<?page no="0"?> Theresa Summer / Ralf Gießler (eds.) Digital Textualities and Spaces in ELT <?page no="1"?> Digital Textualities and Spaces in ELT <?page no="2"?> Augsburger Studien zur Englischdidaktik Edited by Engelbert Thaler (Augsburg) and Petra Kirchhoff (Augsburg) Editorial Board: Sabine Doff (Bremen), Michaela Sambanis (Berlin), Daniela Elsner (Frankfurt am Main), Carola Surkamp (Regensburg), Christiane Lütge (München) Volume 2 Volume 14 <?page no="3"?> Theresa Summer / Ralf Gießler (eds.) Digital Textualities and Spaces in ELT <?page no="4"?> DOI: https: / / doi.org/ 10.24053/ 9783381121229 © 2025 · Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG Dischingerweg 5 · D-72070 Tübingen Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages unzulässig und strafbar. 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Internet: www.narr.de eMail: info@narr.de Druck: Elanders Waiblingen GmbH ISSN 2367-3826 ISBN 978-3-381-12121-2 (Print) ISBN 978-3-381-12122-9 (ePDF) ISBN 978-3-381-12123-6 (ePub) Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http: / / dnb.dnb.de abrufbar. <?page no="5"?> 7 11 33 57 77 93 113 139 165 Contents Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction Ralf Gießler & Theresa Summer Introducing Digital Textualities and Spaces for ELT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Examples of Digital Textualities and Spaces Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching Ralf Gießler & Daniel Becker Opening Up Digital Spaces: Towards a Progression of Hashtags as Small Texts in the EFL Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Engelbert Thaler Music Videos Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sean Holt Exploring the Possibilities of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger The Digital Poetry Escape Room: Sparking Pupils’ Motivation for Poetry through a Competicooperative Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany: Experiences, Attitudes, and Future Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Teacher Education Maria Eisenmann & Jeanine Steinbock Promoting Global Citizenship Education among Pre-Service English Teachers: Immersive Anti-Bias Training through Social Virtual Reality . . . <?page no="6"?> 181 203 223 Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, Theresa Summer Foreign Language Teachers’ Perspectives on Global Education, Digital Media, and Extended Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Editors and Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Contents <?page no="7"?> Acknowledgements We greatly appreciate the collaborative efforts that made this edited volume possible. First of all, we would like to thank the participants of the TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) Section at the Anglistiktag in 2022 in Mainz for presenting their research and contributing to this volume. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Roman Bartosch (University of Cologne) for taking the initiative to establish a TEFL section at the Anglistiktag. This platform enabled us to explore the potential of digital media and pop culture in English language education. We are particularly grateful to Engelbert Thaler (University of Augsburg), the series editor of this volume, for giving us the opportunity to publish this work in the SELT series. Also, we would like to thank him for his assistance in reviewing some of the contributions. Many thanks also go to Jeanine Steinbock (University of Würzburg) and Christiane Kallenbach (Transferstelle lernen: digital, University of Potsdam) for their support in reviewing our contributions. Finally, we would like to thank the team at Narr, particularly Lena Fleper, for guiding us through the publishing process, and our student assistant Lisa Theisen for her assistance in formatting the contributions. <?page no="9"?> Introduction <?page no="11"?> Introducing Digital Textualities and Spaces for ELT Ralf Gießler & Theresa Summer 1. ELT in the digital world Recent developments in digital technologies have transformed the ways in which we interact, communicate, and learn. Stalder, in The Digital Condition (2018), describes the impact these technologies have had on contemporary society. This transformation is particularly significant for children and adoles‐ cents, who are growing up in this era of rapid digital transformation. They are increasingly exposed to digital tools and content, highlighting the importance of understanding how these technologies influence their perception of the world. According to the JIM Studie, twelveto nineteen-year-olds spend nearly four hours online daily, primarily using messenger apps like WhatsApp (used regularly by 94 %) and social media platforms such as Instagram (used regularly by 62 %), and TikTok (59 %) (mpfs, 2023). Additionally, online series and films are popular among teenagers, reporting regular usage of YouTube (63 %) and Netflix (50 %) (mpfs, 2023). Beyond entertainment and communication, these digital tools enable an immersion in online environments, suggesting that people today are not merely using digital tools but actively engaging with and shaping digital spaces. Digital spaces such as the internet in general or social media posts, thus involve active participation, as is reflected in the concept of participatory cultures ( Jenkins et al. 2009) including, for instance, expressions (i.e., producing new creative forms) and circulating (i.e., shaping the flow of media through blogging or podcasting). This edited volume focuses on the concept of digital spaces from the perspec‐ tive of ELT (see Sect. 2) and how these shape the ways in which young people interact, communicate, and absorb information. Children and adolescents are exposed to different values and lifestyles, for instance, through digital content provided by influencers on social media platforms. This frequent and regular dwelling in digital spaces holds significant risks. The aforementioned JIM Studie further reports that 58 % of adolescents have encountered fake news, two out of five were confronted with extreme political views or conspiracy theories <?page no="12"?> in the last month, and 23 % have involuntarily encountered pornographic content (mpfs, 2023). With nearly three-quarters of teenagers reporting negative online experiences, navigating these digital spaces requires a set of skills and competencies for learners to succeed as global and digitally competent citizens. The educational sector recognises the importance of equipping the younger generation with the skills necessary for living in this digital condition (cf. Redecker 2017), as highlighted in the KMK paper Lehren und Lernen in der digitalen Welt (2021). This document, a follow-up to Bildung in der digitalen Welt (2017), considers this new reality and emphasises the importance of moving beyond simply using new media to enhance learning, advocating instead for an understanding of digitalisation as an integral cultural reality. This perspective underscores the importance of developing digital competence among learners, described in detail by the European Commission’s Digital Competence Framework (DigComp). It outlines essential skills for navigating digital spaces, categorised into five areas: (1) information and data literacy, (2) communication and collaboration, (3) digital content creation, (4) safety, and (5) problem solving (Ferrari 2013: 12; Vuorikari et al. 2016: 12). The DigComp framework thus emphasises a comprehensive approach to digital competence, equipping learners with the necessary skills to effectively engage with, create, and manage digital content while ensuring safety and fostering problem-solving abilities in an increasingly digital world. Consequently, being literate in the era of digital transformation no longer means being able to just read and write. In other words, learners not only require print-based literacy but also digital literacy which involves a range of skills necessary for a successful and ethically responsible participation in today’s society. Digital literacy practices from a sociocultural perspective encompass different practices of communication in digital spaces such as reading a Wiki‐ pedia page, navigating a Google map, searching for information on Google, or evaluating news (Tour 2020: 4), activities which are integral to foreign language learning. Building on Green’s (2002) model of 3D literacy, Tour describes three interrelated dimensions of digital literacies as social practices: operational (e.g., decoding words or using technological functions), cultural (e.g., focusing on the appropriateness of language use), and critical (e.g., problematising and critiquing digital spaces and texts) capabilities (Tour 2020: 5-6). Emphasising the cultural dimension, these capabilities align with contemporary definitions of digital literacies, which are described as “the individual and social skills needed to effectively manage meaning in an era of digitally networked, often blended, communication” (Pegrum et al. 2022: 5). 12 Ralf Gießler & Theresa Summer <?page no="13"?> Against this backdrop, this edited volume presents different digital spaces with specific textualities, which need to be theoretically conceptualised before teachers might consider incorporating these digital spaces into English language teaching (ELT). Previous works in ELT research have discussed the importance of digital learning and teaching (Lütge et al. 2021), the teaching of literature online (Stadler-Heer/ Paran 2022), and the growing ubiquity of born-digital texts including texts like let’s play videos, fanfiction, and digital storybook apps (Kersten/ Ludwig 2024). As is described in the introduction to Kersten and Ludwig’s edited volume Born-Digital Texts in the English Language Classroom (2024), two features of born-digital texts, namely, authorship and the modalities of meaning can serve to promote key competences in the areas of functional communicative, audio-visual, global, text, and language learning competence, as well as language awareness (Becker et al. 2024). What is more, the recent edition of the national educational standards for modern languages (KMK 2023) states that foreign language-specific digital competence (“fremdsprachenspezifische digitale Kompetenz”) should be understood “as a transversal competence that permeates all dimensions of foreign language learning and the overarching learning goal of intercultural and multilingual discourse competence” (KMK 2023: 25). The educational standards further emphasise that learners thus need to acquire competencies for receptive, productive, and interactive participation in multimodal forms of communication. Furthermore, they need to learn to critically reflect on the use and content of digital opportunities (spaces) to support their own foreign language learning both within and outside of school (KMK 2023). Taking this as a starting point, this volume explores the concept of digital spaces and textualities by providing a theoretical basis, a tentative framework to capture the complex interplay of digital spaces and textualities to highlight the diverse opportunities available for educators to integrate digital literacy practices into English language education. 2. Defining Digital Textualities and Spaces Digital technologies have become an inherent part of everyday life. Digital tools and educational technology are not something we use; more than that we are constantly “entangled in complex ways” in various digital spaces (Forsler et al. 2024: 4). The term digital spaces is commonly defined as “the world of virtual reality, databases, spreadsheets, the internet, music, electronic books, films and videos, Facebook, Twitter, phone calls, Skype and all things digital” (Benyon 2014: 37). We make us of mobile technologies while being linked up to an ensemble of other devices, which allows us “to exist at one and the same Introducing Digital Textualities and Spaces for ELT 13 <?page no="14"?> time in a local, geographical space of places and a global, digital space of flows” (Pegrum et al. 2022: 24). In this contribution, we focus on digital spaces in the context of foreign language education, that is, English language education, in particular. Due to the frequent usage of the term English language teaching (ELT) in international contexts, we employ this term although it admittedly focuses too narrowly on the target language in the singular and excludes the term learning which is, of course, a central concern to how we approach this field of theory, practice, and research. In a nutshell, the volume aims to explore how both digital spaces and textualities can be theorised and practically implemented into foreign language, specifically English, lessons. In educational settings, the boundaries between the physical classroom and the digital (virtual) spaces are dissolving to some extent. In today’s classrooms, learners can easily move from conventional learning spaces with pedagogic activities and face to face interaction to digital spaces where they engage with digital tools and applications on their tablets (Forsler et al. 2024). This is what the contributions in this volume show (see Sect. 3): current classrooms exist as a hybrid of both digital and physical (learning) spaces. In fact, the Covid pandemic underscored the critical importance of the socio-spatial aspect of learning. Merely doing tasks and uploading them in a Learning Management Software (LMS) does not fulfil the human need for participation, feedback, belonging, and social rapport. As such, the concepts and projects described in this volume demonstrate how physical and digital elements come together to support language learning in what is called the post-digital classroom by some (Forsler et al. 2024). It follows from this that post-digital learning spaces are both physical and digital. Abandoning dichotomies and embracing the notion of the “post-digital classroom” can be a new paradigmatic vantage point from which we can examine specific digital spaces and their corresponding technologies. 2.1 Defining Digital Spaces: The PACT Model In this volume, we will employ the term “digital space” as an overarching concept to capture the complex “interplay of social and technical elements” (Calder/ Otrel-Cass 2020: 444) inherent in digital environments. In the following paragraphs, we aim to elaborate on the concept of digital spaces by giving preliminary answers to the following questions: 14 Ralf Gießler & Theresa Summer <?page no="15"?> • What is the nature of digital spaces and which theoretical concepts exist? • Which features of digital spaces have the potential to foster foreign language learning and critical reflection? • How can digital spaces become learning spaces for foreign language learners? Which feature of a digital space makes it a learning space? Notably, the term digital space is mentioned in several publications when references are made to the importance of digital literacy (e.g., Reyna et al. 2018; Tour 2020) or learner autonomy (Fuchs et al. 2021). In that sense, digital spaces offer more choices and options for learners and can thus potentially foster learner autonomy. As Fuchs et al. note, “[t]echnology is linked to increased flexibility and learning choices in terms of language input and its delivery, and adaptable temporality and spatiality for learning” (2021: 4). Other scholars like Bloch (2021) stress the multimodality of digital spaces, hereby referring to multimodal literacy spaces which are characterized by multimodality being added to text. Bloch (2021: 86-87), however, concedes that “while a multimodal space can incorporate both print and digital literacies, their relationship must be thought out”. To theoretically conceptualise digital spaces for ELT, we draw on the PACT model by Benyon (2014) used in the context of human-computer interaction to describe the interdependence of four elements: people (P), activities (A), contexts (C), and technologies (T). This model helps us to understand how characteristics of technologies interact with each other and with people - the “beginning of designing a digital space” (Benyon 2014: 38). Depending on the situation, the needs to be met or the communicative intentions, people will use technology in certain ways to carry out specific activities, determined by the user interface. Benyon (2014: 1) suggests “that we use the concepts of spaces to think about interactive experiences. Spaces lead us to think of places, ecologies and environments. We can think about insides and outsides, about boundaries and horizons. We can think about moving through spaces, about paths”. For the context of ELT, the PACT model provides a framework for describing digital spaces and their interrelated elements which have implications for the teaching and learning of English. People (P) involved in the learning process include learners and teachers, but of course, also all other types of people actively involved in the reception or (re-)production of digital content or the interaction about it. Considering that especially children and adolescents are involved in different forms of digital communication, also in English when using digital technologies (Uhl 2019), it is crucial for ELT to recognise these real-life experiences and employ teaching approaches that promote relevant competence Introducing Digital Textualities and Spaces for ELT 15 <?page no="16"?> development. This can be achieved through certain activities (A), which - in the context of ELT - are pedagogical in nature as they fulfil certain learning goals. These activities can include all sorts of tasks, for instance, developed to foster certain skills and competencies. The contexts (C) of learning comprise informal and formal learning scenarios. Whereas formal learning aligns with institutionalised education in schools, i.e. ELT, informal learning includes everyday learning outside of school and is largely (but not always) unintentional (Uhl 2019: 59). When we consider the manifold ways in which learners encounter English through films or series, songs, and social media, it becomes clear that these engagements provide opportunities for ELT. Technologies (T) include all sorts of technological tools, for instance, Busuu, Kahoot! , and Socrative (for an overview of digital tools in foreign language teaching see Dausend 2021) and also developments within the fields of generative artificial intelligence (AI) and immersive virtual reality (iVR). The possibilities that these technologies provide for foreign language education are manifold, which is reflected in the contributions to this edited volume. On these grounds, there is a need to conceptualise digital spaces for ELT, which allows us to highlight four central aspects, as displayed in the PACT model. This model reflects “this idea that you cannot take people out of their environment, just as you cannot take a fish out of water and expect it to continue living as a fish” (Benyon 2014: 6). What is more, Benyon notes that the PACT model is a simplification and that in real life, there are “combinations of Pacts going on and evolving over time” (5). As such, the PACT model depicted in Figure 1 represents a simplification of a far more complex and complicated process. In other words, it is an idealised model that prototypically illustrates how the four components relate to each other in one digital space but, in reality, these four elements overlap and multiply. For example, in Booktok or Bookstagram, users may write a review about a book they have been reading, respond to other readers’ comments or search similar books by the same author or of the same genre. The four elements of PACT provide an important theoretical basis for preparing teachers to teach in the post-digital classroom. Whereas real-life engagement with technologies (T) by people (P) serves real-life purposes in reallife contexts (P), for instance, when an individual opens a website to check the weather forecast (A), ELT serves to foster a set of skills and competencies in learners. Consequently, teachers play a central role in developing goal-oriented learning activities in particular contexts. They also need to develop, model, and scaffold activities that are possible in certain digital spaces, for example, finding anchors for hyperlinks in hypertext fiction. Teachers are also the ones who can stimulate learner reflection about the potential choices that they encounter 16 Ralf Gießler & Theresa Summer <?page no="17"?> in informal learning contexts. In formal contexts, teachers initiate competence development through the design of goal-oriented tasks. Against this backdrop, the following section will outline some further features of digital spaces and illustrate them by referring to specific contributions in this volume. Fig. 1: The PACT Model applied to ELT (based on Benyon 2014: 4) 2.2 Features of Digital Spaces Digital spaces need content, a generator, and a portal (Gee 2005). Let us illustrate this claim with a few examples: A digital poetry escape room (cf. Thaler/ Meininger, this volume) is a digital space which provides opportunities for engaging with lyrical texts. Without any content, a poem, this digital space would barely exist. Music platforms like Spotify need content, that is, songs and music videos. Other digital tools like Padlet are void of any content and allow the user to create pads on a particular topic. Second, a digital space needs a generator, that is, people or an algorithm or a bot that create content. Music platforms like Spotify cannot be imagined without artists and musicians (or AI tools) that composed and published their music. Third, digital spaces require portals, i.e. interfaces or gates “through which people or programmes such as search engines access content” (Calder/ Otrel-Cass 2020: 449). The search Introducing Digital Textualities and Spaces for ELT 17 <?page no="18"?> functions are varied: it is possible to search for a particular artist’s latest productions or to search for music in a particular mood. Spaces exist through the people who inhabit them or dwell in them. Heidegger (1951: 12) asserts that “the relationship between human and space is none other than dwelling”. We can relate this notion of “dwelling in a space” to digital spaces. For instance, on Spotify or YouTubeMusic, users can listen to a song or watch a music video, they may also decide to stay, dwell a little bit longer in that space and perform other activities, such as rating the song or video, sharing it with a friend or have the system suggest similar artefacts of the same genre or by the same artist. Metaphorically speaking, they dwell in that particular digital space. Upon entering a digital space, people can extend themselves, physically, mentally, and emotionally in many directions. The semiotic material that users encounter creates a user experience which has people “feel more or less present in these media and more or less engaged with the content of the media” (Benyon 2014: viii). A tool like Etherpad, for instance, enables collaborative writing in real time. But only the moment when people join Etherpad and jot their ideas down, it becomes a digital writing space. Social Virtual Reality (iVR) becomes a space through the people who enter it with their particular avatars and choose, for instance, a particular piece of clothing. In that sense, digital spaces allow users to interact and converse about a given topic of societal relevance. Digital spaces function as affinity spaces where people gather and huddle together because they share particular interests, hobbies, or passions (Gee 2005). Gee (2005, 2018) conceptualizes digital spaces as “affinity spaces”. These spaces are characterised by a collective intentionality (Calder/ Otrel-Cass 2020: 450): People come together because of shared interests or engagement with a shared activity in spaces such as a church, a sports clubs or in political parties. In contrast to communities, the bonds between users in digital spaces are looser, allowing “different intensities of involvement and participation demonstrated by different members” (Calder/ Otrel-Cass 2020: 445). Readers of Doris Pilking‐ ton’s novels, for instance, might connect with fellow fans in online communities such as Booktok or Bookstagram, where they can engage in discussions about specific narrative elements or write fan fiction. Conversely, accessing a music video clip merely requires a short visit on YouTube. Padlet only becomes a 18 Ralf Gießler & Theresa Summer <?page no="19"?> “dwelling” space when a community of writers posts their ideas in “pads” and starts commenting their peers’ posts. Digital spaces offer distinct affordances that influence and shape social practices. Digital spaces are shaped not only by technology but also by the specific actions that users can carry out in them. As Calder and Otrel-Cass note (2020: 445), “[d]igital technologies and mobile technologies open up new spaces for communication, collaboration, creativity and entertainment. The kind of engagement that takes place in a digital medium is influenced by the affordances of the medium itself ”. Affordances are opportunities for action which individuals perceive in interaction with objects in their immediate environment. To give an example, in social media, the hashtag symbol (#) can be seen as an index marker. The symbol # is a visible cue that invites communicative and discursive action. Such an invitation for communicative or discursive action is what we conceptualize as the affordance of any hashtag in a specific digital space such as “X” (formerly Twitter). Once the symbol # is perceived in a social media post, the user or reader can decide to respond to it and thus join a conversation e.g. about the consequences of climate change. Users of “X” may create their own posts with new hashtags or retweet other posts (La Rocca 2020: 5). Hypertext fiction is a space for digital storytelling. A specific affordance of hypertext fiction is that readers can decide for each link whether to follow it by clicking it or not. Learners who engage in digital storytelling set up a digital space in which they do not only tell a story, but also - seemingly - allow their readers to shape the plot by choosing particular hyperlinks. Digital spaces offer opportunities for creativity and artistic expression. Digital spaces can set up a rich learning environment in which learners can experiment with novel narrative designs that would be difficult to create in a printbased format. Digital Storytelling (DST) can be broadly defined as the exploration of “different media and software applications to communicate stories in new and powerful ways” (McLellan 2006: 26). Digital tools that exploit the inherent human drive to tell stories (Smed et al. 2021: 10) offer many ways how users can make their voices heard by telling their own stories. DST allows students to draw on other modes of meaning making such as images, audio, or video. By placing storytelling into the digital realm, DST can encourage learners to combine different media formats to create compelling stories (Castañeda 2013: 45). Introducing Digital Textualities and Spaces for ELT 19 <?page no="20"?> All in all, digital spaces are dynamic environments that offer distinct oppor‐ tunities for content creation, engagement, collaboration, and creativity. These opportunities are closely aligned with the 21st-century skills, or the “4Cs”, which include critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity (Battelle for Kids 2019). Integrating these digital spaces into ELT practices presents opportunities for enhancing these competencies. Furthermore, digital textualities play a crucial role in this context, a term that will be explored in the following section. 2.3 Digital Textualities Texts play a significant role in foreign language education not only because they provide input, which is a prerequisite for language acquisition (e.g., Gass 2005), but also because they can offer interand transcultural insights - for instance, through films (Viebrock 2016) or children’s literature (Bland/ Lütge 2013). Educational guidelines thus attribute a crucial role to texts in foreign language classes. Indeed, a broad definition or extended notion of texts is prominent in current scholarly discussions. The proliferation of new text types and genres in the digital age via the worldwide web has given birth to an “extended notion of text” (Bateman 2014) whereby the term text subsumes audio-visual input as well as multimodal and digital texts in which different modes of meaning are combined (Lütge et al. 2021: 232). As multiliteracies theory explains, the different modes realize written, visual, spatial, tactile, gestural, audio, and oral meanings (Kalantzis et al. 2016: 230). As children and adolescents are chatting online with their friends or scrolling through social media posts, for example, they encounter multimedia content through pictures, accompanying tunes, moving images, emojis, and written words. Hence, a broad definition of texts that goes beyond the textbook dialogue or a printed novel needs to include, e.g., music videos and social media posts thus reflecting the everyday reality of learners’ engagement with texts in a digital world. In the digital age, we can witness a significant shift in the way we commu‐ nicate via texts in various digital spaces (both in reception and production). On these grounds, it has become more difficult to define text as such. Is it a fixation of meaning? An act of communication with a specific addressee? A display of power or ideology? Importantly, a text can be a said to be “undecided” (Silverman 1986: 54) or underspecified: The borders of the text are not the lines, the paragraphs or the title. A reading of the text occurs through its textuality or textualities. “Its textuality is precisely the condition of not setting clear lines 20 Ralf Gießler & Theresa Summer <?page no="21"?> of demarcation between the intratextual and the extratextual, between what counts as part of the text and what does not” (Silverman 1986: 58). That is why we consider the term “digital textualities” to be particularly suitable for describing the complex interplay of technology, activities, and context in digital spaces and to capture their communicative and interactive affordances. Trimarco (2017) states that digital textuality can be characterized by its multimodality: the interplay of linguistic, visual, and auditory elements (Trimarco 2017: 2). The textuality of digital texts, that is, their meaning struc‐ tures, can be more enigmatic (Trimarco 2017: 57). Due to their use of multiple modalities (e.g. visuals, audio), their non-linearity and interactivity (Lütge et al. 2021: 236 f.), the meaning structures of digital texts may be harder to grasp. Lütge et al. (2021: 231) also advocate for the use of the term “digital textualities” as it denotes the phenomenon and the attributes of changing textual forms in the digital age. We thus contend that the concept of textualities is an appropriate concept for describing the distinctive attributes of “texts” in digital spaces. The interactivity of digital texts (cf. Lütge et al. 2021: 237) is one of their specific affordances and manifests in three different ways: (1) The technology in a specific digital space can function as a mediator for interaction and allow users to write reviews or post comments in Spotify or YouTube. (2) Configurational activity “allows a user to define how a text is delivered to them” (Lütge et al. 2021: 237), for instance, via a streaming platform. (3) Navigational interactivity is realized through an ensemble of hyperlinks that allows readers to shape the narrative or follow subplots on their own. Algorithmic interactivity builds on a reciprocal relationship between user input and a digital tool’s response (ibid.) - an idea that is realized in the Digital Poetry Escape Room (cf. Thaler/ Meininger, this volume). Let us examine some examples that may illustrate these features of digital textuality. Social media users may hide the exposition of their political views by using a # with a short phrase like #notmypresident. After U.S. President Joe Biden had won the last election, this hashtag was the object of meaning changes due to retweeting and a rekindled debate between Trump supporters and Democratic voters (cf. Gießler/ Becker, this volume). Social media users and prosumers (Thaler, this volume) of music videos are expected to disentangle the meaning structures that come to them as multi-layered digital textualities. In literal videos, for example, users create an alternative song text from what they see. This song text agrees with the melody and the phrasing of the original song, but merely describes literally what is depicted in the video (e.g. in Pat Benater’s Music Video “Love is a battlefield” the dancers’ movements are described in Introducing Digital Textualities and Spaces for ELT 21 <?page no="22"?> full detail like in an aerobic video). The visual element of a music video may contradict or support the lyrics of a song. In relation to the contributions presented in this volume, we argue that the concepts of digital spaces and digital textualities are complementary. Digital texts differ from traditionally printed texts in the way they make use of the affordances of technology (Trimarco 2017: 2). Due to the multimodality, interactivity, and non-linearity of digital textualities, the meaning structures of digital texts, i.e. their textuality, can be said to be more fluid and unbounded. The practice of recombining texts from various media and disparate cultural spheres has ostensibly expanded in the last decade and calls for the need to become aware of specific digital textualities and their meaning structures. This assertion will be further illustrated through the various case studies and contributions in this volume. 3. The Contributions to this Volume This edited volume presents various examples of digital spaces and textualities. We aim to address conceptual developments as well as practical applications in ELT and EFL teacher education, both at universities and in teacher training programs. Accordingly, Section 1 explores examples of digital spaces and textualities, elaborating theoretical constructs and teaching concepts while outlining their potential for ELT. Section 2 addresses digital spaces and textual‐ ities in the context of teacher education to illustrate how future teachers and practicing teachers can develop the necessary skills and competencies for ELT relevant in an era of digital transformation. Section 1 begins with the contribution “TikTok for Book Lovers? -Book‐ fluencing in English Language Teaching”, in which Christian Ludwig and Michaela Sambanis illustrate how digital technologies are transforming the ways in which young generations read and interact with literature through social media. Focusing on how book influencers (bookfluencers) share their reading experiences on social media, they explore the potential of bookfluencing for literary learning in ELT through a suggested task sequence. The second contribution “Opening Up Digital Spaces: Towards a Progression of Hashtags as Small Texts in the EFL Classroom” by Daniel Becker and Ralf Gießler raises the question about the relevance of hashtags as a form of digital textuality in ELT. Despite their important position in digital language use and communication, hashtags have not received any attention in EFL research so far. It will be argued that a hashtag can be used in teaching contexts in a narrow sense when the hashtag itself (i.e., #-symbol + word/ phrase) becomes the learning 22 Ralf Gießler & Theresa Summer <?page no="23"?> object. From a broader perspective, the hashtag and all its related tweets and posts become the object of studying. They do not only allow learners to gain insights into lexical and grammatical patterns of the English language, but also provide opportunities for meaningful communication and the development of communicative competences in the classroom. In addition, they can raise learners’ awareness of digital discourse patterns and the representation of cultural and societal trends in social media. Engelbert Thaler, in his contribution “Music Videos Revisited”, examines the rationale behind using new genres such as literal music videos, user-generated content, and remixes in ELT, while also outlining practical approaches based on the German educational standards. The benefits of interactive and hypertext fiction are addressed in Sean Holt’s contribution on “Exploring the Possibilities of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education”. Hypertext fiction, one of the first digital genres, can stimulate writing in the context of digital storytelling in EFL contexts. Holt considers the potential benefits of integrating digital fiction into ELT and investigates some practical learning opportunities that arise from the affordances of the genre. Finally, a process-based approach for immersing language learners in interactive writing with hypertext fiction is suggested. In “The Digital Poetry Escape Room: Sparking Pupils’ Motivation for Poetry through a Competicooperative Environment”, Isabelle Sophie Thaler and Ben‐ edikt Meininger introduce an innovative approach to teaching modern poetry through digital escape rooms, combining elements of gamification (i.e., compe‐ tition) with cooperative learning. The authors report on a school-university collaboration through which they aim to explore new ways of sparking pupils’ motivation for poetry through a so-called “Digital Poetry Escape Room” (DPER). Escape rooms are one way to realize games-based language learning, as players have to work through a number of tasks. Thaler and Meininger’s approach is innovative since there is only scant research on escape rooms for language learning purposes (Quariachi/ Wim 2020; Bradford et al. 2021). The idea to link educational escape rooms and performance poetry is explained. The planning and implementation stages of their project is described in detail so that readers such as practicing teachers can adopt the idea to other content or text types. In “A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany: Ex‐ periences, Attitudes, and Future Potential”, Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, and Manfred Krug present findings from a survey on lyrical texts which seeks to explore university students’ school experiences in working with songs and their general attitudes towards them. The quantitative and qualitative findings show that the participants recall a number of different types of songs Introducing Digital Textualities and Spaces for ELT 23 <?page no="24"?> used in their English lessons and they see considerable potential of songs in ELT for fostering different competences and engaging with a variety of topics. Section 2 of this volume focuses on teacher education and includes three contributions originating from the project DiSo-SGW (Digitale Souveränität als Ziel wegweisender Lehrkräftebildung für Sprachen, Gesellschafts- und Wirt‐ schaftswissenschaften in der digitalen Welt). This project is part of the compe‐ tence network lernen: digital, which is funded by the BMBF, and aims to develop and evaluate research-based teacher training modules across several subjects, including foreign languages. In “Promoting Global Citizenship Education in EFL Teacher Education: Immersive Anti-Bias Training through Social Virtual Reality”, Maria Eisenmann and Jeanine Steinbock discuss the development of virtual anti-bias training programs aimed at equipping future teachers with the skills and perspectives needed to foster global citizenship and inclusivity in the classroom. They describe learning aims and refer to a model illustrating how social virtual reality (SVR) can contribute to central skills of global citizenship education. Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, and Theresa Summer contribute to the discussion on global citizenship education and teacher education in their contribution “Foreign Language Teachers’ Perspectives on Global Education, Digital Media, and Extended Reality”. The authors conducted a survey to examine foreign language teachers’ perspectives on digital technol‐ ogies, specifically in the context of global education. Their findings reveal that while foreign language teachers are generally aware of global topics and express interest in incorporating these into their teaching, they seem rather unfamiliar with relevant technical terminology. Teachers exhibit a promising openness towards digital media and a positive attitude towards extended reality (XR), despite limited prior experience in educational contexts, thus underscoring the need for targeted teacher training modules in this area. Finally, “Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education” by Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, and Andreas Grünewald provides insights into three interrelated research projects and outlines how these aim to foster digital sovereignty among foreign language teachers through the application of artificial intelligence and virtual reality in school teaching. The authors discuss important principles that guide their development of teachertraining modules while also providing insights into the conceptual design and thematic focus of their teacher training courses. 24 Ralf Gießler & Theresa Summer <?page no="25"?> 4. Conclusion The digital age is in full bloom - and digital learning is here to stay (Carrier/ Nye 2017). The teaching and learning of English today is not primarily about iden‐ tifying the potential of new media or integrating digital texts or technologies. Rather, it is about acknowledging the culture of digitality and the interdepend‐ ence of people, activities, contexts, and technologies. This interdependence is reflected in the PACT model (Benyon 2014) and was thus applied to ELT in this introductory text. We hope to enrich the discussion of digitalisation and the digital transformation in the context of ELT by using the PACT model to describe how technologies and people interact, how different contexts impact ELT, and which central role activities play in that regard. The two notions of digital textualities and digital spaces are complementary to each other and, for the contributions in this volume, they serve as overarching concepts (or heuristic tools) to capture (and further explore) the complex interplay of interactivity, multimodality, and technology found in digital spaces. The contributions in the volume shed light on selected digital textualities and spaces by examining their benefits and challenges for ELT. Language education cannot ignore those tendencies and realities but rather needs to (re)conceptu‐ alise language instruction in formal settings. In that sense, micro-level activities (e.g., finding anchors for hyperlinks), fine-grained functions of particular tools or general configurations of tools such as social virtual reality deserve attention and reflection from an ELT perspective. The examples in this volume include various types of digital texts (e.g., music videos, book blogs, hashtags) and digital platforms (e.g., escape rooms, virtual reality spaces). As such, they provide insights into the digital infrastructures that need to be navigated by learners and teachers in an age of digitality. A better understanding of “how digital devices communicate and interact and about the digital infrastructures that facilitate that” (Benyon 2014: 37) is vital if we want to fully exploit the communicative potential of post-digital ELT. As such, both concepts, digital spaces and textualities, can be viewed as fundamental components of digitality’s infrastructure, as they are experienced by children and adolescents in their daily interactions, communicative initiatives, and collaborations. References Bateman, John (2014). Text and image: A critical introduction to the visual/ verbal divide. New York, NY: Routledge. DOI: 10.4324/ 9781315773971 Battelle for Kids (2019). 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Examples of Digital Textualities and Spaces <?page no="33"?> TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis 1. Introduction Our world is becoming increasingly digital as digital media now pervade almost all areas of human life (Hepp 2021). Technology is also rapidly transforming when, where, what, and how today’s young generation reads ( Johnson 2021; Ludwig et al. 2023). They increasingly read literary texts on digital devices, such as e-readers, tablets, and smartphones, consume new (born-digital) forms and genres of literature, which are often multimodal and interactive, and engage in new ways of online writing such as fanfiction or digital storytelling, often in digital public spaces (McIlroy/ Ludwig 2024; McIlroy 2025). Printed literature, in particular, seems to be destined to fall into oblivion as the physical boundaries of paper-bound literature are increasingly dissolving and a new generation of social reader-writers (wreaders) and prosumers (producers & consumers) is taking over (Stalder 2018). While digital media and (print-bound) literature, at first glance, may seem incompatible, the digital realm not only offers new forms of born-digital texts - literature created exclusively on and mostly for digital devices - but also opens up new avenues for choosing and discussing print literature, “inspiring young people to read more in their free time” (Santos et al. 2023: 241). Even before the internet wove itself into the lives of an increasing number of private users, T.V. and radio segments, book clubs, and reading circles were important motivational factors for people who shared an interest in reading and discussing literature. A few decades later, individual and collaborative literary blogs (litblogs) such as LovelyBooks or Goodreads, websites, and podcasts cover a wide range of literary activities, including reading tips, book reviews, and interviews with authors. In addition, in recent years, an increasing number of people have moved to more interactive and trending book corners on social media platforms such as Instagram (Bookstagram), YouTube (BookTube), and TikTok (#BookTok). In these literature-specific subcommunities, book lovers, <?page no="34"?> publishers, authors, and more professional book influencers (bookfluencers) share their literary lives, review and discuss books, and make reading recom‐ mendations. These literature-related communities, as Santos et al. (2023: 241) point out, “are generally characterized by their predominantly young partici‐ pants and preference for [y]oung [a]dult literature […] and have significantly impacted the reading habits of young people” (see also Wiederhold 2022). Taking this increasing intertwining of literary, cultural, and social media practices (Stalder 2018; Thomas 2020) as a starting point, this paper aims to explore the potential of literary microblogging for promoting new forms of (literary) engagement and creative (literary) expression in the context of English as a foreign language (EFL) learning. The first part of this contribution provides an overview of contemporary adolescent reading practices and their implications for the modern foreign language literature classroom. The second part explores the contemporary literary blogosphere and provides a glimpse of the massive trend of literaturerelated social media subcommunities which encourage young people to engage in literary discussions and new forms of shared reading practices (Dezuanni et al. 2022). It then examines how ‘bookish accounts’ on social media can be harnessed for the EFL classroom, where students may no longer be born bibliophiles (Thompson/ McIlnay 2019: 63) and increasingly struggle with slowed, deep, long-form reading as digital media multitasking reduces their ability to focus (Spitzer 2022). Closely related to this, it examines the nexus between literary and digital learning, arguing that literary learning can be productively combined with the in-the-wild digital experiences of today’s students. Following this, it summarises some of the potential risks of engaging with ‘bookish’ social media accounts, emphasising the importance of preparing students for the digital threats they increasingly face. It concludes by suggesting a concrete task sequence for delving into the literary spaces on social media platforms. Through these activities, learners not only engage with both literature and conversations about literature but also train their digital critical competences. 