The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions Frančiška Lipovšek The paper presents a study on fictive motion (FM) expressions, linguistic manifestations of the conceptualization of stationary scenes in terms of motion (e.g. The road slowly climbs through fertile valleys and plantations). It focuses on the role of manner adverbials, building on the premise that since motion verbs in FM uses do not describe actual motion events, the manner adverbial utilized by an FM sentence cannot express the manner of motion but must refer to some correlated property of the stationary subject entity. This function of manner adverbials, together with their grammatical form, is examined on the basis of English FM sentences extracted from the British Web corpus (ukWaC) and featuring vertical motion verbs (e.g. climb) or complex-path-shape motion verbs (e.g. meander). The findings show that the adverbials are realized by adverbs in -ly and prepositional phrases and that their manner-related meanings, pertaining to the speed, intensity, geometry and style of motion, are metonymically mapped onto properties such as the gradient, shape, orientation and general appearance of the subject. The mappings are systematic and are explained on the basis of contingency relations between the path properties and the manner of motion that can be observed in the mentally simulated motion involved in the processing of FM sentences. 1. Introduction Babies crawl around on their hands and knees; fish swim in circles; skaters glide smoothly across ice. Each of the italicized adverbials expresses manner by foregrounding a particular aspect of motion. Another such aspect is speed: AAA - Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik Band 46 (2021) · Heft 2 Gunter Narr Verlag Tübingen DOI 10.2357/ AAA-2021-0007 Frančiška Lipovšek 32 (1) 1 a. They walked slowly through the trees and shrubs in the otherwise deserted park. b. The road slowly climbs through fertile valleys and plantations. Sentence (1a) is perfectly straightforward: slowly describes the speed of the people walking. Sentence (1b), by contrast, involves no actual motion: roads do not move in space-time. It follows that slowly in (1b) cannot refer to the speed (or any other aspect of motion) of the road. Sentence (1b) is a fictive motion (FM) expression describing a stationary scene by evoking an image of something in motion. Featuring a motion verb 2 accompanied by path and speed adverbials, the sentence exhibits a “linguistic pattern in which the literal meaning of a sentence ascribes motion to a referent that one otherwise normally believes to be stationary” (Talmy 2000: 101). Fictive motion is a cognitive operation reflecting our “cognitive bias toward dynamism” (ibid.: 171): a stationary scene is construed in terms of motion. Talmy speaks of discrepancy between a “more veridical”, “factive” representation involving stationariness and a “less veridical”, “fictive” representation involving motion (ibid.: 100f.). A plausible explanation for the possibility of conveying stationariness and motion at the same time is offered by conceptual blending (cf. Fauconnier 1994, 1997, Fauconnier & Turner 2002): the immobility space and the motion space get conceptually integrated into a new space, with the stationary entity from the immobility space and the path from the motion space projected onto a single element in the blended space (e.g. the road in (1b) emerges as the path of some fictively moving entity). Fictive motion is also interpreted as involving conceptual metaphor, whereby the stationary entity from a fictive motion event, the (more abstract) target domain, is conceptualized as the moving entity in an actual motion event, the (more concrete) source domain (cf. Jiménez Martínez-Losa 2007). Fictive motion is experienced subjectively and involves “mentally simulated motion” (Matlock 2004a, 2004b): the conceptualizer mentally simulates travelling along the path. Psycholinguistic experiments have shown that FM sentences activate the motor regions in the brain (Cacciari et al. 2011) and that the processing of fictive motion takes more time than that of actual motion, which serves as evidence for additional mental simulation (e.g. Matlock 2004a, Matlock and Richardson 2004, Tomczak & Ewert 1 All example sentences are taken from the British Web corpus (ukWaC). 