever the case and becomes particularly apparent when considering the role of 328 Max von Blanckenburg music. The Black Lives Matter movement, for instance, has been influenced through social media platforms such as TikTok (Lütge and von Blanckenburg 2021) as well as through a range of songs including the following: • Childish Gambino - This is America • Jorja Smith - By any means • Leon Bridges - Sweeter • H.E.R. - I can’t breathe These songs highlight aspects of racial discrimination and feature different responses to this issue, which can be explored with language learners. Thereby, one can bring into focus how such themes are negotiated in creative and sometimes provocative ways (see dimensions of playfulness and perturbation in Figure 16.1). As Anselm (2019) argues, art (in this case: music) has a way of calling attention to social conflict and illustrates consequences of adhering to or violating moral norms, particularly for those affected by conflict. Here, it is especially promising to investigate what hopes, wishes, fears, and forms of criticism are expressed in these songs, and to ask if and in what ways they envision social futures. This can be done by focusing on the interplay of lyrics, music, and videos, supplemented by reviews or selected comments from Youtube to get an impression of their reception and discursive effects. In this sense, the aesthetic design, its rhetorical functions, as well as ethical implications of such contributions, particularly to online discourses, can be taken into account. One current topic being highly relevant for EFL teaching is Brexit, which has featured in coursebooks and has remained an ever-present issue in politics and media since the 2016 referendum in the UK. Its repercussions can also be traced in literature, both in poetry and in music. The role that literature may play here is described by Cosslet (2019) as follows: The Brexit debate is one in which we are again and again presented with apparently simple narratives, easy answers to a complex problem. Yet poetry offers no such easy answers, […] it’s a way of processing, even if we never come to a clear conclusion. This way of thematising and negotiating Brexit in literature stands in sharp contrast to the populist notion of “us and them,” which has become a dominant narrative in the UK, resulting in a new kind of normality and being fuelled by both the Brexit vote as well as by Covid-19 countermeasures, according to the Foster and Feldman (2021). A poem and song that illustrates literature’s ability to create meaning and cultural impact within the Brexit debate is People’s Faces by spoken word artist and writer Kae Tempest (2019). The lyrics read: Literary Learning and Political Education 329 It’s coming to pass, my country’s coming apart The whole thing’s becoming such a bumbling farce Was that a pivotal historical moment we just went stumbling past? […] It’s hard, we got our heads down and our hackles up Our backs against the wall, I can feel you aching None of this was written in stone There is nothing we’re forbidden to know And I can feel things changing Having been written before the referendum, this song was then interpreted in connection with Brexit, which Tempest comments on as follows: “As events develop, and time comes and goes, poetry takes on meaning and resonance far more than the poet intended” (Ryan 2020). This can be traced with learners when watching a performance of the song at Glastonbury festival (Tempest 2017), which was described by Cosslet (2019) as a “mass sort of catharsis,” moving audience members to tears by expressing the very feeling of a young generation towards the social division that Brexit made visible and amplified. Approaching this text could begin with a reader response-based activity where students “read with a pen” and annotate the lyrics for lines that they find particularly noteworthy, well-written, irritating, or hard to understand. On that basis, they can engage with the performed version and reflect on questions such as: What message do you take from this song/ poem? Why did it resonate with the audience especially in times of Brexit? To delve in more deeply, teachers may also harness a re-release of People’s Faces that sets the lyrics to a groovebased beat and adds an aesthetically crafted animated video (Tempest 2019), to then compare the two versions. These examples of political poetry and music showcase the interrelatedness of current discourses and literary expression, and they can serve as either starting points into the investigation of political themes and debates, or provide learning opportunities that build on and extend working with non-fictional, fact-based texts. 5. Persuasion and manipulation in and beyond Shakespeare’s drama Bringing drama into focus, a reflection on aesthetic and rhetorical language use can be based around an engagement with Shakespearean characters. Notably, a figure such as Iago in Othello is cut out for an analysis of speech acts, their rhetorical goals as well as their (problematic) ethical foundations. As his language is well-crafted, persuasive, and likewise deliberately misleading, it lends itself to being studied from a rhetorical perspective (Keller 2010; Knape 330 Max von Blanckenburg 4 One recent staging of Act III Scene iii from 2021 that could be analysed was done by student drama scholars of the Uppingham independent school in Rutland, UK: https: / / www.youtube.com/ watch? v=woV3M6_oBXs 2015). This idea is taken up, for instance, in the German upper secondary coursebook Green Line where students are asked to analyse how Iago is “planting the seeds of doubt” (Brand et al. 2015, 254). Given that such tasks presuppose knowledge about persuasion strategies on the parts of both teachers and learners, the following deliberations are aimed at substantiating and ethically framing a rhetorical approach to Shakespeare in an exemplary manner. Taking as a starting point the moment in Othello’s Act III, Scene iii where Iago attempts to convince his master of Michael Cassio’s lack of loyalty, students can first of all brainstorm and rhetorical strategies through the following task steps: 1. Establishing the context: Iago did not get the promotion he had hoped for, but instead Othello chose Cassio, who is much less experienced. Being angry at Othello, Iago wants him to question whether Cassio is actually the right man for the job. 2. Brainstorm: How could Iago do this? Collect ideas with a partner. 3. Reflection in class: What strategies have you come up with? Which of these might be effective and why? 4. Writing task: Write a monologue in which you address Othello - either in Shakespeare’s or modern English. (Optional instruction: Build your argument on logic / your character / emotions.) 5. Reflection in class: Which of the monologues did you find particularly persuasive? Why? To what extent are these plans fair and justified? In doing so, learners engage with thematic, strategic, and linguistic resources aimed at altering a person’s way of thinking and ultimately their behaviour. Such exploration and reflection are in line with the competences formulated by the CoE (see above), but emerge from a fictional rather than a real-life context. Afterwards, the original scene can be read and contextualised, and it may be investigated for Iago’s rhetorical rationale, revolving around insinuation, the asking of questions, and the expression of his supposedly self-evident loyalty towards Othello. To further inquire into the aesthetic dimension of Iago’s action on stage, leaners can sketch out ideas for a staging of this scene or compare different stage versions. 