2. ‘Reading (Books) Is(n’t) Cool’ - Literary Reading in the Digital Age With the rise of social media, streaming platforms, and other forms of digital entertainment, we are witnessing how digital technology is changing the way we communicate and express ourselves, as well as how we consume texts. The “end of deep reading [has become] a commonplace in public debates, whenever societies talk about youth, books, and the digital age” (Pianzola et al. 2020: 1). 34 Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis <?page no="35"?> Indeed, there is empirical evidence that the reading practices of young adults are changing as they are constantly connected to their devices. According to the JIM-Studie (mpfs 2022), the number of adolescents aged 12 to 19 who read books in their free time regularly has dropped from two-fifths to a third. Instead, young people increasingly consume shorter multimodal instead of longer purely textual texts and engage in fragmented reading as they quickly move from one text to another (Chalari/ Vryonides 2022: 10). They seem to be increasingly losing their ability to focus as they are used to having access to an abundance of instant and short-form content, for example, through reels or posts. This makes it increasingly difficult for them to read longer and denser texts, which cannot easily be skimmed or read superficially. However, it is questionable if we have really entered a “post-textual era” (Chalari/ Vryonides: 2022: 10) in which “the communication of culture at large is shifting away from text to other modalities”. As far as the reading habits of the young adult generation are concerned, studies show that adolescents still prefer physical books (Faverio/ Perrin 2021; Martens et al. 2022: n.p.). According to the What Kids Are Reading Report for the United Kingdom and Ireland, the number of books that children read has increased by almost a quarter in the 2021/ 2022 academic year, while reading comprehension is declining. Interestingly, the report also shows that BookTok and similar literature corners on social media - which will be discussed in more detail in section 3 - stimulate interest in reading in the young generation. We seem to be observing the rise of a new reading culture: a culture in which social media play an increasingly important role in finding books to read, discussing or reviewing them and sharing one’s reading habits. These practices, however, may not be validated by conventional literacy pedagogy, often failing to use the ‘dopamine pull’ of social media for engaging with (born-print) literature in the classroom. In other words, the latest trends in teenage literature and reading culture make it necessary to find new approaches that foster literary reading and active engagement with literary texts, especially as reading books can be associated with several positive outcomes such as better general knowledge, improved writing skills, higher reading speed, and increased reading comprehension (Duncan et al. 2016; Wilkinson et al. 2020: 157), a key factor for academic success. As far as English language teaching is concerned, Lütge et al. (2019: 520) argue that the new digital media landscape and the reading preferences of today’s readers necessitate rethinking how we deal with literary texts in the classroom and incorporate the vast out-of-school affinity spaces of today’s students ( Jerasa/ Boffone 2021: 223) such as video games or social media platforms. In other words, if we want to promote a positive book culture and authentic TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching 35 <?page no="36"?> contexts for (literary) reading in the classroom, we need to take into account the “evolutionary trends of reading practices that intersect the use of digital and social media” (Pianzola 2021: n.p.). One of these trends is Digital Social Reading (DSR), which encompasses “a wide variety of practices related to the activity of reading and using digital technologies and platforms (websites, social media, mobile apps) to share with other people thoughts and impressions about texts” (ibid.), emphasising the increasing importance of social interactions around the reading experience. Against this background, the next section focuses on social media book culture as one out-of-school literacy practice that can potentially motivate young people to read, engage with literature, and enhance in-school literacy instruction. 3. From Litblogs to BookTok Literature, as Paran and Stadler-Heer (2023: 1) observe, “has ‘been’ online ever since there has been an online, virtual world”. In 2023, there is a thriving and growing literature scene on the internet, and attempting to map the different forms of literature and literary engagement in the digital realm would go far beyond the scope of this paper. Yet, at the same time, no group is “more sensitive to the changes inherent in the shift to digital forms than readers of literature” (Hammond 2016: 4). Since literary texts have been liberated from the constraints of the physical paper copy, digital textualities such as electronic and born-digital literature have emerged as hybrid forms composed of text, image, and sound. Moreover, we read with different devices such as smartphones, tablets, and ereaders and increasingly navigate between different roles such as (pleasure) readers, critics, and writers (wreaders), and act differently when being in these roles (Vlieghe et al. 2016: 801). Literary reading used to be an isolated, solitary activity but has evolved into a social activity; sociality and joint action is once again becoming an integral part of literary culture as readers share and connect in interactive digital spaces, including online book clubs, online communities for book lovers, and collaborative writing spaces such as the social storytelling platform Wattpad (Pianzola et al. 2020). Many of these spaces represent “production-centered ways of elaborating on the experience of reading fiction” (Pianzola 2021: n.p.) as readers share what they have read, summarise their thoughts, ask questions, or write their own texts. One example is the online fanfiction community (Sauro/ Sundmark 2016), where fans write their own pieces of fiction based on settings and characters from existing works. They may repair something in the 36 Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis <?page no="37"?> original text, for instance, the death of a beloved character (fix-it fiction), write themselves into the story (author-insert fan fiction), or combine different stories (crossover fiction). Their stories continue, interrupt, reimagine, or just riff on stories and characters other people have already written about” ( Jamison 2013: 17). Thus, as McIlroy puts it, “the traditional line between author and reader becomes increasingly blurred […] and text productions resemble a polyphonic amalgam of different authorial voices” (Becker et al. 2024: 13). Today’s literary blogosphere contains book reviews and recommendations, author interviews, writing tips, and book excerpts but also allows for the publishing of shorter or serialised texts. Literary blogs may be used to sell books but also provide a space for authors and readers to share their passion for literature; whether it be specific genres or formats of literature. Blogs, although within limits, allow for interactive communication and thus differ from static websites. As Richardson (2009: 17) puts it: “Weblogs are not built on static chunks of content. Instead, they are comprised of reflections and conversations that in many cases are updated every day (if not three or four times a day)”. The probably most famous platform for literary discussions is Goodreads, a site where people share books they enjoy or try to find new titles to read. Another example is the collective, crowd-sourced annotation site Genius, which allows users to review and annotate literary texts by often well-known authors (Rainey/ Storm 2017: 206). More recently, however, an online subculture referred to as the ‘bookternet’ (McArdle 2016) has emerged where people share their “bookish behaviour” (Rodger 2019: 473) across a range of social media platforms. Bookstagram started as a simple hashtag to index book-related content such as a photo of a book accompanied by a review or discussion questions. It now refers to individual book-related accounts or a diverse community of book lovers, authors, readers, or publishers. Similarly, there is BookTok, a literary subcommunity on TikTok, and BookTube, a collection of YouTube channels focusing on discussing books. Similar to their non-virtual counterparts, these literary communities serve several important functions for young readers (Santos et al. 2023: 241-242). They are inherently social as they provide a social space “where relationships centered around literature might develop” (Paladines/ Aliagas 2022), and young people can share their reading and experiences with relatable content creators. In addition, these communities are considered aesthetically pleasing and allow members to be creative. Table 1 provides an overview of selected literature-related subcommunities on social media, illustrating the potential of activities in these communities for the classroom. As will be discussed later on, many of these activities, such as analysing and creating a literature-related video for BookTok or writing a book TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching 37 <?page no="38"?> review for Bookstagram, can be turned into creative tasks for the classroom. Furthermore, the fact that algorithms make decisions about what users see and sort posts based on relevance can lead to critical discussions of how they shape our behaviour and influence our opinions and actions. Last but not least, often harmless but potentially dangerous activities such as hashtag challenges (a challenge creator asks people to perform a task) can be addressed. Subcommunity BookTube Bookstagram BookTok Launch date 2010 2014 2020 Reach Most watched single-video ( Jack Edwards) - 2,8 Mil‐ lion views 91 Million posts - 152 billion views glob‐ ally (18 Million posts, last 3 years) Owner - Google Meta Platforms (formerly Face‐ book, Inc.) ByteDance (Chinese company) (Paid) Adver‐ tising Yes Yes No, but-tipping is pos‐ sible and successful creators can receive money from the official TikTok Creator Fund Hashtags Yes, but only within certain communities Yes Yes Affordances • like & comment • subscribe • post video or short • start live stream • edit videos (trim, add end screen, thumbnails) • search • share on other so‐ cial media plat‐ forms • search • follow, like, comment • share in story • share as mes‐ sage to other users • share on other social media platforms • add hashtags (for posts and reels) • use stickers & GIFs, sounds, song snippets, polls, questions & countdowns, special effects & filters (for sto‐ ries) • follow, like, com‐ ment (if allowed by user) • search • add sounds and song snippets • apply special effects and filters • use hashtags • share reactions to others videos • record videos with reactions to other videos (duetting) • share on other social media platforms • use plus button (to create video) • locate the original sound clip used in a video & find all videos using the 38 Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis <?page no="39"?> • react to stories with emojis • use plus button (to create post) • Reels: • locate original sound clip used in a video • find all reels using the same song snippet globally same sound bite globally Algorithm mechanics • evaluate likes, comments, shares, adds to playlists (based on rele‐ vance & engage‐ ment) • consider watch time of videos, number of sub‐ scribers, clicks & upload frequency of a channel • recommend videos based on user searches and watch history • increase visi‐ bility of posts that gather likes, com‐ ments, book‐ marks and shares in a short time span • recommend posts with sim‐ ilar or previ‐ ously liked hashtags • put recently posted content higher up in the user feeds • calculate watch time, likes, and comments to score videos • avoid suggesting the same creators (repetition creates boredom) • determine user pref‐ erence by analysing their watch history and likes • recommend videos with similar hash‐ tags, video descrip‐ tions and songs Activities • vlogs • reviews • recommenda‐ tions, reading lists (list of the month or current read‐ ings) • reading and books as sensory and haptic experi‐ ences, e.g., smelling a book, feeling the paper, …) • educational con‐ tent • book recom‐ mendations • reviews • stylised posts and stories that are pleasing to the eye • hashtag chal‐ lenges • book recommenda‐ tions • reviews • reading and books as sensory and haptic experiences, e.g., smelling a book, feeling the paper, … • comedy sketches and relatable con‐ tent, e.g., reactions to stories in books • hashtag challenges • sound bites (a short excerpt from a re‐ corded sound file such as a speech) Tab. 1: Literature-related subcommunities: Basic information and selected affordances, limitations (partly based on Martens et al. 2022; data as of June 2023) TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching 39 <?page no="40"?> What all three subcommunities have in common is that they are almost entirely driven by young people (Harris 2021) and embrace young adult (YA) literature. They make YA literature engaging, fun, and socio-culturally relevant as they allow young readers to blur the line between reader and writer and “take a more active role than traditionally posited for them” (Tagg 2015: 40). Fig. 1: Example of a display at Dussman bookshop in Berlin (@Nikola Zirdum 2025) TikTok or similar sites and literature may, at first glance, seem like a paradigm clash since social media is often associated with “the worst excesses of triviality, ephemerality and narcissism”, whereas literature “is celebrated for its ability to challenge norms and assumptions, to elevate the trivial, and to provide insights into universal aspects of the human condition that transcend the here and now” (Thomas 2020: 1.). However, there is a growing body of research that recognises TikTok videos and similar social media products “not as random and short-lived entertainment but as complex, cultural artifacts” (Schellewald 2021: 1439). Figures 2 and 3 show posts created by students as part of a class on learning English in the digital age. In the first post (Fig. 2), the author ponders why he rereads Wilde’s short stories and invites his followers to share their opinions. In the second post (Fig. 3), the author reviews one of her favourite books. Towards the end of the post, she asks the audience to share their recommendations and also to remember their first love. Both posts illustrate that for young readers, “the interactions between consumers in virtual literary communities are justified, above all, by the social need of readers […] [to find] a community 40 Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis <?page no="41"?> where they can form relationships with people they relate to and share interests with” (Santos et al. 2023: 246) Fig. 2: Example of a Bookstagram post (@Nikola Zirdum 2023) TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching 41 <?page no="42"?> Fig. 3: A Bookstagram post created by a university student (@Chiara Liefländer 2023) 42 Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis <?page no="43"?> BookTubers, Bookstagrammers, and BookTokkers are now part of today’s mainstream social media book culture. Many of them are everyday people with some of them showing practices of ‘micro-celebrity’ (Senft 2013; Abidin 2018). These celebrities “bring themselves into being, make themselves recognisable to others, and act upon the world through the production and circulation of ‘selfies’ and ‘shelfies’” (Dezuanni et al. 2022: 356), two of the most common forms of bookish content on social media. Literature-related selfies “feature individuals looking directly at the camera, or speaking into the camera, whilst simultaneously featuring a book cover, the pages of a book, a stack of books, or a library” (ibid.: 357). Shelfies represent a variation of selfies including photos or videos of one’s bookshelf, books arranged in a certain way, or photos of the same books from different angles. Fig. 4: Selected book-related prompts and activities for BookTube, Bookstagram, and BookTok (@Nikola Zirdum 2023) TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching 43 <?page no="44"?> Figure 4 offers an overview of activities that people engage in within social media book corners. Those book-related activities clearly go beyond simply sharing one’s favourite author, book, or series but instead aim at actively engaging the audience. These activities show that the possibilities for creating engaging classroom tasks are also almost endless and go beyond liking, fol‐ lowing, sharing, hashtagging, or posting links to books. They can potentially encourage the kind of authentic and meaningful interactions and evoke the kind of real-life related discussions that we hope to stimulate in the classroom, with the teacher be(com)ing a learner alongside the students ( Jerasa/ Boffone 2021: 221). 4. Selfies and Shelfies in English Language Teaching In order to make literary works accessible to students and connect literature with students’ digital lives, the literature classroom needs to draw on the genres, authors, and multimodal formats that today’s students are interested in and familiar with (Thompson/ McIlnay 2019: 67). Such an approach to literature should ideally go beyond discussing filmed or staged versions of literary texts but include contemporary literary (and deeply cultural) practices on social media; platforms that allow us to express our ideas, connect with others, and engage in formal and informal literary discourses (Thomas 2020). Integrating these practices into the classroom can motivate today’s students to read and bring them closer to the world of literature (Fig. 3), especially as finding something to read that they are interested in and that they can relate to is one of the most substantial barriers to increasing long-form reading (Dezuanni et al. 2022: 355). Findings from the Scholastic Australia Kids & Family Reading Report, which investigated Australian children’s and parents’ attitudes and behaviours toward reading for pleasure, show that the majority (91 %) of readers aged 6-17 agreed that their favourite books are the ones they picked themselves, 70 % answered that they are more likely to finish these books, and three-quarters of the respondents stated that they would read more if they found books they are interested in (74 %). These numbers support the existing research on the positive effects of self-selected fiction reading (Mason/ Krashen 2017) and the importance of including students in the selection of texts that are read in the classroom (Krashen 2022). Discussing literature-related social media content in the EFL classroom has several advantages. It can help students understand literature as part of social (media) life and understand that there is not one but many ways to engage in literary life. Furthermore, connecting with authors and other readers will 44 Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis <?page no="45"?> make it easier for reluctant readers in particular to match reading choices with their interests, reflect on their reading practices, critically discuss what they are reading, and share their voices. In addition, social media platforms may provide access to and a space for discussing new and emerging forms of literature, genres that may not dominate book lists, lesser-known works, or works of creative/ collaborative writing. A study conducted by Paladines and Aliagas on literacy and literary learning on BookTube showed that BookTubing is an emergent literary practice among young people, but one that “is currently taking shape outside the context of formal education” (2022: 1). Their interviews with BookTubers about the rela‐ tionship between BookTube reading practices and literature-related learning in formal education underlined that the BookTube subcommunity provides opportunities for young people to grow as readers, make reading choices, and acquire new interpretative strategies (ibid.: 2). Concerning the potential of BookTube content for more formal educational contexts, Paladines and Aliagas summarise: “The ecology of literary and literacy learning within BookTube culture raises some interesting possibilities for the enrichment of learning processes in formal educational contexts: The possibilities for integrating this vernacular practice into the classroom range from merely familiarising students with the video book review as a discourse genre to actually having students produce video book reviews of their own. In the minds of many young people, formal education in the area of literature is often associated with the mandatory reading of difficult texts and rigidity in their interpretation. (ibid: 2022: 10) Closely related to this, challenged and censored books that have been removed from (school) libraries or works by authors, groups, and communities that are underrepresented in the traditional canon such as African Americans, Chicanos, female, or LGBTQI+ authors may receive more attention. As Wiederhold (2022: 157) argues, BookTok in particular “makes space for identities that are underrepresented in the traditional canon and allows for a community with books not considered ‘appropriate’ for academic spaces”. Last but not least, literature-related accounts offer themselves to approach global topics, as Bookstagram and similar digital spaces provide insights into critical aspects of an online book culture such as the limited access to books. For example, in some countries physical libraries are far away, shipping options are not available, or people lack the financial means to buy books or the tech equipment to create ‘fancy’ social media posts. These barriers may turn literary reading into an elite activity. TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching 45 <?page no="46"?> BookTube Account name Country of origin Number of subs/ followers & videos/ posts Activities (selected) emmiereads * e m m i e * / Emma Canada 381k subs 365 videos Vlogs, book reviews, book recommendations atimetosh‐ arebooks - South Africa - 2,1k subs 90 videos Book reviews, book recom‐ mendations, interviews with authors Instagram katieeliza‐ beth_reads United Kingdom 79,2k followers 526 posts Book reviews, book recom‐ mendations, vlogs, life style posts, pictures of bookstores seelieknight United States 48,8k followers 847 posts Life style posts, book reviews TikTok aymans‐ books United States 949,3k followers 127,3 m. likes Top BookTokker in 2023 Book humour, book reviews, book recommendations becsammut Australia - 49,3k followers 3,6 m. likes - Started off as Vlog, DIY channel, literature focus since 2022, romance & fan‐ tasy focus, book recommen‐ dations, aesthetic posts Tab. 2: A shortlist of book-related social media accounts (as of June 2023) Teachers can use social media to find out more about books that are popular among teenagers. Furthermore, they could share literature hashtags with students that they can follow regularly, or ask students to do a background search on selected books to decide which ones they would like to read. Table 2 offers an overview of accounts teachers and students could follow, illustrating how these micro-bloggers change how we talk about literature. Accepting that social media use has become a “significant component of students’ agency for their social and cultural literacy practices” ( Jerasa/ Boffone 2021: 219) does not necessarily mean that we have to follow a radical ‘out with the old, in with the new’ approach to literature but rather that we incorporate these new ways of engaging with as well as responding to literature into foreign language education. By doing that, we “simultaneously support the overlapping, twin goals of disciplinary literacy [in this case literary literacy] and digital literacy” (Rainey/ Storm 2017: 203). 46 Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis <?page no="47"?> With regard to literary learning, the CEFR Companion Volume (Council of Europe 2018: 115-117) states that students should be able to express a personal response to creative texts, including aspects such as what they liked or interested them about the text, give a reasoned opinion on a work, describe characters, relate aspects of the work to their own experience, and formulate a personal interpretation of the work. Furthermore, various models conceptualise literary competence (Spiro 1991; Burwitz-Melzer 2007; Alter/ Ratheiser 2019), showing that - although its outcome may not be directly measurable - there is a purpose in literary learning (Alter/ Ratheiser 2019: 1). The literary competence model by Diehr and Surkamp (2015: 21-40) sees reading as a highly individual process. It distinguishes between “six compe‐ tences assumed in three dimensions” (Alter/ Ratheiser 2019: 3): 1. Motivational and attitudinal competences: e.g., reading, listening, and viewing motivation, empathic understanding of protagonists’ and other points of view, reflecting one’s own experiences in view of the text, enjoying aesthetic features of the text. 2. Aesthetic and cognitive competences: e.g., reading comprehension, filling gaps, forming hypotheses, recognizing and interpreting aesthetic forms of presentation in different genres, contextualizing literary texts. 3. Linguistic and discursive competences: e.g., activating linguistic skills, using reading strategies and techniques, and communicating about the text. (Diehr/ Surkamp 2015: 25 as qtd. in Alter/ Ratheiser 2019: 3) At the same time, teachers should promote students’ “confident, critical and responsible use of, and engagement with, digital technologies” (Council Rec‐ ommendation on Key Competences for Life-long Learning, 22 May 2018, ST 9009 2018 INIT). According to the Council of Europe’s Digital Competence Framework for Citizens 2.2, digital competence includes the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that “help citizens engage confidently, critically and safely with digital technologies” (Vuorikari et al. 2022: n.p.). Based on this understanding of digital competence, the framework outlines five key competence areas which are discussed in more detail in the introduction to this volume (Gießler/ Summer), namely information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, safety, and problem-solving. As digital literary texts, spaces, and tools are increasingly becoming a part of literary creation and participation, it seems worthwhile to revisit and reflect on the digital competences outlined above, and to explore how digital platforms and tools can help to enrich literary learning, for example when it comes to reader-response activities. While many young people operate their digital TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching 47 <?page no="48"?> devices seemingly intuitively, they may not be as savvy when it comes to navigating today’s dynamic literary and reading-focused literary communities, where they can “post what they are reading, view what others are reading, and share comments and recommendations about books” (Rainey/ Storm 2017: 206). Modern foreign language education should grasp the opportunities that come with seeing digital competence development and literary learning as two sides of the same coin. This, for instance, includes the creation, understanding, and circulation of literary texts (Ludwig 2021: 226-228), but also participation in online communities focusing on literary reading and writing. In these online communities, young readers share their ‘literary experiences’ and critically and self-consciously create literary content and communicate with others, while being aware of critical aspects regarding digital identity, privacy and security, or the sharing of data. To give just one example: According to Diehr and Surkamp’s model, linguistic and discursive competence includes the ability to communicate about a text. As discussed in Sections 2 and 3, literary subcommunities provide ample opportunities for young people to share their literary voices, write book reviews, or even reenact literature, i.e., to communicate about texts, as put by Diehr and Surkamp (2015: 25). Yet, to do so successfully and safely, they also need to rely on various digital competences, including, among others, using appropriate digital means of communication, being aware of digital norms of behaviour (netiquette), safely dealing with the data that they produce, being aware of copyright and licenses, and finding the right formats to express themselves. Here, especially aspects related to digital safety play a vital role as, like any other community, literature-related social media communities should be treated with caution. In other words, students should learn how to recognise and protect themselves against inappropriate content, advertising, or misinformation such as deepfakes, i.e., videos and posts that have been created or deliberately altered through artificial intelligence, as will be discussed in the following section. 5. Literary Communities on Social Media: A Voice of Caution This contribution suggests that engaging with book subcommunities on social media platforms can potentially lead to a more authentic engagement with literature and the literary community. In addition, it can also be a stepping stone to reading longer fictional texts and deeper long-term reading. Engaging with literary content on social media can also enhance students’ literary and digital competencies in the EFL classroom. For example: Book channels and accounts may have a potential ‘dark side’ that teachers should be aware of and also openly 48 Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis <?page no="49"?> address with students, allowing them to become more competent in areas such as online safety. These negative aspects of digital book life include the following: 1. Separating the sheep from the goats: There is still a lack of quality content control, potentially exposing adolescents to less intellectual, super‐ ficial, inappropriate, or fake content, as book bloggers may not be impartial or even untruthful. They may simply produce posts or videos with lists of books they have not even read themselves. It can be assumed that online filter bubbles - communities of people who share similar ideas, views, and ideologies - and echo chambers where our viewpoints are confirmed and reinforced (Cinelli et al. 2021), also exist when it comes to literary accounts. For example, a less serious part of Instagram (deep bookstagram) may expose adolescents to content that is inappropriate or not suitable for serious discussions. 2. Brand repping: Bookfluencers are becoming increasingly influential. However, they may engage in brand repping, that is, they are paid to advertise certain brands, for example, through promoting products for a company either to receive free products or for payment. Also, publishers may make use of bookfluencers to promote their books, usually by pro‐ viding Advanced Reader Copies (ARCs), which, in turn, may lead to positive reviews. 3. Harmful behaviour: Engaging in literary discourses on social media may include displaying the self, which can have negative side effects such as discrimination, bullying, or harassment. For example, comments, photos, or videos may be intended to harm others or negative comments from the audience may invoke a shitstorm from other followers. These more critical voices may easily get lost in the cacophony of voices on social media platforms or be removed by automated bots or moderators. 4. Diversity discrimination: Discussing or promoting books with contro‐ versial literary pieces on polarizing or taboo topics such as LGBTQI+ identities, racism, or gender may lead to criticism from individuals but also certain religious or political groups. Closely related to this, diversity continues to be a problem in book communities on social media as algorithms may, for instance, push and promote non-marginalised creators or focus on the white Western society. Openly discussing these and other concerns with students may help reduce dig‐ ital safety risks for children and teenagers and enhance their critical awareness and critical literacy skills as they engage with questions related to how power is circulated and exercised in specific contexts. In other words, they develop a TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching 49 <?page no="50"?> critical awareness regarding aspects such as exclusion and systemic oppression, for example, when it comes to differences such as race, gender, sexuality, or class (Crookes 2013). 6. Discussing and Using BookTok in the EFL Classroom: A Sample Task-based Activity- In the following task-based activity, students create their own BookTok video. BookTok was chosen for this example task for various reasons. First, BookTok emerged in the early days of the pandemic when “reading in print formats grew during this time, as a way to escape both screens and boredom” (Martens 2022: n.p.; Wiederhold 2022). Second, TikTok offers different responding and remixing functions (cf. Tab. 2) which reflect the common digital media practice of working less with raw material but with “materials that are already equipped with meaning” (Stalder 2018: 59). Third, TikTok’s creator tools help content creators to get insight into their content such as analytics and information on how to connect with others and engage with watchers. Fourth, it provides several functions, such as adding filters, sound, and effects. In addition to the built-in editor, there is a variety of TikTok editing apps which help users to make their videos even more appealing. Last but not least, addressing TikTok could also lead to a discussion of the challenges and responsibilities since the platform was recently fined by Irish Data Protection Commission (DPC) for disregarding the proper processing of children’s personal data in the European Union. The starting point of the task sequence shown in Table 3 is the increasing number of books being challenged or even banned in the United States. The American Library Association’s (ALA) Office of Intellectual Freedom keeps track of attempts to ban books across the United States and publishes an annual list of books that have been challenged for removal or banned from libraries and schools. While the practice of banning books has a long history, more recent developments are alarming: The number of reported challenges is skyrocketing, having doubled in 2022 as books are no longer simply challenged by individuals such as parents or teachers but also in a more organised way by a growing network of conservative groups across the United States. In 2013, Suzanne Collins’ The Hunger Games (2008) was among the top 10 challenged books due to its religious viewpoints and because it was considered unsuitable for the intended age group. Taking this as a starting point, the following activity encourages students to explore the challenge and banning of books and explore different ways of fighting literary censorship. This includes creating an awareness campaign video for BookTok. By doing that, the students 50 Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis <?page no="51"?> acquire different literary and digital competences as they communicate about the text and engage in literary discussions on a digital platform. The activity below could be a follow-up task after having read and discussed a young adult novel in class. Topic ‘Books Behind Bars’: Book Challenges and Bans in the U.S. Grade level Years 11/ 12 Time 4x45 minutes Aims • to develop awareness of book challenges and bans • to find out more about the reasons for individuals and groups for challenging and banning books such as values or conflicts with religious/ political viewpoints • to practice giving opinions in a BookTok video, e.g., summarise key ideas, reflect the use of rhetoric, movement, and gestures • to practice digital skills, e.g., evaluating and integrating information from diverse media sources and formats, understanding the risks related to biases & misinformation, and editing video content • to improve literary skills, e.g., reflecting the major themes, issues, and characters of a literary text (reflexive competence), expressing a personal response to a literary text in a social media environment Lead-in The teacher shows the students a book cover image of The Hunger Games or a film poster and asks them if they have read the novel or seen the film. The following questions serve to create a cognitive conflict and motivate students to find out more about challenged and banned young adult books in the United States: • Are you allowed to read this book? • Have you ever been told that you couldn’t read the book or watch the film? • Can you think of possible reasons for banning the book? After a brief discussion, the teacher informs the students that the young adult novel was the fifth most-challenged book in 2013 and encourages learners to discover the difference between challenging and banning a book (see the ALA website for a summary: https: / / www.ala.org/ advocac y/ bbooks/ banned-books-qa). Pre-task The teacher tells the students that the chair of the 2023 Banned Young Adult Books Week - an annual event for teachers, readers, publishers etc. to support the freedom of literature - has asked for submissions for their social media campaign on BookTok and that as a class they can submit one video. In order to prepare students for the main task, they are introduced to TikTok videos that fight the banning of books either by showing and discussing examples or letting them search for videos under hashtags such as #banningbooksiswrong or #bannedbooks. Students should be told, however, that they should always fact-check the video content because there have been cases in which false claims have been made about books that were actually not banned. Based on TikTok for Book Lovers? - Bookfluencing in English Language Teaching 51 <?page no="52"?> existing videos, the students (a) collect TikTok tools such as filters, texts, stickers, audio, and special effects that can be used to make video content more engaging and (b) search for free TikTok video editing apps, such as CapCut, and c) identify ways in which people approach the topic of book banning in their videos. For the post-task, the students collect criteria for successful TikTok videos for the vote. These criteria should relate to the content (e.g., clear, delivered in a comprehensive way), language (authentic language use, clear pronunciation, correct use of grammar), and video creation/ editing (quality of the video, lighting, and captions). Main task Students are given the following task: 1. Go to the ALA’s website and choose a book that was recently challenged. Make sure to choose a book that at least some of your group members have read. 2. Do some research on who challenged it and why it was challenged. 3. Discuss whether you think the book should be challenged or banned or not. 4. Create a storyboard and a script for an up to three-minute video for BookTok that discusses ‘your case’. Your video should raise people’s awareness of the increasing number of book challenges and critically argue against them. Don’t forget to include a title for your video. 5. Film and edit your video. Post-task The class votes for the best and most convincing video. They write a letter to the chair of the 2023 Banned Young Adult Books Week to support their application. Reflec‐ tion Encourage students to reflect on their learning by briefly answering the following questions: • What did I learn? • Want went well? How can I improve? • How can I use what I learned in the future? Differen‐ tiation This task can be scaffolded and differentiated in different ways, for example, by offering students different video lengths, encouraging them to take a section of someone else’s TikTok video and using it in their own video (stitching), providing language support for the video, or adding fast-finisher tasks such as writing a thumbnail for the video. Tab. 3: A sample lesson plan for working with BookTok in ELT 7. Conclusion and Outlook Bookstagram and similar literary corners on social media have become an integral part of today’s digital culture. The emergent literary practices in these subcommunities - often in contrast to still predominantly text-centred literature teaching in formal educational contexts - illustrate that reading has become a shared undertaking, emphasising the “world of the reader” (Paladines/ Aliagas 2022: 11) and their identities and experiences. Against this background, this 52 Christian Ludwig & Michaela Sambanis <?page no="53"?> contribution argued that social media platforms should not be regarded as adversaries but as potential allies in the literature classroom, encouraging young people to experience the pleasure of engaging with and discussing literature in and outside the classroom. The sample task sequence on banned and challenged books in the US is one example of how life in literary subcommunities on social media can be incorporated into the classroom. 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Introduction In recent years, research in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education has significantly broadened its spectrum of texts and materials to be explored in the classroom. Thus, next to continued research on analogue texts such as picturebooks, novels or poems, there has been a surge of studies focussing on new digital texts - including tweets, video games or YouTube videos (Watkins/ Wilkins 2011; Jones 2018; Kirchhoff 2019) - and their relevance for EFL learners. As such, English language education has lately taken a digital turn by more prominently addressing how the contemporary EFL classroom can prepare learners to actively participate in a digitised world and the ‘salient digital practices of any community’ (Sykes 2019: 130). In the spirit of these studies and their endeavour to bring current digital communicative practices into the EFL classroom, the present paper will address one digital text in particular: the hashtag. Recently, hashtags, which can be understood as index markers on social media, have become an omnipresent phenomenon. Whether they appear in the context of elections (#notmypresi‐ dent), the entertainment industry (#letthemusiclive) or everyday life (#ootd [outfit of the day]), they currently permeate numerous sectors of the political, social and cultural landscape and, in doing so, fulfil various essential functions in today’s digital age. Hashtags, for instance, play a pivotal role in generating social and economic capital in the field of marketing, they are vitally involved in creating digital communities, fostering solidarity and empathy. They serve as important structuring devices for digitally mediated discourses, themes and ideas. Hashtags, in other words, have become ‘multitasking tools’ (La Rocca 2020: 2) which are deeply embedded in the very fabric of digital culture(s) and which, as such, prominently help to shape a meaningful relationship to the world in the internet era. <?page no="58"?> Despite their important position in digital language use and communication, hashtags have not received any attention in EFL research so far. The present chapter will address this gap by asking to what extent hashtags as omnipresent phenomena in the digital world can be integrated into contemporary EFL teaching and learning practices. It will be argued that a hashtag can be defined as a digital text in its own right, which can be used in the EFL classroom in two ways: hashtags can either be seen from a narrow perspective, in which the hashtag itself (i.e., #-symbol + word/ phrase) becomes the learning object, or they can be seen from a broad perspective, in which the hashtag is used in combination with its related tweets and posts. Viewed from each of these perspectives, hashtags as texts offer EFL learners valuable learning opportunities in terms of skills development and language awareness. We will use the concept of affordances in order to show that hashtags provide learners with both linguistic and communicative opportunities (narrow perspective) as well as discursive learning opportunities (broad perspective), which makes this phenomenon a valuable addition to contemporary English language teaching. The paper consists of four sections: the first two sections provides the theoretical foundation of the paper, section 2 explores the textuality of hashtags and section 3 offers a short introduction to affordance theory. Based on these considerations, section 4 then examines which specific affordances hashtags as texts can provide for the EFL classroom. Finally, the paper ends with some more practical implications of using hashtags in English language teaching by discussing some example hashtags used on Twitter in the context of the Presidential elections. 2. Defining Hashtags as Texts When considering what a text is, most people would probably identify novels or newspaper articles as typical representatives of this concept. Perhaps, they would also perceive blogs or emails as current digital add-ons to the textual canon. But would they also include hashtags? At first sight, hashtags are highly unlikely candidates to represent texts in a conventional sense: as phenomena which only consist of short individual phrases (or even single words), and which always start with a symbol, they seem so utterly different from the prototypical forms of texts mentioned before. And yet, despite their idiosyncrasies, we will show in the following section that they can be defined as a specific form of digital text which shares the structural features of more conventional examples, while also displaying some unique textual features. 58 Ralf Gießler & Daniel Becker <?page no="59"?> In order to explore what kind of text hashtags are, one first needs to define the term ‘text’ in general. In contemporary academic debates, text can be seen as a travelling concept (Bal 2002), which means that it is currently being used in a broad variety of disciplines, including literary and cultural studies, media studies, linguistics or sociology. Each of these disciplines conceptualises the term in a different manner, making the notion of ‘text’ a highly context-sensitive and fuzzy concept for which no universally accepted definition exists (Brinker et al. 2018: 13). In the present paper, we will outline the textuality of hashtags by drawing on definitions provided by text linguistics. On a general level, Martens, for instance, classically defines a text as a ‘coherent and self-contained linguistic pattern’ (Martens 1982: 3; trans. D.B.), which usually appears in a written or spoken form. In a similar manner, Göpferich describes text as a ‘thematically and/ or functionally oriented linguistic construct’ (1995: 56-57; trans. D.B.). She adds that this construct is usually shaped by and situated in a communicative setting, which involves the exchange of information between senders and addressees: texts are ‘created with a specific communicative purpose’ and they ‘fulfil a recognisable communicative function’ in social interaction (Martens 1982: 3). This idea is also indicated by Brinker et al. (2018), who define text as follows: “The term ‘text’ refers to a limited sequence of linguistic signs […] which is coherent and which, as a whole, signals a recognisable communicative function” (2018: 17; trans. D.B.). On the most basic level, a text is seen as both a product of communication which displays specific structural properties (i.e., a coherent sequence of signs) as well as an integral part of the process of communication, as it is functionally embedded in social meaning-making practices. In the light of this minimal definition, hashtags can be seen as texts, too. They also fulfil the basic criteria of textuality by displaying a limited and coherent sequence of linguistic signs (i.e., the signs following the #-symbol) and, as already indicated in the introduction, by carrying out essential communicative functions in today’s digital world. Yet, compared to more conventional texts, hashtags primarily differ in the size and form of the linguistic pattern they usually exhibit: while most texts studied in text linguistics consist of at least several coherent sentences, as the ‘most important structural unit of a text’ (Brinker et al. 2018: 14; trans. D.B.), hashtags mostly consist of single sentences or phrases. Predominantly, they are made of single-word constructions (e.g., #beauty; #selfie), short (imperative) phrases (e.g., #takethemic) or elliptic state‐ ments (e.g., #notmypresident) and, thus, become an example of minimal text composition. Opening Up Digital Spaces 59 <?page no="60"?