2 It should be noted though that fictive motion is not incompatible with non-motion verbs (e.g. two roads meet). Moreover, there are non-motion verbs (e.g. jut, taper) that occur exclusively in FM expressions (cf. Ruppenhofer 2006: 310, fn. 4). The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 33 2015). Other simulations include sequential scanning (i.e. moving one’s focus of attention) and movement of the subject entity itself. These types of simulations find counterparts in Blomberg and Zlatev (2014)’s experiential motivations for the use of non-actual motion 3 constructions: enactive perception, visual scanning and imagination of motion. The importance of enactive perception, experientially grounded in bodily action, is used by Stošić et al. (2015) as an explanation for the universality of FM expressions. Blomberg and Zlatev (2015) point out that the motivations for non-actual motion interact with “language-specific conventions for expressing actual motion” (p. 156). It is the linguistic pattern of an FM sentence that invites motion (cf. Talmy 2000). The pattern equals that of an AM sentence; for example (1a) and (1b) above share the pattern S + A manner + P motion + A direction . Nevertheless, (1b) communicates a stationary situation and cannot (factively) involve the same type of participants: the road is not a moving agent and the valleys and plantations do not represent the road’s path. Rather, the road is a stationary theme (i.e. located entity) and the valleys and plantations represent its location. Crucially, slowly does not express the speed of motion but must refer to some other aspect of the road. In fact, the presence of slowly evokes an image of a road with a gentle gradient, i.e. displaying little change in elevation over the same distance. The motion-related meaning of slowly is mapped onto gradient - a property of a stationary entity. Such mappings are observed in many motion verbs themselves. To illustrate, the verb climb contains the semantic component [+ upward motion]. In example (1b), this component is mapped onto another physical property of the road: it conveys the information that the road is situated on sloping terrain. Similarly, the manner component of the verb weave in (2) below is mapped onto the shape of the road: the sentence evokes an image of a road with numerous curves and bends. (2) The road weaves its way through the Glen. In fact, the mapping of the manner-of-motion component onto a certain property of the stationary subject (which corresponds to the path of motion of some fictively moving entity in the fictive representation) is crucial to the acceptability of sentences like (1b) and (2) above. Matsumoto (1996: 194) proposes two conditions for the linguistic manifestations of fictive motion along spatially extended entities: the “path condition” and the “manner condition”. The path condition states that an FM sentence has to express some property of the path of motion and the manner condition 3 The concept of fictive motion involving mental simulation is reinterpreted by Blomberg and Zlatev as “non-actual motion” (for discussion see Blomberg & Zlatev 2014, 2015). Frančiška Lipovšek 34 states that “[n]o property of the manner of motion can be expressed unless it is used to represent some correlated property of the path.” For illustration (ibid.): (3) The road wanders/ *walks through the park. While the verb wander evokes an image of an irregular path shape, walk is precluded by the manner condition since its manner-of-motion component cannot be mapped onto any property of the path. 4 Waliński (2015) complements Matsumoto’s set of conditions by the “instrument condition” precluding verbs expressing the instrument of motion (e.g. drive). Instrument, however, can to some extent be subsumed under manner, so the two conditions overlap. The road’s shape in (3) is understood as irregular on the basis of association with the action of walking around without any clear purpose or direction. The image of a gentle gradient evoked by slowly in (1b) is in a contingency relation with a slow change in elevation: the gentler the gradient, the slower the change in elevation over the same distance. Association and contingency are essential to metonymy (cf. Barcelona 2011, Langacker 2000, Panther & Thornburg 2005, Radden & Kövecses 1999), and the mapping involved in fictive motion can indeed be perceived as metonymic: some aspect of the manner of motion stands for some aspect of the path (cf. Matlock 2004b: 11ff.). Jiménez Martínez-Losa (2007), for example, defines fictive motion in terms of metaphor, but at the same time argues that the metaphor involved is motivated by metonymy: motion along the path activates the path of motion (564ff.). The recognition of mapping between the elements of the fictive and factive representations is crucial for understanding the function of manner in fictive motion: the manner element refers to some physical property of the carrier of the relation in a stationary scene. Building on these observations, the paper presents a qualitative study that examines the use of manner adverbials in English FM expressions and their role in communicating stationary situations. 