4 This puts emphasis on the performative dimension of rhetoric while tapping into the genre characteristics of a dramatic text. The question remains, however, whether Iago’s rhetorical goal and his action in this scene are in any way legitimate in the first place. It is therefore essential to explicate and evaluate his, but also more generally, rhetorical strategies and Literary Learning and Political Education 331 to lay a focus on reviewing the appropriateness of rhetorical and aesthetic language use, as stated in the core dimensions above. The strategies indicated in Table 16.1 present an overview of common - likewise potentially problematic - speech acts which bear substantial relevance in public discourse and political communication, and they likewise occur in plays such as Othello or Macbeth. Common rhetorical strategies raising doubts reframing a topic deflecting from a matter pretending to care and allegedly representing popular will understating / overstating giving selective information insinuating Table 16.1 Common rhetorical strategies What this highlights is that rhetorical acts in literary texts may be considered as blueprints or as aestheticised recreations and variations of real-life rhetorical speech acts. Hence, they can serve to raise awareness for communicative intentions and strategies, for subsequent interaction patterns as well as for the discursive dynamics that emerge from such communication. That is to say, all of these strategies have in common that they put forward a very specific perspective on and evaluation of a matter at hand, with each of them deliberately leaving out or altering parts of a larger picture. In an EFL setting, it is therefore advisable to have learners • collect examples of these strategies, • find contexts of usage, • reflect on the question to what extent these strategies may be justified (in a particular communicative situation), • and subsequently evaluate what norms and values they flout or violate. These task steps all relate to the aspect of evaluating the appropriateness of language use and therefore help develop a critical reflective literacy that applies to both literary as well as to non-fictional texts and discourses. As such, this 332 Max von Blanckenburg approach ties in closely with fostering political education, especially considering that these rhetorical strategies often appear in populist speech (Knape 2019). In a subsequent step, it can be fruitful to juxtapose and interrelate fictional and non-fictional rhetorical action. For instance, similar to Iago’s way of treating the truth as a modelling clay mouldable for different purposes, Tom McTague reflects in The Atlantic (2021) on how former UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson has playfully bent the truth on various occasions. This link between real-life discourses and Shakespearean characters is outlined by writer Ben Okri with reference to Brexit in the following way: “We are living in Iago’s paradise. […] Shakespeare’s Othello gave us the original fake news and alternative facts” (as cited in White 2017). It is therefore particularly through rhetorical inquiry that literary and non-literary texts may be combined in EFL teaching to develop and deepen an understanding of the persuasive functions and ethical foundations of language use. Another starting point for a comparative investigation can be the use of symbolic tokens in Othello and in current political discourse, which is an approach grounded in the understanding that rhetorical potential unfolds not only through language itself but also within a visual and medial dimension that may therefore be included in rhetorical analysis. In Shakespeare’s play, it is the handkerchief that Iago successfully turns from a symbol of trust and affection into one of disloyalty and infidelity. The very token engenders a persuasive appeal and serves to convince Othello of Desdemona’s putative betrayal. Recent examples where objects were rhetorically and culturally charged in current political contexts include the French yellow vests movement, Donald Trump’s photo op in front of a Washington church holding up a bible (for a more detailed discussion, see Lütge and von Blanckenburg 2021), or Ursula von der Leyen’s outfit in the colours of Ukraine’s flag, which she wore during a speech at the European Commission in solidarity after Russia’s attack on the country. All three instances present ways of mediatised rhetorical communication, having received mixed responses regarding their appropriateness. Considering the potential of such tokens for political education within EFL, they illustrate a way of visual meaning-making by which a political rationale or persuasive appeal is encapsulated within distinctive objects. Surely, one has to be cautious to not simply equate a literary character’s action with that of a politician. However, there arguably lies an educational potential in making visible commonalities in the underlying persuasive strategies and the discursive effects that arise out of rhetorical communication through language and visual symbols - in fictional and non-fictional texts. Literary Learning and Political Education 333 6. Closing remarks This chapter set out to delineate pathways for a combined approach of literary learning and political education in EFL. By describing a nexus of aesthetic and rhetorical language use, it was argued that both fictional texts as well as nonfictional, political communication rely on similar meaning-making practices and that both may interrelate with real-life discourses in particular ways. As such, these genres share a set of key characteristics that contribute to creating a persuasive appeal and subsequently discursive effects. The seven core dimensions making up this nexus can translate into concrete teaching perspectives in that they provide a heuristic for designing analytical and reflective tasks. In this sense, it becomes possible to stimulate both “appreciative and resistant, ideology-critical readings,” which Delanoy (2018, 143) sees as vital parts of literature teaching. Fostering political education via literature is an endeavour located at the intersection of language, cultural, and literary learning, providing manifold opportunities for setting a focus on each of these fields and exemplifying that language can serve rhetorical functions both in fictional and non-fictional texts through deliberate aesthetic design. References Anselm, Sabine. 2019. “Ästhetische und Ethische Bildung im Literaturunterricht.” In Grundthemen der Literaturwissenschaft: Literaturdidaktik, edited by Christiane Lütge, 182-201. Berlin: De Gruyter. Blanckenburg, Max von. 2022. 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Young, Kevin. 2021. “From ‘Call Us what We Carry.’ Out of the Wreckage of the Past and Present, a Poet Forges a Hopeful Vision of a Shared Future.” New Yorker. Accessed July, 26. 2022. https: / / www.newyorker.com/ magazine/ 2021/ 12/ 13/ from-call-us-what-we-c arry-poetry-by-amanda-gorman. Ziegler, Rene. 2015. “Persuasions- und Soziale Einflussprozesse.” In Kognition. Koopera‐ tion. Persuasion. Überzeugungen in Gehirn und Gesellschaft, edited by Frank Duerr, Florian Landkammer, and Julia Bahnmüller, 129-50. Berlin: Weidler. 