> As such, hashtags can be more precisely defined as what Hausendorf labels ‘small texts’ (kleine Texte; 2009). Small texts are ‘inconspicuous linguistic forms’ (Hausendorf 2009: 7; trans. D.B.) that are ubiquitous in everyday life - for example, public signs, aphorisms on calendar pages or slogans on (shopping) bags - but are often overlooked as texts in their own right. Due to their very limited nature, they are relegated to the margins of textuality, where they “challenge our everyday expectations of what a text is and can be” (Hausendorf 2009: 5; trans. D.B.). These texts are characterised through a particular set of textual features, which can also be used to describe hashtags as texts in more detail: Features of Small Text Implications for Hashtags Limited size Limited to words, phrases and/ or short sentences Limited complexity Single word or phrase constructions/ slogans and catchphrases Formulaic structure # + signifier Easily distinguished from surrounding context #-symbol and hyperlink status mark hashtags as co‐ herent entities Function Communicative contouring (see below) Tab. 1 Hashtags as Small Texts (adapted from Hausendorf 2009: 6) First, small texts are defined by their limited size. They are usually highly restricted in length/ word count, as well as the (physical) space they occupy. This can, for example, be observed in the form of short descriptions on the limited space of a warning sign (e.g., exam in progress, please do not disturb). The same can be said about hashtags: much like other small texts in public life (e.g., no mask, no entry), they often consist of a limited amount of words (e.g., #metoo; #followme). Furthermore, they shorten words to the point of, at times, only using abbreviations (e.g., #ootd; #rofl) and even omit spacing between individual lexical items (e.g., #stayathome; #picoftheday), which makes hashtags highly condensed textual spaces in a digital environment. Second, small texts are also ‘small’ in relation to their linguistic complexity: as Hausendorf points out, texts such as slogans on bags (e.g., I’m not using plastic bags) are often “simple in regard to the syntactical means being used” (Hausen‐ dorf 2009: 7-8; trans. D.B.). Again, this description applies to hashtags, which, in most cases, feature single-word structures (e.g., #fashion; #beautiful), simple descriptive phrases (e.g., #thisisnotjournalism; #iamplasticfree) or imperatives 60 Ralf Gießler & Daniel Becker <?page no="61"?> (e.g., #letthemusiclive). Additionally, much like slogans, they predominantly make use of easy-to-understand everyday vocabulary (e.g., #iamwithher; #ge‐ toutanddrive). Third, since small texts are so short, compact, and simple, they tend to offer a particularly formulaic and, thus, predictable textual design. As can be seen in the example of calendar aphorisms, specific small texts often share a reoccurring layout and structure - for example, aphorisms are usually embedded in an image, are limited to a few lines and most often state the name of the author right after the quote - which means that they can be recognised by their appearance alone. In this context, Hausendorf adds as a fourth feature: just by looking at them and their compact textual shape, one can easily distinguish small texts from the surrounding in which they occur. Both features can be used to describe hashtags, which also display a highly predictable design (there is always a #-symbol followed by a signifier of limited length). Next to being immediately recognisable by their #-symbol, they frequently exist as hyperlinks which, on a mere visual level, makes them easily distinguishable from their digital surroundings (e.g., on social media). Finally, like ‘bigger’ texts, small texts fulfil specific communicative functions in social interaction. According to Hausendorf, these functions are mostly practical in nature: small texts provide information (e.g., labels in clothing items) or guide (communicative) behaviour (e.g., a set of rules printed on a sign in a park; Hausendorf 2009: 6). Hashtags fulfil these functions, too, since they guide and shape communication in digital contexts in the sense that they provide a form of communicative contouring in digital interactions. In contrast to longer texts, hashtags do not unfold and describe a topic in detail (e.g., in the form of a plot in a novel). Rather, based on a low number of signifiers, they set up a communicative frame which minimally contours and delineates the topic to be discussed. Hashtags establish a communicative frame in two ways: first, they simply label a topic by stating what is to be discussed in posts and tweets (e.g., posts about the topic of #photography or #blacklivesmatter). Second, they set the scene for how a topic is to be discussed. This scene is established through processes of narrative and/ or affective contouring. Thus, by frequently using the imperative, hashtags can construct minimal storylines that narratively frame individual posts. By using the imperative ‘free’, #freebritney, for instance, sketches a minimal narrative arc of moving from a current state of oppression to a future state of liberation. Every post sharing the hashtag is thus positioned in the continuation of the overall ‘story’ of emancipating former pop star Britney Opening Up Digital Spaces 61 <?page no="62"?> Spears from the (alleged) tyranny of her father. Furthermore, hashtags provide an outline by colouring the topic at hand in certain emotional tones, thus guiding the reader to perceive a topic from a specific affective stance (Boyd 2010). This can be seen in the context of #notmypresident, where the wording of the hashtag (i.e., not in initial position) already guides users to focus on the negative characteristics of a certain president, while ignoring potentially positive aspects. With this function of communicative contouring in mind, hashtags offer a basic communicative frame, yet this frame requires the individual reader, and his/ her interaction with the hashtag, to be expanded and completed. Therefore, hashtags can ultimately be defined as inherently unfinished (small) texts. As such, hashtags structurally stimulate reader participation as an inherent feature of their unique textuality. That is what makes them highly dynamic on a semantic level: since hashtags stir different associations in different individuals, their overall meaning becomes fluid and is open to a constant process of “definition, re-definition and re-appropriation” (La Rocca 2020: 2). In the end, therefore, hashtags are polyphonic: as highly interactive texts, they do not represent the voice of a single author but create textual spaces of “polysemic orientation” (La Rocca 2020: 2), which invite the communicative participation of the many rather than the few. As small and interactive texts with specific textual features and functions, hashtags deserve attention in the EFL classroom as they offer various potentials and learning opportunities for learners. These potentials can best be described when considering hashtags from the perspective of affordances. 3. The Concept of Affordances According to the American psychologist John Gibson, affordances can be defined as “properties of the environment that activate or offer potential action by an agent” (La Rocca 2020: 5). The basic assumption is that “environmental features are experienced as having a functional meaning” (Pedersen/ Bang 2016: 734, cited in Kordt 2018: 148). Buttons for pushing, knobs for turning, handles for pulling or levers for sliding: Every object in an environment provides clues on how an individual can possibly act in this environment. Whether visual stimuli become clues that trigger human action depends on the goals and needs of the individual. After several hours of walking, a hiker may feel the need to rest and will therefore accept the ‘invitation’ of a fallen tree to take a seat on it: “Needs control the perception of affordances (selective attention) and also initiate acts” (Gibson 1982: 411). 62 Ralf Gießler & Daniel Becker <?page no="63"?> Our argument is that the concept of affordances can serve as a heuristic tool for describing the pedagogical potential of hashtags for language education. The symbol # is a visible cue that can be conceptualized as an affordance that invites communicative and discursive action. This is highly relevant for understanding hashtags: once the symbol # is perceived in a social media post, the user or reader can decide to respond to it. X (formerly Twitter), for example, features affordances with regard to hashtags in the following three ways: (1) The platform allows users to create hashtags (2) which invite different types of action such as retweeting or writing one’s own posts (La Rocca 2020: 5). Also (3), it allows ‘the possibility of hashtags to change their original meaning thanks to retweets and quotings’ (La Rocca 2020: 5). The meaning of hashtags in a broader sense can change throughout the course of interaction in social media: the original, intended meaning of a hashtag such as #notmypresident can widen and lead to other intentional, metaphoric or figurative usages of the original hashtag, ‘independently from who is the initial creator of the hashtag itself ’ (La Rocca 2020: 5). 4. The Affordances of Hashtags in the EFL Classroom As pointed out in the previous section, affordances are opportunities for action which individuals perceive in interaction with objects in their respective environment. Based on this understanding, the following section explores the specific opportunities for action that learners might find in hashtags, when engaging with them in the environment of the EFL classroom. More precisely, by assuming that individuals predominantly perceive those affordances that will help them achieve specific goals in a specific situation (see above), the next section focuses on the specific opportunities for learning that hashtags offer to EFL learners, which can support them in their overarching endeavour of be‐ coming proficient in communicating and participating in the English language and its various contexts. It will be argued that hashtags can provide linguistic, communicative and discursive affordances, depending on the perspective from which they are perceived in the EFL classroom. 4.1 Narrow Perspective: Linguistic and Communicative Affordances Seeing hashtags from a narrow perspective means to only focus on the hashtag itself as a learning material in the EFL classroom. Thus, EFL learners merely engage with the minimal textual unit of the #-symbol and its ensuing signifiers Opening Up Digital Spaces 63 <?page no="64"?> in the form of single words or short phrases. In this interaction, hashtags afford various opportunities for learners to develop their foreign language competences on a linguistic and communicative level. Linguistic Affordances First, hashtags provide EFL learners with the opportunity to explore the English language and its linguistic patterns. More precisely, as highly condensed small texts, hashtags display specific lexical and grammatical structures for learners to engage with. Since hashtags, for instance, usually fulfil the general function of labelling and contouring topics for online communication (see Section 2), they often consist of hypernyms that represent specific lexical and semantic fields. These hypernyms range from concrete (e.g., #photography; #music) to abstract (e.g., #selflove), which makes single-word hashtags an ideal textual foundation for EFL learners to examine a broad array of hyponymous relationships in the English language. For that purpose, learners might for example be asked to create a list of all the words they associate with a specific hashtag and/ or they would expect in posts following this hashtag. In that way, learners become aware of individual words in their lexical and semantic context, which can facilitate the acquisition of new lexical items, since ‘lexical items which are semantically related seem to be stored together’ in the mental lexicon (Hutz 2012: 106). Furthermore, hashtags also afford opportunities to learn collocations. As small texts with a limited size, hashtags often feature short phrases with a high density of collocates. These become most apparent in the classroom when juxtaposing lexically similar multi-word hashtags with each other: by simultaneously engaging with hashtags such as #stayathome, #stayawake, #staypositive or #stayhealthy, for example, learners can get to know the lexical ‘neighbourhood’ (Thornbury 2002: 7) of stay. In this context, hashtags provide the frame for a miniature corpus analysis, as they offer a limited textual space in which learners can analyse how specific words are combined accurately in phrases, chunks, and sentences. On a grammatical level, hashtags afford opportunities to deal with phe‐ nomena such as the imperative or elliptic constructions. Hence, hashtags as small texts often fulfil an appellative function in digital interaction (Brinker et al. 2018: 109), as they encourage individual users to actively participate in com‐ munication. Frequently, this communicative appeal of hashtags is linguistically reflected in the use of the imperative form (e.g., #letthemusiclive; #getoutside; #beyourownboss). As such, hashtags become a worthwhile foundation for EFL learners to expand their grammatical repertoire: according to Goh and Burns (2012: 59), the ability to accurately perform speech acts such as requests, 64 Ralf Gießler & Daniel Becker <?page no="65"?> instructions or commands belongs to the ‘core speaking skills’ of any proficient language user, which makes the imperative an important linguistic phenomenon for learners to be aware of and understand. By often being limited to only short imperative phrases, hashtags allow learners to achieve this task, since they offer the opportunity to examine the imperative in isolation and, thus, to focus on its formal composition out of ‘the base form without a noun or pronoun’ (Scrivener 2010: 112). Hashtags may thus serve as an authentic starting point for gaining a basic understanding of the imperative, before then considering this phenomenon in communicative contexts by, for example, having learners create their own imperative hashtags for either their own social media posts or posts provided by the teacher. Furthermore, as pointed out above, hashtags as small texts tend towards linguistic abbreviation, which includes the frequent use of ellipses (e.g., #notmy‐ president; #notjustsad). Elliptic expressions are a common occurrence in digital communication (Kersten/ Lotze 2016) so that learners who want to participate in contemporary discourse need to be able to comprehend this abbreviated form of language use. Once more, hashtags afford an ideal opportunity for EFL learners to engage with this exact phenomenon: given their status as unfinished and incomplete texts, hashtags often also feature unfinished and incomplete language that can be completed by individual learners (e.g., #notjustsad might become ‘I am not just sad’, or even ‘I am not just sad but …’). In that way, this gives learners the opportunity to become aware of how short phrases are related to larger syntactic structures, thus making hashtags potential texts for further considering the function of ellipses in broader linguistic contexts. Communicative Affordances Lexical and grammatical competences, however, are not sufficient on their own. Rather, in contemporary English language education ‘[l]anguage use […] comprises the actions performed by persons who as individuals and as social agents develop a range of competences, both general and in particular communicative language competences’ (Council of Europe 2018: 32). Next to knowing how the English language works, most importantly learners are meant to be ‘empower[ed]’ (Council of Europe 2018: 28) to appropriately use the target language in different communicative settings in an increasingly globalised world. In order for learners to develop these communicative competences successfully, the EFL classroom needs to offer incentives for communication in English that ‘learners consider meaningful, relevant and interesting in their own everyday lives’ (Diehr/ Frisch 2008: 45; trans. D.B.). In other words: com‐ municative competences can be developed best when there are opportunities for Opening Up Digital Spaces 65 <?page no="66"?> communication that make learners want to express themselves in the foreign language. Hashtags can provide such motivating opportunities. They are omnipresent in social media and contemporary youth cultures (Sykes 2019) and thus present an instance of communication most relevant for many learners’ everyday existence. Furthermore, as small texts that structurally anticipate an individual’s communicative participation, hashtags become an ideal textual foundation for engaging learners in meaningful interaction. They invite learners to share their own experiences on a specific topic. In that way, learners can become social agents who participate in broader communicative settings in which other users can likewise contribute their opinions under the same hashtag. This communicative affordance is additionally underlined by the wide range of topics that hashtags communicatively contour. When learners engage with popular hashtags such as #myfamily, #whatigotforchristmas or #globalgoals, they have the chance to communicate about both personal (family) as well as social (challenges of a global age) concerns and, depending on their age and level of proficiency, they can find appropriate and meaningful incentives for developing their communicative competences. More specifically, they might work with hashtags by both writing and speaking about them, when, for example, they write their own post based on a specific hashtag or when learners are asked to orally exchange ideas with a partner based on a hashtag’s communicative frame. 4.2 Broad Perspective: Discursive Affordances In addition to these linguistic and communicative affordances, hashtags also provide discursive affordances. In combination with their respective tweets and posts, hashtags can be understood as a discursive move and as a critical component of expert social media practices (Sykes 2019: 129). Hashtags extend the social context of the information being shared and place it within a larger social landscape. #whatigotforchristmas may turn a casual conversation about Christmas presents into an extended discourse about sustainability, the joy of giving and the consumer lifestyle. Such digitally mediated discourse in social media like X is dynamic, co-constructed and may give rise to societal debates with relevant or even high stakes and impactful topics. There are good reasons why EFL learners should study the patterns of digital discourse: they can engage with communities and their discourses beyond the classroom, for example, in academic domains or the public sector. Due to the ubiquity of hashtags and their nature to invite participation in digital discourses, 66 Ralf Gießler & Daniel Becker <?page no="67"?> hashtags and the tweets and posts accompanying them must be considered as a relevant text type in the EFL classroom. Learners can examine cultural, economic and interpersonal phenomena by studying and responding to the communicative affordances of hashtags. The scope of topics that can enter language education is broad since hashtags are used for a number of functions: (1) Marketing and public relation function (2) Interpersonal interaction (3) Organizing text around a topic or phenomenon Each function affords an opportunity for multilingual, multicultural engage‐ ment (Sykes 2019: 130), for instance, when studying the use of hashtags for marketing or public relations purposes. The ‘rich dynamicity of hashtags’ (Sykes 2019: 130) becomes apparent, for example, when different groups of people create different hashtags for the same event and thus organize the discourse around a topic or phenomenon by using hashtags. Hashtags that are used in interpersonal interaction to refer to political and cultural events can become a learning opportunity for learners as they trace the # throughout its use, exploring the ways it is used and the implications for its insertion in certain types of posts. Used in that way, hashtags can facilitate close reading and deep analysis of cultural patterns, ideologies, and identities (Sykes 2019: 134). By examining hashtags in a broader sense, they can explore subtle, yet critical cultural and political practices in a globalized society. These didactic considerations that we derive from the functions of hashtags, correspond well to current key objectives in language education. Hallet (2009) points out that the foremost goal of foreign language education is to develop learners’ discourse competences. According to Matz (2020: 57), discourse compe‐ tences entail social participation and empowerment of the individual. As such, it is about understanding how meaning is and can be represented (Kalantzis/ Cope 2012: 4). The underlying assumption is that any knowledge has a linguistic-dis‐ cursive orientation. For example, knowledge about culturally specific customs for giving tips manifests in specific speech acts and communicative actions in the given situation. Discourse competence can be subdivided into five different abilities (Hallet 2009: 85; cited in Matz 2020: 57): (1) the ability to recognize and use the linguistic and generic patterns offered; (2) the ability to strengthen and diversify foreign-language concepts; (3) the ability to recognize and critically use the models of foreign language communication; Opening Up Digital Spaces 67 <?page no="68"?> (4) the ability to identify individual discourse components and collective discourse objects in the communication at hand; (5) the ability to recognize the represented and modelled discourses (and their object), relate them to life-world discourses and participate in these discourses with their own perspectives and views. Hashtags as small texts have a particular potential to foster the ability to identify discourse components and discourse markers and how they relate to life-world discourses. When learners engage with hashtags in the narrow and the broader sense, when they open up to the linguistic, communicative and discursive affordances of hashtags, they are likely to enter a meta-reflection upon language use and the way meanings of words and phrases change in particular discourses over time. Such reflection is beneficial for developing discourse competence as defined by Hallet (2009) and is in agreement with key objectives in current language education. 5. Towards a Didactic Progression for the Implementation of Hashtags in the EFL Classroom Given their versatile affordances, the question arises how hashtags can be prac‐ tically integrated in the EFL classroom. While there are potentially numerous ways to embed hashtags in concrete language learning scenarios with specific topics, the following section merely focuses on one approach of implementation: the continuous use of hashtags throughout different school years and grade levels based on a didactic progression of complexity. To begin with, the approach rests on the assumption that the three affor‐ dances mentioned above (linguistic, communicative, discursive) differ from each other in terms of the cognitive and language-related demands they place on EFL learners. While having learners engage with the linguistic affordances of hashtags ‘merely’ involves the recognition and noticing of rather limited grammatical and lexical patterns, the realm of communicative affordances shifts the learning focus from reception to active production of learners’ oral and/ or written output. Finally, working with the discursive affordances of hashtags requires learners to combine receptive and productive as well as linguistic and communicative abilities and asks them to go beyond the previous affordances by becoming co-constructors of and participants in complex discursive and cultural environments. Moving from the linguistic to the communicative and discursive affordances of hashtags, therefore, is a matter of shifting from exploring language in isolation, as a system of linguistic conventions, to using 68 Ralf Gießler & Daniel Becker <?page no="69"?> language as an instrument of meaning-making in multi-layered cultural and digital contexts in the public, personal, educational or professional sector. As such, the three affordances of hashtags are connected by increasing complexity. In our approach, this progression of complexity between the different affor‐ dances serves as a foundation for the didactic implementation of hashtags. More precisely, the approach aims at aligning the progression of increasing com‐ plexity found in hashtags’ affordances with learners’ progression of increasing language proficiency from one school year to the next. We would like to suggest that hashtags become a text type that can be used in everyday teaching since its individual affordances can be adjusted to various proficiency levels. Based on curricular guidelines and competence expectations, hashtags can best be implemented by connecting their individual affordances to specific grade levels, for which they offer an appropriate level of challenge to learners. The following figure (Fig. 1) shows one such alignment between affordances and grade levels, here in the context of secondary schools (Sekundarstufe I; grades 5-10): Fig. 1 Affordances of Hashtags on specific grade levels In grades 5 and 6, EFL learners are preoccupied with developing core lexical and grammatical competences and the production of simple sentences. In this context, hashtags can most productively be integrated through a focus on their linguistic affordances, for example, an analysis of collocations in hahstags (e.g., #staysafe; #stayathome), word fields (e.g., #photography), or simple syntactical structures (e.g., #letmusiclive) is most congruent with and supportive to lear‐ ners’ foundational engagement with English lexis and grammar. Learners could make predictions about situations and purposes for which social media users might use hashtags like #staysafe. In grades 7 and 8, this foundational work is Opening Up Digital Spaces 69 <?page no="70"?> enhanced towards more independent as well as linguistically and thematically more extensive language production. For example, learners can discuss on which occasions and for which purposes they usually take photos. They can also reflect why they might feel uncomfortable when pictures are taken. Another communicative impulse could be the question of managing and sorting all those photos taken with the help of a smartphone. As hashtags enter the EFL classroom through topics of everyday (digital) life, they can fully realize their communicative affordances. Hashtags, as pointed out above, can become prompts for communication, as they invite learners to voice their opinion on everyday matters (e.g., #mourningroutine). They also provide a textual platform for individualised language production with particular kinds of communicative contouring (see above) that stimulate learners’ cognitive processes. Finally, in grades 9 and 10, learners prominently deal with topics of societal and global relevance (e.g., pollution, international job markets, consumerism), which reach beyond the realm of their immediate personal environment. The discursive affordances of hashtags can help learners in this setting to become more critical cultural participants. By exploring individual hashtags (e.g., activist hashtags like #metoo), and social media posts using these hashtags, learners can become aware of how contemporary social and global topics are represented and constructed, and notice that they can actively participate through language use in shaping discourses surrounding these topics. In sum, hashtags offer an abundance of learning opportunities for different stages of language education, thus establishing a text type that can enrich the EFL classroom on a regular basis. Example: A Progression of Environmental Hashtags This abundance of learning opportunities becomes even more apparent when looking at an example of how the alignment between hashtag affordances and grade levels can be achieved in practice. The example at hand is about the use of environmental hashtags. Environmental hashtags (i.e., hashtags that address contemporary ecological concerns) frequently occur on today’s social media platforms, which makes them a highly authentic and motivating exemplar to explore in the classroom. Furthermore, education for sustainable development is one of the overarching topics to be addressed at all grade levels of English language teaching (MSB NRW 2022: 9). In the context of the topic of environmentalism (MSB NRW 2022: 36), environmental hashtags become relevant as they are capable of transporting the topic across different school years by allowing different affordances of environmental hashtags to take a prominent position in different grade levels: 70 Ralf Gießler & Daniel Becker <?page no="71"?> Linguistic Affordances Communicative Affordances Discursive Affordances Complexity Grade Level 5/ 6 7/ 8 9/ 10 #savethebees #savetheplanet #savenature #pollution #wildlife #climate #iamplasticfree #naturelovers #climateaction #zerowaste #fridaysforfuture Fig. 2 Affordances of Environmental Hashtags Focusing on linguistic affordances in grades 5 and 6, for instance, environmental hashtags such as #savethebees, #savetheplanet and #savenature could be used to examine collocations and thus raise an initial awareness of linguistic patterns used in communication about the environment. In the same vein, many environ‐ mental hashtags merely consist of individual words (e.g., #pollution, #wildlife, #climate) and could be used for vocabulary acquisition. Since hashtags fulfil an indexing function, the single words they display are often high-frequency lexemes in environmental semantics. As such, they offer an ideal starting point for establishing and enriching the word field of environmentalism, which can be utilized on subsequent grade levels and other affordances. In grades 7 and 8, the focus might shift to communicative affordances of en‐ vironmental hashtags to engage learners in expressing their own thoughts and experiences concerning environmental issues in their everyday surrounding. For that purpose, and, based on their knowledge of environment-related vocabulary, learners could work with hashtags such as #iamplasticfree or #naturelovers. Both hashtags are currently popular on social media platforms and are usually attached to posts displaying (in written language and/ or visuals) how individuals reduce plastic or care for nature in their everyday lives. Inspired by already existing posts, learners could ‘join the conversation’ by writing their own short social media contributions about personal measures taken to care for the environment. In that way, these environmental hashtags do not only encourage learners’ meaningful communication in English but also lead towards a first reflection on learners’ own position and responsibility in a global environmental crisis. Opening Up Digital Spaces 71 <?page no="72"?> Finally, in grades 9 and 10, environmental hashtags can afford opportuni‐ ties to analyse, understand, and participate in contemporary environmental discourses. Hashtags such as #climateaction or #fridaysforfutures are directly linked to current movements of environmental activism, and thus become a text-based approach to exploring the discursive structures underlying the negotiation of environmental issues in public space. In the EFL classroom, these hashtags could be used in two ways: first, they can be used to recognize and understand contemporary discourses, by, for example, having learners work with hashtagify.com to trace how often and in which contexts the two hashtags have been used so far. As learners trace the development of activist discourses, they will become aware of distinct discursive patterns in action. Second, #clima‐ teaction and #fridaysforfuture can also be used as incentives for learners’ own environmental action. Since hashtags instantly connect individuals to larger collective movements, learners can directly participate in public discussions about environmental agendas. Via the two hashtags, they can take a balanced approach towards other peoples’ endeavors to contribute to the protection of the environment and thus inscribe their own (critical) voices in larger discourses. 6. Conclusion In the context of English language education, hashtags have not been researched so far. Yet, they are a prominent digital text that can be used for learning purposes. More precisely, hashtags offer a range of affordances and, thus, can be viewed as a valuable addition to the current canon of digital texts. The example presented in this paper also illustrates that the reception and production of hashtags cannot be captured “in traditional competence scales focusing on the individual’s behaviour in speech or writing” (Council of Europe 2018: 96). They do not only allow learners to gain insights into lexical and grammatical patterns of the English language, but also provide opportunities for meaningful communication and the development of communicative competences in the classroom. In addition, they can raise learners’ awareness of digital discourse patterns and the representation of cultural and societal trends in social media. The contribution of hashtags to higher-level discourse skills is reflected in the level descriptions of B1. At this level, learners should be able to ‘engage in real-time online exchanges with more than one participant, recognising the communicative intentions of each contributor’ (Council of Europe 2018: 97). At B2+ learners can link their contributions to previous posts in the thread and can thus understand cultural implications (ibid.). 72 Ralf Gießler & Daniel Becker <?page no="73"?> Once learners ‘join the debate’, hashtags serve as a stimulus for developing EFL learners’ discourse abilities, as they become an invitation for participation in discourse communities. As such, in both a narrow and a broader sense, hashtags are dynamic small texts that ‘can be tapped for deep, reflective engagement at all levels of language learning’ (Sykes 2019: 130). And yet, the present chapter is only a first glimpse into the potential hashtags might unfold as digital texts in the EFL classroom. Aspects such as the selection and use of hashtags need further exploration. While this chapter provides insights into some theoretical foundations, it only briefly touches upon the more practical issues of task design and the different types of approaches and activities that might foster the development of discourse competence (Hallet 2009). The paper’s theoretical insights may become a foundation for further empirical research on the design process of materials with hashtags. Furthermore, future studies may also examine how learning materials based on hashtags are used by learners in the classroom. In sum, the following questions may give direction to future research about hashtags: • Identifying hashtags and their discursive affordances: How can learners identify topic related hashtags and corresponding tweets in social media platforms on their own? Which kind of instruction and guidance do learners need? What does a more structured approach for intermediate learners look like that will enable them to exploit hashtags in all their richness? • Materials design: Which principles of materials design guide the production of materials that contain hashtags as small texts? How can experienced teachers and material writers be trained to produce these kinds of materials? • Reading skills for hashtags: How does reading hashtags in online commu‐ nication differ from reading ordinary texts? What strategies do learners need to fully explore the cultural implications and re-interpretations of hashtags? References Bal, Mieke (2002). Travelling concepts in the humanities: A rough guide. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Brinker, Klaus/ Cölfen, Hermann/ Pappert, Steffen (2018). Linguistische Textanalyse: Eine Einführung in Grundbegriffe und Methoden. 9 th ed. Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag. Council of Europe (2018). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume with new descriptors. Council of Europe. Opening Up Digital Spaces 73 <?page no="74"?> Diehr, Bärbel/ Frisch, Stefanie (2008). Mark Their Words: Sprechleistungen im Englischuntericht der Grundschule fördern und beurteilen. Braunschweig: Wester‐ mann. Goh, Christine/ Burns, Anne (2012). Teaching speaking: A holistic approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Göpferich, Susanne (1995). Textsorten in Naturwissenschaften und Technik. Pragmatische Typologie - Kontrastierung - Translation. Tübingen: Narr. Hallet, Wolfgang (2009). Romanlektüren und Kompetenzentwicklung: Vom narrativen Diskurs zur Diskursfähigkeit. In: Hallet, Wolfgang/ Nünning, Ansgar, eds. Romandidaktik. Theoretische Grundlagen, Methoden, Lektüreanregungen. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier, 73-88. Hausendorf, Heiko (2009). Kleine Texte: Über Randerscheinungen von Textualität. Germanistik in der Schweiz: Online-Zeitschrift der SAGG 6, 5-19. Hutz, Matthias (2012). Storing words in the mind: The mental lexicon and vocabulary learning. In: Eisenmann, Maria/ Summer, Theresa, eds. Basic issues in EFL teaching and learning. Heidelberg: Winter, 105-117. Jones, Roger D. (2018). Developing video game literacy in the EFL classroom: A qualitative analysis of 10th grade classroom game discourse. Tübingen: Narr. Kirchhoff, Petra (2019). Your story in 280 characters max. Twitter Fiction für das kreative Schreiben nutzen. Der fremdsprachliche Unterricht Englisch 53/ 160, 40-45. Kordt, Birgit (2018). Herausforderungen und Chancen eines affordanztheoretischen Ansatzes in der Fremdsprachenforschung mit Beispielen aus einer Studie zur Umsetzung von EuroComGerm in der Schule. Zeitschrift für Fremdsprachenforschung 29/ 2, 147-168. La Rocca, Gevisa (2020). Possible selves of a hashtag: Moving from the theory of speech acts to cultural objects to interpret hashtags. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 12/ 1, 1-9. DOI: 10.5897/ IJSA2019.0833 Martens, Gunter (1982). Was ist ein Text? Ansätze zur Bestimmung eines Leitbegriffs der Textphilologie. Poetica---Zeitschrift für Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft 21, 1-25. Matz, Frauke (2020). Taking a stance: The role of critical literacies in learning with literature in a world at risk. In: Gerlach, David, ed. Kritische Fremdsprachendidaktik. Tübingen: Narr, 53-67. Ministerium für Schule und Bildung Nordrhein-Westfalen (MSB NRW) (2022). Kernlehrplan für die Sekundarstufe I Realschule in Nordrhein-Westfalen. https: / / w ww.schulentwicklung.nrw.de/ lehrplaene/ lehrplan/ 323/ rs_e_klp_2022_06_13.pdf (last accessed: 20.09.2024) Oakhill, Jane/ Cain, Kate/ Elbro, Carsten (2015). Understanding and teaching reading comprehension. London: Routledge. 74 Ralf Gießler & Daniel Becker <?page no="75"?> Scrivener, Jim (2010). Teaching English grammar: What to teach and how to teach it. London: MacMillan. Sykes, Julie M. (2019). Emergent digital discourses: What can we learn from hashtags and digital games to expand learners’ second language repertoire? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 39, 128-145. DOI: 10.1017/ S0267190519000138 Thornbury, Scott (2002). How to teach vocabulary. Harlow: Pearson. Watkins, Jon/ Wilkins, Michael. (2011). Using YouTube in the EFL classroom. Language Education in Asia 2/ 1, 113-119. Opening Up Digital Spaces 75 <?page no="77"?> Music Videos Revisited Engelbert Thaler 1. Introduction After the launch of MTV in 1981 had generated a lot of attention in popular culture and academic discourse, music videos (MV) experienced a decline in both domains. Recently research, however, is growing, triggered in parts by the advent of new genres such as literal music videos, participatory clips, usergenerated content, remixes, alternate length types or hi/ low-definition forms. This paper will present these new genres and discuss the question whether definition, rationale, and methodology of music videos in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) must be adjusted. In particular, the competences of the German educational standards (2003, 2012, 2023) will serve as a guideline for exploring their teaching potential. 2. Genres Without music life would be a mistake. Friedrich Nietzsche After the U.S. video channel MTV had been launched in 1981, airing its first clip with the suggestive title “Video Killed the Radio Star” by The Buggles, an era of 24-hour-a-day music on television began. It was accompanied by a first wave of academic work on the forms, functions, and usage of music videos (e.g., Frith et al. 1993; Goodwin 1992), and the first monograph on the potential of visualised music for teaching foreign languages appeared towards the end of the century (Thaler 1999). As to the genres of filmed music, the classical typology comprises three forms: performance clips, narrative clips, and concept clips (Ib.). A performance video, the oldest and most used type, usually presents the band performing their song, playing their instruments, dancing, and lip-syncing. A fine example is Where the <?page no="78"?> Streets Have No Name by U2, which won a Grammy Award for Best Performance Music Video in 1989. The band are seen on the roof of a liquor store in Los Angeles, performing to a large crowd of people standing in the streets around the building. A narrative music video is a short film based on the song, which tells a story, and is structured around a beginning, middle, and end. It may make use of illustration, i.e., the scenes more or less explicitly represent the meaning of the lyrics; or amplification, i.e., the lyrics are still related to the video, but there are supplementary scenes not necessarily mentioned in the verses; or disjuncture, i.e., the storyline becomes detached from the meaning of the song. A current and very popular example of an amplified narrative video is Taylor Swift’s 14-minute audiovisual short story All too Well (cf. 1.4), which won the top prize for best video of the year at MTV’s Video Music Awards in 2022. The third classical type, the concept music video, dispenses with a narrative, shows no direct relation to the lyrics, but rather reflects the artist’s creative vi‐ sion. Miley Cyrus’ Flowers, the most aired song of 2023, for example, constitutes a semi-narrative concept video. Apart from the three classical types, lyric music videos turned up later on, displaying the lyrics on the screen as the song goes along. Finally, animated music videos came into vogue, based on techniques like simple 2D animation, stop motion, or even CGI (computer-generated imagery). Over the last years, however, advances in digital video have led to the emergence of new genres, which may be classified into the following five categories: participatory / interactive music videos, user-generated content, re‐ makes / remixes, alternate lengths, and hi / low definition (Korsgaard 2013). The following overview presents these five genres and their subgenres, providing one example for each subgenre (taken from Korsgaard 2013, too) to illustrate (and explain) it and whetting your musical (and didactic) appetite. 2.1 Participatory/ Interactive Videos Participatory music videos allow the viewers to manipulate the visuals or both images and sound (Tab. 1), i.e. they are either only visually interactive or even audiovisually interactive, Users can sometimes navigate through virtual 3D spaces, direct the camera 360 degrees within the visual setting, or switch among camera positions. Interactive videos empower the users by making them edit the images, mix the sound, and upload their own content. Although some of the videos abound in self-complacent gimmicks, others actively engage the user and 78 Engelbert Thaler <?page no="79"?> request some response, which corresponds to the trend towards communicative interaction and learner empowerment also postulated for TEFL classrooms. Subgenre Example/ explanation Interactive MV Arcade Fire: Black Mirror MV app Polyphonic Spree: Bullseye MV game Team Me: Get Home Clickthrough.com videos MV with hyperlinks allowing viewers to purchase items depicted on screen, e.g. musicians’ instruments or their clothes Source manipulated MV Yooouuutuuube.com: playing back videos in multiple windows at once, while moving, stretching, dragging the images Tab. 1: Participatory/ interactive music videos (and music video websites) 2.2 User-Generated Content In the age of Web 2.0 or 3.0 (culture of digitality), creating and publishing one’s own content, of course, is a must (cf. Stalder 2018 and introduction to this volume). The digital natives are no longer passive recipients of prefabricated programmes, but self-confident “prosumers” (producers & consumers) of digital artefacts (Tab. 2). Type Example/ explanation Fanvid Amateur videos mixing a song with film / TV footage, Arcade Fire: My Body Is a Cage (Sergio Leone’s Once upon a Time in the West) Video mods Computer game characters performing a popular song, Franz Ferdinand: Take Me out (Star Wars game) MV contest Contests proposed by bands for fans to make MV for a song, Radiohead: In Rainbows Concert footage Bloc Party: Ares (Villains Remix) Tab. 2: Music video with user-generated content Music Videos Revisited 79 <?page no="80"?> 2.3 Remakes/ Remixes In our post-modern society, where everything is dynamic, diverse, heteroge‐ neous, hybrid, and fluid, mash-ups have become en vogue in several cultural domains. Whether it is the mixture of Capital L literature with small l lit (McRae 1991), for example Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (Grahame-Smith 2009, also as film adaptation: 2016) and Jane Slayre (Browning Erwin 2010), or sampling, remaking, and remixing on streaming platforms like YouTube (Tab. 3), the practice of recombining texts from various media and disparate cultural spheres has ostensibly expanded in the last decades. Type Example/ explanation MV mashups Eclectic Method: Look up Your Videos MV parody Adele: Hello Lipdubs People lip-synching to a song Shreds Replacing the soundtrack by different music genre Autotune the news Sound first principle reversed, e.g., news reports/ docus setting people’s voices to music, Carl Sagan ft. Stephen Hawking: Sym‐ phony of Science MV without music Redubbing MV with diegetic sounds, i.e., natural sound the protagonists can hear Literal MV Parody of a music video with lyrics dubbed over those of the orig‐ inal clip, describing the visuals, original instruments and visuals kept, voice altered, subtitles added, new lyrics: everyday objects, cultural / intertextual references, cinematographic techniques Tab. 3: Remakes/ remixes of music videos 2.4. Alternate Lengths Videos with alternate lengths are either shorter or longer in duration than the song itself. Whereas the teasers for Britney Spears’ Hold It against Me only last 10 seconds, Kanye West needs 35 minutes for his progressive rap song Runaway. These clips dispute the structural role of the music, i.e., the principle that the length of the song determines the length of the video (Tab. 4). 80 Engelbert Thaler <?page no="81"?> Type Example/ explanation MV video album Several videos for a song, Liars: Drum’s not Dead Album MV Entire album in one MV, Dum Dum Girls: Only in Dreams Long-form MV Taylor Swift: All too Well More songs in a video Justin Timberlake: Let Me Talk to You / My Love Blip Short form not featuring an entire song, blips for Radio‐ head: Kid A MV teaser Ultrashort clips, Britney Spears: Hold It against Me Tab. 4: Music videos with alternate lengths 2.5 Hi/ Low Definition Hi-def and lo-def refer to the audio and video quality, with high definition (HD) being synonymous with Hifi (high fidelity), a system that produces crisp sound and clear pictures on a television or computer screen. Lo-def videos, contenting themselves with everyday locations, mobile phones, frequent close-ups, and grainy image quality, can convey a very personal, intimate, and authentic atmosphere. The first two types in Tab. 5 are hi-def, the third and fourth lo-def. Type Example/ explanation 3D MV Deerhunter: Primitive 3D Music visualisation MV with auto-generated imagery created via visualisa‐ tion software (media player software) Viral lo-def videos OK Go: Here It Goes Again Lo-def live performance MV Shot in everyday locations with handheld cameras Tab. 5: Music videos of hi/ low definition Music Videos Revisited 81 <?page no="82"?