2. The aim of the study The aim of the study was to find out which types of manner adverbials occur in English FM expressions and in what ways they contribute to the conceptualization of stationary scenes. The study was based on the assumption that the meaning of a manner adverbial utilized by an FM sentence must be mapped onto some property of the stationary subject entity and 4 The only exception in this respect is the verb run, which occurs readily in English FM expressions. For explanation see Matsumoto (1996: 200). The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 35 that there is a logical correlation between this property and the aspect of manner that would be expressed in an actual motion scene. In order to avoid terminological confusion, a comment is needed on the expression “manner adverbial”. Adjuncts of manner are traditionally subsumed under process adjuncts, together with adjuncts of instrument, agency, etc. (cf. Quirk et al. 1985: 556-563). Nevertheless, these relations are closely intertwined; moreover, manner is often part of the conceptualization of relations extending beyond those expressed by process adjuncts. For example, if a person goes to the gym five times a week, the adverbial expresses not only frequency, but also intensity or measure (cf. they go to the gym a lot) - and the conceptualization of both involves, at least to some extent, manner: going to the gym on a frequent basis (i.e. a lot) is one of the ways of keeping one’s body fit. In short, there are various types of “semantic blends” (ibid.: 560) between manner and other adverbial relations, also referred to in the literature as “manner plus” phenomena (Virtanen 2008). Our use of the term “manner adverbial” is in line with these observations. Throughout the paper, the term applies to phrasal structures that function syntactically as adverbial adjuncts expressing manner in the broad sense. 3. Methodology The study was conducted on the basis of FM expressions extracted from the ukWaC, a web-derived corpus of British English, with the help of the Sketch Engine corpus tool. The procedure comprised the following steps: 1. Three sets of motion verbs were selected that occur readily in FM expressions: i) four verbs of inherently directed motion encoding upward vertical motion (ascend, climb, rise, soar); ii) four verbs of inherently directed motion encoding downward vertical motion (descend, dip, drop, plunge); iii) six manner-of-motion verbs encoding a complex path shape (meander, wind, weave, wander, snake, zigzag). 5 2. The corpus was queried for subject collocates of the above verbs. The lists of collocates generated by the queries were examined manually to extract those nouns that could be recognized as subjects in FM sentences. 3. For each noun + verb combination, all FM sentences generated by the search were examined manually to extract those containing manner adverbials. 5 Levin (1993) speaks of “meander verbs”, but her category does not include snake and zigzag. Waliński (2018: 208) subsumes such verbs under “verbs of irregular motion”, admitting at the same time that the pattern can be quite regular. Frančiška Lipovšek 36 The procedure yielded FM sentences with the following nouns as subjects, according perfectly with Egorova et al. (2018)’s designation of the language of fictive motion as a “particularly geographic use of language” (p. 2248): cliff, ground, hill, land, lane, mountain, passage, path, peak, road, route, slope, staircase, track, trail, walk, wall for vertical motion and canal, course, lane, passage, path, river, road, route, track, trail for complex-path-shape motion. The manner adverbials identified in each group were examined from the points of view of grammatical form and meaning. The data are presented in section 4. 1. 4. Findings 4.1. Analysis results: types of manner adverbials in FM expressions The general picture obtained by the analysis of the extracted FM sentences is as follows. Manner adverbials in FM expressions are realized by adverbial and prepositional phrases; the prevalent form is the adverb in -ly. Semantically, they pertain to properties that have been subsumed under four categories: speed (and duration); degree and intensity; geometry of the path; style. In what ways these properties relate to the properties of stationary subject entities will be discussed in section 4. 2. The data are presented in the tables below. 4. 1. 1. Vertical motion i) Adverbial phrases Upward motion Downward motion abruptly, briefly, briskly, considerably, continuously, diagonally, dramatically, drastically, easily, gently, gradually, grandly, immediately, instantly, majestically, menacingly, precipitately, quickly, rapidly, relentlessly, repeatedly, resolutely, sharply, significantly, slightly, slowly, smartly, spirally, steadily, steeply, suddenly, unexpectedly, uniformly, vertically aggressively, diagonally, dramatically, easily, gently, gradually, immediately, noticeably, quickly, rapidly, sharply, slightly, slowly, smartly, steadily, steeply, suddenly, vertically Table 1. Adverbs in -ly The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 37 Both directions Upward motion only Downward motion only diagonally, dramatically, easily, gently, gradually, immediately, quickly, rapidly, sharply, slightly, slowly, smartly, steadily, steeply, suddenly, vertically abruptly, briefly, briskly, considerably, continuously, drastically, grandly, instantly, majestically, menacingly, precipitately, relentlessly, repeatedly, resolutely, significantly, smartly, spirally, unexpectedly, uniformly aggressively noticeably Table 2. Adverbs in -ly and the direction of motion Speed and duration High speed