338 Max von Blanckenburg Developing Global Environmental Citizenship through Teaching Contemporary Dystopian Fiction Maria Eisenmann 1. Introduction In view of the planetary threat posed by human-caused ecological damage and disturbing warnings from the scientific community as well as social movements such as Fridays for Future and Extinction Rebellion, it should come as no surprise that the role and significance of education for sustainable development are becoming more and more recognised in educational research and policy docu‐ ments. This is where the concept of global and ecological education comes into play, which is based on the literary and cultural orientations of ecocriticism and provides an essential contribution to the discourse of global teaching of English as a foreign language (EFL). Literary texts from the genre of the (young adult) dystopian fiction are ideal for this purpose. In their contemporary realisations, they offer multiple opportunities to discuss global concerns and thus enhance critical thinking and active engagement with the scenarios portrayed. Through their combination of exciting coming-of-age tales, romantic elements, and adventure stories with socially relevant questions, the texts address adolescents and young adults very directly on the one hand, but on the other hand also contain elements of cultural and social criticism that can be made fruitful for teaching. In addition to topics such as social (in)justice, political oppression, and surveillance or the challenges of the increasing mechanisation of society (Basu, Hintz, and Broad 2013), many texts also deal with the consequences of climate change, waste of resources, and environmental pollution, or fundamentally consider the relationship between man and the environment. This chapter makes a case for the importance of literature pedagogy in times of unprecedented crisis. On the basis of selected text examples, it explores how dystopias can contribute to a closer link between English teaching and ap‐ proaches such as education for sustainable development, ecological education, and environmental literacy. 1 Staatsinstitut für Schulqualität und Bildungsforschung (ISB). 2021. “EBC 2.2: Utopia, Dystopia, Reality? ” Accessed March 14, 2021. https: / / www.lehrplanplus.bayern.de/ fac hlehrplan/ lernbereich/ 118404. 2. Utopia, dystopia, reality 1 - Are we living in a-dystopia? In 2017, the CBS News headline stated “Dystopian books see impressive sales boost” (CBS News 2017). The fact that dystopian texts are in great demand can also be seen in the sales figures of classical dystopias such as George Orwell’s 1984 (1949) as well as Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale (1985), which have skyrocketed since 2016 (Amazon, n.d.). Ansgar Nünning (2019, 37) even calls dystopian fiction “as paradigm examples of emerging genres in 21st-century novels.” Young adult dystopian fiction, such as Suzanne Collins’ The Hunger Games (2008), Veronica Roth’s Divergent (2011), and Lois Lowry’s classic The Giver (1993) were already bestsellers before. Also, Margaret Atwood’s recently published novel The Testaments has broken sales records in Canada and sold more than 100,000 copies in hardback in the week of its release in the UK (Flood and Cuttle 2019), which can be seen as a response to the cultural zeitgeist at large. With COVID-19, dystopias in which diseases play a role have taken on a whole new weight, which is also reflected in Netflix series such as The Walking Dead or The 100 as well as in post-pandemic dystopian novels, for example, Sandra Newman’s The Country of Ice Cream Star (2015). Is this popularity a sign that reality is perceived as dystopian? Indeed, the pandemic-related ghostly images of empty city squares, wild animals on the streets, and long queues outside food stores certainly suggest so. The pandemic crisis has shown how unexpectedly quickly social normality can take on dystopian features, be it state control in China, be it Trump’s or Bolsonaro’s irresponsibility on display, but also Europe’s reluctance. More than ten years of deprivation after the financial crisis have brought the health sector to borders where triage must decide on selective survival. The economic shutdown has not only caused dividends to plummet, but livelihoods to collapse. The social shutdown has shown that the digital world alone is not enough for human beings, and how quickly democratic forms of political decision-making are endangered when those in power use the injustice of the moment for further self-empowerment. Hence, COVID-19 has given an idea of the civilisational crises society is heading towards, how socially, politically, culturally poor it will be if there is no rethinking. Consequently, a radical rethink, in the literal sense of the word, reaching to the roots of the evil is required. 340 Maria Eisenmann The question is: where is the boundary between dystopia and reality? A dystopia is not a real place, it is a warning, usually something negative that happens in society or something positive that is omitted in society. Of course, dystopias are fictional, but global dangers such as climate change, bioterrorism, cyber warfare, and the recent Corona crisis in real life can be felt as dystopian and come within threatening proximity to fictional worlds. Direct reference to this can be made through the very current 2020 Doomsday Clock statement made on January 27, 2021: The COVID-19 pandemic will end up killing well over two million people around the globe. The mishandling of this grave global health crisis is a “wake-up call” that governments, institutions, and a misled public remain unprepared to handle the even greater threats posed by nuclear war and climate change. Given this and the lack of progress in 2020 in dealing with nuclear and climate perils, the Doomsday Clock remains as close to midnight as it has ever been - just 100 seconds to midnight (Spinazze 2021). The scientists thus point to the miserable response of world politics to the Corona virus pandemic, the serious loss of public trust in state institutions, the further acceleration of nuclear weapons programmes, and the continuing threat of climate change. Conversely, real life dystopias are often easier to see through the burning lens of fiction, which exaggerates behaviours, trends, and patterns to make them more visible, thus correlating to the real world. It can also be seen the way Margret Atwood recently defined dystopias as when “warlords and demagogues take over, some people forget that all people are people, enemies are created, vilified and dehumanized, minorities are persecuted, and human rights as such are shoved to the wall” (Higgins 2016). In a way this can be, as she added, the “cusp of where we are living now” (ibid.). Not only the pandemic, but also other socio-ecological threats such as climate change, waste of resources, environmental pollution, the war in Ukraine, or disregard for animal rights are closely related to the economic exploitation of the foundations of all living beings. This overexploitation began with industrial capitalism and threatens survival in financial market capitalism. Neither can catastrophes be controlled by science or technology, as modern thinking on progress would have us believe, nor are the growth imperatives of financial market capitalism compatible with a sustainable way of life. Times of great economic crises