> 3. (Re-)Definition What’s in a name? A rose, by any other name, would smell as sweet. William Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet The emergence of new genres may have necessitated a re-definition of music videos. As with most technical terms, there are at least as many definitions as experts writing about them. A popular definition of music videos is Kristian‐ sen’s: “Music videos are short video productions that are made as a visual accompaniment to pop and rock music. The videos function as commercials for the musicians and as entertainment to the audience” (Kristiansen 1985: 147). This quote from 1985 raises the question whether the criteria mentioned in the definition are still valid today. Viewing Taylor Swift’s 14-minute short story clip All Too Well or hours-long album videos reduces the aspect of brevity to absurdity. A combination of visuals and music cannot be detected in videos without sound, in which the clip is redubbed with diegetic sounds. Classifying the music as “pop and rock” holds true only if you employ a very broad and imprecise definition of these styles. Moreover, interactive music videos call into doubt the conviction that the production of music videos only serves a commercial purpose (“The message is BUY”, David Tetzlaff). Additionally, the song-video equation, i.e., the length of the song determines the length of the video, cannot be applied to the clips in the “alternate lengths” type. As new genres transgress conventional borders, Korsgaard (2013: 507-509) attempts to reconceptualise music videos by seeking sanctuary with Wittgen‐ stein and Derrida. In Wittgenstein’s notion of “family resemblances” (“cluster definition”), there is no single characteristic that ties together the whole family of certain texts, for example, rather a range of features, which, however, may not appear at the same time (Wittgenstein 1953). In Derrida’s distinction between “belonging” and “participating”, texts do not belong to a genre but rather participate in genres by transgressing traditional borders and creating new varieties (Derrida 1980). In Korsgaard’s concept of “remediation”, music videos represent one medium within another, and resemble other media forms. Whether Wittgenstein’s, Derrida’s or Korsgaard’s abstract concepts may be hailed as epiphany moments or rather denigrated as hyper-academic balderdash, is left to the inclined reader to decide. However, Vernallis’ dictum seems to be too simplistic: “We might thus define music video, simply and perhaps too broadly, as a relation of sound and image that we recognize as such” (Vernallis 2013: 438). 82 Engelbert Thaler <?page no="83"?> 4. Rationale The only justification for our concepts is that they serve to represent the complex of our experiences. Albert Einstein By now, trying to justify the use of music (videos) in TEFL hardly poses any problems (e.g., Falkenhagen/ Volkmann 2019; Werner/ Tegge 2021; Thaler 2018b, 2015a, 2014). Among others, one may resort to the “A-Dekalog” of motivation (Thaler 1999: 134 ff.): (1) Abwechslung (2) Attraktivität (3) Allgegenwärtigkeit (4) Authentizität (5) Aktualität (6) Adressatenorientierung (7) Anwendbarkeit (8) Affektivität (9) Auslegbarkeit (10) Aktivierung (Visual) Music and songs are attractive, omnipresent, authentic, and current cul‐ tural artefacts, which give variety to classroom routine. They relate to teenagers’ real lives, cater for all curricular competences, satisfy affective needs (“teddy bear in the ear”, “ersatz-lover-mother”), are open to various interpretations (cf. Reader Response Theory), and may activate student participation. In view of the new genres, five further A-arguments can be appended: Music videos of new genres can be added (Addition), which may enhance classroom work (Anreicherung), offer alternative methodological paths (Alternativen), make learners experience uncommon adventures (Abenteuer), and strengthen their autonomy (Autonomie). Reviewing the manifold didactic arguments for music videos, Marone (2018: 6) concludes: “Considering the availability, acces‐ sibility, brevity, flexibility, cost, variety, and relevance of music videos, teachers can explore and harness their potential for advancing second language learning and intercultural discourse, from a student-centred perspective, in the classroom and beyond.” Music Videos Revisited 83 <?page no="84"?> 5. Objectives Failure comes only when we forget our ideals and objectives and principles. Jawaharlal Nehru As far as aims and targets in language learning are concerned, one may point to the triad of audio(-visual) literacy: attitudes, knowledge, and skills (listeningviewing, analysing, creating). In the competence-driven era in Germany, in particular, the national educational standards (2003, 2012, 2023) are the ultimate and irrefutable point of reference. Fig. 1: Educational standards for general higher education entrance qualification (KMK 2012: 12) In general, music videos lend themselves to promoting all competences stipulated by the educational standards (Fig. 1). For example, the redubbed literal music video version of Bonnie Tyler’s 80s smash hit Total Eclipse of the Heart (www.youtube.com/ watch? v=fsgWUq0fdKk), leading all rankings 84 Engelbert Thaler <?page no="85"?> of literal music videos, is not only an extremely hilarious and witty video evoking lots of giggling and laughter in the classroom, but also caters for all competence domains: functional communicative competence, intercultural communicative competence, text and media competence, language awareness, and language learning competence (for a detailed analysis, cf. Thaler 2016, also 2015a). A more recent chart hit, Miley Cyrus’ Flowers (cf. 1), lends itself to multiple exploitation in the classroom (cf. KMK 2012). By means of a lyrics frequency analysis (“I”: 34x, “me”: 22x), a grammar-based content analysis (form before meaning, for a change) can trigger lively discussions on female empowerment (self-love, single lady, being alone), and different attitudes to breaking up. The domain of text and media competence is taken into account by revealing intertextual (and biographical) references to Bruno Mars’ piano pop ballad When I Was Your Man (2012) or by arguing why the funky rhythm in this disco pop song inevitably forces one to move and dance. Intercultural communicative competence can be fostered by talking about pop music as a transcultural phenomenon (number one in the charts of 40 countries), the rise and fall (and rise) of pop stars, or the mechanisms of music business. As to language awareness, the use of a personal instead of a reflexive pronoun (“I can love me better”) may lead to a heated debate on grammatical accuracy. With regard to the new genres of music videos, participatory music videos may prioritise communicative interaction, user-generated clips call for pro‐ moting productive skills, and remakes (remixes) place special emphasis on intertextuality and intermediality. The new educational standards for the inter‐ mediate level (KMK 2023, see Fig. 2) already take these competences into account - more or less explicitly. Music Videos Revisited 85 <?page no="86"?> Fig. 2: Educational standards for the first foreign language (English/ French) for the First School Leaving Certificate and the Intermediate School Leaving Certificate (KMK 2023: 9) 6. Selection What you choose also chooses you. Kamand Kojouri Is what you study more important than how you study? Does material really surpass method? Selecting the proper material is not everything, but without an appropriate video everything is nothing. Choosing a suitable video for your class paves the way for a productive lesson. During the selection process, which can be carried out cooperatively with your learners or alternately by teacher and students, the following criteria can lend a helping hand (Thaler 2015b, 2014). 86 Engelbert Thaler <?page no="87"?> (1) Curriculum (2) Complexity (3) Musicality (4) Topicality (5) Popularity (6) Pedagogy (7) Logistics (8) Aesthetics A fine example of a current video that meets the criteria of popularity, topicality and pedagogy to a high degree is the synth-pop song Anti-Hero by the American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift, which deals with self-loathing, depression, anxiety, and societal pressure. The fact that it won the prestigious MTV award for best music video of 2023 may add an extra dose of learner motivation. Regarding the recent developments of music videos, two further criteria may be added: new genres, i.e. supplementing traditional and popular clips with innovative and offbeat productions, and individuality, i.e. bearing students’ individual genre preferences in mind and allowing for autonomous lesson planning by students. 7. Methods It is common sense to take a method and try it. If it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something. Franklin D. Roosevelt There are seven basic ways of approaching a music video in class (Thaler 1999). Depending on the nature of the individual video, the learners’ cognitive and linguistic level, and the competences to be targeted, the teacher should select the most suitable approach. (1) Lyrics-first approach: First only the lyrics (text) are presented (handout, slide, docucam, interactive whiteboard). Pupils may be asked to think about characters or write a film script. Music and visuals are presented later. (2) Sound-first approach: First only the audio track is played. The monitor is darkened or reversed, or the pupils turn around while listening. Pupils can be asked to express their visual associations evoked by the music. Video and lyrics are presented later. Music Videos Revisited 87 <?page no="88"?> (3) Vision-first approach: The video is presented without music and lyrics. Pupils’ attention is focused on viewing comprehension. Working with music and lyrics may come later. (4) Vision-off approach: First pupils are given the lyrics and the soundtrack. They may be asked to write a storyboard for the video, for example, which is compared with the video later. (5) Sound-off approach: First pupils are presented the lyrics and the visuals. The sound is turned off. Pupils are meant to imagine the rhythm, tempo, mood of the music. (6) Lyrics-off approach: The video (visuals plus sound) is presented without the written text. Pupils may be encouraged to write a stanza of their own. The lyrics can be discussed later or left out. (7) All-codes approach: The music video is presented in its complete form (visuals, sound, written text). As this may mean asking too much of pupils’ attention, different tasks can be given to various groups. The lyrics-off approach, for example, is recommended for songs whose text contains too many unknown lexical items (for younger learners). A current video that seems suitable for the vision-first approach is the pop punk song Irrelevant by Pink (2022). The visual representation of this protest song deals with numerous controversial topics like abortion, civil rights, or Me Too, contains footage of the movements supporting civil rights, LGBT claims, Black Lives Matter, or anti-gun violence, shows influential celebrities like Muhammad Ali, Donald Trump, Rudy Giuliani, or Tarana Burke, and features intertextual references to Cyndi Lauper’s Girls Just Want to Have Fun (1983) and the Who’s The Kids Are Alright (1965). After Pink had criticized the overrule of the Roe vs. Wade decision by the U.S. Supreme Court, she received hate and troll comments, which may trigger lively classroom discussions on social media. Showing the video with sound off first may be combined with note-taking although the dual task of simultaneously watching and writing is likely to demand too much of the learners, in particular as scene editing is extremely fast. Of course, an approach is not good or bad in itself, and not all approaches lend themselves to each video. For example, the sound-first approach is unsuitable for chart hits, which most teenagers already know by heart, as they are broadcast in heavy rotation on music channels. Moreover, activities like writing a film script or storyboard often turn out to be too demanding and time-consuming. Sometimes one and the same approach for a certain clip sparks off in one class but falls flat in another. Yet keep it blowing and remember Roosevelt (see above) as well as William Blake’s dictum: “The true method of knowledge is experiment.” 88 Engelbert Thaler <?page no="89"?> 8. Activities The quality of life is determined by its activities. Aristotle By now teachers can choose from an enormous number and variety of exercises, tasks, and techniques (e.g., Engelhart 2017; Falkenhagen/ Volkmann 2019; Keddie 2017; Thaler 2018a, 2018b, 2015b, 2009, 1999). The following overview combines the pre - while - post lesson structure with the various codes a music video consists of (visuals, audio track, written text, context). (1) Pre-viewing tasks • visual signs: e.g., freeze frame • provocative statement: e.g., “95 % of all music videos is crap, because 95-% of everything is crap” (Keith Richards) • vote a quote: e.g., “Rock music is all make-believe” (Frank Zappa) • pyramid discussion: e.g., “What makes life worth living: a) dance & party b) money & power c) love & romance d) reflection & mindful‐ ness? ” • opinion poll: e.g., “How long did you watch music videos last weekend? ” • key items: e.g., title • upside down comprehension For example, Taylor Swift’s All Too Well (cf. 1) recounts a romantic relationship that ends in sad dissolution and opens with a literary quote by Chilean poet Pablo Neruda: “Love is so short, forgetting is so long.” When using this video in class the teacher may take a freeze frame after Neruda’s quote or present a silent impulse: “Consider the activities that take place in our minds when we watch a video or listen to a story … We ask questions and speculate about answers. In short, we create our own narratives” (Keddie 2017: 10). (2) Text-related tasks • listening comprehension: e.g., Mondegreen version • reading comprehension: e.g., true-false statements • text analysis: e.g., speaker, characters, message, images, effect • vocabulary: e.g., paraphrases, definitions, crossword puzzles • grammar: e.g. tenses, frequency analysis (cf. Cyrus’ Flowers in 5.) (3) Music-related tasks • What musical genre does this song belong to? • What effect does the rhythm have on you? Music Videos Revisited 89 <?page no="90"?> • How does the singer interpret this song? • How would you describe the melody? • What strikes you about the music? (4) Visuals-related tasks • cognitive skills: e.g., describing, summarizing, predicting • viewing comprehension: e.g., ticking off items from a list • film analysis: e.g., plot, characters, cinematographic devices, values, ideologies, inter-textual references, economic context, symbols, genre (5) Context-related tasks: history, economy, form, contents, addressee, cul‐ tural critique (6) Integrative tasks: relationship between visuals, music, lyrics (and context) (7) Post-viewing tasks: alternative ending, different perspective (person), transforming into short story, writing a review, interview with singer, debate, lip-syncing, collage, video magazine, dubbing the music video with new lyrics, producing one’s own music video etc. Most of these activities can also be used for exploiting examples of new genres. In addition, extra-mural English should be encouraged by directing learners’ attention to online music video platforms in order to promote autonomous learning. A web portal to be recommended in this context is the interactive website Multimedia-English (https: / / multimedia-english.com/ videos/ section/ of ficial-1/ channel/ music-1), which hosts 350 videos including descriptions, tran‐ scripts, meanings, exercises, annotations, and features music genres ranging from A like Acapella or Alternative to W like World Music. Considering salient characteristics of the new genres of music videos, activities should be favoured that enable interaction, promote productive skills, and further intermediality. 9. Conclusion: Balanced Teaching Life is like riding a bicycle. To keep your balance, you must keep moving. Albert Einstein To sum up, Balanced Teaching, i.e., a synthesis of closed teaching and open learning (Thaler 2008: 2012), also seems to be a suitable approach to working with music videos. This combination of closedness and openness takes place on various levels: teacher-fronted and student-centred methods, analysis as well as 90 Engelbert Thaler <?page no="91"?> interaction and production, closed exercises and open tasks, studying a single music video and employing intermediality. In light of the production and consumption of new genres, a fine balance should also be struck between traditional genres and emerging ones, combining the desk-bound approach with independent extra-mural study. The underlying assumption is that a mixture between old and new as well as between teacher guidance and learner autonomy alleviates monotony, increases motivation, enhances engagement, and finally raises effectiveness. With particular regard to the first three new genres (participatory music videos, user-generated clips, remakes/ remixes), communicative interaction, productive skills, and intertex‐ tuality/ intermediality are coming to the fore. Pursuing Balanced Teaching in the field of music videos, too, may eventually lead to both effective and motivating classes - which is the ultimate goal of TEFL. References Browning Erwin, Sherri (2010). Jane Slayre. New York: Gallery Books. Derrida, Jacques (1980). The Law of Genre. Critical Inquiry 7/ 1, 55-81. DOI: 10.1086/ 448088. Engelhart, Bernd (2017). Art and Music in the English Classroom. Trier: WVT. Falkenhagen, Charlott/ Volkmann, Laurenz, eds. (2019). Musik im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Tübingen: Narr. Frith, Simon/ Goodwin, Andrew/ Grossberg, Lawrence, eds. (1993). Sound and Vision: The Music Video Reader. New York: Routledge. Goodwin, Andrew (1992). Dancing in the Distraction Factory: Music Television and Popular Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Grahame-Smith, Seth (2009). Pride and Prejudice and Zombies. Philadelphia: Quirk Books. Keddie, Jamie (2017). Videotelling: YouTube Stories for the Classroom. Lessonstream (https: / / lessonstream.com). KMK, ed. (2003). Bildungsstandards mittlerer Schulabschluss. www.kmk.org/ fileadmin / veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/ 2003/ 2003_12_04-BS-erste-Fremdsprache.pdf (last accessed: 16.09.2023). KMK, ed. (2012). Bildungsstandards allgemeine Hochschulreife. https: / / www.kmk.org/ fi leadmin/ Dateien/ veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/ 2012/ 2012_10_18-Bildungsstanda rds-Fortgef-FS-Abi.pdf (last accessed: 16.09.2023). KMK, ed. (2023). Bildungsstandards für die erste Fremdsprache (Englisch/ Französisch) für den Ersten Schulabschluss und den Mittleren Schulabschluss. www.kmk.org/ filea dmin/ veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/ 2023/ 2023_06_22-Bista-ESA-MSA-ErsteFrem dsprache.pdf (last accessed: 16.09.2023). Music Videos Revisited 91 <?page no="92"?> Korsgaard, Mathias Bonde (2013). Music Video Transformed. In: Richardson, John/ Gorbman, Claudia/ Vernallis, Carol, eds. The Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 501-521. Kristiansen, Bente (1985). Musikvideo. In: Pittelkow, Ralph, ed. Analyser af TV. Kopen‐ hagen: Medusa. Marone, Vittorio (2018). Teaching English Through Music Videos. In: Liontas, John, ed. The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. DOI: 10.1002/ 9781118784235.eelt0849. McRae, John (1991). Literature with a small ‘l’: Developing Thinking Skills in Language Teaching and Learning. New York: Prentice Hall. Richardson, John/ Gorbman, Claudia/ Vernallis, Carol, eds. (2013). The Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stalder, Felix (2018). Kultur der Digitalität. Berlin: Suhrkamp. Thaler, Engelbert (1999). Musikvideoclips im Englischunterricht. München: Langenscheidt. Thaler, Engelbert (2008). Offene Lernarrangements im Englischunterricht. Rekonstruktion, Konstruktion, Konkretion, Exemplifikation, Integration. München: Langenscheidt (zugl. Teildruck von: München, Univ., Habil.-Schrift, 2007). Thaler, Engelbert (2009). Das Lit-Lied. Literatur & Musik im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Praxis Fremdsprachenunterricht (PFU) 2, 30-34. Thaler, Engelbert (2012). Englisch unterrichten. Berlin: Cornelsen. Thaler, Engelbert (2014). Teaching English with Films. Paderborn: UTB. Thaler, Engelbert (2015a). Literal Music Videos. Praxis Fremdsprachenunterricht (PFU) 3, 6-7. Thaler. Engelbert (2015b). Musikbasierter Fremdsprachenunterricht. Praxis Fremdsprachenunterricht (PFU) 3, 11-14. Thaler, Engelbert (2016). Literal Music Videos in Language Teaching. In: Berns, Ute/ Mathieson, Jolene, eds. Anglistentag 2016 Hamburg. Proceedings. Trier: WVT. Thaler, Engelbert, ed. (2018a). Singer-Songwriters: Music and Poetry in Language Teaching. Tübingen: Narr. Thaler, Engelbert (2018b). Murik - Musik und Lyrik im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Praxis Fremdsprachenunterricht (PFU) 3, 13-16. Vernallis, Carol (2013). Music Video’s Second Aesthetic? In: Richardson, John/ Gorbman, Claudia/ Vernallis, Carol, eds. The Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 437-465. Werner, Valentin/ Tegge, Friederike, eds. (2021). Pop Culture in Language Education: Theory, Research, Practice. Abingdon: Routledge. Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1953). Philosophical Investigations. Oxford: Blackwell. 92 Engelbert Thaler <?page no="93"?> 1 A rather fitting term a former student of mine used to describe the experience in her own hypertext fiction. Exploring the Possibilities of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education Sean Holt 1. Introduction: Making Choices in Hypertext Fiction As one of the rare digital genres that existed before the Internet (e.g. Joyce 1990, Jackson 1995), hypertext fiction engages the reader in interactive and nonlinear storytelling through what might be described as the illusion of choicemaking  1 . In hypertext fiction, the reader can interact with the narrative through the selection of hyperlinks which allow the reader to (seemingly) influence how the story plays out (Holt 2022: 47). A prototypical example of the genre is shown in Figure 1, where ChatGPT (version 3.5) was used to create an adaptation of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice ([1813] 1996), which was later copied into Twine for display. Fig. 1: An example of hypertext fiction created with ChatGPT 3.5 and Twine As shown in the example, the reader can select from one of four hyperlinks (below the text), each leading to a different part of the story. Here, the reader is <?page no="94"?> again presented with another set of choices resulting in a branching narrative that they can read and discover at their own pace. However, the reader’s sense of free narrative agency is to some extent illusory, as the paths available in the story are still limited to those the author has prepared beforehand (e.g., you cannot choose to go home). Smed et al. (2021: 9) use the term external-explanatory navigation to emphasise how the reader of hypertext fiction is restricted to the exploration of the authors’ pre-configured branches. Its non-linear but still guided form of storytelling can make hypertext fiction an intriguing piece of digital fiction for language learners. Unlike in linear fiction, the narrative interaction found in hypertext fiction offers learners a sense of actively taking part in the story (Smed et al. 2021: 3) and can be easily taken up in writing through digital storytelling. 2. Digital Storytelling in English Language Education Digital Storytelling (DST) is a well-established educational approach which can be used to bring a wide variety of digital spaces and texts into English language education. DST can be broadly defined as the exploration of “different media and software applications to communicate stories in new and powerful ways […]” (McLellan 2006: 26). Combined with the inherent human drive to tell stories (Smed et al. 2021: 10), it can draw attention to the many ways learners can use language “to share their voice and views” (Oskoz/ Elola 2016: 158). As a pedagogical strategy, DST offers language learners an unusual environment in which they can practice and develop their language skills (see e.g., Hafner/ Miller 2011; Lee 2014). Additionally, as digital texts are no longer restricted to the written word, DST allows students to draw on other modes of meaning-making such as images, audio or video and it thus reflects the multimodal nature of modern communi‐ cation (Lütge et al. 2019: 535). By placing storytelling into the digital realm, DST can encourage learners to combine different media formats to create compelling stories (Castañeda 2013: 45). In addition to supporting learners in developing a better understanding of modern communication, it may also direct their attention towards media-related issues, such as questions of copyright or how to adapt their language to a specific digital platform, such as a microblogging site. In this way, DST can be used in the classroom to discuss a variety of aspects related to media literacy (Raffone 2020: 4, see also Vuorikari et al. 2022: 23, 31 for further aspects). Overall, the didactic potential of DST aligns well with task-based settings (Oskoz/ Elola 2016: 160). In a process-oriented approach, learners can use 94 Sean Holt <?page no="95"?> 2 e.g., Ensslin et al. (2016: 179) uses digital fiction while arguing for a notion of sociocultural quality (possessing a “significant literary or verbal art component”) which is commonly associated with the term digital literature. Other possible terms include digital ecologies by O’Sullivan (2021: 263), ergodic literature by Aarseth (1997: 1) or digital textualities by Lütge, Merse and Stannard (2021: 231). In the following digital fiction is used. their language skills to create digital stories that would otherwise have been “unthinkable with the materiality of print and page-bound books” (Lütge et al. 2019: 521). While most research on DST in foreign language education has focused on the potential of creating shorter videos with students (McLellan 2006: 26; see also Wu/ Chen 2020), this article applies DST to the writing of digital fiction. Bell and Ensslin (2011: 311) define digital fiction as “fiction, written for and read on a computer screen, that pursues its verbal, discursive, and/ or conceptual complexity through the digital medium and would lose something of its aesthetic and semiotic function if it were removed from that medium”. Sometimes referred to as digital or electronic literature 2 , digital fiction can range from multimodal narratives, such as computer games or movies, to more strongly text-based formats, for example hypertext fiction (Bell et al. 2018: 2-3). A key feature of this type of literature is that it is digitally born (Salter/ Moulthrop 2021: 105; Kersten/ Ludwig 2024). Digital fiction thus actively integrates the expressive properties of the medium, the so-called affordances (Hallet 2015: 287; Bateman, Wildfeuer/ Hiippala 2017: 90), into the creation of the narrative. This in turn allows digital fiction to display unusual narrative features such as interactivity or non-linear storytelling. Its active incorporation of technology also distinguishes digital fiction from e-books, which are electronic reproduc‐ tions that mimic the design of printed books without the use of technology adding to the narrative itself (Heinz/ Hesse 2014: 89; Ensslin 2014: 32). The rise in popularity of digital fiction has led to the development of various technologies and authoring spaces for those interested in such literary forms. These include platforms for writing and sharing fan fiction, such as FanFiction.net and Archive of Our Own.org, as well as specialized programs, such as Inform7, inklewriter or Twine. Although hypertext fiction is often freely accessible on the internet (Ryan 2006: 152), it is not a piece of digital fiction that learners typically read in their daily lives, at least not as a stand-alone genre. On these grounds, teachers may perceive hypertext fiction as an unappealing narrative form for language learners given its non-mainstream status (Eskelinen et al. 2013: 235). However, students are likely to be familiar with the concept of choice-based storytelling Exploring the Possibilities of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education 95 <?page no="96"?> that is at the heart of hypertext fiction, which can be found in choose-yourown-adventure books, computer games (Skains 2019a: 3) or the TV series Black Mirror: Bandersnatch (2018). Consequently, we can assume that some learners are familiar with the notion of choice-based storytelling, although they probably lack in-depth knowledge on the specifics of how this is done in hypertext fiction, such as the style of writing or the different digital components that can be used (Skains 2019a: 3-5). The interactive and non-linear features of hypertext fiction, combined with the multimodal potential of digital fiction in general, offers language teachers a valuable digital genre that can help in making the transition from conventional print-based literature to more multimodal forms of storytelling in English language education. This article explores the potential of writing hypertext fiction, as one distinct form of digital fiction, to engage students in DST. After describing some key features of hypertext fiction and situating it within the context of English language education, the article proposes ways in which the creation of hypertext fiction can open up novel possibilities for the development of foreign language skills. 3. The Potential of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education Hypertext fiction is considered in this article as a form of multimodal writing, as illustrated in Figure 2, to emphasise that although hypertext fiction can incor‐ porate a variety of other media forms, the narrative is primarily constructed through the text of the author. While multimodal elements often add to the depth and richness of the written narrative, writing remains at the heart of hypertext fiction. In the context of English language education, this can make it a suitable text form to introduce learners to multimodal storytelling practices, as it mirrors and expands upon a number of features students are familiar with from printbased literature. In this conceptualisation, students’ development of literacy can begin with traditional print-based writing instruction and then move towards the incorporation of multimodal elements that support and add to their writing, helping them convey meaning with greater variety and depth. 96 Sean Holt <?page no="97"?> Fig. 2: Situating hypertext fiction as multimodal supported writing (own source) As outlined by Ensslin et al. (2016: 194), the process of writing one’s own hypertext fiction can be a powerful catalyst for creativity and deeper learning as students are often unaccustomed to interactive narrative writing. Within a process-focused approach, this can encourage learners to combine their creative writing skills with the digital affordances of hypertext fiction and allows students to explore the opportunities provided by this form of digital fiction while still maintaining a focus on narrative and process-based writing instruction in English lessons. As learners transform the linear plot structure of traditional literature into a non-linear digital network of interconnected threads and nodes (see section 3.1.) they can adapt familiar narrative concepts to the unfamiliar storytelling format (Skains 2019a: 3). Here they may have to consider how the character development, predetermined in conventional literature, may become dynamic in hypertext fiction and can change according to the decisions of the reader. Questions of how to create a sense of interactivity through writing can also encourage students to experiment with language (see section 3.2) while the structural affordances of hypertext fiction can offer learners new strategies and designs how to plan and arrange their non-linear story (see section 3.3). Additionally, the greater structural complexity of branched storytelling may encourage learners to reflect on how their design choices influence the reader’s interpretation (Dammrich 2007: 426), especially when students can use multimodal elements like pictures, music or colour to complement their narrative (see section 3.4). Overall, the use of hyperlinks for choice-based DST introduces learners to a variety of design options for their narratives that can Exploring the Possibilities of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education 97 <?page no="98"?> be explored in English lessons. This can make the creation of hypertext fiction a motivating experience as it offers a rich learning environment in which learners can experiment with novel narrative designs that would be difficult to create in a print-based format. This is especially the case when DST is supported by software such as Twine, which mitigates many technical problems. 3.1. Creating Hypertext Fiction with Twine Twine is an open-source hypertext fiction authoring program developed by Chris Klimas in 2009. It can be installed on Windows, iOS and Linux and accessed via an online editor (as of July 2024). Twine allows users to easily create interactive, non-linear stories by writing and linking text files through (semi-automatic) hyperlinks. These files can then be arranged and purposefully connected on a digital “corkboard” (Friedhoff 2013: 4; see Fig. 3). Fig. 3: Writing and arranging passages within Twine (own source) In addition to helping users write hypertext fiction, Twine provides various opportunities to enhance stories with multimodal and code-based possibilities (Braganca et al. 2016: 938-939). Authors can use these to enrich their stories, for example, by adding images, changing the background colour, using animation or by adding computer codes to keep track of choices that can affect the story. However, despite offering advanced digital possibilities, Twine’s intuitive user 98 Sean Holt <?page no="99"?> interface and other low-threshold features (Friedhoff 2013: 3) emphasise that it is designed to be accessible to those without advanced hardware or coding skills (Salter/ Moulthrop 2021: 11). Its user-friendliness (Harvey 2014: 97; Rich et al. 2022: 1-2) and “try-it-yourself ” style of writing (Berens 2019: para. 9) make it well suited for DST and can help teachers focus on giving feedback instead of having to teach technology (Castañeda 2013: 46). The following sections explore how Twine can enable learners to create their own hypertext story and consider some of the learning opportunities that arise from the interactive and non-linear nature of DST. These opportunities are then summarized in a process-oriented approach that provides teachers with an outline of how to support the process of DST (Tab. 1). 3.2 Interactive Storytelling in Hypertext Fiction The main characteristic of hypertext fiction is its interactive non-linearity, which arises from choice-based storytelling. Interactivity in this context refers to a form of co-creative control over the story (Lütge et al. 2019: 527; van der Bom et al. 2021: 128-129) which allows for subjective reading experiences. These can affect the presentation of the story, such as changing fonts or colours, or result in entirely different storylines (Smed et al. 2021: 2; Summer 2019: 160). Creating interactivity in hypertext fiction is relatively easy compared to computer games or other media. In Twine, the author only needs to enclose the text in two pairs of square brackets to create a new text file that is linked through the enclosed text. This simplicity allows learners to quickly advance to planning their interactive stories without being confronted with technical difficulties and reflects one of the core principles of DST, namely that the technology used should come with a shallow learning curve to not distract from learning (Schuch 2020: 191). Although control over the actual events in hypertext fiction is an illusion, the links offer the reader “some control over [their] sequence, historically the preserve of the author” (Brooker 2022: 92) in print literature. It is advisable to reflect with learners on the narrative function of links before they begin writing their own hypertext fiction (Salter/ Moulthrop 2021: 37). Non-fictional links clearly indicate where they lead to, so clicking on https: / / ifcomp.org/ will (generally) take the reader to the indicated website. In contrast, fictional links are often more ambiguous as to how they impact the narrative (van der Bom et al. 2021: 123). For example, in the Jane Austen adaptation (see Fig. 1), readers do not exactly know what to expect if they decide to click on “Explore the Market Independently”, as the short description of the action gives little information Exploring the Possibilities of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education 99 <?page no="100"?> about what this exploration entails. Choosing to explore the market could imply visiting a shop or simply result in a meeting with Mr. Darcy and Mr. Bingley in another part of the village. Consequently, the phrasing of the links leave it up to the reader to fill the narrative gaps of the story by making their own predictions. This connotative function of hyperlinks (Bell 2014: 156) means that the reader has to anticipate the potential consequences of choosing a particular link. These predictions are in turn influenced by the choice of words underlying particular links. How the phrasing might encourage the reader to choose one link over another (Skains 2019a: 3) is an issue worthwhile to be discussed with learners in the classroom. Learners may draw on their (or the reader’s) meta-narrative or genre knowledge (as one component of media literacy), as they use specific genre tropes to guide the reader in a particular direction. For example, in a horror story it rarely seems wise to separate from a group of friends. Proposing this choice to the reader could mean that they are less likely to take it and will instead choose a different option. Thus, another challenge of writing hypertext fiction concerns the way learners can use language to lure the reader into believing that they have realistic options to choose from and which are also in agreement with the plot (Carlon et al. 2022: 248). One common way to create such a sense of immersion is to employ a writing style that invites active participation from the reader, commonly a second person narrator (Bell/ Ensslin 2011: 313). Such examples highlight only some of the possibilities of how the interplay of link and language can allow learners to create interactivity between the reader and the text through their creative writing. Overall, the narrative openness resulting from the creation of fictional links can make designing hypertext fiction an engaging activity for learners, as they need to carefully reflect on the choices they want to offer to the reader. Furthermore, formulating links requires learners to think about how the reader is going to interpret the given choices in the context of the story. It draws attention to how the intentional formulation of links are about luring the reader into believing that the story will continue in a certain way based on their choices (Bernstein 2000: 216). However, for a story to feel truly interactive, the choices and their outcomes need to be realistic and plausible with respect to the overall narrative and structural design of the story as an interconnected network of text passages. 3.3. Planning Hypertext Fiction This section argues that interactive storytelling can raise learners’ awareness about narrative structure and sequencing. Hypertext fiction can accommodate 100 Sean Holt <?page no="101"?> various narrative genres, such as mystery or young adult stories, but also more game-based formats like escape rooms (see Thaler/ Meininger in this volume), role-playing narratives, or simulations. Before writing their story, learners have to decide on a plot and plan out the non-linear paths within it, which can draw attention to a different way of thinking about narrative progression (Reed 2015: 143). To give one example, learners could use hypertext fiction to create a story that uses ‘explorative navigation’. In this type of story, the reader investigates different locations or objects within the story world, often without a clear goal. Through the open interaction with the places and objects, the reader is then able to uncover the story hidden within the world (Skains 2019b: 139-140). Generally, the author would recommend encouraging students to pursue their own ideas first. However, if learners struggle in this phase, they could decide to adapt a story they are already familiar with in terms of characters or the fictional world (cf. the Jane Austen example, Fig. 1). An alternative approach could be to discuss different narrative plot structures with learners (see Möslein- Tröppner and Bernhard 2018: 59-65; drawing on Booker 2005), such as: • Overcoming the monster: A story in which the protagonist must defeat an opponent, e.g. Dracula or The Hunger Games. • Journey and return: A story where the protagonist must overcome difficulties, e.g. Alice in Wonderland or Around the world in 80 days. • The quest: A story where the protagonist(s) have to achieve a specific mission/ goal, e.g. Lord of the Rings or Percy Jackson. Once learners have decided on an idea for their interactive story, they can begin writing and linking the different text files. In this planning stage, they have to organise their ideas into a coherent storyline and select a starting point for their branching narrative. After introducing the reader to their starting situation, learners then have to offer the reader several choices, commonly presented as hyperlinks below the text. In the process of writing these, learners will realise that even a small number of choices (hyperlinks) per passage will quickly lead to a significant number of branches. Even if they limit the choices to two per passage this can result in multiple substories such as the example Ashwell (2015) refers to as the time cave (see Fig. 4). While the individual passages in hypertext fiction do thus not necessarily encourage learners to write longer text passages (Salter/ Moulthrop 2021: 61), the non-linear structure will overall result in more text as learners fill in the various branches and paths of their story. Exploring the Possibilities of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education 101 <?page no="102"?> Fig. 4: Hypertext fiction patterns (as described by Ashwell 2015) (left: Time Cave; right: Branch and Bottleneck) This multiplication of text passages provides many opportunities to reflect with learners on the underlying structure of hypertext fiction and the importance of narrative cohesion. Engaging in the “textual mapping” (Skains 2016: 185) of these structures, as seen for example in Figure 4, can allow students to not only visualise the intricacies of hypertext fiction but also highlights how they can use these connections to create intriguing narrative patterns in their texts. For example, learners might place nodal situations (Bode/ Dietrich 2013: 58), which are central text passages that direct the story back to a specific path and allow the author to outline one or multiple main narratives (see Fig. 4, Branch and Bottleneck pattern). Figure 5 highlights two other options learners could use, one being entirely non-linear (Open map) and the other mostly linear in design (The Gauntlet). What becomes clear is that constructing hypertext fiction is a complex activity that requires learners to think and plan their stories carefully, potentially more so than in a linear setting. While crafting an engaging literary experience as a hypertext, learners can discover that the navigation between links can be just as meaningful as the links themselves. Fig. 5: Hypertext fiction patterns (as described by Ashwell 2015) (left: Open Map; right: The Gauntlet) A practical benefit of story mapping is that students are likely to spend some time on outlining their story before writing. Furthermore, with writing phases being both shorter and more numerous, teachers also have more opportunities to provide feedback on individual shorter pieces of writing. The structure of hypertext fiction might further encourage learners to adjust their writing to the 102 Sean Holt <?page no="103"?> structure of their story. For instance, they might formulate text paragraphs to describe central places that are intentionally vague or flexible enough to be used in multiple different branches of their narrative (Mangen/ van der Weel 2017: 172). These paragraphs can then be used to fill in multiple nodes and to redirect the text back to the main storyline. Overall, fleshing out the design of one’s hypertext fiction and formulating the various branches of the story, can be a motivating experience for language learners. Particularly, the potential of hypertext fiction to engage learners in meaning-making through the process of story mapping seems beneficial for language learning. Furthermore, having students visualise the underlying design of interactive stories can be a useful task when exploring other examples of hypertext fiction. When students analyse the structure of hypertextual stories during their own planning and drafting stage, they might become aware of features that they could integrate into their own story. Exploring other pieces of hypertext fiction will help them identify typical features of the genre and allow them to apply these to their own texts. They likely will also realise that hypertext fiction can benefit from being multimodally supported or enhanced (Millard 2020: 123; Ensslin et al. 2016: 179), an aspect which is addressed in the following section. 3.4. Multimodal Possibilities in Hypertext Fiction Multimodal composition, as noted by Summer (2019: 152), is a frequent trait of digital texts as well as digital fiction, with different modes complementing each other by adding “depth and richness” to the story. However, while some modes are easily recognisable, such as images, graphics or sounds, others can be situated on a less visible level. This includes the use of hypertextual structures discussed above. Although multimodal elements are not a necessity in hypertext fiction (Skains 2019b: 135), students can easily add a wide variety of nonlinguistic semiotic resources to their ideas. There are several concepts which can be used to describe the interplay of modes and the way in which they prefigure reading and interpretation. In hypertext fiction, where the theme, presentation and gameplay of a story have to align with one another, it might be conceptualised as a form of ludo-narrative harmony (Millard 2020: 124). For example, changing the font used in the story or the background colour can have a significant impact on the overall reading experience. Especially modes like colour can be used to create an emotional atmosphere (Unsworth/ Mills 2020: 4) with the alignment of language and colour being called “resonance” (Painter et al. 2013: 144). While warm colours are often associated with positive emotions, Exploring the Possibilities of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education 103 <?page no="104"?