briskly, quickly, rapidly, smartly Low speed slowly Short duration briefly Suddenness abruptly, immediately, instantly, precipitately, suddenly, unexpectedly Degree and intensity High degree considerably, drastically, noticeably, significantly Low degree slightly High intensity aggressively, continuously, relentlessly, repeatedly, resolutely Low intensity easily, gently, gradually, steadily Geometry Gradient sharply, steeply Shape spirally, uniformly Frančiška Lipovšek 38 Direction diagonally, vertically Style dramatically, grandly, majestically, menacingly Table 3. The meanings of adverbs in -ly a little, a bit more, a little more (degree) once more, yet again (intensity) high, higher and higher, ever higher, up and up (altitude, direction, intensity) Table 4. Other adverbs and their meanings ii) Prepositional phrases Complement noun angle at a sixty degree angle, at an angle little short of miraculous ascent with a gradual ascent of about one foot in twenty degree at about 45 deg gradient down a very steep gradient, with gradients of 1 in 5 inclination at a steep inclination incline at a slightly less perilous incline section down several steep sections slant in a steepish slant Table 5. Prepositional phrases expressing gradient The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 39 Complement noun bend around a right-hand bend, down some hairpin bends, in a series of (huge) hairpin bends, in great sweeping curves and bends, round several hairpin bends, through a number of nearly blind bends, with a series of sharp bends, with hairpin bends curve in a series of curves, in great sweeping curves and bends, on a sharp curve form in semi-circular form hairpin in crazy hairpins, with yet another series of hairpins line in a straight line path down a zigzag path semicircle in a semicircle switchback corner with many switchback corners zigzag in a series of long winding zig-zags OTHER by successive terraces, in a series of steps, in ledges Table 6. Prepositional phrases expressing path shape Complement noun fashion in dramatic fashion splendour in lonely splendour style in a grand style, in almost alpine style Frančiška Lipovšek 40 OTHER like a cathedral, like a white cat, like dots on a page of braille 6 Table 7. Prepositional phrases expressing style 4. 1. 2. Complex-path-shape (CPS) motion i) Adverbial phrases Verb Adverbs in -ly meander aimlessly, delightfully, entertainingly, erratically, extravagantly, gently, helplessly, invitingly, lazily, peacefully, slightly, slowly, tortuously, uncertainly, unhurriedly, wildly wind endlessly, increasingly, languidly, lazily, precariously, remorselessly, slowly, steadily, steeply, swiftly, tortuously, unobtrusively weave gently, pleasantly, relentlessly, steeply wander gently, uncertainly snake gently, intricately, seductively zigzag gently, slightly, steeply, tightly, viciously, widely Table 8. Adverbs in -ly Speed High speed swiftly Low speed languidly, lazily, slowly, unhurriedly 6 The particle like is treated as a preposition on the basis of its case-governing properties. Nevertheless, the given structures can also be analysed as elliptical clauses introduced by a conjunction. For discussion of the fuzzy border between the two interpretations see Quirk et al. (1985: 661f.). The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 41 Degree and intensity Low degree slightly High intensity increasingly, relentlessly, remorselessly, viciously, wildly Low intensity gently, peacefully, steadily Geometry Shape intricately, tightly, tortuously, widely Direction aimlessly, endlessly, helplessly, uncertainly Gradient steeply Style delightfully, entertainingly, erratically, extravagantly, invitingly, pleasantly, precariously, seductively, unobtrusively Table 9. The meanings of adverbs in -ly a bit, a little, somewhat, so much (degree) around and about, back and forth (direction, intensity) uphill, upwards, up and up and up, up and down (direction, intensity) Table 10. Other adverbs and their meanings ii) Prepositional phrases Complement noun bend around a series of gentle bends, with 12 hairpin bends, contour roughly on the 100’ contour, with the contours of the water’s edge Frančiška Lipovšek 42 curve in sharp curves lock without a single lock loop in a loop, in two large loops, round a large loop OTHER ALONG X - & Y - AXES in and out of boulders, in and out of Cambridgeshire and Norfolk, round and round the mountain ALONG Z - AXIS up and down the mountains, up hill and down dale Table 11. Prepositional phrases expressing path shape Complement noun incline up a very steep incline OTHER up a surprisingly steep slope Table 12. Prepositional phrases expressing gradient Complement noun fashion in a more sedate fashion style in this fine style way in funny ways OTHER like a river Table 13. Prepositional phrases expressing style The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 43 4.2. Discussion 4. 2. 