have always been times of intensified social inequalities and profound social divisions that take their toll on democracy. They challenge to debate how societies will live locally and globally in the future. Global Environmental Citizenship through Contemporary Dystopian Fiction 341 3. Ecological education, environmental literacy, and global competence Teaching English today is not only about making learners master the target lan‐ guage and develop intercultural (or transcultural) communicative competence. It should also illustrate social responsibilities to learners and encourage them to be better world citizens by acting appropriately. Therefore, the principal aim of such education is to prepare the individual for the task and duty of protecting the environment by raising their level of environmental knowledge, understanding, responsibility, and ethics. One of the greatest challenges of environmental education is to bridge the gap between knowledge and ethics, i.e., to internalise environmental knowledge in order to implement it in new behavioural patterns and practices. The question of why teachers should deal with environmental education in the language classroom is answered by Mayer and Wilson (2006, 1) as follows: The classical objectives of environmental education […] must also be reached by means of education in the various disciplines of the humanities, among them the fields of language teaching, literary and cultural studies. [… A]s fields that have traditionally addressed questions of meaning and value, they are indispensable in terms of creating an environmental ethical stance that motivates environmentally benign behaviour and actions. Environmental learning is not only about raising environmental awareness but has a broader focus and is concerned with teaching issues of global learning and developing an “ethical stance” (ibid.) on issues of environmental and also global importance. The inclusion of critical thinking skills into the EFL classroom can help further develop students’ communicative abilities and analytical thinking, which allows students to practice communicating in a variety of situations on global issues. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has found a substantial place in educational curricula all around the world. Ecological (or global) education covers a wide range issues whose endangerment is due to human activities and aims to enable students to think and act in a sustainable way. In a globally interconnected world, questions of ecology are closely linked to economic challenges and interests as well as social and political developments. In addition to the three dimensions of ecology, economy, and social issues, ESD also takes into account the two principles of justice of globality and generations. Topics such as species extinction, poaching, endangered species, habitat destruction, global warming, climate protection, responsible consumption, cultural diversity, and social justice represent a selection of ecological education issues here. 342 Maria Eisenmann The global goals (or SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals) by the United Nations aim to provide every individual to understand the effects of their actions on the world and to make responsible decisions (Robeco, n.d.). In other words, it is not only important to develop the relevant skills and acquire knowledge, but to focus on the ability to act and evaluate by addressing global challenges such as poverty, discrimination, and environmental problems. Students should use their newly gained knowledge, their critical thinking, and global attitudes to initiate or participate in democratic processes such as online petitions or engaging in service learning. This means, among other things, the ability to distinguish sustainable from non-sustainable solutions, to weigh interests, and to perceive different perspectives. Teachers of all subjects, including English, therefore, are also encouraged to deal with these 17 goals in their lessons. The goal of global education is to develop learners’ global awareness. According to Cates (2013, 278), this comprises four target areas: 1. knowledge (of global problems, causes, and solutions), 2. skills (critical thinking and seeing issues from multiple perspectives), 3. attitudes (of global awareness and respect for diversity), and 4. action (thinking globally and acting locally). In a document published in 2018 titled OECD PISA Global Competence Frame‐ work, a description of measuring global competence is provided. It also high‐ lights the importance of being able to examine global and intercultural issues as well as acting for collective well-being and sustainable development (OECD 2018, 7). Similar to discussions surrounding global education and the development of global competence, Byram et al. (2017) developed the concept of Education for Intercultural Citizenship (EIC). It aims to include a greater focus on political, social, and cultural issues in English language education. Global competence means to develop the knowledge, skills, values, and world-views necessary for people to act in ways that contribute to more sustainable patterns of living. It enables students to reflect on ways of interpreting and engaging with the world. The desired outcome of environmental education is environmental literacy, which strives to provide learners with (a) sound scientific information, (b) skills for critical thinking, (c) creative and strategic problem solving, and (d) decisionmaking (Byram et al. 2017). Hence, it enhances learners’ understanding, skills, and motivation to make responsible decisions that consider their relationships to ecological, economic, and natural systems and to find cultural connections between humans and the environment. Environmental literacy is integral to fostering an understanding of the impact of decisions made by individuals Global Environmental Citizenship through Contemporary Dystopian Fiction 343 (including themselves) and governments. This supports the recognition that humans are part of a global community and that actions and decisions made locally have effects that go well beyond local environments. While knowledge and understanding are important components of environmentally literate citi‐ zens, the key is connecting what we know and what we do. Based on the motto “think globally, act locally,” learners should become actively involved in solving global problems by fostering peace, living a sustainable life, and respecting their surroundings, including other beings. All these thoughts can be linked to notions central to transcultural learning as they are already being integrated into the EFL classroom, with a strong focus on developing a moral and ethical stance on issues of global importance, which Volkmann (2015, 244) emphasises as follows: Any form of transcultural education will have to take account of ethical and moral educational goals, such as creating an ethical stance that motivates ethically benign behavior and actions, or developing feelings of empathy, tolerance, acceptance or solidarity with regard to suppressed, marginalized or discriminated-against groups or individuals. In other words, environmental and ecological education as understood here in‐ troduces a global perspective to the EFL classroom, aims to raise environmental, social, and political awareness, and seeks to provide opportunities for students to participate in