> 3 Twine allows users to alter nearly every visual element of their story through the Cascading Style Sheet, a file that outlines the style and format of visual elements displayed by a web-browser (Salter/ Moulthrop 2021: 113). darker colours like blue or black can be used to evoke a negative or gloomy feeling in the reader. Using a dark background, possibly combined with a specific type of font and evocative writing, can then help students multimodally situate their story in the gothic or horror genre. Many such multimodal elements can be easily adjusted in Twine  3 . Experimenting with the visual layout can highlight how the digital founda‐ tions of hypertext fiction can open exciting avenues for learning. One such example is presented in the following. It is intended to encourage teachers and learners to reflect on ways how using computer codes can also be used to support digital storytelling in hypertext fiction, something that the Twine community heavily encourages with its cookbook (https: / / twinery.org/ cookbook/ ). In Twine, learners can add pre-programmed code, referred to as a macro, to their stories. This can be used by learners to define necessary conditions for their narrative, for example, only once the reader has found the key are they able to open a door (called an if-macro). Another pre-programmed example is the use of cycling links (Salter/ Moulthrop 2021: 62), which display a different set of text when clicked instead of directing the reader to a new page (Salter/ Moulthrop 2021: 126). The use of macros is quite easy in Twine (see Fig. 6). In this example, the macro of the “cycling link” offers students a new design option for their stories as the cycling link disrupts the expected behaviour of the hyperlink. Imagine the following situation: when the protagonist opens a chest, they find several objects, among them a book. As the book is displayed as a hyperlink, the reader’s attention is immediately drawn to it. However, when the reader selects the link, instead of being taken to a new passage of text (as they might expect), the text only changes slightly and now shows a more detailed description of the object (e.g., ‘a rough leather-bound book’ instead of ‘a book’). When clicked again, the cycling link results in a visual opening of the book and replaces the text on the page with the first page of the book, with each subsequent click potentially revealing a new page. This simple technique can encourage the reader to gradually uncover more information step by step through their clicks instead of displaying everything at once or requiring the author to formulate possible choices below the text. Moreover, the use of the cycling link may also allow the reader to navigate back and forth between the pages to revisit earlier entries more easily. 104 Sean Holt <?page no="105"?> Fig. 6: Example code for a cycling link in Twine (bold elements added for explanation) Combining the two macros discussed, learners could also use cycling links to illustrate entering a code into a locked box. Only once the reader has entered the correct combination (which has to be discovered in the text) can they progress in the story. Here, the use of two different macros, an “if-function” and a “cycling link”, allows learners to add an interactive element to their story which one might associate more with a computer game, illustrating how integrating the coding of digital texts can result in new forms of narrative interaction and possibly immersion. While discussing and reflecting on such underlying digital aspects is likely to be done only in an exemplary manner, it can help learners understand the broader implications of technology beyond the specific context of hypertext fiction. In this context, one favourable outcome could be that students realize that seemingly complex computer functions can be achieved through the combination of simple codes. In the author’s experience, similarly echoed by Skains (2019a: 4), it is rarely necessary for teachers to encourage students to engage in such digital possibilities, as some learners naturally explore them in the process of trying to realise their story. However, whenever learners do experiment with code to augment their narrative, teachers may want to highlight these options and how they shape the narrative. This may help students better understand how technology can subtly influence language use (see Lund et al. 2014: 291). 4. A Process-Based Approach to Writing Hypertext Fiction in English Language Education The design process of hypertext fiction draws on Flower and Hayes’ (1981) process-based model of writing. It incorporates traditional phases of L2 writing instruction such as planning, drafting and revising, but expands them by also considering the digital possibilities offered by hypertext fiction. The presented process-based approach further incorporates recommendations for DST by Oskoz and Elola (2016: 158-162) as well as Schuch (2020: 182-183; 187-190). The design process is situated around the stages of (1) story content development, (2) textual story mapping, (3) crafting choice-based passages, (4) enhancing storytelling with multimodal elements and (5) publishing and Exploring the Possibilities of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education 105 <?page no="106"?> presentation. Although the stages are presented sequentially, they naturally can overlap in practice. Potential activities to engage learners in are indicated for each stage. They reflect the specific characteristics of hypertext fiction with a special emphasis on enhancing the reading experience in interactive storytelling. Table 1 thus summarises the different ways in which hypertext fiction can be an engaging learning environment for learners. DESIGN STAGE POSSIBLE ACTIVITIES FOR LEARNERS 1. Story con‐ tent develop‐ ment • Outline the type of story, idea or plot you want to create. • Visualize your structure through storyboarding. • Reflect on how your writing style has to reflect the genre. • Consider your audience and their possible reading experi‐ ences. 2. Textual story map‐ ping • Analyse example stories to learn about interactive struc‐ tures. • Apply different narrative patterns to your story. • Discuss interesting aspects of nonlinear storytelling. • Outline the branches and connections within your story. • Focus on narrative cohesion between the branches. 3. Crafting choice-based passages • Reflect on how your language transports the tone of your story. • Focus on the accuracy of your writing (grammar & spelling). • Discuss how to transition smoothly between passages. • Formulate meaningful-feeling choices within your story. • Consider the possible interpretations of the choices. 4. Supporting storytelling multimo‐ dally • Experiment with multimedia elements and how they can support your story (e.g. music, images, code-based options, etc.). • Describe how the non-textual elements in your story help you in telling the story you want to tell. 5. Publishing and pre‐ senting • Engage in peer review sessions and give feedback to others. • Present your story to others and explain design choices. • Prepare to answer questions about your story and its design. Tab. 1: A process-based approach for how to design hypertext fiction with learners Finally, the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) should be mentioned as it brings with it new possibilities that may aid learners in the creation of hypertext fiction (or writing in general). Text-generating AI, for example, could be instructed to provide learners with feedback on their writing. Similarly, it could also be used to help them formulate passages and thus more directly support learners in creating their interactive story. Learners could formulate a prompt in which they ask the AI to write a first draft of their ideas. For 106 Sean Holt <?page no="107"?> the prompt learners would need to specify the plot, character or storyline(s) and possibly also instruct the AI on the writing style, tone of the story or narrative perspective they want to use. They can then use the AI-generated draft and adapt the text according to their own ideas (as done in the Jane Austen example). Another option might also be to use image-generating AI to multimodally enhance their hypertext stories with suitable visuals which also requires students to precisely describe what they want. Overall, AI can contribute to or enhance every stage of the design process. It can be used to streamline the process of writing or to provide learners with language support. However, as the research on the impact of AI on the teaching of writing and language learning is still in its early stages, teachers may want to exercise caution when using AI in English lessons. There is a clear need for studies that explore how AI can be effectively integrated into teaching methodologies (such as for the development of writing). The coming years will likely see a surge in research dedicated to understanding the benefits and limitation of AI and support language teaching practitioners to productively integrate AI in writing classes and language education. 5. Conclusion The aim of this contribution was to illustrate how hypertext fiction, a relatively new digital genre, can engage students in DST. Engaging with unfamiliar text forms like digital fiction can stimulate creativity and deeper learning (following Ensslin et al. 2016: 194) and help develop EFL learners’ writing skills. In particular, the interactive, non-linear and multimodal possibilities of creating hypertext fiction encourage learners to rethink familiar narrative concepts. Due to the reader-driven nature of interactive fiction, learners can go beyond linear narratives and craft stories that branch and evolve in response to the choices of the reader. As the reader’s role changes to that of a more active participant, the creation of interactivity in hypertext fiction offers plentiful opportunities for classroom and peer discussion as learners strategically place, phrase and position fictional links to tell their story. Furthermore, the integration of reading and writing (Hirvela 2004) that results from this kind of choice-based storytelling allows learners to experiment with non-linear narrative designs. This can deepen their understanding of narrative structure by highlighting different ways one can think about narrative coherence and continuity. Bringing such new narrative forms into the classroom is important and can broaden the “narrow repertoire of conventional genres” (Mills 2010: 250) in school-based EFL writing. Exploring the Possibilities of Hypertext Fiction for English Language Education 107 <?page no="108"?> Furthermore, as a born digital form of literature (see Kersten/ Ludwig 2024), hypertext fiction allows learners to enrich their narrative through multimodal as well as code-based means. These possibilities align well with a process-based approach to writing and can support teachers in making the transition from print-based to multimodal texts. In that sense, the creation of hypertext fiction can also support the development of students’ digital literacy (see Vuorikari et al. 2022). Using technology from a creator’s perspective draws attention to hidden layers of meaning making rarely considered in multimodal storytelling formats, such as the impact of coding. The use of Twine can also encourage cooperative learning, as students turn to each other for technical support. This can provide a low-threshold entry point for learners to get in contact with programming, which is often perceived as intimidating (Salter/ Moulthrop 2021: 25). Overall, the integration of hypertext fiction into language teaching seems promising given its capacity to facilitate meaningful language use and creative expression through DST (see e.g., Archer/ Breuer 2016: 14; Hafner, Chik/ Jones 2015: 5). 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Style and reader response: Minds, media, methods. Linguistic Approaches to Literature, Volume 36. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 123-141. DOI: 10.1075/ lal.36 Vuorikari, Riina/ Punie, Yves/ Carretero, Stephanie/ van den Brande, Lieve (2016). Dig‐ Comp 2.0. The digital competence framework for citizens. EUR, Scientific and technical research series, 27948. Luxembourg: Publications Office. Wu, Jing/ Chen, Der-Thanq Victor (2020). A systematic review of educational digital storytelling. Computers & Education 147. DOI: 10.1016/ j.compedu.2019.103786 112 Sean Holt <?page no="113"?> The Digital Poetry Escape Room: Sparking Pupils’ Motivation for Poetry through a Competicooperative Environment Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger 1. Introduction “Poetry is for everyone, and at its core, it is all about connection and collabora‐ tion”, asserts Amanda Gorman (2018), the youngest inaugural poet. Her quote serves as a guiding principle for a project carried out with a group of year nine English as a foreign language (EFL) learners at a Bavarian private grammar school with little connection to poetry. This paper reports on a school-university collaboration between the in-service EFL teacher of this particular class and two university-based pre-service EFL teacher educators. Together, they aim to explore new ways of sparking pupils’ motivation for poetry through a so-called “Digital Poetry Escape Room” (DPER). Escape rooms are defined as “live-action team-based games where players discover clues, solve puzzles, and accomplish tasks in one or more rooms in order to accomplish a specific goal” (Nicholson 2015: 1). So far, there is only scant research on escape rooms for educational purposes (Quariachi/ Wim 2020), particularly in the field of language learning (Bradford et al. 2021). This report begins with the impetus for this collaboration, highlighting its roots in a teacher’s reflective practice and her aspiration to increase her pupils’ motivation for poetry. Subsequently, we delve into the theoretical underpinnings of educational escape rooms and performance poetry, the type of poetries chosen for the DPER. The following section focuses on the DPER, divided into the planning and implementation stages. The planning stage elucidates how our elicitation of these pupils’ attitudes towards poetry and the examination of common poetry practices at school informed the design of the DPER. The implementation stage illustrates some task examples and explain the competicooperative approach, which combines competitive and cooperative elements. Following this, we examine how the DPER im‐ <?page no="114"?> pacted pupils’ motivation for poetries. In retrospect, it becomes apparent that this project bears resemblance to collaborative action research. After demonstrating how we employed the DPER for professional development during pre-service teacher education, we discuss the limitations of this schooluniversity collaboration. The conclusion offers suggestions for stimulating pupils’ motivation to engage with poetries. 2. Impetus This pupil-and-teacher-initiated collaboration connected two contexts and communities of English language teaching: English language teaching at school and English language teacher education at university (Freeman et al. 2019). Collaborations between these two are vital for improving teaching and teacher education (Graves 2009). Our collaboration originated in the classroom due to an in-service EFL teacher’s reflective practice (cf. Schön 1983). In the following, the different stages of reflection within our collaboration and the connection between the two contexts of English language teaching (Fig. 1) are described: Fig. 1: Collaborative reflective practice between the two communities of English language teaching within the DPER (authors’ illustration) This aforementioned English teacher at a Bavarian private grammar school observed a pronounced level of demotivation regarding poetry among her year nine pupils (stage 1). Dörnyei and Ushioda (2021: 140) define demotivation as “a negative process that reduces or diminishes a person’s motivation in relation to a behavioural intention or an ongoing action”. Demonstrating that 114 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="115"?> she is a reflective practitioner (Schön 1983; Wallace 1991), the teacher reflected in and on her practice (stages 2 and 3). As a conclusion of her reflection, she sought collaboration with us (two university-based pre-service EFL teacher educators, stage 3). This collaboration resulted in the design of the DPER (stage 4), which was carried out with this particular class (stage 5) and is detailed in this report. The following section presents some theoretical insights into educational escape rooms and performance poetry, the specific type of poetry selected for our DPER. 3 Theoretical Background 3.1 Educational Escape Rooms This section delves into educational escape rooms from both theoretical and research perspectives, illustrating their potential for foreign language learning. According to Nicholson (2015: 1), escape rooms are defined as “live-action team-based games where players discover clues, solve puzzles, and accomplish tasks in one or more rooms in order to accomplish a specific goal (usually escaping from the room) in a limited amount of time.” Nicolson’s (2015) definition addresses a challenge of applying escape rooms to educational contexts: In Germany, classrooms may not be locked for security reasons. Therefore, we conceive the notion of “escaping from the room” metaphorically: game participants simultaneously cooperate in both a digital room and the physical classroom. The digital space is considered locked, and by solving the various puzzles that build on each other, pupils finally get the ‘key’ to escape from the space in a metaphorical sense. Cooperation between team members to solve problems and competition between the teams are increased by a timer. According to Dörnyei (2001), challenging pupils through problemsolving activities and making them compete against each other can contribute to maintaining and protecting learners’ motivation. Integrating escape rooms into educational contexts remains relatively un‐ charted territory in research (Quariachi/ Wim 2020), underscoring the necessity for a sound theoretical foundation. Consequently, the field is characterised by limited research regarding “the pedagogic rationale, game mechanisms, ap‐ plicability, frameworks of implementation, and effectiveness” (Quariachi/ Wim 2020: 1194). More “research about the ‘if, how, why, and when’ regarding the use of escape rooms as a didactic tool” (Taraldsen et al. 2022: 13) in educational contexts is needed. The research so far suggests that that educational escape rooms can foster learner engagement across all three (cognitive, behavioural, The Digital Poetry Escape Room 115 <?page no="116"?> and affective) dimensions (Veldkamp et al. 2022). The main benefits of the 68 educational escape rooms reviewed in a systematic review of educational escape rooms for learning (Fotaris/ Mastoras 2019) are collaboration, enjoyment, engagement, learning gain, and motivation. The reported benefits of educational escape rooms also indicate potential for foreign language education. Despite this potential, the scarcity of research on the application of educational escape rooms is even more evident in the field of foreign language education than in other disciplines (Bradford et al. 2021). Fotaris and Mastoras’ (2019) systematic review does not mention foreign language education among the fields of education in which escape rooms have been employed. However, we assume that educational escape rooms can be instrumental in foreign language learning. Nicholson’s definition (2015) and Fotaris and Mastoras’ (2019) review have demonstrated that educational escape rooms necessitate teamwork and communication. The “cooperation mechanism” (Quariachi/ Wim 2020: 1196) is considered the main benefit com‐ pared to other educational gamification strategies. Players are required to work together (Nicholson 2018) in order to make progress as a team. This socioconstructivist notion of cooperation and communication is particularly relevant for the foreign language classroom, where the language is both the medium and the message of instruction (Walsh 2015). In sum, this brief literature review suggests that educational escape rooms could be a promising field of research as well as a promising environment for sparking EFL pupils’ motivation for poetries. Performance poetry, the specific type of poetries chosen for the DPER, is discussed in the next section. 3.2 Performance Poetry “Poetry is one aspect of the English curriculum which is widely acknowledged to present specific pedagogic and learning challenges” (Dymoke 2017: 227) because pupils and teachers often perceive poetry as irrelevant to their lives. One of the most demotivating factors for learners is to study something they find irrelevant to their lives (Dörnyei/ Ushioda 2021). Furthermore, there seems to be a gap between the poetic practices and productions inside and outside the classroom (Newfield/ D’Abdon 2015). The classroom often tends to be monomodal (Newfield/ D’Abdon 2015). It employs cognitive-analytic approaches focusing on close reading (Thaler 2019), which can often lead to “a rapid decline in motivation on the part of the pupils” (254, translated from German into English). 116 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="117"?> Beyond the classroom, contemporary poetic practices are multi-modal, embracing the full range of semiotic modes for meaning-making (New‐ field/ D’Abdon 2015). This characteristic is evident in the popularity of contem‐ porary forms of poetry, such as performance poetry. Performance poetry - or spoken word - is not intended for a print medium (Thaler 2019). Instead, it is a form of oral poetry explicitly composed for being performed in front of an audience. Performance poetry thus relies on being orally delivered, listened to, and viewed - either live or mediated via video or recording. Therefore, many communicative competences, such as speaking, listening, and viewing, are ad‐ dressed and can be fostered: Instead of only reading poetry, pupils can perform, listen to or watch performance poetry. In Gorman’s words: performance poetry enables connection of different communicative competences and collaboration between pupils. This expansion of modes and the notion of interactivity ties into the general goals of communicative language teaching, which aims to enhance communicative competence through interaction. The popularity of performance poetry illustrates the reclaiming of the “fruition of poetry in public spaces” (Newfield/ D’Abdon 2015: 521) and “the salience of poetry in the everyday life of the youth” (Newfield/ D’Abdon 2015: 521). For instance, spoken word poet Amanda Gorman performed “The Hill We Climb” at Joe Biden’s inauguration, making her the youngest inaugural poet. Furthermore, spoken word poet Brandon Leake won America’s Got Talent, a popular TV show among teenagers. Performance poetry transcends the confines of modes and is disseminated as audio-visual text via social media platforms such as Instagram or TikTok. In sum, the characteristics of performance poetry seem promising for in‐ creasing motivation for poetry in the EFL classroom. This observation echoes Newfield and D’Abdon’s (2015: 528) assertion that performance poetry presents “a powerful opportunity to revive pupils’ interest in poetry”. Consequently, we decided to focus on performance poetry within our DPER, which is presented below. 4. The DPER The DPER was planned in the summer term of 2021 and carried out with a group of 22 year nine learners at a private school in Bavaria on two days in July 2021. The DPER was divided into two sessions, each focusing on one spoken word artist and their performance poetry: The first session about Brandon Leake lasted 45 minutes, whereas the second session about Amanda Gorman had a time frame of 90 minutes. The in-service teacher was present in the classroom during The Digital Poetry Escape Room 117 <?page no="118"?> the intervention. One author carried out the sessions while the other observed the sessions and took field notes. This section is divided into two parts: While the pre-stage involves the planning of the DPER, the subsequent while-stage provides insight into its implementation. This insight is achieved by presenting some task examples and explaining the competicooperative approach. 4.1 Pre-Stage: Designing the DPER Since the collaboration arose from a teacher’s desire to increase her pupils’ mo‐ tivation for poetry, we started designing our DPER by investigating and eliciting pupils’ attitudes towards poetry. In addition, we explored the literature in terms of poetry teaching and motivation. In the following, we will demonstrate the development of the DPER as an environment to spark pupils’ motivation for poetry. 4.1.1 Unveiling Pupils’ Attitudes towards Poetry To unveil pupils’ attitudes towards poetry, we used three prompts that pupils reacted to anonymously and individually via Mentimeter. The first two were incomplete sentence starters: • When I hear the word ‘poetry’, I think/ feel … • I … poetry because … Both prompts resulted in very polarised responses. One pupil’s answer to the first prompt is striking: “When I hear the word poetry, I feel disgusted, destroyed and stabbed in the back.” In order to express her poetry aversion, the pupil employed overblown language, which in itself reads rather poetic and might have been intended to be ironic. By contrast, another pupil associates “old, meaningful words, that influenced our History [sic] in some way” with poetry. The second prompt also revealed both positive and negative attitudes towards poetry, as illustrated by the following examples. Whereas one pupil replied, “I don’t like poetry, because it is mainly boring and do not have the time to read them[sic]”, another pupil wrote, “I appreciate poetry, because it can capture Moments [sic] and Stories [sic] in such a beautiful way”. As for the third prompt, pupils were asked to note down three adjectives that they associated with poetry. The answers resulted in the following word cloud: 118 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="119"?> Fig. 2: Pupils’ (n = 22) associations with poetry ( July 2021, authors’ visualisation produced by Mentimeter) The word cloud shows ‘boring’, ‘overrated’ and ‘depressive’ as the most frequent associations, which clearly indicate negative attitudes. However, pupils also came up with positive associations such as ‘inspirational’, ‘expressive’, or ‘artistic’. In sum, pupils’ reported attitudes towards poetry at the beginning of the lessons can be characterised as either completely positive or completely negative. 4.1.2 Finding a Motivating Approach to Poetry As we gained an insight into the pupils’ attitudes towards poetry and studied the literature on poetry teaching, we re-conceptualised poetry teaching for this particular class in the context of our collaboration. Instead of following the tradi‐ tional cognitive-analytical approach to poetry, we wanted to implement several changes in the DPER to reduce ‘demotivators’ and create ‘motivational conditions’ (Dörnyei/ Ushioda 2021). These changes will be described in the following: The main innovation was a change in environment: we enriched the tra‐ ditional classroom with the DPER. It was hoped that this new, unfamiliar environment, which breaks familiar daily classroom routines of learning and offers a “novelty element” (Dörnyei 2001: 75), would set the scene for sparking some curiosity and initial arousal of the pupils’ motivation (Dörnyei/ Ushioda 2021). Here, we used Mebis, the government-provided platform used in Bavarian schools, for several reasons: Every school has access to it, it complies with data protection standards, and therefore, no additional permission from the parents is needed. Furthermore, this platform is similar to Moodle, a platform used at many universities; the transfer from one platform to another is simple. The Digital Poetry Escape Room 119 <?page no="120"?> Instead of the often disliked, mono-modal, silent (close) reading of written poetry, we brought performance poetry via audio-visual media into the classroom. Performance poetry, which relies on being orally delivered, listened to, and viewed, offers a multi-sensory experience and thus inherently expands the spectrum of competences. Performance poetry also caters to various learning preferences, making poetry more accessible and enjoyable for a diverse spectrum of pupils. We selected spoken word artists Amanda Gorman and Brandon Leake because they belong to the same age range as our pupils and address contemporary issues that resonate with learners of that age group: Gorman is the youngest inaugural poet in U.S. history and the first National Youth Poet Laureate. We used her recital of “The Hill We Climb” (2021) at Joe Biden’s Inauguration Ceremony and her TED- Ed Student Talk “Using Your Voice Is A Political Choice” (2018). Leake is also a spoken word poet and won the 2020 edition of America’s Got Talent, a format pupils are familiar with. We opted for his spoken word poem that poignantly describes racial injustice and police violence in relation to a Black mother’s love and fear for his son, which he performed at the quarter-final at America’s Got Talent. Given that the project was carried out in the summer of 2021, both choices were still up-to-date at that time. Moreover, the choice of these two performance poetries aligns with the Bavarian ninth grade EFL curriculum, which emphasises differentiated reactions to literary texts, including poems, and addresses current events and developments in society and politics. The curriculum expects pupils to understand longer utterances in standard language and authentic audio-visual texts. Therefore, the DPER effectively meets curricular expectations. Last but not least, we employed our so-called competicooperative approach. There has been extensive debate among researchers over which approach is more effective in structuring environments to encourage motivation and performance: cooperative or competitive. Instead of considering competition and cooperation as a contradiction, we view them as complementary (Tauer/ Harackiewicz 2004) and combine their benefits. Therefore, in the first stage, our approach combines intragroup cooperation and inter-group competition between two groups; in the second phase, it is replaced by inter-group cooperation for which the two groups need to - using Gorman’s words - connect and collaborate. Dörnyei (2001) mentions competition, challenge and cooperation as motivational strategies. The approach will be explained in more detail in the next section. 4.2 Implementing the DPER This section focuses on the implementation of the DPER, split into two sessions featuring Brandon Leake and Amanda Gorman. Due to space constraints, a 120 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="121"?> detailed exploration of all tasks is not possible. Instead, we begin by presenting some task examples before delving into a more comprehensive description of the competicooperative approach. Besides, the appendix provides some glimpses into the game architecture, serving as a valuable resource for anyone interested in designing an escape room-esque arrangement on Mebis or Moodle. 4.2.1 Task Examples Our tasks aim to capitalise on the multi-modal potential of performance poetry by integrating a diverse range of competences: The DPER tasks demand the pupils to view (that is to watch the video, listen to its sound, and sometimes read the edited-in script of the sound) the poetry performance recordings, read text bites and instructions, speak to the peers in their group in order to conceptualise responses - which they either write or speak (record). Therefore, for conceptualising responses, pupils always have to connect and collaborate with each other and thus use their communicative competences. The table below, detailing response types, elucidates how students communicate their (already orally conceptualised) responses to the Mebis platform and the primary competence through which they did so: Response type Mebis-specific example Competence recording a statement Pupils employ recording devices to record a state‐ ment in response to a task, save the file and upload it to the specified upload field within the DPER structure. speaking typing re‐ sponses Two main types for typing responses are used: First, text fields integrated into the DPER structure en‐ able students to directly type their responses onto the platform’s surface through their web browser. Second, pupils employ text editing programmes like Microsoft Word to type their responses, then save the document on the device and proceed to upload it to the dedicated upload field within the structure of the DPER. writing labelling Pupils engage in a drag-and-drop activity where they place pre-prepared word labels onto designated areas on the digital surface. This may include tasks like arranging words in a gap-text format or correctly labelling elements within an image. reading Tab. 1: Response types used in the DPER, elucidating how students communicated their (already orally conceptualised) responses to the Mebis platform (extract) The Digital Poetry Escape Room 121 <?page no="122"?> The Brandon Leake DPER includes an example of an in-browser typed response. The pupils find a 25-second clip in which Brandon Leake presents individuals from the Black community in the USA who lost their lives at the hands of police forces. Taking place in July and thus shortly after the Black Lives Matter high tide around May/ June 2020, the DPER demonstrates performance poetry as a powerful tool for addressing contemporary political issues. Pupils are prompted to use Google to identify these individuals mentioned in the clip, ensuring comprehensive understanding. To facilitate their search, the names Leake mentions in the video are seamlessly edited into the clip at the exact moment he refers to them, enhancing pupils’ accessibility to relevant information: Fig. 3: Screenshot of performance poetry used in the DPER (words edited in by authors) The task description is presented in the next figure. The pupils’ answers are expected to be entered into an in-browser text field located directly beneath the description. This text field includes sentence starters designed to scaffold and assist pupils in structuring their writing: 122 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="123"?> Fig. 4: Screenshot of Mebis surface showing task description and scaffolded in-browser type-in text field The task approach of the DPER is supposed to enable pupils to actively apply various competences in a holistic manner. In addition, this approach illustrates to pupils an array of possibilities for engaging with poetry - contrary to the traditional, mono-modal (close) reading of poetry. 4.2.2 Applying the Competicooperative Approach In elucidating the competicooperative approach, it is worthwhile to start by revisiting the definition of escape rooms and relating it to Gorman’s quote. Escape rooms are defined as “live-action team-based games where players discover clues […] and accomplish tasks in one or more rooms in order to accomplish a specific goal” (Nicholson 2015: 1, emphases added). To realise the “team-based” character of the escape room, we divided the class into two groups. This step was crucial because each team only got one-half of the “tasks” in the DPER and could consequently only collect half of the “clues” to accomplish the “goal”. The “specific goal”, which the pupils were not told about in advance, relates to Gorman’s (2018) quote and guides the competicooperative approach: Poetry is “all about connection and collaboration” and is “the language of bridges”. Thus, the two teams had to find out that the only way to finish the game was to use their foreign language to bridge their group divide in order to achieve collaboration between the teams. Stage 1: Inter-Group Competition, Intra-Group Cooperation In the first stage, the class is split into two groups that compete against each other (inter-group competition). This initial division into two groups is intended to create a group identity with an us-against-them mentality towards the opposing group, thereby driving inter-group competition. Each group is characterised by intra-group cooperation: members within each group have to cooperate and communicate with each other, be creative in order to discover clues in the DPER and solve the tasks together. Figure 5 visualises this stage: The Digital Poetry Escape Room 123 <?page no="124"?> Fig. 5: Inter-group competition during the first stage of the DPER (authors’ illustration) The two groups are in the same physical classroom as their respective opponents; yet, each group is working on their DPERs on Mebis. Thus, any communication about discovering clues and solving tasks can be heard by others, which could help them progress. This setting is supposed to push the pupils to work swiftly and keep the volume of their conversations to a minimum. More importantly, this inter-group competitive element is sup‐ posed to support group cohesiveness (Dörnyei 2001) and strengthen a sense of relatedness. Relatedness helps to mediate intrinsic motivational processes (Tauer/ Harckiewicz 2004). Stage 2: The Bridge-stage Leading to Inter-group Cooperation In our case, we used the following extract from Amanda Gorman’s (2018) TED- Ed talk as a clue to help them realise that the only way to win is through connection and collaboration with the other group: “Poetry is for everyone, and at its core, it is all about connection and collaboration […] Poetry has never been the language of barriers, it has always been the language of bridges”. In their respective DPERs on Mebis, both teams received a video of Gorman performing this extract. After viewing her performance, a verbal prompt on Mebis asked them to “look for the language of bridges within the non-virtual classroom and use your language to build a bridge with someone you have not talked to during your English lesson today”. After exchanging some initial guesses within their respective groups, they swiftly realised that the only people 124 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="125"?> they had not talked to were the opposite team members. In this way, the message by Amanda Gorman informed their actions: They started to connect with the other team by using the target language as a bridge. Figure 6 summarises this stage. Fig. 6: The bridge-stage of the DPER: poetry as the language of bridges (authors’ illustration) This transition from inter-group competition to inter-group cooperation and communication is crucial since each group receives only half of the clues. As a by-product of their intra-group collaboration on the various tasks, the pupils have also unlocked clues to a final task. To metaphorically “escape” from their DPERs, the two groups need to realise the necessity of combining these clues from both groups. To articulate-the concept of “escaping” the DPER literally: pupils have completed the sequence of tasks and reached the final stage of inter-group cooperation. Solving thus necessitates a shift from competing against the other group to cooperating with each other as illustrated in the following figure: The Digital Poetry Escape Room 125 <?page no="126"?> Fig. 7: The last stage of the competicooperative approach: Inter-group cooperation (authors’ illustration) Cooperation is “a powerful means of increasing student motivation” (Dörnyei 2001: 100). In the Gorman DPER, this cooperation reflected and assisted pupils in comprehending the moral-political core message embedded in Gorman’s text. The core message revolves around the power of performance poetry in uniting individuals and mobilising them towards a shared goal of collaboratively constructing a society grounded in respect - a society employing not a “language of barriers [but a] language of bridges.” (Gorman 2018). Gorman’s message materialises in the final task, as pupils must piece together the clues formed by fragmented sections of this ultimate task description. First, this final task encouraged pupils to delve into a discussion on perform‐ ance poetry. This discussion involved exploring the similarities and differences between Amanda Gorman’s and Brandon Leake’s performances, considering the platforms they utilised and the topics/ political messages they addressed. This discussion revealed hitherto hidden admiration for and attendance of poetry slams. Poetry slams are a competitive on-stage form of performance poetry where spoken word artists perform their original poetry. Thus, it became apparent that pupils had already observed other people’s attempts at poe-try (Thaler, 2019) by witnessing them perform their creations of original poetry. Second, pupils were encouraged to engage in poe-try (Thaler 2019) them‐ selves, a process involving the playful, creative engagement with poems without pressure or expectations. They were prompted to envision Amanda Gorman 126 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="127"?> and Brandon Leake collaborating to create performance poetry. Together, they brainstormed potential themes for the poem. 5. Discussion: The Impact of the DPER on Pupils’ Motivation for Poetry In this section, we discuss the impact of the DPER on pupils’ motivation to engage with poetry. Our observations indicate that the competicooperative approach holds potential within the context of the DPER for several reasons. Inter-group competition seems to support intra-group cooperation: working in a team and competing against another team strengthens a sense of relatedness, considered a “crucial mediator in the intrinsic motivation process” (Tauer/ Harckiewicz 2004: 851). The awareness that each team member can contribute to the team’s success motivates pupils to engage with the tasks actively. Here, we have noticed that the concept of ‘motivation’ might not be sufficient and that the multidimensional construct of language learner engagement (Mercer/ Dörnyei 2020) might be a better framework for analysis. We have observed language learner engagement across all three levels: behavioural engagement (time on task), affective engagement (pupils’ facial and verbal expressions as indicators) and cognitive engagement (pupils discussing different strategies to solve the puzzles). In addition, extrinsic motivation, in the form of inter-group competition, seems to spark intrinsic motivation. Towards the end of the second session, a boy raised his hand, expressing his desire to share a poem that had impressed him greatly. Following his sharing, another girl in the class revealed that she, too, had brought a poem. She asked the author to read it aloud to the class, appreciating his British accent. The EFL teacher of the class later informed us that this marked the first instance of any of her students bringing something, let alone poetry, to the English classroom. These episodes might also exemplify social contagion of motivation (Radel et al. 2010) - between the peers and between the teacher and the pupils. Mercer and Kostoulos (2018: 3) have taught us that “[t]hrough the process of contagion, we know that positive teacher emotions are closely connected to the affective states experienced by the learners”. According to Dörnyei (2001), the projection of enthusiasm relates to modelling, a strategy of motivational teaching practice. Being aware of motivation not occurring in a “motivational vacuum” (Dörnyei/ Ushioda 2021: 116) and the teacher being a key motivational factor (Dörnyei/ Ushioda 2021), we chose Benedikt as the ‘teacher’ of the DPER. Benedikt is a passionate reader of diverse poetries, which seems to have made The Digital Poetry Escape Room 127 <?page no="128"?> him a “motivational tool” (Dörnyei/ Ushioda 2021: 116). His genuine enthusiasm for poetry seems to have led to social contagion of motivation. Another helpful strategy is the provision of positive feedback throughout the game. Positive feedback intends to nurture pupils’ self-esteem and increase their self-confidence, which is supposed to maintain motivation (Dörnyei/ Ush‐ ioda 2021). Whereas Reeve and Deci (1996) suggest that positive feedback at the end of a competition likely increases intrinsic motivation, the DPER provides such motivational moments after each puzzle is solved. In line with Dörnyei (2001: 89), we thus provide “regular doses of success”, a strategy for maintaining and protecting motivation. Whenever the pupils encountered one of the personalised feedback memes, which we had created ourselves and tailored to the age group, their motivation visibly grew. For instance, one girl’s reaction is particularly noteworthy: upon discovering one of these memes, she looked up, hushed her friends, turned her tablet around, and inquired whether the author had created it “only for us? ” Upon learning that the entire DPER was indeed specifically arranged for them, she exclaimed, “Wow! ” and proceeded to work with remarkable enthusiasm, fully engrossed in solving the riddles. This example vividly illustrates both emotional and behavioural engagement. While we recognise that not all pupils have reacted with the same level of enthusiasm, this case compellingly illustrates the impact of personalised feedback on motivation; we are optimistic and believe that “most students’ motivation can be “worked on” and increased” (Dörnyei/ Ushioda 2021: 113). Besides, our observations highlight the impact of grouping on motivation. Our grouping aligns with the N-effect, a psychological phenomenon indicating that individuals are more motivated to compete when there are only a few competitors due to heightened social-comparison concerns (Garcia/ Tor 2009). By forming only two groups, with the assistance of the class teacher to ensure homogeneity, it appears that the two teams believed in a reasonable, realistic chance of winning ( Johnson/ Johnson 2012). Furthermore, performance poetry offers several motivational benefits: Deliv‐ ered orally, either live or mediated (video or recording), performance poetry allows for the combination of several communicative competences. Unlike the traditional approach of solely reading and analysing poems individually, pupils can actively listen to and watch performance poetry; they can engage in this experience collaboratively with their peers, transforming the interaction with poetry into a more dynamic and participatory endeavour. This diversification of modes and emphasis on interactivity align with the principles of communicative language teaching, proving beneficial in motivating pupils to embrace poetry actively. 128 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="129"?> Following our contemplation of this school-university collaboration imple‐ mented at the school level, we will now shift our focus to the university level. We will illustrate how we leveraged this real case to enhance pre-service teachers’ professional development. 6. Implementations and Implications for Professional Development in Pre-Service Teacher Education This section describes how we embedded this project in pre-service teacher education. After implementing this project in the school context, we decided to re-purpose it with one of our advanced TEFL study module classes within university-based teacher education. The goal was to bridge the gap between theory and practice (McIntyre 2005) in pre-service teacher education. How we employed this real case as a means of promoting professional development at university will be illustrated in the following, both visually and verbally: Fig. 8: The DPER as a means of promoting pre-service teachers’ professional develop‐ ment (authors’ illustration) First, seven pre-service teachers were introduced to the case by describing why and how the school-university collaboration was initiated. This introduction exemplified a teacher’s reflective practice in practice and demonstrated the need for ongoing professional development - both for pre-service and in-service teachers. In a second step, pre-service teachers were asked to explore their own attitudes towards poetry. Previous research on teachers’ beliefs demonstrates that the preconceptions teachers bring to their teacher education are crucial in shaping their experience of teacher education and their practice of teaching (Skott 2015), acting as filters, guides, and frames (Fives/ Buehl 2012). Hence, it is imperative to encourage pre-service teachers to articulate their prior beliefs The Digital Poetry Escape Room 129 <?page no="130"?> early on, enabling them to become aware of their impact and actively engage with them (Cabaroglu/ Roberts 2000). The following three simple prompts - embracing the past, present and future and combining their perspectives as pupils and teachers - were employed for some initial awareness-raising about teaching poetry (see Fig. 5): 1. On a scale from 1 (very little) to 5 (very much), how much did you like poetry at school? 2. Describe your general stance towards poetry, please. 