1. The form of manner adverbials in FM expressions The abundance of adverbs in -ly, the form prototypically related to manner, demonstrates the importance of manner in processing fictive motion. An interesting observation can be made in connection with vertical motion: the number of different adverbs is considerably higher for upward motion than downward motion; moreover, although many adverbs are found with both directions, even more adverbs are found exclusively with upward motion and only two adverbs exclusively with downward motion. 7 Although this may simply be due to a difference in number between the FM sentences featuring upward motion verbs and those featuring downward motion verbs in the analysed sample, the data suggest a relative prevalence of upward motion in the conceptualization of stationary scenes. Other adverbial forms identified in the extracted FM sentences are few in number. With the exception of high, they are based on quantifiers and directional particles. The latter appear in “expressive” coordination structures (cf. Quirk et al. 1985: 980f.), which make possible a manner interpretation in terms of intensity, conveying the idea of continuation (4a) or alternation (4b). The same applies to comparative forms (4c): (4) a) The road winds up and up and up. b) In truth the world of GUN is not all that big, the narrow and winding trails often snaking back and forth to give you the impression of increased distance. c) The road out climbs and twists higher and higher around some twenty-seven hairpin bends before descending slightly more gently to Santiago del Teide. The prepositional phrases are interpreted as manner adverbials by virtue of their nominal constituents, i.e. complements to prepositions. The nouns heading the complements refer to geometric properties such as gradient 7 A note on terminology: with reference to FM sentences, the expressions downward motion and upward motion signal the presence of a vertical motion verb in the predicator and are by no means intended to suggest that there is any actual motion involved. In other words, the downward/ upward motion is exclusively a fictive one. The same note applies to the use of the term manner of motion in the context of FM expressions. Frančiška Lipovšek 44 and shape (e.g. angle, curve) or belong to general nouns that typically combine with adjectival modifiers in prepositional manner adverbials (e.g. style). They tend to be preceded by classifiers (e.g. hairpin bends) and descriptive modifiers (e.g. long winding zig-zags). These constituents shape the meaning in different ways. For example: (5) a) We could see the road descending in crazy hairpins towards Andalsnes, visible three thousand feet below! b) Here, the road drops down a very steep gradient. In (5a), the PP expresses the manner of descending in terms of shape, referred to directly by the noun hairpins. The meaning is intensified by the modifier crazy. In (5b), by contrast, the complement noun (gradient) does not contribute to the meaning since it designates a property inherently involved in vertical motion, already implied by the verb. The meaning of the PP thus relies largely on the modifier: a road dropping down a very steep gradient is a road dropping very steeply. The PPs headed by like express manner by virtue of comparison (e.g. to soar like a cathedral). Last but not least, some of the PPs included in the study as manner adverbials are basically directional adverbials representing the path of motion. For illustration: (6) a) From here the official route descends down a zigzag path through a stand of trees to reach the beach just west of the town centre. b) It is one of the Tour’s great sights, the road snaking round and round the mountain, and the riders struggling up it, visible for a distance of five kilometres. c) The road meanders up hill and down dale through starkly dramatic countryside. In the underlined PPs the directional meaning is combined with that of manner. In (6a) the manner component derives from zigzag (cf. the route descends zigzagging through a stand of trees), in (6b) and (6c) from the use of expressive coordination (cf. (4) above). The coordinated prepositional head round and round in (6b) evokes the image of a coil shape as well as the idea of endlessness or even (especially if considered from a rider’s point of view) relentlessness. The coordination of two PPs involving the antonymic pair up/ down in (6c) presents the road as advancing through the countryside in undulating fashion. The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 45 It should be noted at this point that many a phrase representing the path of motion mentions terrain features that may suggest a particular manner of motion. Compare: (7) a) A typical Pulham garden would consist of a woodland stream meandering over a series of rocky cascades. b) The route wanders up through a chaotic landscape of deceptive and seemingly endless boulder fields. Although it is not difficult to imagine the stream in (7a) as hopping over cascades and the route in (7b) as undulating through the countryside, the two interpretations are much less straightforward than those in (6) above. Adverbials of the kind were not included in the analysis. 4. 2. 