meaningful, socially relevant debates and ultimately to develop an opinion and a voice of their own (Eisenmann 2018; Eisenmann and Krüger 2021; Lütge 2015). And this is where dystopian texts come into play for educational purposes in the EFL classroom “because most of the texts are essentially political texts, which serve as a criticism, as a warning to their readers to create awareness and to act against up-coming dangers, such as global warming […]” (Eisenmann and Krüger 2021, 86). Most of the dystopian narratives do not describe a vision of a possible future, but most obviously they question the current situation. Thus, these texts enhance ecological education, environmental literacy, as well as intercultural learning. In the following, the discourse in foreign language education around the terms speculative, (post-)apocalyptic, dystopian, (anti-)utopian, science fiction, or any of its other variants cannot and should not be depicted. A lot has already been said and written about this and there is hardly anything that would shed substantial new light on this debate (for further information see, e.g., Eisenmann and Krüger 2021; Ludwig and Maruo-Schröder 2018; Voigts and Boller 2015). Rather than focus on one example, this contribution sets out to map at least 344 Maria Eisenmann broadly the field of young adult dystopian fiction and the worlds they create. The attempt shall be made to lay out the main characteristics and trends of contemporary young adult dystopian texts with regard to plot, content, themes, and form. It will be shown how contemporary dystopian texts address issues of global significance such as technological progress and scientific development, post-apocalyptic effects of war, beauty and youth mania, as well as the broad field of environmental and ecological destruction. It will be illustrated how contemporary (young adult) dystopian fiction poses a warning against current socio-cultural, political, ecological, and economic trends and, hence, invites critical thinking and active engagement with the issues portrayed. 4. Themes and topics in young adult dystopian fiction Contemporary youth literature is always subject to certain trends. While in the 1990s and early 2000s, for example, thrillers and stories about problem areas such as eating disorders, cults, or first love dominated, since the turn of the millennium the genres of fantasy and science fiction (here especially dystopias) have experienced a rapid upswing. Successful book series such as Harry Potter, The Hunger Games, Twilight, or the rediscovered classics, for instance, The Lord of the Rings were followed by lavish, more or less successful film adaptations and merchandise as well as numerous other (often similar) novels in these genres (Voigts and Boller 2015). Basu, Hintz, and Broad (2013) attribute the boom in dystopias in particular to the success of Suzanne Collins’ The Hunger Games. Through the film adaptations, the stories or content naturally reached a much larger audience. Although many texts have been expanded into films, comics, graphic novels, computer games, etc., the following statements refer only to the most important contemporary young adult dystopian fiction. Current young adult dystopias do resemble the classics by Huxley, Orwell, Bradbury, and Atwood, picking up aspects and motifs from these texts and adding to them. “The dominant themes and concerns are well-known from older young adult dystopias and classical dystopias […]. However, they are reworked and updated to reflect upon their contextual present” (Heinze 2018, 34). While in the classical dystopias usually a male protagonist, who questions society and ultimately fails, is placed at the centre of the story, in current works of young adult dystopian fiction it is predominantly a female (main) character who ultimately brings about change. Along with such a positive ending, which is supposed to convey hope, descriptions of a more or less successful life together in a smaller community are often found at the end of these books. According to Voigts and Boller (2015), they usually contain utopian elements and positive Global Environmental Citizenship through Contemporary Dystopian Fiction 345 endings, while classic dystopias end with the defeat of their protagonist. A positive outcome of today’s novels could be related to a hopeful outlook that should be given to young people (ibid.). And unlike the classics of dystopian literature, today’s authors write for a youth audience and thus also take up aspects from adolescent literature, coming-of-age tales, romance, development, and adventure novels. A dystopian conception of society usually serves to criticise current conditions, but often the adolescent problem areas of the youthful protagonists are also taken up. In fact, dystopia as a cautionary literature offers many starting points for addressing the problems of adolescents and can thus be understood not only as a “warning” (Basu, Hintz, and Broad 2013, 1) but also as adolescence literature. The novels focus on adolescents who not only rise up against the regime and strive for alternative forms of society but also develop their own identity, stand up to their families, and ultimately become grown-ups in the course of the plot (Krüger 2018). Hence, dystopias take on different meanings as reading: On the one hand, they can be read as socio-critical texts; on the other hand, such literary texts enable their readers to have experiences that are highly significant for their personal development and the corresponding interaction with society. The initial situation of many young adult dystopian texts features a utopian basic construction. A world that seems perfect at first glance has overcome crises of the 21 st century or conflicts such as major wars and now offers a comfortable life to at least part of the population. People are shielded from possible threats or influences from outside, partly by strict controlling measures. Within the defined living space, life is largely free of conflict and follows strictly regulated or ritualised rules and procedures. In the course of the plots, however, more and more cracks appear in a seemingly perfect world and more abysses and problems are described, so that it becomes clear that this is by no means a perfect version of our world but one in which major catastrophic conditions come to light. Typically, these texts feature a post-apocalyptic world of some kind. Hintz and Ostry (2003, 12), for instance, point out that a “startling number of works in the dystopian mode for young adults deal with post-disaster and environmentally challenged scenarios.” Similarly, Barton (2016, 14) describes the setting as “a post-apocalyptic landscape.” In this context, possible catastrophes or apocalyptic events are listed: “huge world-changing events, such as plague, Word War III; cataclysmic asteroid crashes, or even zombies” (Basu, Hintz, and Broad 2013, 3) or “the possible effects of genetic engineering, global-scale pollution, and the finiteness of resources, […] bio-plagues, climate shifts, massive earthquakes, and changes in sea level” ( James 2009, 155). Accordingly, dystopias offer what Beck (2012, 55) has called “reflexive modernisation.” The threats, dangers, and risks 346 Maria Eisenmann of modernity, the elimination of inequalities and abuses in the field of economy, politics, society, ethnic groups, and gender relations all influence dystopian writing, which