3. How do you feel about the prospect of teaching poetry at school? The results of the Likert scale (mean value: 2.5) show that the pre-service were not keen on poetry during their time as pupils. Their general attitude towards poetry can be characterised as ambiguous, as illustrated in the following two examples: • “Personally, I have always liked poetry. But I hated discussing it in class. Especially when you HAVE TO [sic] do it, have to share your opinion out loud to the whole class.” • “Honestly, for me its [sic] rather demotivating to have to analyse an old poem from hundreds of years ago, most of which are about things that just don’t interest me personally. So if the topic is up-to-date and the poem is written in a language comprehensive for me, my motivation towards poetry is increasing rapidly.” The third prompt, which asked about how they feel about the prospect of teaching poetry at school, provided more consistent answers, which are illus‐ trated by the following text samples: • “Good, but the most important part is picking modern and relatable pieces of poetry which are (especially in younger classes) easy to understand and interpret and most importantly! Zeitgemäß [sic]! ” • “(maybe) using more recent poems instead of ones that pupils can’t relate to as times have changed” • “I would say teaching poetry could only work out at school if it is given in a form of a creative task (and, of course, an age-relevant one! ).” In these statements, aspects such as modern and relatable poetry, studentrelevant topics and creativity are mentioned. It is worth pointing out that the design of the DPER, coupled with the selection of performance poetry for its implementation, addresses most of the aspects mentioned by the student teachers. The aspect of creativity can be related back to poe-try (Thaler 2019, see 130 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="131"?> above). Another possibility for awareness-raising would have been employing possible teacher selves (Kubanyiova 2017), which can serve as motivational selfmechanism (Dörnyei 2005). Awareness-raising was followed by approaching the topics of motivation and poetry through theoretical and research lenses. In step five, pre-service teachers embodied the pupils’ perspective by playing the DPER before evaluating it through the pupils’ lens and the teacher’s lens. 6. Limitations Having discussed the DPER in both school and university contexts, we now want to address some limitations of the approach taken in this collaboration. Clearly, this collaboration only provides a snapshot perspective: Since it was not designed as a study, the lack of measured effect sizes prevents us from formulating hypotheses regarding any lasting influences on pupils’ motivation to engage with poetry. Furthermore, we cannot give any information on the specific sources of the motivational boost we witnessed. Possible sources might be the DPER (game design, content, novelty effect) or “Benedikt” as a motivated and motivating teacher. Furthermore, time constraints, due to school organisation, prevented us from having a ‘debriefing’ after the DPER with the class. Debriefings help to transfer learning gains from the game context to the real world (Veldkamp et al. 2022), with teachers acting as mediators who connect these two contexts and relate the insights gained to the broader learning objectives of the classroom. In such debriefings, pupils could also reflect on the skills they utilised and whether their stance towards poetry shifted, potentially overcoming any aversions. Debriefings would also help better determine the motivational effects of the DPER. Due to the short-term nature of the collaboration, pre-service teachers’ engagement with the DPER plus an evaluation measure could not be realised in the same term when the project was launched and conducted; instead, it was shifted to the subsequent winter term. If evaluation results had been available before implementing the DPER in the classroom, minor flaws in the set-up of the digital game architecture could have been addressed and eliminated. Involving pre-service teachers in the DPER design might could have provided them with greater agency in their professional development and created another option for collaboration. What we have learnt from our project for designing future DPERs is to solicit input from pupils, the in-service teacher, and pre-service teachers to identify potential demotivators (Dörnyei/ Ushioda 2021) in poetry teaching before project planning. This input might offer a more emic perspective on poetry teaching, generating valuable insights for future project designs. The Digital Poetry Escape Room 131 <?page no="132"?> 7. Conclusion DPERs, as a competicooperative environment, clearly have a potential to strengthen language learners’ motivation for poetries. Inter-group competition fostered intra-group cooperation, aligning with the concept of relatedness as a crucial mediator in intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation through intergroup competition led to unexpected intrinsic motivation, as observed in pupils voluntarily sharing poems. Social contagion of motivation was observed among peers and between the teacher and pupils. Having a poetry enthusiast as the ‘teacher’ of the DPER contributed to this motivational contagion. Positive feedback after each puzzle in the form of digital, personalised, age-appropriate feedback memes, and effective task characteristics enhanced emotional and behavioural engagement. Homogenous grouping and avoiding an excessive number of competitors contributed to a perceived reasonable chance of winning. Overall, the DPER and its competicooperative approach can be said to realise some motivational strategies and thus positively influence learners’ motivation for engaging with poetry in the foreign language classroom - at least shortterm. Moreover, performance poetry, as a multi-modal poetic form, encompasses not only reading but also listening, viewing, and speaking. The DPER serves as a promising environment for integrating the various competences and engaging pupils with the multi-sensory nature of performance poetry. It allows for seamlessly blending technology into the dynamic learning experience, thus encouraging collaboration and communication among peers as opposed to the traditional (close) reading of poetry solely as an individual task. This approach turns out to realise adaptive teaching as it caters for diverse learning preferences, thereby enhancing the inclusiveness of the language classroom through teaching poetry. Based on our experience with the DPER and the perspectives of the pupils and the pre-service teachers, we can derive some general principles for sparking language learners’ motivation for poetries. We acknowledge that these recom‐ mendations stem from a single case and, therefore, need to be considered with the circumstances of this project and the target group in mind. Being aware of the limitations of our small-scale collaboration, we can propose the following C- Conversation embracing seven C’s for sparking motivation for modern poetries in the EFL classroom: 132 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="133"?> Principle Realised in the DPER collaboration between teachers (in-service, pre-service), teacher educators and pupils competicooperation competitive (inter-group) and cooperative (first intra-group, then inter-group) content topics pupils can relate to contemporary canon performance poetry connection various competences are integrated creativity poe-try: a playful, creative engagement and experimentation with poetry, where learners are not burdened by any sense of expectations or pressure Tab. 2: The C-Conversation to spark pupils’ motivation for poetries To say it with Dörnyei and Ushioda’s (2021: 112) words: by presenting our DPER, we aim to raise teachers’ and teacher educators’ “motivational awareness of motivational strategies” and provide them with “a menu of potentially useful insights and suggestions”. From this array, they can selectively choose and adapt elements that align with their poetry teaching objectives and suit their learner group. Implementing a DPER requires a teacher willing to engage with this particular digital and game-based environment and align it with poetry. Our DPER has demonstrated that a teacher’s motivation can positively impact learners’ motivation. However, motivational contagion operates bidirectionally: “If learners are motivated and engaged, this too is motivating for teachers and so ensures upward spiral of positivity, which benefits both teachers and learners” (Mercer/ Kostoulos 2018: 3). The positive responses from our learners may inspire teachers who are hesitant about poetry to embrace the potential of performance poetry within a DPER. References Bradford, Coleen C./ Brown, Vanessa/ El Houari, Merial/ Trakis, Jason. M./ Weber, Julia. A./ Buendgens-Kosten, Jules (2021). English Escape! Using breakout games in the intermediate to advanced EFL classroom. Ludic Language Pedagogy 3, 1-20. Cabaroglu, Nese/ Roberts, Jon (2000). Development in student teachers’ pre-existing beliefs during a 1-year PGCE programme. System 28/ 3, 387-402. DOI: 10.1016/ S0346 -251X(00)00019-1 The Digital Poetry Escape Room 133 <?page no="134"?> Dörnyei, Zoltán (2001). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. 1 st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/ CBO9780511667343 Dörnyei, Zoltán (2005). The Psychology of the Language Learner. New York, NY: Routledge. DOI: 10.4324/ 9781410613349 Dörnyei, Zoltán (2019). Task motivation: What makes an L2 task engaging? In: Wen, Zhisheng (Edward)/ Ahmadian, Mohammad J., eds. Researching L2 Task Performance and Pedagogy. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 53-66. DOI: 10.10 75/ tblt.13.04dor Dörnyei, Zoltán/ Ushioda, Ema (2021). Teaching and researching motivation. 3 rd ed. New York, NY: Routledge. Dymoke, Sue (2017). ‘Poetry is not a special club’: How has an introduction to the secondary discourse of spoken word made poetry a memorable learning experience for young people? Oxford Review of Education 43/ 2, 225-241. DOI: 10.1080/ 0305498 5.2016.1270200 Fives, Helenrose/ Buehl, Michelle (2012). Spring cleaning for the “messy” construct of teachers’ beliefs: What are they? Which have been examined? What can they tell us? In: Harris, Karen R./ Graham, Steve/ Urdan, Timothy C./ Graham, Sarah/ Royer, James M./ Zeidner Moshe, eds. APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 2: Individual dif‐ ferences and cultural and contextual factors. Washington DC: American Psychological Association, 471-499. DOI: 10.1037/ 13274-019 Fotaris, Panagiotis/ Mastoras, Theodoros (2019). Escape Rooms for Learning: A System‐ atic Review. Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Game Based Learning, 235-243. DOI: 10.34190/ GBL.19.179 Freeman, Donald/ Webre, Anne-Coleman/ Epperson, Martha (2019). What counts as knowledge in English language teaching? In: Walsh, Steve/ Mann, Steve, eds. The Routledge handbook of English language teacher education (pp. 13-24). New York, NY: Routledge. Garcia, Stephen M./ Tor, Avishalom (2009). The N-Effect: More Competitors, Less Com‐ petition. Psychological Science 20/ 7, 871-877. DOI: 10.1111/ j.1467-9280.2009.02385.x Gorman, Amanda (2021). Amanda Gorman reads inauguration poem, “The Hill We Climb”. https: / / www.youtube.com/ watch? v=LZ055ilIiN4 (last accessed: 30.10.2023) Gorman, Amanda (2018). Ted-Ed Student Talks: Using your voice is a political choice. h ttps: / / www.youtube.com/ watch? v=plU-QpcEswo (last accessed: 30.10.2023) Graves, Kathleen (2009). The curriculum of second language teacher education. In: Burns, Anne/ Richards, Jack C., eds. The Cambridge guide to second language teacher education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 115-124. Johnson, David/ Johnson, Roger (2012). Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning environments. In: Hattie, John/ Anderman, Eric M., eds. International guide to student achievement. New York: Routledge, 372-374. 134 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="135"?> Kubanyiova, Magdalena (2017). Understanding language teachers’ sense-making in action through the prism of future self guides. In: Barkhuizen, Gary. P, ed. Reflections on language teacher identity research. New York, NY: Routledge, 100-106. McIntyre, Donald (2005). Bridging the gap between research and practice. Cambridge Journal of Education 35/ 3, 357-382. DOI: 10.1080/ 03057640500319065 Mercer, Sarah/ Kostoulas, Achilleas (2018). Conclusions: Lessons Learnt, Promising Per‐ spectives. In: Mercer, Sarah/ Kostoulas, Achilleas, eds. Language teacher psychology. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 330-336. Mercer, Sarah/ Dörnyei, Zoltán (2020). Engaging language learners in contemporary classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Newfield, Denise/ D’Abdon, Raphael (2015). Reconceptualising Poetry as a Multimodal Genre. TESOL Quarterly 49/ 3, 510-532. DOI: 10.1002/ tesq.239 Nicholson, Scott (2015). Peeking behind the locked door: A survey of escape room facilities. http: / / scottnicholson.com/ pubs/ erfacwhite.pdf (last accessed: 30.10.2023) Nicholson, Scott (2018). Creating engaging escape rooms for the classroom. Childhood Education 94/ 1, 44-49. DOI: 10.1080/ 00094056.2018.1420363 Ouariachi, Tania/ Wim, Elving (2020). Escape rooms as tools for climate change education: An exploration of initiatives. Environmental Education Research 26/ 8, 1193-1206. DOI: 10.1080/ 13504622.2020.1753659 Radel, Rémi/ Sarrazin, Philippe/ Legrain, Pascal/ Wild, T. Cameron (2010). Social contagion of motivation between teacher and student: Analyzing underlying processes. Journal of Educational Psychology 102/ 3, 577-587. DOI: 10.1037/ a0019051 Reeve, Johnmarshall/ Deci, Edward L. (1996). Elements of the competitive situation that affect intrinsic motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22/ 1, 24-33. DOI: 10.1177/ 0146167296221003 Schön, Donald A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York, NY: Basic Books. Skott, Jeppe (2015). The Promises, problems, and prospects of research on teachers’ beliefs. In: Fives, Helenrose/ Gill, Michele Gregoire, eds. International handbook of research on teachers’ beliefs. New York, NY: Routledge, 13-30. Taraldsen, Lene/ Haara, Frode Olav/ Lysne, Mari S./ Jensen, Pernille Reitan/ Jenssen, Eirik S. (2022). A review on use of escape rooms in education - touching the void. Education Inquiry 13/ 2, 169-184. DOI: 10.1080/ 20004508.2020.1860284 Tauer, John/ Harackiewicz, Judith (1999). Winning isn’t everything: Competition, ach‐ ievement orientation, and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psy‐ chology 35, 209-238. Thaler, Engelbert (2019). Lyrik im Sprachunterricht. In: Lütge, Christiane, ed. Grund‐ themen der Literaturwissenschaft: Literaturdidaktik. Berlin: De Gruyter, 246-260. DOI: 10.1515/ 9783110410709-012 The Digital Poetry Escape Room 135 <?page no="136"?> Veldkamp, Alice/ Niese, Rebecca, J./ Heuvelmans, Martijn/ Knippels, Marie-Christine P. J./ Van Joolingen, Wouter R. (2022). You escaped! How did you learn during gameplay? British Journal of Educational Technology 53/ 5, 1430-1458. DOI: 10.1111/ bjet.13194 Wallace, Michael J. (1991). Training foreign language teachers: A reflective approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Walsh, Steve (2015). Classroom interaction for language teachers. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Press. Appendix: Glimpses into the Game Architecture of the DPER If a colleague wants to create an escape room-esque arrangement on Mebis or Moodle, the following general instructions might prove helpful. In order to connect tasks into a task chain, illustrated in Figure 9, you need to connect the single tasks much like the rings of a chain. In the Brandon Leake example from the first lesson, task one “Getting to know Brandon Leake” needs to be completed in order to make task two “Brandon Leake” accessible. After task two is completed, task three becomes accessible. Fig. 9: Glimpse into the task chain within the DPER With seven clicks, a teacher can link two tasks to create a gamified atmosphere and playful dynamics. Those seven clicks are: Open the tab Vorraussetzungen (Conditions) in whatever task needs to be inaccessible before another is finished and add the condition that said previous task is completed. That takes five clicks: 1) Conditions 2) Participants have to … 3) Select previous task 4) select “has to be completed” and 5) Click “Save”. One can, in fact, also pile several tasks to be finished before an element in the chain is unlocked. Under the tab Aktivitätsabschluss (Completion of task), you can then select that a task only needs to be viewed to mark it as completed or that indeed a file needs to be uploaded, some text needs to be typed in or whatever other task content you envisage for the pupils. That takes at least one click (6) (and it must 136 Isabelle Sophie Thaler & Benedikt Meininger <?page no="137"?> be admitted up to several more clicks depending on the task content one plans for) and then one more click (7) to save the changes, and there it is, after (at least) seven clicks two tasks are combined in a dynamic way. The progression of the game sees these clues that the groups need to collect, and the pupils can, all the while, see what conditions need to be fulfilled to get to the clues. Thus, they know exactly what needs to be done, keeping them motivated as they can see what is expected of them. The following figure illustrates this progression: Fig. 10: Glimpse into the progression of the clues to be solved within the DPER The Digital Poetry Escape Room 137 <?page no="139"?> A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany: Experiences, Attitudes, and Future Potential Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug 1. Introduction In the digital age, songs appear in various spaces: People may watch a music video online, search for the lyrics of a particular song they like, read about a specific artist or band, and possibly even create and share music online. With an estimated daily consumption exceeding one hour (ARD 2023), engaging with music and songs is among the most favourite activities of adolescents in Germany (see also mpfs 2022: 16). This trend is reflected globally, as evidenced by the steady increase in the music streaming market worldwide (Music Streaming - Worldwide, n.d.). Due to the popularity of English-language songs, it can be assumed that especially such music plays an essential part in the lives of EFL learners. It is not surprising, therefore, that in English language education, scholars have explored specific topics and skills that can be taught with the help of songs (see, e.g., contributions in Arnold/ Herrick 2017 or Falkenhagen/ Volkmann 2019). According to a recent survey, listening to the radio is still important, but most music content is consumed with the help of digital streaming services or other online platforms (mpfs 2022: 20, 30). Thus, with a specific view to the potential of the digital age - considering everyday practices of learners as well as the vast amount of information available online - researchers have developed activities such as (i) creating and sharing playlists, (ii) using karaoke, and (iii) reporting on a chosen musician (Lems 2018). In digital environments, there have also been efforts to establish dedicated song-based websites and apps (e.g., ling oclip.com; lyricsgaps.com) geared towards informal language learning, mostly involving gamification elements (Werner et al. 2017; Garib 2021). On that note, it has also been suggested that engaging with songs (and pop cultural texts <?page no="140"?> more broadly) can help to build a bridge between informal and institutionalized language learning (Butler et al. 2022; Ludke/ Morgan 2022; Werner/ Tegge 2021). Considering the newly emerging potential of songs for English language teaching (ELT) in the digital age, this contribution aims to investigate the views of pre-service teachers regarding the application of songs. Through quantitative analysis and a focus on pre-service teachers’ actual school experiences and their respective attitudes, the present work complements qualitative attitude studies that have considered the integration of pop culture more broadly (Butler et al. 2022) as well as further attitude studies that focused on songs specifically (see Section 2.3). The study presented is (i) based on the assumption that teachers play a crucial role when it comes to implementing song-based activities in the classroom, and (ii) starts from the hypothesis that the teachers’ attitudes towards using songs in ELT may change during the formative period of university education and pre-service training. 2. Songs in ELT: Literature Review 2.1 Curricula and Textbooks Songs and song lyrics are frequently included in curricula, for instance as part of the broader text definition including, inter alia, audiovisual and multimodal texts in the subject profile of modern foreign languages at Bavarian secondary schools, as becomes apparent in the following definition: Die Schülerinnen und Schüler beschäftigen sich im Sinne eines erweiterten Textbegriffes mit einer großen Bandbreite von auditiven, audiovisuellen, schriftlichen, visuellen und multimedialen Texten. (ISB 2023) English textbooks used in Bavarian and German schools, for example, thus do include some songs. However, research has shown that songs are typically printed towards the end of textbook units, and they do not play a crucial role per se, for instance for grammar instruction at German secondary schools (Summer 2011: 378). Further, they are rarely included in materials for adult learners (Tegge 2018: 274). Evaluations of an internationally used textbook aimed at intermediate learners, English in Mind 2 (Puchta/ Stranks 2010; see Mõts 2016: 35-36), and of textbooks used in Croatia at the beginner level (Gortan- Carlin/ Dobravac 2021) have been more positive, so that results are mixed as regards the implementation of song-based activities in textbooks. 140 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="141"?> 2.2 Potential of Songs: Language Learning and Attitudes The potential of songs in ELT has further been explored and attested in several recent meta-studies. For instance, a survey referring to 28 studies from 1990 to 2020 revealed relatively strong positive effects of songs on vocabulary learning (Murphy Odo 2022). Another meta-study, focusing on the effects of classroom interventions more generally, compared 28 studies on lyrics-based teaching published between 1972 and 2019 and indicated beneficial effects on both learner attitudes and several individual language learning/ competence areas (e.g., vocabulary and verbal recall, listening comprehension), yet less clear effects on grammar learning (Werner 2020). Within the scope of yet another recent study that reviewed 60 primary studies (Hamilton et al. 2024), it has also been observed that methodological designs of many intervention studies leave considerable room for improvement, limiting the robustness of pertinent findings. 2.3 Teacher Attitudes The above-mentioned studies display the general potential of music in the classroom; and practitioner surveys have shown that teachers are aware of the positive effects of songs: A study by Kirby et al. (2023) investigated the role of music in US preschools and revealed that teachers employed music despite various issues, including the (non-)availability of resources such as instruments and materials, and that teachers would do so even more if the problems mentioned were solved. Kanonidou and Papachristou (2019) conducted a study in Greece and found that language teachers in the Greek educational context valued the use of songs and lyrics (as well as of poetry) to make lessons more engaging and to bring creativity to the classroom, and saw its specific potential for improving listening and speaking skills as well as for vocabulary and grammar development. This study further identified factors discouraging the use of songs (limited teaching time, being overburdened with other curricular matters and lack of technical equipment), and found that in general (and especially more experienced) teachers rely less on songs than they wish to do, highlighting a discrepancy between attitudes and actual practice. Moreover, a survey by Tegge (2018) revealed that teachers’ attitudes towards songs tend to be positive, with 88 % of participants considering them as useful (277). At the same time, 82 % of the participants stated that they used songs for teaching in the classroom (Tegge 2018: 277). Interestingly, teachers who claimed not to use songs at all did so despite the potential they see in them: Of the A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 141 <?page no="142"?> informants reportedly not using songs, only around 12 % thought they did not support language learning (Tegge 2018: 282). A closer investigation of potential challenges in the use of songs in the classroom showed that approximately 29 % of participants had problems with finding “suitable songs” (Tegge 2018: 281), an issue already salient in an earlier small-scale study on Turkish EFL teachers at the primary level (Şevik 2011). The reported difficulty in finding songs is confirmed in the teacher survey by Bokiev and Ismail (2021: 1512), in which teachers also listed further impedi‐ ments, such as the scarcity of teaching materials, the curriculum, and time constraints. Moreover, participants stated that they regarded the development of “meaningful and varying music activities” that cater to their learners’ needs as demanding (Bokiev/ Ismail 2021: 1515). The results also highlight the relevance of teacher education in developing their future beliefs as teachers: Even though most of the teachers had not received any specialized training in the pedagogical use of music and songs, the statements given by the teachers suggested that their professional education had, to some extent, contributed to the formation of their beliefs about the usefulness of music (Bokiev/ Ismail 2021: 1507). In this context, teacher education as a major formative phase can have a bearing on the development of future teachers’ beliefs and practices. With a large body of research on attitudes towards songs in the classroom focusing on teachers’ per‐ spectives available (and learner perspectives, see, e.g., Kanonidou/ Papachristou 2019; Tsang et al. 2023), it is therefore conducive to also investigate pre-service teachers’ perspectives specifically to arrive at a comprehensive picture. 2.4 Motivating the Study: Pre-Service Teachers’ Perspectives To bridge the aforementioned gap, we investigated the experiences of preservice teachers (including several students pursuing a general degree in English philology) with songs (children’s, authentic, and pedagogical songs) at school, their attitudes towards them, and the potential the informants see in working with songs in ELT. More specifically, we focused on the following research questions: 1. School experiences: What role did songs play in the informants’ English classes at school? Which songs do they recall, and how were these songs used in English classes? 2. Attitudes: What is the informants’ general opinion regarding the use of songs for ELT? How do their experiences at school influence their perspective on the use and benefits of songs for ELT? 142 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="143"?> 3. Future potential: To what extent are informants willing and motivated to integrate songs into their future ELT practice? Which challenges and benefits do university students see in working with relevant texts? 3. Methodology 3.1 Data Collection For data collection, we conducted a survey among pre-service English teachers from various universities in Germany that - unlike most previous efforts (see Section 2.3) - also allows quantitative insights (N=258; 196 female; 54 male; 4 diverse). Contact with informants was established through lecturers involved in pre-service teacher training in TEFL and English Linguistics at relevant institutions. A large majority of participants (82 %; N=209) were between 18 and 24 years of age and mainly studied in their first (40 %), third (20 %), or fifth (11 %) semester at the time of survey completion. The distribution of participants across the German federal states was unbalanced, with 53 % of participants studying in Bavaria, followed by Saxony (11 %), North Rhine Westphalia (10 %), Hesse (9-%), and Schleswig-Holstein (8-%). This, by and large, shows where the participants went to school: The five most frequently mentioned places, albeit in a slightly different order, are again Bavaria (46 %), North Rhine Westphalia (11 %), Saxony (9 %), Hesse (7 %), and Schleswig-Holstein (6 %). Our results should therefore be interpreted against the background that these proportions are not representative of the German education system as a whole and that various federal states are not part of our sample at all. However, the sample represents the two most populous federal states (North Rhine Westphalia, Bavaria) as well as a considerable geographical spread and the internal diversity of the German education system, in which policies are determined at the state rather than the national level. The survey was conducted as an online questionnaire distributed via Lime‐ Survey (www.limesurvey.org). It consisted of five parts that focused on: 1. participants’ studies of English, 2. their experiences as learners at school, 3. their experiences during internships at school, 4. attitudes towards and perceived potential of lyrical texts (songs and poems) in ELT, and 5. demographic data. It included closed items to grasp experiences, attitudes, and perceived potential quantitatively, and open-ended items for additional qualitative and explorative A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 143 <?page no="144"?> insights (see https: / / osf.io/ 4sfxn? view_only=69ac669a5ff74e4b9b4bd26e490e87 9a). Note that although the overall questionnaire focused on lyrical texts in general and therefore on both poems and songs, we will exclusively zoom in on songs in this contribution. 3.2 Data Analysis We mainly resorted to descriptive statistics and calculated ratios to analyse closed items, such as Likert scale replies or multiple-choice items. For the analysis of the qualitative data provided in three open-ended questions, we used the steps outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006) as a basis for the thematic analysis, moving back and forth in the coded categories to define specific themes. Nevertheless, as the focus of the open-ended answers was primarily on descriptive elements such as the songs they remembered and approaches they reportedly used in class, the findings are based mainly on specific song categories rather than themes, and they yielded additional quantitative data on the frequency of songs listed by the participants. We combined a deductive and inductive approach (Denscombe 2021: 331): Some categories were already set (e.g., based on the types of songs used or the language skills/ competencies in focus), while others emerged out of the answers given by the participants (e.g., translation activities). The data analysed in response to the open questions in focus here includes responses from an extended set of participants (N=634; students of English; not necessarily pre-service teachers) as these primarily include learning experiences and memories of English lessons, where we consider a more comprehensive overview useful. With attitudes, however, we refer to the data of pre-service teachers only, so that conclusions for future ELT can be drawn. 4. Results 4.1 School Experiences In terms of their experiences as learners at school, participants reported how often they used songs in ELT. Figure 1 displays an overview of this reported use of songs. 144 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="145"?> Fig. 1: Reported frequency of the use of songs as learners at school (N=258) Accordingly, almost half of the pre-service teachers of English (45 %) remember having worked with songs in ELT occasionally, with 29 % stating they rarely or never worked with songs, and 25 % often or very often. As it is challenging to interpret what an occasional or frequent use of songs - to give but two examples - refers to, a further question aimed to specify the frequency of engagement with categories of different songs used in ELT. A closer look at these song categories encountered in ELT reveals similar patterns, as Figure 2 shows. A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 145 <?page no="146"?> Fig. 2: Reported frequency of song categories encountered by participants at school (N=258) Across all three categories, that is, (1) children’s songs, (2) authentic songs from various musical genres such as pop or rap music, and (3) pedagogical songs developed for learning purposes specifically, participants mainly remember having worked with 1-5 songs each during their entire time at school, which, taking approximately two years of primary, and eight to nine years of grammar school ELT as a reference, likely extended over a period of 10 to 11 years for many participants. If we assume an average of three songs in the (by far biggest) groups that report having used 1-5 songs of each category, then a typical student was exposed to about nine songs during their school time, i.e. (slightly less than) one song per year. Moreover, three open-ended questions asked students (N=634) about specific songs they recalled from their English lessons and a specific lesson they remembered in which a song was used. These were analysed qualitatively and categorized according to the three-part categorization of songs in the questionnaire (i.e. children’s, authentic, pedagogical songs). When asked whether they remembered a specific song that they used in their English lessons, 327 participants provided an answer: 124 (38 %) answered “no”; 203 (62 %) answered “yes”, while almost all respondents N=196 answered the follow-up question, “Which song(s) do you remember dealing with in your English lessons? ”. For this item, we grouped answers into three main categories. Vague responses and comments on teaching procedures 146 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="147"?> 1 Numbers in brackets indicate participant IDs. were not included in the data analysis as they were not our primary research focus at this stage. When songs were not explicitly named but merely described, the descriptions were assigned to the corresponding category, such as in (1). (1) “a song with which you learned the months” (P541) 1 → pedagogical songs An important note here is that all songs or raps reported for learning the ABC are included in the category of pedagogical songs, although both authentic and pedagogical songs of this kind exist. In cases of doubt, therefore, songs were assigned to the category of pedagogical songs, as no specific artist or band seems to have had any significant impact on listeners’ memorization. Table 1 provides an overview of the categories as well as explanations of each category and provides some examples of the responses in the data. Category Explanation C1 Children’s songs Nursery rhymes of the English-speaking world/ au‐ thentic children’ songs (e.g., Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes; Old MacDonald Had a Farm) C2 Authentic pop songs Songs from the English-speaking world that were not written for pedagogical purposes/ textbooks covering all musical genres (except for children’s songs) C3 Pedagogical songs Songs specifically written for pedagogical/ learning pur‐ poses that are typically found in textbooks or other teaching materials (e.g., songs in the textbook Playway) Tab. 1: Categories of songs listed in participants’ answers Taking a closer look at the individual songs, we identified the nursery rhyme and movement song Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes as the song listed, and thus remembered, most frequently by 33 participants (17 %). Additional movement songs listed include Hi, My Name is Joe and Sally Go round the Sun, the latter of which could involve walking in a circle. The second most frequently listed song is a pedagogical song. More specifically in this case, a song collection seems to have had an impact on participants and their ability to remember certain songs from their English lessons: Prunella the Poltergeist songs. A follow-up search revealed that there are two Prunella songs printed in the textbook English G 21, namely Prunella’s Song, a song about the poltergeist Prunella that breaks various things (making use of verbs such as close, open, push, etc.) (Schwarz 2007: 10), and Prunella’s Plate Song (Schwarz 2007: 13), a song about colours embedded into a story about the ghost A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 147 <?page no="148"?> who likes breaking colourful plates. Participants repeatedly stressed that they can still remember the lyrics of a specific song; some listed the textbook (English G21) and a specific song such as “Prunella’s plates” (P360); a further participant listed a specific grade in which the song was used namely “in 5th grade” (P658). The third most frequently named song is an authentic pop song: The Tide is High by Atomic Kitten, which was listed 10 times and appears in Green Line 2 (Bavaria) (Hellyer- Jones et al. 2006: 40). Following in terms of frequency are the songs Cats in the Cradle (Harry Chapin), Dear Mr President (P! nk), and Strange Fruit (Billie Holiday), which thus seem to have been popular songs in participants’ English lessons. Table 2 provides an overview of all songs listed according to their frequency, with a minimum of three mentions. Rank Cat. Songs (and artists) Frequency 1 C1 Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes 33 2 C3 Prunella the Poltergeist songs 31* 3 C2 The Tide Is High (Atomic Kitten) 10 4 C2 Cats in the Cradle (Harry Chapin [or other]) 8 5 C3 Playway songs (primary school textbook: Playway, Klett) 7* 6 C2 Dear Mr President (P! nk) 7 7 C2 Strange Fruit (Billie Holiday) 6 8 C3 Bumblebee (primary school textbook: Bumblebee, Wester‐ mann) 5 9 C2 Sk8ter Boi (Avril Lavigne) 5 10 C1 Old MacDonald Had a Farm 5 11 C3 ABC song(s)/ rap(s) 5** 12 C2 Zombie (The Cranberries) 4 13 C2 Bloody Sunday (U2) 4 14 C2 Lemon Tree (Fools Garden) 3 15 C2 In the Shadows (The Rasmus) 3 16 C2 Where Is the Love (Black Eyed Peas) 3 17 C2 Gimme Hope Joanna (Eddy Grant) 3 18 C2 If I Were a Boy (Beyoncé) 3 19 C2 Streets of London (Ralph McTell) 3 Tab. 2: Songs listed according to frequency (N=634) 148 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="149"?> * This total number includes descriptive references in answers referring to different songs within these textbooks such as “A lot of songs from the playway books” (P95). ** All ABC songs/ raps listed were combined in the category of pedagogical songs. However, there are different ABC songs (both authentic and pedagogical songs). It is unclear which ABC songs were referred to in the answers. The most frequently listed category of songs is authentic pop songs. Participants listed a total of 223 authentic pop songs, among which 155 were different ones. The authentic pop songs listed include a great variety of genres and songs from different times, for instance Growing Up (from 2015) by Macklemore and Ryan Lewis (feat. Ed Sheeran) and Halo (2009) by Beyoncé as well as some “evergreens” such as Yesterday (1965) by the Beatles and Englishman in New York (1987) by Sting. A comparison between authentic pop songs, children’s songs, and pedagogical songs reveals that the variety of children’s songs and pedagogical songs is more limited: Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes as well as the textbook songs about Prunella the Poltergeist are the songs mentioned most frequently. Moreover, the songs in the textbooks Playway for grade 3 and 4 in primary schools (Gerngroß/ Puchta 2005a; b) were listed seven times. Table 3 summarizes the categories according to the frequencies of songs mentioned, including the most frequent songs. Rank Cat. Song category Total Most frequent songs 1 C2 Authentic pop songs 223 The Tide Is High (Atomic Kitten) (N=10) Cats in the Cradle (Harry Chapin [/ other]) (N=8) Dear Mr President (P! nk) (N=7) Strange Fruit (Billie Holiday) (N=6) 2 C1 Children’s songs 56 Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes (N=33) Old MacDonald Had a Farm (N=5) 3 C3 Pedagogical songs 50 Prunella the Poltergeist songs (N=31) Playway songs (N=7) Bumblebee (N=5) An ABC Song (N=5) Tab. 3: Song categories listed according to frequency (N=634) In response to how lyrical texts were integrated into an English lesson and through which procedures, 110 participants provided a short description of their experiences. Of those, 98 participants described specific experiences with songs; the others focused on the use of poetry, which is excluded from the analysis here. Participants most frequently referred to the training of certain A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 149 <?page no="150"?> skills including listening, reading, reading aloud, speaking, writing, translation, and audio-visual comprehension. A total of 122 such examples were found in the data (for a more detailed analysis, see https: / / osf.io/ 74a2p? view_only=69a c669a5ff74e4b9b4bd26e490e879a). Figure 3 provides an overview of the skills mentioned. Fig. 3: Frequency of specific skills and competencies mentioned in connection to songs (N=258) Please note: “speaking” includes discussion and pronunciation; “reading” includes text/ song analysis, interpretation, (analysing) stylistic devices; “reading aloud” refers to the reading of a text aloud in class Looking at skills specifically, participants most frequently listed the training of listening (N=55) and reading (N=39) skills. Speaking, including the training of pronunciation, was also mentioned (N=13). Eight participants referred to translation as a common procedure, and, interestingly, mediation was not mentioned at all. These findings are evident in examples (2) to (4). (2) “this was followed by a short discussion of the contents” (P192; translations from German by the authors) (3) “simply listening to an audio from the English textbook” (P80) (4) “Finally, we listened to ‘New York’ by Alicia Keys and translated the song” (P528) 150 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="151"?> Watching the video of a song (i.e. viewing), writing, and reading aloud were named in two to three answers each. This illustrates that from the respondents’ perspective at large, receptive skills were in focus whereas productive skills played a more marginal role in the use of songs in English lessons. 4.2 Attitudes The reported occasional encounter with songs as learners at school, combined with a focus on listening and reading, stands in opposition to pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards songs. Figure 4 shows to what extent participants would like to work with songs from learners’ and teachers’ perspectives. Fig. 4: Reported willingness to work with songs (N=258) If they were currently learners at school, 72 % (N=181) would like to work with songs “very much”, and 25 % “much”. Results reveal similar ratios when asked how much they would like to work with songs if they were in fact teachers: 73-% and 23-% respectively. In the next step, we provided informants with specific characteristics of songs and asked them to what extent they agreed with the respective statements. Figure 5 summarizes the agreement ratings with the seven statements. A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 151 <?page no="152"?> Fig. 5: Attitudes towards key characteristics of songs (N=258) Results demonstrate that pre-service teachers regard songs as motivating for learners (98 % rather or completely agree), and as a relevant contribution to second/ foreign language acquisition (95 % rather or completely agree). Moreover, they consider working with songs generally important (93 % rather or completely agree). At the same time, participants tend to (rather) disagree with the items with negative associations: For instance, regarding their personal workload when using songs in teaching, they do not generally assume that this requires a lot of effort in terms of preparation (67 % rather or completely disagree). Moreover, they tend to not worry about choosing suitable texts for specific groups of learners (77 % rather or completely disagree). In addition, participants do rather not think that authentic songs are too complex in terms of content and language for younger learners, that is, years 5 to 8 (84 % rather or completely disagree), nor do they think that working with songs is generally difficult due to their linguistic complexity (84 % rather or completely disagree). 4.3 Future Potential Regarding the future potential that participants see in using songs in ELT, we specifically asked about competencies and topics which they think could be taught with the help of songs. The data shows that they consider songs beneficial for teaching a variety of competencies, yet to differing degrees, as displayed in Figure 6. 152 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="153"?> Fig. 6: Perceived potential of songs across competencies (c. = competence) (N=258) Informants recognize the benefits of songs for various competencies, particu‐ larly teaching listening and pronunciation. At the end of a wide range of competencies in descending order of perceived potential, grammar and writing are located, that is, the least potential of songs is attributed to them. At the same time, we provided a range of (partly taboo or controversial) topics (Summer/ Steinbock 2023) that could potentially be discussed using songs in ELT. The answers are summarized in Figure 7. Fig. 7: Perceived potential of songs across topics (N=258) A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 153 <?page no="154"?> While participants see a wide range of potentially controversial topics that can be treated in class using songs (all 15 answer categories were selected by at least 30 out of the 258 respondents), some clear favourites emerge on which the majority would agree. Discussing the topics of love and friendship top the list (at 88 % and 87 % respectively); they are followed by racism (71 %), family matters and discrimination (67 % each). At 34 % and 12 %, respectively, songs are rated least suitable for addressing sustainability and conspiracy theories by our respondents. 4.4 Correlation Patterns between Exposure and Attitudes towards Music or Poetry and the Willingness to Work with Songs in ELT To see whether participants’ willingness to work with songs in ELT is related to their exposure and attitudes towards music and songs, we calculated Spearman rank correlations for all 258 pre-service teacher participants. The ranks for reported willingness to work with songs as teachers follow from the ordinal scaling of the response categories (“very much” - “much” - “somewhat” - “not at all”; see Figure 4). The ranks for exposure to songs at school, on the other hand, are based on a composite score of the reported frequencies for the three song categories (children’s/ authentic/ pedagogical). To this end, we replaced, for each song category, the five response options by their midpoints (i.e.: “0” → 0, “1-5” → 3, “6-10” → 8, “11-15” → 13), except for “more than 15”, which was replaced with the value 20. At r = +.06, we find a weak positive correlation between the frequency of exposure to songs at school and the willingness to use songs as (future) teachers. The 95 % confidence interval, however, ranges from −.06 to +.18, which means that our data are consistent with a null association. There is, therefore, only a negligible positive correlation between exposure to songs at school and the (overall very high) willingness of our participants to use songs in ELT (see Figure 4, which shows 96-% of participants choosing the top two categories). Furthermore, four questionnaire items entered our analysis (i-iv below) that relate to attitudes towards music and lyrical texts as well as to reflecting about their content and language. The ranks of these items derive from the graded answer scale: “fully disagree” - “rather disagree” - “rather agree” - “fully agree”. Again, we used Spearman coefficients to examine correlations between these attitudes and the participants’ inclination to use songs as (future) English teachers. The resulting correlations are as follows (95 % confidence intervals are given in the third column): 154 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="155"?