2. The function of manner adverbials in FM expressions The previous section focused on the relationship between the form of adverbials and their ability to express manner, and was not concerned with the fact that there was no actual motion involved. The absence of actual motion, however, is central to the present study: a manner adverbial utilized by an FM sentence cannot express the manner of motion but must be mapped onto some motion-independent property of the subject entity. This section will look at the four types of manner adverbials established in 4. 1 and the correlations between their adverbial meanings and the properties they describe. i. Speed and duration An adverbial expressing speed or duration must refer to a property that is directly related to the speed/ duration of movement. In the case of vertical motion, the conceptualizer mentally simulates movement involving a change in elevation. A quick change logically evokes the image of a steep gradient, and vice versa (cf. Introduction): (8) a) From the Aegean coast the land rises rapidly to about three thousand feet (1,000 m). b) The path drops pretty smartly now, and is rewarding in that you have the upper reaches of Swaledale directly ahead of you. c) The trail descends slowly and then levels off. Frančiška Lipovšek 46 In CPS motion, the time of travel from point A to point B depends very much on the path shape. Slow motion seems to evoke the image of large curves and bends, and vice versa: (9) a) From Llanberis, the path meanders lazily along the sheltered shore of Llyn Padarn. b) The road wound and descended swiftly among masses of chestnuts. c) The Sangker River languidly winds its way through the city. Two brief observations should be made in connection with CPS motion. First, low-speed adverbials tend to occur with bodies of water as sentence subjects (river, canal). A question arises as to whether the processing of such sentences could in any way be affected by the fact that the water itself is actually moving. Second, CPS motion may be combined with vertical motion, as in (9b). The question arising at this point is whether the manner adverbial foregrounds the shape or the gradient in the conceptualization of the scene. Both observations go beyond the scope of the present paper, but nevertheless offer promising implications for future research. An interesting subtype of speed/ duration adverbials is adverbs that express suddenness - a meaning combining short duration with unexpectedness. These adverbs were found only with vertical motion. For example: (10) a) From thence a rugged and uneven track descends suddenly into a narrow glen. b) The development enjoys an elevated position [...] with panoramic views overlooking the Firth of Clyde where the hills rise almost instantly from the shores of the Firth Broadstone House. c) You will marvel at the magnificent shoreline with dense forest and glacial peaks rising abruptly from the water’s edge. d) A narrow central ridge of hills rises unexpectedly from the surrounding pastoral landscape, famed for its mineral water springs. The examples suggest that the notion of suddenness correlates with the notions of contrast and spatial closeness (proximity). The track in (10a) displays a noticeable change in gradient and orientation. 8 The hills and peaks in (10b-d) are in stark contrast with their immediate surroundings in terms of size and orientation. Spatial closeness is foregrounded in (10b). The correlation with contrast is easily explained by mental simulation in- 8 Orientation is the stationary counterpart of direction. The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 47 volving a moving observer: moving through the scene, the observer experiences any significant changes (including new entities coming into view) as sudden and/ or unexpected. The correlation with spatial closeness is based on proportionality between time and distance: if two elements of the scene are observed that are situated close to each other, the observer’s gaze will move from one to the other in an instant. ii. Degree and intensity The notions of degree and intensity are very close; the classification adopted for the purposes of the study relies on the distinction between “to what degree / how much” (e.g. slightly) and “with what intensity/ force” (e.g. steadily) although the borderline is sometimes blurred. Intensity in our classification includes the notions of continuation and repetition: the perceived intensity of an action may be due to its continuative or repetitive character. With vertical motion, degree is mapped onto gradient (11a-c). With CPS motion, it is mapped onto the shape configuration. In (11d), for example, the adverbial evokes the image of a road with rapidly alternating bends: (11) a) From here the road climbed but not too drastically. b) However, a few metres east of the present chancel, the ground drops away noticeably. c) The path then ascends slightly to the slopes of Sands Hill. d) The bus route to the village of Masca is the worst for this and the bends are so tight and the road zigzags so much that