is focused on the “permanent transformation, accumulation and multiplicity of distinct, often spurious risks - ecological, biomedical, social, economic, financial, symbolic and informational - that characterizes the ambivalence and incalculability of world risk society” (Beck 2012, 66). Dystopias can thus help to involve students in many different discourses and foster interand transcultural competences because their fictional worlds are very often depictions of real existing places which can be recognised by the recipients (Eisenmann 2018, 143). Their plots are mostly set in a more or less distant future. Sometimes a very specific time frame can be identified, but sometimes none at all. The place of action is often more precisely delimited and can sometimes even be assigned to a concrete city or geographical area and thus contains a reference to places of the present. For example, Panem, the country in which The Hunger Games is set, is described as having developed “out of the ashes of a place that was once called North America” (Collins 2008, 21); Saci Lloyd’s The Carbon Diaries 2015 (2009) is set in London; Chicago serves as setting for Veronica Roth’s novel Divergent (2011); and Glasgow in Scotland is where Julie Bertagna’s Exodus (2002) partly takes place. Most commonly, it is a fictional society described in considerable detail, which the author portrays much worse than the reality as currently experienced by the reader (Eisenmann 2018, 144). Other novel plots, mostly set in a more distant future, take place in settlements with new names that have no direct reference to concrete contemporary places and thus seem more universal. In the designs of these dystopian worlds, the authors set different emphases. For example, they prefer to foreground individual problematic developments and their outcomes, which then illustrate central negative manifestations. While in general young adult fiction themes and topics range over a number of aspects, the focus of young adult dystopian fiction seems to be strongly on political and social issues. Basu, Hintz, and Broad (2013, 4-5) explain that the “wildly fantastic premises may provide young people with an entry point into realworld problems, encouraging them to think about social and political issues in new ways, or even for the first time.” Gadowski (2014, 145) similarly claims that “young adult dystopian science fiction narratives have become a powerful tool for young readers to tackle cogent cultural ideas,” and Hintz and Ostry (2003, 8) state that “[e]xposure to these types of texts can lead young readers to see inequality in their own communities and countries.” Some dystopias are set in a possible future world with a destroyed environment or emphasise the rule of a government that relies on conformity. Other dystopias are set in a post- Global Environmental Citizenship through Contemporary Dystopian Fiction 347 apocalyptic future after wars, plagues, or other disasters, such as Philip Reeve’s Mortal Engines (2001) or How I Live Now (2004) by Meg Rosoff. By encouraging the reader to think about social and political issues the aspect of taking action in response to these warnings comes into play, or, as Ames (2013, 16) puts it, “Many feel that young adult dystopias are written by authors in the hope that their message will spark action amongst their teenage readers.” Hintz and Ostry (2003, 12) stress that “[d]ystopias function as cautionary tales for a young audience, warning them to take care of the Earth and each other.” Many categorisations of young adult dystopian texts have recently been made, usually according to their themes and topics (see, e.g., Eisenmann 2018; Heinze 2018). In fact, these novels offer a wide range of current issues, often overlapping topics and a lot of criticism of the problems today, in particular the planetary threat posed by human-caused ecological damage. According to Groenke and Schwerff (2010), dystopian fiction can roughly be assigned into two key issues: (1) governmental abuse of power and (2) science and ethics. Quite obviously, some of the texts fit into both categories. Although each dystopian text has its own political as well as aesthetic message, in my view, they can be categorised into more than these two thematic threats (Eisenmann 2018). In the following, some examples of contemporary young adult dystopias will be given, which can be used as class readers and can serve as an orientation for teachers and learners. Many of the titles have been written as series, trilogies, or even quartets, but all of the books can stand on their own. 5. Selected text examples - 5.1 Technological progress and scientific development One of the issues that is often addressed in dystopias is technology or technolog‐ ical progress, where rigid methods of economic, affective, and/ or technological enslavement prevail. It is fundamentally about the perversion of scientifictechnical progress, technology out of control, complete manipulation of the individual, and total surveillance. Recurrently, such plots deal with silencing of citizens, for instance, by physical and/ or mental imprisonment. In Veronica Roth’s novel Divergent (2011), for instance, the predominant issues belong to the field of governmental abuse of power, violence, and social structures within a post-apocalyptic society (for more details, see Eisenmann 2018). As if under a burning lens, the downsides of scientific and technological progress can quite clearly be seen. These forms of young adult dystopias tend to heighten “young people’s awareness of technological perils by exploring the controversies that have already surfaced in social and political debates, such as prospects of 348 Maria Eisenmann genetic manipulation or the development of surveillance techniques” (Gadowski 2014, 153). This can also be experienced in Dan Wells’s Partials (2012), where superior warriors, once created by humans and then turned against them, threaten the survivors of a devastating disaster. Similar circumstances prevail in Karen Sandler’s Tankborn (2013), in which genetically engineered non-humans, gestated in a tank, are sent to work as slaves. Neal Shusterman’s Scythe (2016) also focuses on technological progress. This novel is set in a distant future in which humans have attained eternal life. They are governed and managed by an (almost) omniscient artificial intelligence, the “Thunderhead,” which has replaced all previous governments and supposedly always makes optimal decisions. Human malaise and miscon‐ duct can be immediately regulated by it through immediate intervention and appropriate measures, such as medication. In order not to let the number of the world’s population grow disproportionately large and thus to ensure the supply of people, a certain group, the so-called “Scythe,” has the task of killing human beings on a regular basis. Youngsters are taken into this “profession” as apprentices and are trained in moral basics as well as all the techniques of killing. Actually, they are not allowed to feel any pleasure in killing, but even in their ranks, the group of people who enjoy killing is growing. The novel follows two teenagers, Citra and Rowan, who undergo training as they are recruited into becoming “Scythes.” They must defend themselves against these and other threats. - 5.2 Post-apocalyptic effects of war Other issues brought up in this context are post-apocalyptic scenarios with world-changing