> Questionnaire item R 95-% CI i) I like listening to music. +.28 [+.17, +39] ii) I have a positive attitude towards lyrical texts (e.g., songs, poems). +.23 [+.11, +.35] iii) When I read a poem/ listen to a song in my spare time, I reflect upon the language. +.19 [+.07, +.31] iv) When I read a poem/ listen to a song in my spare time, I reflect upon the content. +.28 [+.16, +.39] Tab. 4: Association between four questionnaire items and willingness to use songs as (future) English teachers (Spearman rank correlations) (N=258) All four items correlate positively with the willingness to use songs as (future) English teachers. And while the correlations are only weak to moderate by conventional standards (see, e.g., Cohen 1988), each 95 % confidence interval excludes zero (i.e. no correlation). In summary, this suggests that positive attitudes towards music, poems and songs, as well as reflecting about lyrical texts, are linked to a higher willingness to use songs as (future) English teachers. While these findings are not particularly surprising, they suggest that (future) teachers’ attitudes are significant motivations for (future) teaching methods and, by implication, that if attitudes change during student careers or teacher training, corresponding teaching methods may follow. 5. Discussion The insights gained with the help of the quantitative part of the survey suggest several larger patterns that complement findings from previous work. First, in terms of experiences of the informants as learners, it emerged that a rather constrained use of songs characterizes the German educational context. This result is surprising in view of highly positive attitudes towards song usage by practicing teachers as elicited in several previous attitude studies (see Section 2.3). A possible explanation is that textbooks still dominate classroom practice, for which there is some indirect evidence in our survey, since songs from textbooks are frequently remembered and reported (see Section 4.1). At the same time, it is evident that there are textbooks used nationally and internationally that feature song activities extensively (see Section 2.1). The restricted experiences contrast with a generally very positive attitude towards using songs on the part of pre-service teachers (see Section 4.2), notably A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 155 <?page no="156"?> from the perspective as both learners and (future) teachers. While this finding is in line with previous attitude studies (see Section 2.3), there is a discrepancy between pre-service and in-service teachers when it comes to the estimation of challenges when working with songs. While finding suitable songs was mentioned as a salient issue in earlier work (e.g., Şevik 2011; Tegge 2018), this was not viewed as problematic by the respondents of the present study. One explanation for this finding may lie in the fact that between the time of the elicitation of the data for the older studies and the present survey, there have been considerable developments regarding the online availability of relevant materials and resources. This pertains, for instance, to the unlimited access to songs through streaming services, free access to music videos and lyrics as well as to thematic song lists and pages with extensive metainformation on individual songs and artists in digital spaces (see Section 1). All these factors illustrate the opportunities of digitalization. With regard to the potential which songs offer, the findings of the present survey indicate that pre-service teachers are aware of their opportunities for fostering learners’ motivation and various competencies (see Section 4.3). At the same time, there seems to be some skepticism about whether working with songs can foster specific areas, such as grammar learning, a result that mirrors findings from classroom intervention studies reviewed by Werner (2020). As our survey has also elicited rich qualitative data through open questions, we will now present some of the statements that repeatedly appeared and relate them to the quantitative findings where appropriate. For instance, the investigation of song-based procedures that pre-service teachers experienced as learners shows that teachers use various approaches to foster a wide range of skills and competence areas, although some clearly dominate. Whereas songs are frequently used to establish a thematic context, train listening and reading, lexical competence, and integrate gap-filling activities or ask learners to give presentations, other approaches seem to be less frequently implemented in songrelated activities, for instance a focus on grammar, text sorting, cooperative work such as pair or group work, as well as games. Further observations include several comments on using songs in primary school that mainly focus on a playful approach involving singing, dancing/ movement and creative engagement with the songs (P80, P135, P245, P319, P333). Some comments confirm such a playful approach in grades 5-7; however, comments on this age group also include gap filling-activities with lyrics (e.g., P484, P562). Replies on grades 8-10 seem more complex and include activities such as translation of the lyrics and presentations (e.g., P500, P528). Comments 156 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="157"?> on grades 11-13 focus on a more analytic approach and include discussions (e.g., P239, P460), as illustrated in (5). (5) “That must have been in year 11. Here, we analysed different songs on the topic of New York (in terms of content, language, with background information on the singer) and then compared them. It was a great lesson! ” (P239) Importantly, however, these observations on the age group remain tendencies only as many participants did not comment on the grade in which they worked with songs in their English lessons. While a contrastive view is not the main aim of the present contribution, it is noteworthy that the vast majority of participants remember songs (rather than poems) used in ELT (cf. Tsang et al. 2023) and also appeared to be more willing or able to describe song-based approaches. It was also considered insightful to briefly zoom in on statements on one specific song, namely the one that was most often listed as a song remembered by the respondents, Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes. Its popularity among teachers might be due to its simple tune and relevant vocabulary for young learners. At the same time, survey participants might have remembered this song particularly well due to the simple and repetitive tune accompanied by actions that involve touching different body parts, thus helping to reinforce the memorization of these words. On that note, one person commented that they thought children’s songs were helpful in their language learning process, as shown in (6). (6) “However, the principle has worked brilliantly in terms of linguistic memory or correct accentuation, and I can remember no less than the first verse of at least five English children’s songs (even after 35 years).” (P245) Furthermore, the data indicate that a great variety of authentic pop songs was used (see Section 4.1), while the variety of approaches seems to be limited. There appears to be a strong focus on content and the data suggests that teachers use songs to establish a context for English lessons, which in turn demonstrates that they are aware of the potential of songs for a meaningful engagement with texts. Respondents further indicated that teachers use a variety of approaches, for instance involving pair and group work. Some unanticipated insights include that rather old-fashioned procedures such as translation are still used, although rarely. This raises the question whether such approaches are suitable for competence-oriented teaching today and whether or not the pleasure in working with lyrical texts might not be diminished or even erased. Activities in which A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 157 <?page no="158"?> learners are asked to read a song text aloud were also reported. The learning goal of such read-aloud activities is not fully clear, however, and greater potential for foreign language development may lie in actually singing aloud or activities involving the karaoke version of a song. To conclude, these results need to be interpreted against the background of our study’s potential limitations. Firstly, with the majority of participants studying at Bavarian universities, the sample is not representative of the (to a certain degree fragmented) German educational system as a whole (see Section 3.1 above). Secondly, the overall survey covered both songs and poetry, and its rather extensive length might have led to a decline in motivation and attention. Finally, the results relied on self-reports, partly based on a retrospective of the (more or less) distant past and, therefore, run the risk of biased memory effects. 6. Conclusion This online survey investigated school experiences with, attitudes towards, and the perceived potential of songs as reported by pre-service teachers studying English at universities in Germany. Overall, the majority of our participants reported having worked with one to five songs of each song category (child‐ ren’s, authentic, pedagogical songs) during their time at school, an average of approximately nine songs (see Section 4.1). Participants mostly remembered examples of authentic pop songs, and songs being used for listening and reading practice. In terms of attitudes, participants overwhelmingly revealed a strong willingness to work with songs, with a tendency to acknowledge their potential while not perceiving possible pedagogical and methodological issues (e.g., choosing specific songs, additional workload) as problematic. More specifically, the perceived future potential varies across competencies and topics: Overall, listening and pronunciation as well as the topics of love and friendship were most frequently mentioned. Based on the quantitative and qualitative findings presented in this study, we briefly suggest some implications for teacher education and teaching practice. As regards the former, we suggest focusing on innovative, goal-oriented ap‐ proaches in pre-service teacher education, as well as treating content, language, and pedagogical opportunities of songs in an integrative manner, for instance through interdisciplinary seminars (see Summer et al. 2024). For teaching practice, our results imply that textbook units, which seem to play a dominant role in ELT, should be supplemented with (authentic) songs and activities. These additions can encourage learners to explore the content and form of lyrical texts and become creative to fully exploit the motivational and language- 158 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="159"?> educational potential of songs. Given the issue of the longevity of songs, particularly chart hits, our findings indicate that teachers need access to songbased materials and the skills necessary for developing these themselves. As digital spaces, streaming platforms provide educators with easy access to a wide variety of music-based content, thus facilitating the incorporation of currently relevant materials into English lessons. This accessibility can empower teachers to develop resources aligned with learners’ interests, while also providing opportunities for learners to engage with content directly relevant to their lives. Acknowledgements This survey was initially developed in the context of the interdisciplinary seminar “From Poetry to Song Lyrics: Analysing and Teaching Verse” offered at the University of Bamberg in the winter term 2021/ 22. We would like to thank Michelle Zirkel for her assistance in reviewing literature for the corresponding talk presented at Anglistentag 2022, as well as Claudia Schnellbögl and Lisa Theisen for their support. We are particularly grateful to Lukas Sönning for his guidance in the quantitative data analyses, and, of course, to the participants in our survey. Textbooks Gerngroß, Günter/ Puchta, Herbert (2005a). Playway 3. Rainbow edition, Ausgabe Bayern. Schülerbuch. Stuttgart: Klett. Gerngroß, Günter/ Puchta, Herbert (2005b). Playway 4. Rainbow edition, Ausgabe Bayern. Schülerbuch. Stuttgart: Klett. Hellyer-Jones, Rosemary/ Horner, Marion/ Parr, Robert/ Ashford, Stephanie/ Ehrlinger, Renate/ Greenhalgh, Geraldine (2006). Green Line New 2: Bayern. 6. Schülerbuch. Stuttgart: Klett. Puchta, Herbert/ Stranks, Jeff (2010). English in Mind 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schwarz, Hellmut, ed. (2007). English G21: Ausgabe A. Band 1: 5. Schuljahr. Schülerbuch. Berlin: Cornelsen. References ARD (2023). Mediennutzung. https: / / www.ard.de/ die-ard/ was-wir-leisten/ Mediennutzu ng-100/ (last accessed: 11.12.2023) Arnold, Jean L./ Herrick, Emily, eds. (2017). New ways in teaching with music. Alexandria: TESOL Press. A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 159 <?page no="160"?> Bokiev, Daler/ Ismail, Lilliati (2021). Malaysian ESL teachers’ beliefs and practices re‐ garding the use of music and songs in second language learning. The Qualitative Report 26/ 5, 1497-1521. 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A research synthesis of classroom-based intervention studies applying lyrics-based language teaching A Survey on Songs in ELT among Pre-Service Teachers in Germany 161 <?page no="162"?> (1972-2019). Journal of Second Language Teaching and Research 8/ 1, 138-170. DOI: 10.20378/ irb-49313 Werner, Valentin/ Tegge, Friederike (2021). Learning languages through pop cul‐ ture/ learning about pop culture through language education. In: Werner, Val‐ entin/ Tegge, Friederike, eds. Pop culture in language education: Theory, research, practice. London: Routledge, 3-30. DOI: 10.4324/ 9780367808334-1 162 Theresa Summer, Valentin Werner, Regina Grund, Manfred Krug <?page no="163"?> B. Teacher Education <?page no="165"?> Promoting Global Citizenship Education among Pre-Service English Teachers: Immersive Anti-Bias Training through Social Virtual Reality Maria Eisenmann & Jeanine Steinbock 1. Introduction The question of how our society responds to global challenges is undoubtedly one of the most pressing issues of the 21st century. Stakeholders from politics, science, education, and culture - most prominently represented by the UNESCO - share their ideas of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values each member of society should obtain to participate in this local and global collaboration. For education, this means addressing the question of how these aspects can be included in teaching and learning in order to enhance learning goals like building peace and driving sustainable development (UNESCO n.d.). The curriculum of foreign language teaching, ELT (English language teaching) in particular, offers promising prerequisites for the implementation of topics related to sustainable development in the field of global citizenship education (GCE). In this article, the opportunities of social virtual reality (SVR) for GCE and anti-bias training in English as a foreign language (EFL) teacher education will be presented from a theoretical perspective and through practical teaching ideas. With the advent of fully immersive virtual learning environments, additional learning spaces can be introduced into the foreign language classroom. Here, through communication and social interaction, learners can acquire perspec‐ tive-taking skills and develop empathy for others, forming the foundation for fully immersive anti-bias training. With SVR, learners participate to experiment with identity (embodiment), object manipulation and situational contexts. The fully immersive learning environment is designed in such a way that learners can adjust individual avatar settings, for example in relation to their skin colour. They can then meet in a multifunctional virtual space in which they are provided with virtual objects (e.g., everyday objects such as books, means of transport or sports equipment) as well as presentation areas and internet access. <?page no="166"?> 2. Social Virtual Reality (SVR) SVR combines VR technology with social interaction, allowing multiple users to engage with each other and the virtual environment in real time. This immersive technology creates a sense of presence, making users feel as if they are sharing the same virtual space, despite being physically distant. It enables them to interact with objects, environments, and other participants through avatars. In the context of ELT, SVR provides a unique and engaging platform for learners to practice language skills, interact with peers and instructors, and experience various cultural contexts because VR creates environments that simulate real-world scenarios, like a virtual café, airport, or classroom, where students can practice conversational English in a realistic setting. By providing an immersive, interactive, and collaborative environment that transcends physical boundaries, SVR can foster a sense of global awareness, empathy, responsibility, and action among learners, encouraging them to think beyond their local context and consider their role in the wider world. This direct interaction enhances cross-cultural understanding, as learners can engage with peers from diverse backgrounds, explore different cultures, and gain insight into various perspectives. By taking on roles or engaging in experiences that require understanding other people’s viewpoints, learners can develop a greater sense of empathy, a key component of GCE (Hein et al. 2021), which is explored in more detail in the following chapter. 3. The Rationale of Global Citizenship Education (GCE) 3.1 The Sustainable Development Goals In the field of education, the teaching of English goes beyond the mere acquisition of language skills and includes the development of intercultural communicative competence and a sense of social responsibility (e.g., Byram at al. 2017; Byram 2021; Byram et al. 2023; Lütge et al. 2023; Roesgaard/ Byram 2023: 19). Global education, which gained prominence in the 1970s (Griffin 197: 176) and later resonated in 21 st century foreign language education, emphasises the role of educators in helping to make their students better world citizens. This involves working towards an understanding of urgent global challenges such as poverty, discrimination, environmental issues, and climate change. The United Nations’ adoption of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 has brought the concept of sustainable development to the fore‐ 166 Maria Eisenmann & Jeanine Steinbock <?page no="167"?> 1 https: / / sdgs.un.org/ goals. Retrieved-25 January-2024. front of political and societal discourse. 1 The SDGs address issues like hunger, inequality and climate change, ensuring both interand intragenerational justice by satisfying present needs without compromising future generations’ abilities to meet theirs. 3.2 Critical Pedagogy In order to achieve “quality education” (UNESCO SDG-4), critical pedagogy, rooted in the philosophy of Paulo Freire (1968/ 2014, 1972), is highly influential in the area of language and intercultural communication discourse (Gerlach 2020; Ludwig/ Summer 2023). This is especially important as young people today are more politically and socially aware and interested in engaging with society. However, there is still a need to establish a strong foundation for critical discourse in schools. According to the principles of critical pedagogy, schools must introduce learners to these discussions and empower them to actively participate in societal and political decision-making processes. This involves developing materials that encourage critical thinking, providing opportunities for students to engage in meaningful dialogue and creating an environment that supports active and informed citizenship. In the field of critical foreign language pedagogy, intriguing topics such as social classes, political power structures, gender issues, violence, racism, and prejudices (Gerlach 2020: 21) can captivate the interest of young learners and adolescents. Regarding these issues, students must learn to recognise the various forms of discrimination as an expression of unequal social positions and power relations and their complex interdependencies. In this context, critical pedagogy promotes fostering an environment that encourages students to listen to one another, engage in critical reflection and ac‐ tion. It challenges traditional education methods by promoting critical thinking and advocating for social justice, equity, and inclusivity. By doing so, critical pedagogy empowers learners to become active participants in their education and in broader societal and political discourses. Central to this approach is the idea that education should allow learners to question and understand power structures and rethink perspectives. Freire (1968/ 2014, 1972) highlights the transformative potential of education, aiming to help students cultivate critical awareness and develop into active, engaged citizens. Teachers are encouraged to guide students in critically examining and challenging dominant ideologies and practices, as reflected in contemporary social movements such as Animal Promoting Global Citizenship Education among Pre-Service English Teachers 167 <?page no="168"?> Rebellion and Black Lives Matter. Critical pedagogy functions as both a guiding framework and an ethos for teaching as a form of activism. It underlines the importance of humility and the challenging nature of advocating for equity and social justice. 3.3 Foundation Stones and Guiding Principles for GCE Even though the UNESCO did not coin the term, they have played a significant role in promoting and developing the concept of GCE on a global scale. The term “global citizenship education”, which is based on Freire’s critical pedagogy, has been used by various scholars and organizations over the years (Byram 2023; Eisenmann/ Steinbock 2024; Kramsch 2023; Lütge et al. 2023) and was explicitly mentioned in the UNESCO’s global or sustainable development goals for quality education in the early 2000s. Foreign language education, in conjunction with citizenship education goals, equips learners for “intercultural citizenship” (Byram/ Golubeva 2020), preparing them for interactions in another language. In 2014, UNESCO released a report titled “Global Citizenship Education: Preparing Learners for the Challenges of the 21st Century,” which defined GCE as “a form of education that helps learners acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values they need to cooperate in solving the interconnected challenges of the 21st century.” Therefore, our perspective on GCE is centered on fostering competencies and is based on various frameworks such as Oxfam’s (1997/ 2015) curriculum for global citizenship, the UNESCO’s (2015) model of GCE, the Council of Europe’s (2018) Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture and OECD’s (2018) Global Competence Framework. According to Lütge et al. (2023: 4), these concepts of GCE all encompass activities related to politics, the environment, and humanitarian efforts. In the context of ELT, the questions arises how global citizenship concepts and practices can be integrated into the English language curriculum and into teacher education. The aim of GCE is to help students develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to become responsible and active global citizens. Incorporating GCE in ELT can have several benefits for learners. It can help them develop empathy and respect for diversity, understand the interconnectedness of global issues, and encourage them to take action to address local and global challenges. GCE can also enhance students’ language skills, as they engage with authentic materials and communicate with people from diverse backgrounds. GCE in the EFL classroom must consistently be integrated into a pedagogical framework that fosters the learners’ development of cognitive, affective, and 168 Maria Eisenmann & Jeanine Steinbock <?page no="169"?> behavioural competencies. The demand for this learning that involves students’ active participation in projects that address global issues of a social, political, economic, or environmental nature, has been put into practice not only through Byram’s concept of intercultural citizenship (2021: 122; 2023: xvi) but also by scholars in intercultural communication. Among these are Jane Jackson (2020) as well as advocates for educating the cosmopolitan citizen (Osler 2005: 19), the critical intercultural speaker (Guilherme 2002: 126), or the transnational citizen (Risager 2007: 208). While the highlighted goals in the UNESCO document are indisputable, it remains unclear how the term “citizenship” contributes to the idea of international education without a global civic institution to guarantee the rights and responsibilities of these “global citizens” (Kramsch 2023: 24). In ELT, global education can be implemented in a variety of ways. For instance, teachers can integrate discussions and reflections on the global goals and other issues like discrimination into their lessons. However, it is crucial to go beyond mere discussions or text analyses. Emphasizing action is essential, as learners can carry out projects at school, in virtual settings, or with local communities. Guided by the motto “think globally, act locally”, students should actively participate in addressing global problems by promoting peace, living a sustainable life, and respecting their surroundings. Therefore, the main goals of global education in ELT are to introduce a global perspective, raise environmental, social and political awareness, and provide students with opportunities to participate in meaningful, socially relevant debates, ultimately helping them develop their own opinions and voices. 3. Fostering GCE through SVR In an era defined by interconnectedness and rapid technological advancements, the concept of GCE holds unprecedented importance. SVR presents a unique opportunity to overcome physical boundaries. Through its immersive and interactive nature, it may help to cultivate a sense of global citizenship and a more empathetic global community. By immersing users in culturally rich envi‐ ronments, SVR enables experiential learning, fostering empathy, understanding, and appreciation for diversity - fundamental qualities of a global citizen. Based on the above concepts, we have developed a model to illustrate how SVR can contribute to GCE (see Fig. 1). Promoting Global Citizenship Education among Pre-Service English Teachers 169 <?page no="170"?> Fig. 1: Model of GCE in SVR (Eisenmann/ Steinbock 2024) The model highlights the cultivation of global citizenship skills within SVR as a primary aim, outlining the process as encompassing multiperspectivity, applying critical and informed reflection, and fostering communication and collaboration. These objectives are deeply influenced by the three dimensions of global citizenship competence (cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioural) and are implemented through three key components within SVR: virtual objects, avatars, and simulations. The model portrays the boundaries between SVR as flexible, expecting learners to transfer their competencies, attitudes, and knowledge gained in VR to real-world contexts and act in accordance with these principles. The following elaborations offer a comprehensive understanding of how VR tools correspond with the learning objectives of global citizenship. 170 Maria Eisenmann & Jeanine Steinbock <?page no="171"?> 4.1 Cognitive Learning Objectives and Virtual Objects Pieces of clothing like a sari, a hijab or a Bavarian traditional hat are part of cultural identity and enable users to wear these items in VR and thus engage in discussions on aspects of identity. Virtual objects can be employed individually or in a diverse array to depict various thematic areas. Users have the ability to manipulate virtual objects, adjusting their size to create different atmospheres, while their proximity or distance can signify personal connections and meanings (Mendes et al. 2018: 23). Objects can be integrated into exhibitions on topics and collaborative tasks within a three-dimensional environment. Utilising stereotypical objects can expose biases and prompt critical reflection. For instance, as part of an exchange programme preparation, participants might be asked to curate a virtual exhibition featuring objects they believe represent the cultural identity of their counterparts from another country. Subsequently, they engage in a collective dialogue to analyse and discuss their selection of objects. The personal significance attached to different objects can also encourage a multi-perspective understanding. In that sense virtual objects serve as catalysts and facilitators for communication scenarios that stimulate discussion about cultural identity. According to the cognitive domain of GCE, learners should gain knowledge about local, national, and global systems and structures, comprehend the interdependence between global and local concerns, and develop skills for critical inquiry (UNESCO 2015: 29). 4.2 Socio-Emotional Learning: Objectives and Avatars Avatars serve as “digital alter egos” in an immersive virtual environment. With the help of an avatar, it is possible for users to perceive their virtual bodies as extensions of themselves. In that sense, they function as interfaces between the virtual and the physical space (Oyanagi et al. 2022: 145). Consequently, users attribute behavioural traits to their avatars, influencing their actions accordingly. This phenomenon, known as the Proteus effect, has been observed in various studies across disciplines (cf. Banakou et al. 2018; Salmanowitz 2018; Beyea et al. 2022). In the field of cultural diversity education, exploring aspects such as perspec‐ tive-taking, empathy, and addressing implicit cultural or racial biases holds promise. Similarly, in virtual reality, learners from diverse cultural backgrounds can come together through avatar embodiments and adopt roles from various cultural perspectives. Promoting Global Citizenship Education among Pre-Service English Teachers 171 <?page no="172"?> 4.3 Behavioural Learning Objectives and Simulations In addition to cognitive and affective skills, behavioural competences are pivotal in enabling learners to apply their acquired abilities beyond the learning environment, rendering them “ethically responsible and engaged” (UNESCO 2015: 29). A prerequisite for transferring skills acquired in virtual reality to real-world contexts is the creation of virtual scenarios that closely resemble reality. When the virtual environment closely mirrors real-life circumstances, users may find distinguishing between virtual and actual experiences chal‐ lenging. Consequently, the brain processes virtual stimuli similarly to real stimuli (cf. Wiepke 2022: 43). Social interactions involving communication and collaboration mirror the learners’ everyday experiences, further enhancing the learning process. Moreover, the ability to manipulate objects, such as grasping and placing them, is facilitated within these scenarios. Through embodiment experiences, users inhabit virtual bodies, enabling them to move within the virtual space, perceive their hands, interact verbally, listen, and observe. It is therefore an important aspect of fully immersive learning environments that learners find realistic surroundings in which they can behave authentically and that they can transfer newly acquired skills to a real world outside the fully immersive learning environment. 5. Anti-Bias Training in Teacher Education In the context of teacher education, integrating anti-bias training aims to achieve equity and inclusion by helping educators recognise and address biases, promote diversity, create inclusive classrooms, and advocate for social justice, ensuring all students have equal opportunities to succeed. Anti-bias training in teacher education with SVR platforms presents a dynamic opportunity to empower educators with practical tools for promoting empathy, understanding, and critical thinking among students. It is about dealing with diversity and difference in a prejudice-conscious way based on similarities and actively working towards social change (anti-bias-netz 2021: 12). For teaching purposes, this means a life-long learning process to make discrimination emotionally and cognitively understandable by referring to all forms of discrimination without equating or hierarchising them. The approach emphasises the equal value of people and the recognition of differences based on similarities. Promoting anti-bias education in the classroom plays an essential role in creating an inclusive and respectful learning environment, which goes hand in hand with the SDGs. In order to effectively integrate GCE in ELT, teachers need to receive training and support in designing and delivering GCE-oriented lessons. This 172 Maria Eisenmann & Jeanine Steinbock <?page no="173"?> is also the focus of the BMBF-funded research project DiSo-SGW (Digitale Souveränität als Ziel wegweisender Lehrkräftebildung für Sprachen, Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftswissenschaften in der digitalen Welt), which aims to promote digital sovereignty through state-of-the-art teacher training in the fields of languages, social sciences and economics in the digital world. As part of this project, a seminar concept was developed for the training of future English teachers. The aim of the seminar was to equip students with the knowledge and skills they need to independently design teaching activities and GCE content using SVR technology. The seminar utilised the social VR application ViLeArn (Latoschik et al. 2019) along with VR-enabled enabled laptops and VR goggles such as Oculus Rift S and HP Reverb. ViLeArn offers various features, including a selection of ten stylized avatars that users can customise by choosing a name and phenotype, as well as the colour of hair, skin, and clothing via a desktop interface. After creating the avatar, users start a VR tutorial by clicking the “Start Application” button. In the following, a teaching idea developed by three students in the summer term of 2023 will be presented and placed within the GCE-SVR model. The teaching idea was designed for implementation in upper secondary classes. The students designing the activity aimed to make cultural diversity tangible by encouraging learners to connect their cultural identity with that of others, fostering interest in others, understanding, and empathy. The main goals of the following tasks were to allow learners to immerse themselves into the role of a person from a different culture to broaden their horizons and define culture from another perspective, identifying similarities, expanding their knowledge, initiating perspective-taking, and developing communicative skills in cultural contexts. As a general setting, participants were provided with role cards containing detailed instructions on customising their avatars’ appearances and providing information about their personal and cultural backgrounds. Participants could choose from various pre-set avatars within the application and further tailor features such as skin and hair colour. They could enter a predefined name visible above their avatar’s head. In addition to background information, the role cards contained images of the avatars. The following are examples of four role cards: • Farisa is a 21-year-old medical student from Dubai born into a wealthy, tra‐ ditional Muslim family. She regularly attends the mosque and accompanies her father on work trips. Promoting Global Citizenship Education among Pre-Service English Teachers 173 <?page no="174"?> • Avery is a 22-year-old woman from Oregon, raised on a farm, and currently attending university in Austin, Texas. She is a sorority member, works at a bar, and enjoys attending football games. • James is a 26-year-old South African aspiring to take over his family’s IT business. His fascination with technology led him to study IT and management in college. He has a particular interest in elephants and enjoys playing basketball. • Ganesh is a 46-year-old judge in the High Court of Justice in London and a father of three. Although born in London, his family hails from India, and he maintains close ties with his roots. In his free time, he enjoys bike rides. Methodologically, the example is based on task-based language learning and consists of two steps, each incorporating VR elements, instructions, and activi‐ ties in the real environment. Step 1: Task • Students are asked to select five virtual objects to describe their avatar’s cultural identity. • Students are asked to arrange the objects in front of their avatar and take a screenshot; then they put the objects back on the shelves. • The group of avatars is now asked to create a diorama of five objects for each avatar. The avatar under discussion is asked not to speak at this point in the activity. • Students are asked to describe and discuss the difference between the selfchosen and ascribed visualisation of cultural identity. Reference to the GCE-SVR model • socio-emotional domain: embodied perspective-taking through avatars • cognitive domain: visualisation of (cultural) identity with virtual objects • behavioural domain: creating and presenting a diorama of virtual objects; critical peer reflection and discussion The first step comprised two parts, separated by a brief pause. Learners are randomly assigned role cards and instructed to read them attentively. Subsequently, they are required to create an avatar in ViLeArn’s first input interface, following the displayed visual features on the role cards, and then enter the virtual seminar room. In the virtual seminar room, the teacher provides instructions for extracting five virtual objects from the InteractionSuitcase (Hein et al. 2021), a collection of virtual objects that best described the character’s 174 Maria Eisenmann & Jeanine Steinbock <?page no="175"?> personal and cultural identity. They should arrange these items in a small diorama in front of their avatars. After completing their dioramas, the teacher takes screenshots and instructs learners to leave the virtual room for a short break from wearing VR goggles. During this break, the teacher resets the virtual room, ensuring that participants’ dioramas will not be visible upon re-entry and the objects will be returned to the InteractionSuitcase. The second part of this step involved learners, as a group, creating dioramas of five objects for each avatar successively. Learners are thus actively engaged in communication and collaboration while also being passive recipients of discussions about their avatars. For this activity, learners do not have access to background information about other avatars, meaning they rely solely on the avatar’s appearance. Once all dioramas are completed, further screenshots of the results are taken. The following activity takes place outside the VR environment and involves a group reflection on the dioramas of the first and second part of the tasks that took place in the immersive environment. Screenshots of the dioramas are provided on the board, and learners are asked to analyse, from both first-person and third-person perspectives, the results of the activities in terms of similarities and differences between their own and their assigned dioramas. Aspects of stereotyping and cultural bias can be addressed at this point in a meta-reflection. Step 2: Task • Students are asked to enter the fully immersive learning environment with avatars resembling their own appearance and recreate the first diorama of step 1. • Students are asked to create a diorama of their own cultural identity. They should keep the objects they have in common with their first avatar and replace those they do not have in common. • Students present their dioramas and discuss the commonalities of identity. Reference to the GCE-SVR model • socio-emotional domain: representation of self in virtual reality through avatars • cognitive domain: visualisation of own (cultural) identity with virtual objects • behavioural domain: creating and presenting a diorama of virtual objects; critical self-reflection Promoting Global Citizenship Education among Pre-Service English Teachers 175 <?page no="176"?> In the second step, participants are asked to log in with an avatar corresponding to their physical characteristics and reproduce the object composition from the first part of the first step. The students are then asked to customise the diorama that belongs to their previously assigned avatar. They should keep all the objects they can identify with and replace any objects they cannot identify with in any meaningful way. As a conclusion to this task, learners present their own dioramas to each other, focusing on the similarities and differences compared to the avatar previously assigned to them. Thus, the conclusion of this learning unit represents an opportunity for learners’ personal and real-life reflections on identity and similarities with others. The example is based on the above proposed GCE-SVR model as virtual objects serve as visualisations and accompany communication processes. Fur‐ thermore, in the second task, they serve as a reference point for personal reflection. Virtual objects provide learners with orientation and function as cognitive activation tools. The opportunity for embodiment and individual avatar customisation is utilised here to enable perspective-taking and a personal approach to the subject matter. Avatars allow learners to reflect and communi‐ cate on both a peer and personal level regarding shared views, attitudes, and identity parameters. The created virtual simulation can be used both in the classroom and as part of an exchange programme. In this, learners can take on the role of an exchange partner and assign a role to their counterpart as well. This example demonstrates how the goals of GCE are achieved through various aspects outlined in the GCE-SVR model, including visualization, per‐ spective-taking, and critical reflection. These goals are facilitated using avatars, virtual objects, and simulations. In addition to their own perspective, learners adopt another person’s perspective, represented by an avatar. Throughout the task, they encounter the views and opinions of other learners embodied in avatars. Learners acquire cognitive, affective, and conative competences through collaborative and interactive tasks and can reflect on the subject matter critically. 6. Conclusion This contribution dealt with the potential of SVR for promoting global cit‐ izenship competencies in ELT and aimed to show how the SDGs, critical pedagogy, and anti-bias education can be integrated into English language teacher education. In today’s English language classrooms, addressing issues such as discrimination, stereotypes, and racism is becoming increasingly im‐ portant. SVR, particularly with its immersive experiences, offers an innovative 176 Maria Eisenmann & Jeanine Steinbock <?page no="177"?> approach to address these pedagogical challenges. In SVR, student teachers and their future learners can experience multiple perspectives by either adopting different points of view or discussing opinions with virtual peers. The fully immersive environment facilitates these learning activities by providing options for visualisation, communication and interaction. At the core of this research project is the development of a seminar concept through which student teachers can be introduced to SVR and experience its potential for fostering cognitive, affective, and conative culturally sensitive competencies. In the course of the seminar, future English teachers familiarised themselves with the potential of SVR and also developed skills that will enable them to design instructional settings that make use of SVR by themselves to put GCE into practice. This innovative approach in modern foreign language teaching is crucial for advancing critical pedagogy and anti-bias education, equipping teachers with the essential skills needed to actively participate in today’s increasingly diverse classrooms. This is especially important in English language classrooms, which are characterised by great diversity and therefore require teachers to deal with issues such as discrimination, stereotypes and bias. Integrating inclusive, em‐ pathetic, and culturally sensitive approaches, teachers can create transformative learning environments that empower students to navigate a modern, global society meaningfully. 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Using real objects for interaction in virtual reality. 21st International Conference Information Visualisation (IV), 440-443. 180 Maria Eisenmann & Jeanine Steinbock <?page no="181"?> Foreign Language Teachers’ Perspectives on Global Education, Digital Media, and Extended Reality Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, Theresa Summer 1. Introduction Global education provides a theoretical and conceptual basis for 21st century foreign language education (FLE) emphasizing global perspectives as paramount for advocating social justice. Following the Maastricht Declaration of 2002, global education “opens people’s eyes and minds to the realities of the world, and awakens them to bring about a world of greater justice, equity and human rights for all” (Maastricht Global Education Declaration 2002, see also Scheunpflug 2021; Scheunpflug et al. 2024). For English language education, scholars have discussed the importance of education for sustainable development (ESD or BNE in German) (Surkamp 2022), global education (Lütge 2015), and global citizenship education (Lütge et al. 2022; Römhild 2024). In addition, a number of theoretical frameworks and practical teaching suggestions for linking language learning with ESD have been published (e.g., Cates 1990; Deetjen/ Ludwig 2021a; Erdem Mete 2018; Hauschild et al. 2012; Lütge 2015; Lütge/ Merse 2022; Ludwig/ Summer 2021; Nkwetisama 2011; Riegerová 2011; Römhild 2024; Summer 2022, 2021a, 2021c; Surkamp 2022). However, none of these incorporated extended reality (XR), i.e. virtual (VR), augmented (AR) and mixed reality (MR) for this purpose. The aim of this study is to identify teachers’ practices and beliefs related to global education focusing particularly on the use of digital media, and particularly XR. While global education is rather en vogue in scholarly research, it has not yet been fully incorporated into teaching practices. What is more, the use of XR in language education is a relatively new development and schools are only just beginning to consider XR as digital medium for practical use, which is why we aim to bring these two aspects together. <?page no="182"?> 2. Global Education and Digital Media in Foreign Language Education Global issues are integrated into general school curricula, as a recent analysis of Bavarian curricula has shown (Scheunpflug et al. 2024). In the field of English language education, teachers usually have a considerable amount of freedom to explore a diverse array of topics while enhancing learners’ language skills (Mercer et al. 2022). Topics such as green tourism, environmental conservation, and sustainable transportation are but some of the global topics that provide opportunities for language-focused as well as content-oriented learning in foreign language classrooms. To investigate whether teachers integrate such topics and how they approach this, particularly considering the use of digital media, this contribution provides some insights through an empirical investigation. Digital media play a significant role for global education (Schrüfer/ Eckstein 2022) in FLE (Lütge/ Merse 2021), as they provide multiple perspectives on global issues and foster learners’ multiliteracies and media competences (Nicolaou 2021; Summer 2021). In reference to De Florio-Hansen (2019), we use the term digital media in a broad sense, comprising all kinds of technologies in a com‐ puter-readable format. In this context, we see XR as an emerging digital medium (Prisille/ Ellerbrake 2020) and as umbrella term for different technologies on the reality-virtuality-continuum. This includes for example virtual elements in the real world (augmented reality) and also complete immersion into a computergenerated world (virtual reality; Milgram 1995). As concerns the use of extended reality (XR) as a type of digital space, learners can encounter spheres of the natural world that they cannot access in real life and that stimulate critical reflection on environmental challenges for planet Earth (Parmaxi 2023). The use of XR technologies in teaching practice has demonstrated an increase in student awareness and engagement with environmental issues (Fauville et al. 2020; Kamarainen et al. 2013). Especially virtual reality (VR) environments allow users to immerse themselves in a virtual environment and experience a sense of presence, that is, of “being” in another world (Makransky/ Petersen 2021). Moreover, users can interact with objects in the VR environment, which enhances the realism of the experience, making it more relatable and personal (Kern 2022) by giving users a sense of agency (Makransky/ Petersen 2021). Additionally, VR enables users to visit locations that may be difficult to access with a class of students. For example, instead of merely viewing pictures or watching a documentary about coral reefs, students can explore and photograph coral reefs, collect samples, and do so without endangering themselves or the coral reefs in VR (Kern 2022). Through these affordances, a sense of presence and agency, VR bears a huge 182 Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, Theresa Summer <?page no="183"?