a full size bus cannot be used. Intensity adverbials behave in a similar way, referring to the gradient (12a) or shape (12b). Sentence (12c) illustrates CPS motion coinciding with vertical motion, the adverbial following a CPS verb but referring to the gradient. (12) a) The path climbs gently and quickly leaves the forest to cross a field. b) The river meanders gently along the length of the valley from Fasnakyle, passing the villages of Cannich and Struy on the way. c) The road wound steadily upwards. Frančiška Lipovšek 48 Adverbials expressing continuation or repetition evoke the image of endlessness. The road below is imagined as one with a gentle gradient (referred to by gently and steadily respectively) and, crucially, as never levelling off. (13) a) The road climbs gently, but continuously. b) It was intensely hot, and the road climbs steadily but relentlessly up the valley. High intensity adverbials like relentlessly are of particular interest because their meaning is metaphorically related to manner in terms of severity, violence and lack of control - meanings that are easily mapped onto a steep gradient or a tortuous shape. For example: (14) a) Head inland to the Gorges du Verdon which is France’s equivalent to the Grand Canyon for a very special day out, but pace yourself as the roads wind remorselessly. b) Highclere castle is on the horizon to your right and your road is descending aggressively to the left. c) From its source in Langley Hills, near Clavering in Essex, the river meanders wildly through picturesque countryside before reaching the town. iii. Geometry Geometry adverbials express the shape, gradient and direction of the path of motion, translating in FM sentences as the shape, gradient and orientation of the subject entity. As already observed with some of the previous groups, the adverbial may refer to a property other than the one encoded in the verb’s meaning: (15a) below combines verticality and shape, (15b) verticality (i.e. up-down orientation) and left-right orientation, (15c) shape and gradient: (15) a) A broad staircase ascended spirally on the opposite side. b) The path drops diagonally yet steeply down the hill to reach a bridge carrying what used to be a back lane over the new bypass. c) This is the toughest part of the ascent, as the path weaves steeply between boulders and granite outcrops. The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 49 Only one adverbial has been identified that refers directly to the size (height) of the subject entity, namely high. Its motion-related use implies reaching a high altitude - a meaning that is easily mapped onto height: (16) I see mountains and chasms and peaks soaring high. Geometry adverbials represent a relatively straightforward category. They are realized largely by prepositional phrases, whose nominal complements to prepositions often describe geometric configurations in a detailed and vivid manner: (17) a) Most of the mountains rise from the sea at an angle little short of miraculous. b) Travelling south from Marwar Junction the track climbs in great sweeping curves and bends, over mighty viaducts and narrow culverts, high onto the Khamli Ghats. Adverbs in this function are derived from adjectives that can describe the given properties directly (e.g. a sharp angle, an intricate shape): (18) a) Thus west and north of the churchyard the ground is reasonably level but to the south and east the ground drops away sharply to the stream. b) The path snakes its way intricately through the bottom of the gorge to exit onto the plain above with a gentle walk back to Lara Beach. Some adverbs are used metaphorically to suggest lack of a clear orientation or endpoint: (19) a) The route meanders aimlessly for hours. b) Several roads meandered helplessly from nowhere to nowhere, and at one point you could see roads on the outside but you couldn’t reach them. c) The gradient falls away and the path meanders uncertainly a little as it approaches the highest point, marked by an old fence post or two. Frančiška Lipovšek 50 iv. Style Style adverbials in FM expressions refer to the general appearance of the subject entity. They are more evaluative and subjective in meaning than the previous types. For example: (20) a) The lanes meandered delightfully between fields and hedgerows, ever flower-decked and pretty. b) As I walked through the woods I noticed a particular viewpoint through the trees, with the cart track snaking seductively down towards the lighthouse. c) Inland, mountains rise in lonely splendour and you may glimpse a Java deer vanishing into the bushes. d) The canal wound unobtrusively along behind some houses and there was a little footbridge. Nevertheless, many style adverbials still suggest a particular geometric configuration. It is easy to imagine the steepness of the track in (21a) below, the looping bends of the river in (21b) and the dot-like arrangement of the hills in (21c). Sentence (21d) features a coordination of two adverbials, the former suggesting a great size, the latter a contrast in size and orientation. (21) a) From