catastrophes, such as a plague or World War III, which turn communities into societies marked by secrecy, fear, and control. These effects of war can be seen in Julianna Baggott’s Pure (2012), where in a post-apocalyp tic world destroyed by nuclear bombs, the main survivors are divided between the “Pure,” who live in an uncontaminated dome, and the “Wretches,” who struggle to exist on the surface of a seriously polluted planet. Another highly recommendable volume for the EFL classroom in this field is the short story collection called After: Nineteen Stories of Apocalypse and Dystopia (2012) by Ellen Datlow and Terri Windling. It comprises an outstanding array of dystopian and post-apocalyptic tales particularly written for a young adult audience as already mentioned in the introduction: “Welcome to After, a volume of brandnew dystopian and post-apocalyptic tales for young adult readers by some of the very best writers working today - ranging from best-selling, award-winning authors to rising young stars of the dyslit field” (Datlow and Windling 2012, ix). Global Environmental Citizenship through Contemporary Dystopian Fiction 349 The editors collected stories that pick up after an initial disaster, relating how young survivors have to face what happens next. All the stories depict characters struggling for psychological and physical survival; not always succeeding. The narratives are all about catastrophes such as floods, plagues, and the third World War. They all take place on the day after the destruction and ask what tomorrow for the teen protagonists would look like. Also worth mentioning in this context is American War (2017), the audacious and powerful debut by Canadian-Egyptian journalist Omar El Akkad, which already bears the war reference in its title. Devastated by storms, ravaged by climate change, epidemics, and a dramatic rise in sea levels, it is set in a nearfuture US, in which a murderous Second American Civil War over fossil fuels has broken out. The story begins in the 2140s with an unnamed narrator who reflects on his youth and the devastating war he was born into. He lays out the grand panorama of the war between the “Reds” and the “Blues,” which took place between 2074 and 2095. The country has been transformed into a vast wasteland divided into the “blue” north and the “red” south. Catastrophic climate change has led the US government to ban fossil fuels, which brings a group of southern “red” states - Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina - to secede from the union. Geographically and socially, the USA resembles a post-apocalyptic horror landscape. Large parts of the coasts have disappeared, the whole of Florida lies under the sea. In the interior, temperatures are like those in the desert and epidemics have decimated the population. The country is littered with camps where survivors are vegetating, and it is the time of the great migrations. Millions are on the run, wandering across the battlefields. Drones that have long since gone out of control are part of everyday life, dropping their explosives indiscriminately and arbitrarily on the civilian population. Since they fly solar-powered, they will still be circling over cities decades later, even if they have become harmless, as mobile memorials and flying memento mori. The role of world policeman has been taken over by an empire called Bouazzi, which unites large parts of Asia, Russia, and North Africa. America is burning in large parts and in between, in the borderland between the opposing parties, Sarat Chestnut, the lonely heroine of the book, fights on the side of the “Reds.” - 5.3 Beauty, youth, and conformity Another dystopian theme is the depiction of conformity, born out of the fear that diversity brings conflict. This uniformity is often linked to motifs of beauty and youth mania. For instance, in Lissa Price’s fictional story Starters (2012), both the heavy price of war is examined as well as the pursuit of youth at any cost. In this novel, the Spore Wars, comparable to a world war, wiped out the 350 Maria Eisenmann entire population between the ages of twenty and sixty. The populations under twenty and over sixty remained alive because they were prioritized to receive vaccinations. Everyone else was killed by biological weapons. Furthermore, there is hyper-dramatic income inequality between the older members of society and the younger ones. At the same time, this novel touches on the theme of beauty and youth often focused on in dystopias, for instance, in the novel Uglies (2005) by Scott Westerfeld, where in a distant future, all people are born as supposedly ugly and at the age of 16 are transformed by plastic surgery into pretty people who live a life without worries and full of parties in another part of town. The protagonist, Tally, is also about to have this operation and is eagerly awaiting it. However, she ends up with her new friend Shay in a settlement where opponents of the operation are hiding and becomes aware of the operation’s immediate effects, such as the manipulation of the patient’s personality. In this case, a clear connection to the contemporary world can be detected: “a culture obsessed with beauty and youth; it is no accident, then, that our young adult novels would see this obsession become an extreme portrayed and even required in the presented dystopian societies” (Montz 2014, 112). This is also the theme of the dystopian novel Only Ever Yours (2014) by the Irish writer Louise O’Neill, which centres on young girls struggling to survive in a vicious and relentlessly patriarchal alternative world. The book was widely praised for its unapologetic look at issues affecting young women, including sex, self-esteem, and eating disorders. - 5.4 Environmental and ecological destruction After an intensive study of many dystopian texts, however, I have come to the conclusion that nearly all dystopias are dedicated to environmental issues. They deal with the consequences of climate change, waste of resources, and environmental pollution, or fundamentally consider the relationship between man and the environment. This is also emphasised by Basu, Hintz, and Broad (2013, 3), stating that one “major preoccupation of the dystopian imagination is the threat of environmental destruction. […] Rising sea levels, storms, drought, and the end of fossil fuels create social, political, and economic nightmares that sensitize readers to the dangers of environmental ruin.” In the last decade concepts of global issues have prevailed increasingly in EFL teaching. New or re-named concepts of global education, global learning, and transcultural competence have become indispensable key terms in EFL discourse (e.g., Bartosch and Grimm 2014; Garrard 2012; Mayer and Wilson 2006; Misiaszek 2018). However, it is not just an exemplary or representative theme selection on global issues. It is all about enhancing students’ emancipatory, Global Environmental Citizenship through Contemporary Dystopian Fiction 351 critical-reflexive skills needed in order to raise an awareness of global-local interdependencies (Lütge 2015). And it is about the development of identifying the current planetary threat and actively addressing these dangers in a shared ethics of responsibility (Beck 2012). Thus, focussing on global issues and teaching according to ecodidactic principles has become of utmost importance in today’s classrooms. Since many of