the main road a stone track winds its way precariously down the mountainside but doesn’t quite reach the bottom. b) The river meandered extravagantly here, some times we were almost back where we started from. c) This manifested itself in small, knobbly hills rising from a gentle plateau like dots on a page of braille. d) Its most famous and breathtaking sight has to be the Pitons in the southwest: twin volcanic peaks rising majestically and dramatically from the water. In coordination structures like the one in (21d), the meaning of one adverbial logically complements the meaning of the other. Erratically in (22) below is on the borderline between a style adverbial and a geometry adverbial describing motion characterized by an irregular path-shape involving unpredictable changes of direction. The coordination of erratically and entertainingly may suggest that the streets are entertaining (also) because of their erratic layout: The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 51 (22) Downtown streets meander erratically and entertainingly. The last example leads us to one final observation. While erratically is perfectly compatible with actual motion (e.g. one can drive erratically), entertainingly is less likely to describe the manner in which a moving entity advances along its path. In fact, quite a few manner adverbials utilized by FM sentences do not readily express the manner of actual motion or cannot express it at all. For example, a path can climb steeply or weave pleasantly, but a moving entity cannot: (23) a) *We climbed steeply. b) *He weaved pleasantly through the crowd. What seems to be crucial is the fact that it is only in FM sentences that such adverbials can be understood as referring to a property of the subject entity (compare the path was steep/ pleasant and *we were steep/ pleasant). The majority of adverbs functioning as style and geometry adverbials are derived from adjectives that can describe the subject entity directly. Describing the subject is what makes them similar in function to the “optional predicative” (Huddleston & Pullum 2002: 261ff.) - a special type of subject complement occurring with full lexical verbs. For example: (24) Jagged mountains rise steep from the frozen shore, and somewhere behind them the icecap hides. The sentence states that there are mountains rising from the shore and that these mountains are steep. The underlined predicative displays characteristics of the subject complement (i.e. as an adjectival phrase describing the subject) as well as the adjunct of manner (i.e. as an optional constituent occurring with a verb of complete predication). 9 Last but not least, another syntactic constituent whose function in FM expressions is similar to that of manner adverbials is the locative object featuring a descriptive modifier. Like in adverbials realized by prepositional phrases (cf. 4. 2. 1), it is the modifier that lends the structure a manner interpretation: (25) 9 In fact, Huddleston and Pullum (2002: 262) regard such “optional depictive predicatives” as adjuncts (as opposed to complements) that are “integrated into the structure as modifiers”. Frančiška Lipovšek 52 a) This path climbed a steep hill and turned at the top, and at this point you were about a quarter of a mile in either direction from the roads. b) The companions had reached a wide boulevard paved with blue grey bricks across which a silvery grey trail snaked a serpentine course. The role of the optional depictive predicative and the locative object in FM expressions - especially in comparison with manner adverbials or from a crosslinguistic perspective - is another implication for future research. 4.3. Synthesis The established correlations between the individual (sub)meanings of manner adverbials and the properties they refer to when used in FM expressions are summarized below. 10 The findings show that manner in fictive motion is mapped predominantly onto those properties that inherently characterize the given type of motion. The fact that a single meaning will be mapped onto one property with vertical motion and onto another property with CPS motion is a clear manifestation of contingency between the defining property of the path and the manner of motion along that path - a relationship making the mapping possible in the first place. in fm → gradient shape orientat. z x/ y size endlessness contrast proximity appearance speed V C suddenness V V V V V degree V C intensity V C V gradient V shape C direction z-axis x-/ yaxes V C C style (V, C) 11 (V, C) (V) (C) (V) (V) V, C Table 14. The role of manner adverbials in FM expressions 10 V = vertical motion; C = CPS motion. 11 The brackets indicate that the property is referred to less directly (i.e. it is implied by the general appearance). The Function of Manner Adverbials in Fictive Motion Expressions 53 5. 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Corpus ukWaC = web-derived (domain .uk) corpus. ˂https: / / the.sketchengine.co.uk/ ˃ Frančiška Lipovšek Department of English Faculty of Arts University of Ljubljana