today’s dystopian novels portray global ecological degradation and show how these environmental issues have an immense impact on the inner world of their fictional societies, they lend themselves to being taught according to ecodidactic principles (Eisenmann 2018). This has been exemplified in Paolo Bacigalupi’s The Drowned Cities (2012), which tells the story of the direct results of global warming and the wasting of resources. It can also be illustrated in Julie Bertagna’s novel Exodus (2002), in which due to global warming, the sea levels have risen so much that most of the world has drowned and even the life on some remaining islands is constantly threatened so that alternative ways of living have to be found. In recent years, many zeitgeist dystopian fiction has been written, in which very concrete events regarding ecological and environmental problems are brought into focus such as CO2 emissions as well as water and oxygen scarcity. In Saci Lloyd’s bestseller The Carbon Diaries 2015 (2009), for instance, Great Britain is suffering more and more from the consequences of climate change, which is why the government is strictly rationing CO2 emissions from 2015. All citizens are now only allowed to consume a certain amount of goods whose production emits CO2. In diary form, sixteen-year-old Laura describes her new life and how the family members deal with the restrictions. Likewise, Marie Lu’s Legend (2011) focuses on ecological destruction. Due to global warming, the polar ice caps have melted, and many millions of people have died. Hence, the map of the world has been shaken up completely. Africa and Antarctica have become thriving centres of technology and economy, whereas America has developed negatively. The country is no longer united but divided into colonies and a republic that is run with an iron hand and whose inhabitants are brutally oppressed. In her novel Breathe (2012), Sarah Crossan designs a world without oxygen, where there are only a few survivors under a glass dome who have to face the terrifying prospect of death by suffocation. What oxygen is in Crossan’s text, water is in Neal and Jarrod Shusterman’s Dry (2018), which explicitly deals with the problem of water scarcity. In a not-distant future, the water supply in Southern California dries up, although people have been warned to conserve water because of drought conditions for years. The novel tells the story of a 352 Maria Eisenmann group of teenagers who must make their way through the increasing chaos without their parents to provide themselves with water. Along the way, they are faced with extremely difficult decisions several times. The perspectives of the very different young people are taken in turn. 6. Conclusion and outlook Dystopian texts can contribute to a global and ecocritical perspective in the teaching and learning of English. In the last few years, the consequences of climate change have emerged as a dominant theme in literature and, correspond‐ ingly, in teaching literature in EFL classes. Its popularity in fiction has given rise to the term cli-fi, or climate change fiction, which constitutes a distinctive recently recognised literary genre. Cli-fi is a valuable means by which students can engage with key concepts of climate change and sustainability. Such texts allow for rich interdisciplinary approaches to learning about the human impacts on the natural environment. Prominent examples of dystopian cli-fi are, for example, Barbara Kingsolver’s Flight Behaviour (2012), Sophie Mackintosh’s The Water Cure (2018), The Ministry for the Future (2020) by Kim Stanley Robinson, and many more. This prevalence of climate change literature has brought about a greater engagement with climate change in literary studies, notably the environmen‐ tally oriented branch of literary studies called ecocriticism. Since ecocriticism is part of global learning, cli-fi lessons as well as those on dystopias must target an ecocritical approach that shows students the interconnectedness of our global society and the problematic attitude and immense responsibility of human beings. When teaching dystopian cli-fi, the overarching goal must be the acquisition of global attitudes and democratic participation (Cates 2013). With all dystopian (cli-fi) texts, the aim must always be to help students in becoming transcultural speakers who have acquired critical attitudes in order to participate in global discourses. References - Primary Sources Atwood, Margaret. 1985. The Handmaid’s Tale. Toronto, Canada: McClelland and Stewart Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. . 2019. The Testaments. New York: Nan A. Talese/ Doubleday. Baggott, Julianna. 2012. Pure. New York: Grand Central Publishing. Bertagna, Julie. 2002. Exodus. New York: Walker. Global Environmental Citizenship through Contemporary Dystopian Fiction 353 Bacigalupi, Paolo. 2012. The Drowned Cities. London: Atom. Collins, Suzanne. 2008. The Hunger Games. New York: Scholastic Press. Crossan, Sarah. 2012. Breathe. New York: Greenwillow Books. Datlow, Ellen, and Terri Windling. 2012. After: Nineteen Stories of Apocalypse and Dystopia. New York: Hyperion. El Akkad, Omar. 2017. American War. New York: Knopf. Kingsolver, Barbara. 2012. Flight Behaviour. New York: HarperCollins. Lloyd, Saci. 2009. The Carbon Diaries 2015. London: Hodder Children’s Books. Lowry, Lois. 1993. The Giver. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Lu, Marie. 2011. Legend. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons. Mackintosh, Sophie. 2018. The Water Cure. London: Hamish Hamilton. Newman, Sandra. 2015. The Country of Ice Cream Star. New York: HarperCollins. O’Neill, Louise. 2014. Only Ever Yours. Chicago, IL: Riverrun. Orwell, George. 1949. Nineteen Eighty-Four. New York: Harcourt, Brace. Price, Lissa. 2012. Starters. 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Volkmann, Laurenz. 2015. “Opportunities and Challenges for Transcultural Learning and Global Education via Literature.” In Learning with Literature in the EFL Classroom, edited by Werner Delanoy, Maria Eisenmann, and Frauke Matz, 237-62. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 356 Maria Eisenmann www.narr.de Buchreihe zu den Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik ISBN 978-3-8233-8460-1 This book offers a nuanced, integrated understanding of EFL learning and instruction and investigates both learner and teacher perspectives on four thematically interconnected parts. Part I encompasses chapters on psychological aspects related to teaching and learning and presents the latest research on positive language education, teacher empathy, and well-being. Part II deals with EFL teaching methodology, specifically related to teaching pronunciation, language assessment, peer response, and strategy instruction. Part III addresses aspects of cultural learning including interand transculturality, digital citizenship, global learning, and cosmopolitanism. Part IV concerns teaching with literary texts, for instance, to reflect on social and political discourse, facilitate empowerment, imagine utopian or dystopian futures, and to bring non-Western narratives into language classrooms. Amerstorfer / von Blanckenburg (eds.) Activating and Engaging Learners Perspectives for English Language Education Carmen M. Amerstorfer Max von Blanckenburg (eds.) Activating and Engaging Learners and Teachers Perspectives for English Language Education