> potential for learning in general (Makransky/ Petersen 2021) and environmental topics specifically including pro-environmental behaviour, emotions, and a better understanding of environmental issues (Ahn 2011; Fonseca/ Kraus 2016; Muller Queiroz et al. 2018; Scurati et al. 2021). In the field of FLE, studies indicate that VR can enhance vocabulary retention, reduce foreign language anxiety, and even be beneficial for reading comprehension (Dhimolea et al. 2022; Parmaxi 2023; Parmaxi/ Demetriou 2020). In light of these findings, VR emerges as a powerful digital space for global education in foreign language classrooms, as it offers promising avenues for enhancing learning experiences, pro-environmental behavior, and language proficiency. This study is positioned within the broader framework of the research project DiSo-SGW (see section 2 and Summer et al. (b) in this volume), which aims to train English teachers in using XR technology with a focus on immersive VR within the realm of ESD. It thus combines a dual interest in global issues as a thematic focus and the integration of XR as a digital medium. As emphasised by Mercer et al. (2022), teacher education programmes must explicitly raise teachers’ awareness for global issues because teaching English encompasses addressing global issues, such as the climate crisis. In underscoring the impor‐ tance of adopting a critical and transformative approach to teacher training programmes, we aim to identify teachers’ perspectives so that we can cater to their needs in our project. 3. Research Interests In the fast-changing availability and development of new digital spaces, foreign language teachers need to continuously learn about emerging digital media and their potential for FLE (De Florio-Hansen 2018; Lütge/ Merse 2021) while developing their digital competences (KMK 2017; Redecker 2017) for the effective use of digital media in FLE (Stockwell 2009). Similarly, global topics pose new challenges to educators who need to inform themselves about current and changing global issues to include them in their teaching practices. Studies on foreign language teachers’ attitudes towards incorporating global issues in their teaching show that teachers largely acknowledge the relevance of global topics for FLE (Arıkan 2009; Gürsoy/ Saglam 2011; Mercer 2022; Robbins et al. 2003). However, the practical integration of global topics into foreign language lessons seems to pose a barrier to some teachers due to a lack of knowledge on how to teach global topics, an absence of such topics in national curricula (Başarir 2017; Roux 2019), and a lack of training (Arıkan 2009; Gürsoy/ Saglam 2011; Mercer 2022; Robbins et al. 2003). In our study, we explore to what Teachers’ Perspectives on Global Education, Digital Media, and Extended Reality 183 <?page no="184"?> extent these findings on teachers’ attitudes and practices regarding global issues apply to our local context of foreign language teachers in Bavaria. While foreign language teachers use multiple digital media in their teaching (Steinbock 2025), new digital spaces such as XR technologies have so far been un‐ derstudied among foreign language teachers. On the one hand, many teachers, including foreign language teachers, express a positive attitude towards XR technologies (Kaplan-Rakowski, Papin et al. 2023; Khukalenko et al. 2022; Wen‐ gler 2024). On the other hand, foreign language teachers lack knowledge of XR technologies and are concerned with their technical implementation and costs (Kaplan-Rakowski, Papin et al. 2023). Practical knowledge and prior experiences of teaching with VR seem to be the main factors that influence foreign language teachers’ beliefs about VR (Kaplan-Rakowski, Dhimolea et al. 2023). Moreover, professional competence beliefs regarding teaching with digital media are a central prerequisite for the use of digital media by teachers (Guggemos/ Seufert 2021), which is why we included questions regarding teaching with XR as a new digital medium. While the mentioned international studies provide a sound background for our research, their generalization to the German and, specifically, Bavarian context is unclear. To our knowledge, no study has so far examined foreign language teachers’ perspectives on digital media, including XR, specifically for global education in foreign language classes. Therefore, to address this research gap, we created an exploratory survey focusing on the following research questions: RQ1: What relevance do ESD and global education have for foreign language teachers? This includes (a) their familiarity with the terms, (b) the perceived relevance of ESD for FLE and (c) the relevance that they attribute to global education content domains in foreign language education. RQ2: What are practices of foreign language teachers regarding (a) global topics, (b) digital media and (c) XR? RQ3: What are the beliefs of foreign language teachers about (a) digital media for ESD and (b) XR in FLE? RQ4: What are motivational aspects of foreign language teachers regarding the (a) use of digital media, (b) XR for FLE in particular, (c) training on XR for FLE, and (d) regarding their competence beliefs of teaching with XR? These four research questions were addressed in an exploratory online survey with foreign language teachers from Bavaria at the conference of the Associa‐ tion of Modern Foreign Languages (GMF, Gesamtverband Moderne Fremdspra‐ 184 Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, Theresa Summer <?page no="185"?> 1 As some participants teach more than one foreign language, multiple answers were possible. 2 In the survey, we used the terms Global Education (in English) and Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung (BNE) in German, as we expected the teachers to be more familiar with this than with the English term critical environmental literacy. BNE is mentioned in the curriculum for Bavarian teachers as an overarching educational goal (ISB Bayern, 2024a). chen) at the University of Bamberg in October 2023. This event provided a good opportunity to gather data from practicing foreign language teachers. 4. Study Design The survey included questions on ESD, digital media, and XR respectively to gain insights into the three main topics that form the basis of our research project (Zirkel/ Summer 2023). In total, N=60 foreign language teachers from secondary schools completed our survey, of whom 80 % identified as female, 17 % as male, and 3 % did not disclose their gender. The participants were relatively evenly distributed age-wise between 25 and 54 years, with only two younger and seven older participants. The majority of the participants (n=52) were teachers of English, followed by French (n=19), Spanish (n=9) and Italian (n=1). 1 The questionnaire (see OSF) included closed and open-ended questions in sections addressing global education, digital media, AR and VR, their teacher training requirements, and demographic data. To assess (1) the relevance of global education and critical environmental literacy 2 to foreign language teachers, an instrument developed by Waltner et al. (2021) was adapted for the context of FLE. Teachers’ (2) practices concerning these topics, digital media and XR in their foreign language teaching were assessed with self-developed items. The items were reviewed by our team to establish content validity. Regarding (3) foreign language teachers’ beliefs about digital media for ESD and XR in FLE, we adapted two items of the technology commitment scale to the FLE context (Neyer et al. 2012). Foreign language teachers’ competence beliefs of teaching with AR/ VR, and their motivation to learn more about the use and creation of AR/ VR learning environments were assessed using an adapted scale based on Holzapfel et al. (2023) and selfdeveloped items. The quantitative results were analyzed using JASP software for R (JASP 2023), whereas the open-ended questions were analyzed qualitatively (Kuckartz et al. 2009). Teachers’ Perspectives on Global Education, Digital Media, and Extended Reality 185 <?page no="186"?> 5. Findings RQ1. Relevance of GE and BNE for foreign language teachers Confirming our hypothesis, most participants (60 %) were familiar with the German term BNE (Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung, i.e. ESD), whereas only 32 percent had already heard of the English term Global Education. A possible explanation for this is that the term ESD (BNE) is more prominent in policy documents and online platforms such as the “Demokratielernen-Portal” (ht tps: / / www.politischebildung.schule.bayern.de/ bne/ ), which provides practical examples for teaching in Bavaria. Foreign language teachers generally considered ESD relevant for FLE (M=3.65, SD=.52; see Appendix) and reported that they would teach global topics even if that required a greater effort (M=3,07, SD=.69). Moreover, foreign language teachers rather disagreed with the statement that curricula were too full to allow for the inclusion of global topics in FLE (M=2,95, SD=.72) and, more decisively, disagreed with the statement that was not a purpose of FLE (M=3,53, SD=.70). Fig. 1 gives a detailed overview of the answers to these items on a Likert scale ranging from one (fully disagree) to four (agree). Fig. 1: Perceived relevance of ESD (BNE) for FLE. Items with an asterisk were reversed for the mean calculation Moreover, we asked foreign language teachers about the perceived relevance of four global education content domains as formulated by the OECD (2018) for their foreign language lessons. Generally, all topics were rated as relevant 186 Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, Theresa Summer <?page no="187"?> 3 Note. Multiple answers possible. for FLE on a four-point Likert scale, ranging from one (not at all relevant) to four (highly relevant). Most importantly, foreign language teachers considered culture and intercultural relations (M=3.9, SD=.30) as highly relevant with large agreement and not a single person rating this content domain as (rather) irrel‐ evant. The other three content domains environmental sustainability (M=3,53, SD=.62), institutions, conflicts, and human rights (M=3,48, SD=.68), and socioeconomic development and interdependence (M=3,37, SD=.69) were also per‐ ceived as relevant for FLE. RQ2. Practices of foreign language teachers regarding the integration of (a) global education topics, (b) digital media, and (c) XR in their foreign language lessons To explore current teaching practices of foreign language teachers regarding global education, we asked the participants how frequently they addressed the four content domains of global education as formulated by the OECD (2018) in their foreign language lessons. Most participants reported to have so far included intercultural (85 %) and environmental (80 %) topics in their foreign language lessons, followed by political (58 %) and socio-economic (52 %) content (see Tab. 1). Overall, this shows that global education topics are an important part of FLE even though the term global education as such is not necessarily a conceptual framework teachers are familiar with. Category Frequency Culture and intercultural relations 54 Environmental sustainability 46 Institutions, conflicts, and human rights 31 Socio-economic development and interdependence 26 Tab. 1: Frequency of global topics that foreign language teachers reportedly integrated into their lessons 3 Foreign language teachers’ current use of media to address global topics was assessed with a multiple-selection item. Most teachers reported using short videos (88 %) and mobile devices (65 %) for their teaching, followed by documentaries (47 %), and fictional movies (37 %). However, relatively new digital media such as social media texts (25 %) and educational apps (20 %) were Teachers’ Perspectives on Global Education, Digital Media, and Extended Reality 187 <?page no="188"?> rarely selected. As expected, almost none of the participating foreign language teachers reported the use of either AR (0 %) and/ or VR (2 %). Non-digital media were also mentioned quite frequently, such as the textbook, factual texts (92 % respectively) or songs (67-%; see Fig. 2). Fig. 2: Use of media A closer look into prior experiences with XR technologies reveals that about half of the participants had no prior experience with either AR and/ or VR, and most of the reported experience with XR technologies stemmed from private use. Experience of foreign language teaching with XR is almost nonexistent (see Fig. 3). 188 Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, Theresa Summer <?page no="189"?> Fig. 3: Prior experiences of foreign language teachers with XR technologies RQ3. Beliefs of foreign language teachers about (a) digital media for ESD and (b) XR in FLE We used both self-developed and adapted scales (see Appendix 1) to explore foreign language teachers’ beliefs about the use of digital media in their lessons on global education. The findings indicate that foreign language teachers have rather positive beliefs about the learning potential of digital media for global education (M=3.13, SD=.49 on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = do not agree at all to 4 = fully agree; see Tab. 2). Our self-developed scale included four items (see Appendix 1) and showed good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α=.73). We furthermore asked foreign language teachers about their beliefs regarding the learning potential of XR technologies for FLE and also found rather positive beliefs about XR for (M=2.78, SD=.63 on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = do not agree at all to 4 = fully agree). In order to not only ask about the theoretical educational potential of XR, but also account for practical demands of teachers, we asked whether teachers perceived the organizational barriers of including XR into their foreign language teaching as too high, to which most participants rather agreed (M=2.98, SD=.75). Given teachers’ lack of experience in using XR technologies in general, and for FLE specifically (see Fig. 3), the positive attitude towards the potential of XR and at the same time worries about organizational demands are interesting. Teachers’ Perspectives on Global Education, Digital Media, and Extended Reality 189 <?page no="190"?> Scale M SD Items Cronbach’s α Beliefs about digital media for ESD 3.13 .49 4 .73 Beliefs about XR for FLE 2.78 .63 2 .63 Technology commitment - - - - … in general 3.08 .75 2 .80 … in teaching 2.67 .78 2 .74 Competence beliefs for teaching with XR 2.54 .78 2 .77 Motivation for XR in foreign language education 3.17 .72 3 .87 Tab. 2: Descriptive statistics (N=60) Note: Items rated on a four-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (fully disagree) to 4 (fully agree). RQ4. Motivational aspects of foreign language teachers regarding the (a) use of digital media, (b) XR for FLE in particular, (c) training on XR for FLE, and (d) regarding their competence beliefs of teaching with XR We found a generally moderate commitment towards new technologies among foreign language teachers (M=3.08, SD=.75) and a slightly lower commitment towards integrating new technologies into their foreign language lessons (M=2.67, SD=.78, see Tab. 2). Therefore, foreign language teachers’ openness towards new technologies in general seems to be higher than their commitment to include new digital media in their teaching practices. A possible reason for this difference could be a lack of availability of technological equipment at schools as well as a lack of knowledge about their learning potential. Lastly, we asked foreign language teachers specifically about their motivation to participate in a course on global education and the use of XR technologies. Our findings indicate that 90 percent of foreign language teachers are willing to learn more about global issues in FLE, and similarly, the majority were interested in participating in teacher training on XR technologies (87 %), and on the creation of XR learning environments in particular (80 %). Moreover, foreign language teachers’ competence beliefs of using and creating XR learning environments were rather high (M=2.54, SD=.78; see Tab. 2). Foreign language teachers also expressed a rather high motivation to learn how to use, create, and teach with XR technologies (M=3.17, SD=.73; see Tab. 2). 190 Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, Theresa Summer <?page no="191"?> 6. Discussion To sum up, our findings provide insights into in-service teachers’ attitudes towards digital media and their teaching practices, particularly concerning XR technologies, for global education in FLE. Our findings are in line with existing international research on teachers’ perspectives on global education and XR technologies, and moreover show to what extent digital media and global topics are part of teaching practices in FLE. Concerning global education for FLE, teachers in our study perceived global topics as highly relevant for their teaching, which is in line with previous research (Arıkan 2009; Gürsoy/ Saglam 2011; Mercer 2022; Robbins et al. 2003). Combined with these international studies, our findings underscore that posi‐ tive attitudes towards global topics might be a general tendency among foreign language teachers worldwide. This shows that recent political developments including the outline of the SDGs by the United Nations (UNESCO 2015) as well as educational policies (e.g. KMK/ BMZ 2017) seem to have reached a certain level of awareness and interest among educators. Regarding teaching practices, most teachers reported to already include topics such as intercultural relations or environmental issues frequently in their foreign language lessons. As intercultural communicative competence is widely considered the overarching goal of FLE (Hallet 2011) and explicitly part of the curriculum (ISB Bayern 2024), this finding is not surprising. However, including environmental topics and, less frequently, topics related to human rights and socio-economic issues might hint at a broader inclusion of content related to the sustainable development goals in FLE (KMK/ BMZ 2017). Digital media are generally also used by foreign language teachers. How‐ ever, traditional media such as textbooks or factual texts are still the most frequently used type of medium (Steinbock 2025). More recent technological developments such as social media and XR technologies seem to be rather absent from the foreign language classes of our sample, which is in line with previous research (Kaplan-Rakowski et al. 2023). We can only assume that a reluctance to include social media in teaching approaches might be due to a relative absence in teachers’ lives, compared to the omnipresence in adoles‐ cents’ lives (Autor: innengruppe Nationaler Bildungsbericht 2020). Moreover, as technological advances are ahead of pedagogical concepts, teachers might feel insecure about integrating emerging digital media, such as social media and XR technologies, into their teaching. The main reason for an absence of XR technologies, however, seems to be the general lack of experience with XR among participating teachers. This confirms previous findings in which practical experience was identified as the most Teachers’ Perspectives on Global Education, Digital Media, and Extended Reality 191 <?page no="192"?> important factor influencing teachers’ attitudes towards XR technologies (Kaplan- Rakowski, Dhimolea et al. 2023). However, most participating foreign language teachers believe that digital media and XR technologies can be beneficial for FLE in general, underscoring previous findings from international studies (Kaplan- Rakowski, Papin et al. 2023; Khukalenko et al. 2022, Wengler 2024). One possible reason for this high openness towards XR technologies might be participants’ generally positive attitude towards including new digital media in their teaching. Interestingly, the noted lack of experience with XR technologies goes in hand with a high motivation to participate in professional training on how to use XR tools for FLE and global education. This high interest in teacher training on global education and XR technologies for FLE underscores the relevance of our current research project. Limitations of our study are the convenience sample of 60 Bavarian teachers who participated in a conference for foreign language teachers and might not be representative, as well as the design of the questionnaire with self-developed items. 7. Conclusion Our findings imply that foreign language teachers in our sample are generally aware of global issues, and express a willingness to learn more about how to integrate global topics into their teaching. While this implies that there is no specific need to raise awareness about global education for FLE in general, our findings demonstrate that foreign language teachers mostly include global topics that they are more familiar with, for example, related to intercultural topics, while other topics (e.g., human rights) are less frequently included in teaching practices. Moreover, it is crucial to note that most teachers in our study seemed to be unfamiliar with the term global education. Teacher training should presumably focus on explaining the theoretical frameworks behind this concept so that teachers shift from merely including global topics in their lessons towards initiating global competence development of their learners across various domains including, for instance, the action component of critical environmental literacy (Deetjen/ Ludwig 2021b). Teachers’ openness towards digital media in general, and their positive attitudes towards XR as a new digital medium for FLE specifically are promising. Overall, foreign language teachers’ beliefs about XR technologies for FLE are rather positive - a finding which we did not expect due to the teachers’ lack of prior experience in the use of XR both privately and professionally. The positive motivation of foreign language teachers to learn more about the use of XR in FLE 192 Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, Theresa Summer <?page no="193"?> underpins the need for teacher training in this field. Teacher training modules should draw on this positive attitude and support teachers in developing competencies related to the usage of XR with a focus on global education (Zirkel forthcoming). Such training should enable teachers to effectively make use of the immense potential of XR as a new digital space for FLE and global education. Overall, the results suggest that foreign language teachers could benefit from practice-oriented frameworks that illustrate how global learning can be imple‐ mented into practice through XR technologies, and how to effectively make use of the potential of XR technologies for developing critical environmental literacy among learners. Funding The DiSo-SGW (Digitale Souveränität als Ziel wegweisender Lehrer: innenbildung für Sprachen, Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftswissenschaften in der digitalen Welt) project is funded by the European Union - NextGenerationEU and the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. The views and opinions expressed are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Union, the European Commission or the Federal Ministry of Education and Research. Neither of these institutions can be held responsible for them. References Ahn, Sun Joo (2011). Embodied experiences in immersive virtual environments: Effects on pro-environmental attitude and behavior. Dissertation at Stanford University. https : / / vhil.stanford.edu/ sites/ g/ files/ sbiybj29011/ files/ media/ file/ ahn-embodied-experien ces.pdf Arikan, Arda (2009). Environmental peace education in foreign language learners’ English grammar lessons. Journal of Peace Education 6, 87-99. 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Zirkel, Michelle (forthcoming). Innovation in der Lehrkräftebildung: Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung und sprachliche Bildung durch immersive virtuelle Realität im Englischunterricht. In: Morek, Miriam/ Dorothee, Meer, eds. Unterricht auf einem 198 Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, Theresa Summer <?page no="199"?> bedrohten Planeten. Sprachlich-literarisches Lernen und Deutschdidaktik (SLLD-B). Universität Duisburg-Essen. Zirkel, Michelle/ Summer, Theresa (2023). Empowering English language teachers to use immersive virtual reality for global citizenship education. WorldCALL2023: Conference Proceedings, 217-224. DOI: 10.22492/ issn.2759-1182.2024.25 Teachers’ Perspectives on Global Education, Digital Media, and Extended Reality 199 <?page no="200"?> 4 Use of two items from the original 4-item scale. Appendix: List of items for descriptive statistics Item Description Source M SD Role of ESD for FLE A2.1 BNE gehört in möglichst viele Unter‐ richtsfächer, auch in den Fremdsprache‐ nunterricht. adapted from Waltner et al., 2021 3.65 .52 A2.2 Ich würde nachhaltigkeitsbezogene In‐ halte auch dann unterrichten, wenn es mit erhöhtem Aufwand verbunden ist. 3.07 .69 A2.3 Bei der Überfrachtung heutiger Lehrpläne ist kein Platz für mehr für BNE im Fremd‐ sprachenunterricht.* 2.95 .72 A2.4 BNE ist keine Aufgabe des Fremdsprache‐ nunterrichts.* 3.53 .70 Beliefs about digital media for ESD B1.1 Digitale Medien können gewinnbringend für BNE eingesetzt werden. self-developed 3.63 .52 B1.2 Der Einsatz von digitalen Medien lenkt vom eigentlichen Thema der Stunde ab.* 3.27 .71 B1.3 BNE/ kann genauso gut ohne digitale Medien gelingen.* 2.25 .77 B1.4 Durch den Einsatz von digitalen Medien werden globale Themen anschaulicher und lebensnaher. 3.38 .61 Beliefs about XR for FLE C3.1 Der Einsatz von VR/ AR kann einen Mehr‐ wert für den Fremdsprachenunterricht bieten. self-developed 2.90 .80 C3.4 Ich habe beim Einsatz von VR/ AR im Fremdsprachenunterricht Bedenken.* 2.67 .68 Technology commitment (general) B2.1 Hinsichtlich technischer Neuentwick‐ lungen bin ich sehr aufgeschlossen. Neyer et al., 2012 4 3.27 .78 B2.2 Ich finde schnell Gefallen an technischen Neuentwicklungen. 2.88 .87 200 Claudia Schnellbögl, Michelle Zirkel, Anna Bösendörfer, Theresa Summer <?page no="201"?> Technology commitment (teaching) B2.3 Ich bin stets daran interessiert, die neu‐ esten technischen Geräte im Unterricht zu verwenden. adapted from Neyer et al., 2012 2.65 .88 B2.4 Wenn ich Gelegenheit dazu hätte, würde ich noch viel häufiger technische Pro‐ dukte im Unterricht nutzen, als ich das gegenwärtig tue. 2.68 .87 Competence beliefs XR C6.1 Ich traue mir zu, Lernumgebungen für VR/ AR zu nutzen. adapted from Holzapfel et al., 2023 2.77 .85 C6.3 Ich traue mir zu, Lernumgebungen für VR/ AR zu gestalten. 2.32 .87 Motivation XR in FLE C6.2 Ich würde gerne lernen, wie man Lernum‐ gebungen für VR/ AR nutzt. adapted from Holzapfel et al., 2023 3.30 .74 C6.4 Ich würde gerne lernen, wie man Lernum‐ gebungen für VR/ AR gestaltet. 3.12 .87 C3.3 Wenn ich die Gelegenheit dazu hätte, würde ich VR/ AR im Fremdsprachenun‐ terricht nutzen. self-developed 3.08 .83 Organizational barriers of XR in FLE C3.2 Der Einsatz von VR/ AR im Fremdspra‐ chenunterricht ist organisatorisch zu auf‐ wendig. self-developed 2.98 .75 Note: All items were rated on a 4-point Likert scale; items with an asterisk were inverted for mean calculation. Teachers’ Perspectives on Global Education, Digital Media, and Extended Reality 201 <?page no="203"?> Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald 1. Introduction Advances in digital technologies, particularly in the fields of artificial intelli‐ gence (AI) and virtual reality (VR), have become increasingly prominent in recent years and both AI and VR are thus considered to be future technologies (Ludwig 2022). These developments, on the one hand, present challenges for teachers, who need to continuously adapt to the rapid pace of technological innovation in their teaching, so that they meet the goals of fostering digital competence among their learners. On the other hand, these developments present opportunities for teachers to develop innovative learning materials and tasks. To give an example, foreign language teachers may find AI-tools like ChatGPT to be useful for their instructional practice as these can assist them in generating texts that match a specific proficiency level, thus enabling more differentiated instruction. Equally, AI-tools can serve as a useful resource for developing activities that include features of intelligent practice (Schmidt/ Strasser 2022). VR, particularly high-immersion VR (definition see Section 4.3), carries potential for new ways of foreign language learning as it can imitate travelling scenarios by taking learners to other places (Zirkel forthcoming b). Moreover, as a recent systematic review has shown, VR can help to improve language learning skills, particularly contextual vocabulary learning (Dhimolea et al. 2022). Despite these benefits, VR is a newly emerging technology in schools and is largely unknown to foreign language teachers, as our recent study has shown (see Schnellbögl et al. in this volume). This illustrates that, although research findings indicate specific benefits of innovative digital technologies, there is a need for teachers to receive training and opportunities to further their own digital competencies. Against this backdrop, a joint research project by the universities of Bam‐ berg, Bremen, and Würzburg seeks to develop and evaluate research-based teacher-training courses that focus on integrating AI and VR into foreign <?page no="204"?> language education (for a detailed description see Section 4). This initiative is part of the larger project consortium DiSo-SGW (Digitale Souveränität als Ziel wegweisender Lehrer: innenbildung für Sprachen, Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftswissenschaften in der digitalen Welt), which is part of the German network lernen: digital (funded by the BMBF, NextGenerationEU). This network aims to contribute to the professionalisation of teachers across Germany, enabling them to become confident and competent in teaching with and through digital spaces and textualities. Our projects specifically aim to equip foreign language teachers with the skills, competences and sovereignty (see following section) necessary for today’s school education in which digital spaces and textualities such as AI and VR play an increasingly important role. Given this context, this contribution discusses the theoretical foundation of our projects and describes their overarching goals for foreign language teacher education. In addition, it introduces the thematic focus and conceptual approach of three different projects. 2. A Focus on Digital Sovereignty in Foreign Language Teacher Education Our project draws on debates around the concept of digital sovereignty. We use this term, which is currently rather uncommon in English-speaking academic debates, to refer to the overarching goal of our training programs. In the field of education in Germany, the Aktionsrat Bildung, a panel of experts that aims to formulate research-based recommendations for reforming the German education system, released a fundamental publication that describes digital sovereignty as the ultimate goal of digital education (Blossfeld et al. 2018). More specifically, it is defined as follows: “‘Digital sovereignty’ is understood as the ability to use digital media independently and under one’s own control and to adapt to the constantly changing requirements in a digitalized world. Digital sovereign action is tied to individual prerequisites on the one hand, namely sufficient media competence on the part of the individual, and on the other, the provision of appropriate technologies and products.” (Blossfeld et al. 2018: 12) In German academic discourse, the term digital sovereignty is said to have “become a leitmotif ” (Meinel et al. 2023: 5). Per definition, “[t]his concept is understood as the state’s capacity to assume its responsibilities and safeguard society’s - and the individual’s - ability to shape the digital transformation in a self-determined way” (ibid.). Research within the competence network 204 Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald <?page no="205"?> lernen: digital has resulted in an increase in the use of this term in the context of developing research-based teacher training courses. It is used as a broad term that refers to people’s self-determined approach to the digital condition (Stalder 2018) and their successful participation in a digital world. The term considers both the social perspective, that is, the fact that our society is strongly influenced by developments in digital technologies, as well as the perspective of the individual, that is, teachers and learners, and aims to relate these two perspectives. Given the dangers that emerge from digitalisation due to the presence of fake news and manipulation in the form of mind engineering (Shei/ Schnell 2024), it is not surprising that Artelt states: “Teaching digital sovereignty cannot start early enough” (Artelt 2023: 41). In addition, digital sovereignty plays a central role as a primary objective across all school subjects. In our projects situated within the field of foreign language education, we understand digital sovereignty broadly as “the sum of all abilities and possibilities of individuals and institutions to fulfil their role(s) in the digital world independently, self-determined and securely” (Goldacker 2017: 3; also qtd. in Zirkel/ Summer 2024). Therefore, digital sovereignty encompasses individual and institutional facets. For teachers and learners, on an individual level, this means being able to use digital media independently, autonomously, and confidently. At an institutional level, this encompasses an understanding of external factors and specific political, technological, and legal conditions. In recent years, there have been various efforts to model the concept of digital sovereignty in order to grasp its theoretical underpinnings as well as its practical implications. In language education, for the subject of German (L1), Frederking applies the term digital textual sovereignty to describe eight dimensions in order to illustrate the complexity of the requirements for the receptive and productive engagement with digital texts (Frederking 2022). In a recent application of the concept to foreign language education, Viebrock and Janßen developed a model of digital text and communication sovereignty (digitale Text- und Kommunikationssouveränität) including three components: (1) functional (e.g., using andproducing texts), (2) critical (e.g., evaluating the effects and power of language), and (3) object-related (e.g., understanding and understanding text as a multimodal concept) (Viebrock/ Janßen 2024). Frederking and Brüggemann (2024) present six categories of digital sovereignty for teachers across different school subjects and these dimensions are divided into a functional and personal dimension. In short, this model describes professional development for teachers in three directions: supporting digital learning processes in the form of fostering learners’ knowledge and skills, promoting a self-reflective attitude in learners Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education 205 <?page no="206"?> about digital media usage, and encouraging critical reflection on the ethical implications of digitalisation. The individual perspective of digital sovereignty is the focus of other models including TPACK and the DigCompEdu framework, which thus provide im‐ portant theoretical pillars for our project. First, the model of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) aims to outline the complex roles and interplay among content, pedagogy, and technology (Mishra/ Koehler 2006). As such, teachers require expertise in didactics and pedagogy, subject matter, and technology, all of which are interrelated. To give an example for integrating VR, this would require teachers to know how to enhance foreign language learning and specific competencies through the use of VR headsets, specific apps, and pedagogical tasks. Second, the DigCompEdu, which “aims to provide a general reference frame for developers of digital competence models” (Redecker/ Punie 2017: 9), and has thus resulted in adaptations for specific regions (e.g., DigCompEdu Bavaria 2021), presents an overview of 22 competences organised into six areas. These encompass (1) teachers’ broader professional development in using digital technologies, (2) competences for the effective and responsible use, creation, and sharing of digital learning resources, (3) the management of digital technologies in teaching and learning, (4) the use of digital strategies to enhance assessment, (5) the potential of digital technologies for learner-centred teaching and learning strategies, and (6) pedagogic competences for enhancing learners’ digital competence (Redecker/ Punie 2017: 9). The precise scope of the competences, skills, and abilities relevant to the integration of VR and AI in foreign language education is currently under investigation in our projects, for which we draw on the theoretical models described above. A central focus is on the functional and effective use of digital technologies and tools as well as the creation of digital teaching and learning materials with the goal of activating learners’ digital competence, and enhancing teachers’ digital sovereignty. Before providing an insight into the thematic foci and approaches of our teacher training courses, the following section outlines some basic principles that guide the conceptual development of the teacher training courses. 3. Developing Foreign Language Teacher Training Courses: Guiding Principles Although the three projects presented in this contribution (in Bamberg, Bremen, and Würzburg) differ in their goals, content, and procedures, we aim to align them through characteristics of effective teacher training programs. This is of 206 Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald <?page no="207"?> particular importance because studies on teacher training generally find that the impact of training programs falls short of the expectations placed on them (e.g., Lipowsky 2004; 2010; Wahl 2009). Against this backdrop, the foundational principles derived from theoretical and empirical research, as articulated in the research synthesis by Lipowsky and Rzejak (2021: 28-62; 2023: 126-140), guide the design of our teacher training courses. The subsequent sections will describe these principles and their application to our projects. The first characteristic refers to content and subject focus: Teacher training has a positive effect if it encourages teachers to deal intensively with specific subject-related difficulties and the learning processes of their students. The potential of cognitive activation in a training event lies in engaging teachers and enabling them to think about the content in depth, to discuss it and to be encouraged to expand their knowledge. This is further supported when teachers can link new information and content with their previous knowledge, when new strategies and approaches are developed and when they reflect on their own professional practice and their own views and beliefs. The second aspect addresses the relevance and applicability of the training content. In short, teacher trainers should clarify the usefulness and importance of the content and support its applicability in practice. Thirdly, orientation towards the current state of teaching research is crucial. Effective in-service training programs are based on state-of-the-art research and thus make use of findings on the characteristics of teaching that is effective in terms of learning and motivation. These include, for example, the cognitive activation of learners, the quality of feedback or the teaching of subject and domain-specific learning strategies. The fourth characteristic refers to the pedagogical dual role. When teachers experience similar challenges in the training program as their students do later in the classroom, this deepens their subject-specific didactic knowledge and understanding of the students’ learning processes, thus promoting cognitive empathy. The fifth aspect includes linking input, exploration and reflection. Effective in-service training offers opportunities to apply new knowledge in the classroom and to reflect on the experiences in later in-service training events. A further important component of effective teacher training programs is pro‐ moting teaching-related cooperation and strengthening collegial cooperation. Intensive cooperation between teachers is essential for the implementation of training content and successful long-term school and teaching development. Ideally, colleagues from a school should partake as a team to open up the possibility of in-house continuation and further discussions on the training content. In any case, there must be sufficient room for networking in the training program. The seventh characteristic addresses the importance of coaching Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education 207 <?page no="208"?> and feedback. Crucial elements of effective in-service training relate to the concrete actions of teachers by providing them with supportive feedback to optimise their practice. The eighth feature, appropriate training duration and seriality, criticises one-off training courses, which have proven not to be sustainable, thus highlighting that repeated application and practice within the framework of training are important. Finally, the ninth characteristic refers to the actual format of the training. Previous studies do not provide a clear picture of the effectiveness of face-to-face versus online or blended-learning formats. It is important that the characteristics of effective training are retained regardless of the format, although online training places particular demands on motivation and commitment as well as cooperation and communication between participants. In a nutshell, effective teacher training should focus on subject-specific challenges, cognitive activation, and the integration of new content with prior knowledge, while ensuring relevance, applicability, and alignment with current educational research. Central elements include promoting collaboration among teachers, providing opportunities for reflection, offering coaching and feedback, and thus ensuring that the training is sustained over time. In our projects, we make every effort to ensure that all features are implemented accordingly. For instance, we provide opportunities for teacher collaboration through online platforms, online office hours and regular contacts with teachers in the context of our projects, partly also by offering school visits. All in all, through these efforts as well as additional support provided by stakeholders and coordinating projects, we receive the necessary support to develop, test, and implement the training courses in alignment with these guiding principles. 4. Project Insights This section provides more detailed insights into the teacher training courses developed by the three foreign language education projects of DiSo-SGW (see Section 1). While the project at the University of Bremen focuses on the integration of AI into foreign language education, initially focusing on French as the target language, the universities of Bamberg and Würzburg address the use of VR in English language education. In addition to developing specific teaching and learning resources for integrating AI and VR into foreign language education, all projects aim to develop research-based guidelines for the integration of AI and VR into foreign language classrooms. To continuously improve our concepts and the accompanying materials, we conduct designbased research (McKenney/ Reeves 2019). By carrying out the teacher training 208 Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald <?page no="209"?> modules in different cycles numerous times and evaluating the findings based on feedback from teachers, learners, and critical friends, we hope to ensure the practicality and effectiveness of our trainings. 4.1. AI-Based Tools in Foreign Language Education (University of Bremen) Based on the above-mentioned characteristics (Section 3), the sub-project in Bremen is developing a training concept for teachers focusing on the use of AIbased tools in foreign language teaching. The teacher training module uses a blended-learning format over a period of four weeks (see Fig. 1). Participants come together in three face-to-face sessions which alternate with asynchronous transfer phases: The training begins with an in-person kick-off session, followed by an online module about a specific AI tool relevant to foreign language teaching (e.g., ChatGPT, DeepL). This is followed by a second face-to-face session for joint critical reflection on the content of the respective module and collaborative development of a teaching activity. Subsequently, in a transfer phase, the participating teachers put the teaching activities into practice in the classroom. The training program ends with the third face-to-face session, in which the implementation of the lesson and the concept of the training program are reflected upon. Before the training begins, the teachers are asked to complete an online questionnaire to determine their individual prior knowledge, the level of their personal and professional digital sovereignty, and their expectations of the training. This information is then used to plan the subsequent sessions. The online modules are designed to first provide a brief presentation of the content, important teaching-related information, and practical teaching examples to illustrate and reflect on its use in foreign language teaching. This is accompanied by a discussion forum providing participants with the opportunity to exchange experiences and a glossary with explanations of terms as well as a library with profiles of more than 20 different AI-based tools, along with guidance on their use in foreign language lessons. This concept takes into account all of the abovementioned criteria from the research literature and represents a successful way of transferring concepts from university to schools. Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education 209 <?page no="210"?> Fig. 1: Structure of the training concept ‘AI based tools in foreign language teaching’ As part of the piloting study involving 12 trainee teachers, who assessed the training concept, data were collected via online questionnaires in a pre/ post design and a group discussion as well as an expert interview. The results confirmed the relevance of the topic, the format, the content focus, and the topicality. Suggestions for improvement were made in particular concerning the usability of the online modules on the regional learning platform ‘itslearning’. The participants (trainee teachers) expressed a desire for more guidance in the selection of learning content. The number of teaching examples on offer and the large selection of AI tools were seen as counterproductive. Even though the joint development, implementation, and reflection of a teaching activity are a constituent part of the training concept, more liability and more time were desired with regard to the transfer phase. Finally, more joint work on analysing and adapting the teaching examples for the specific AI tools was also mentioned as a desideratum (Droste forthcoming). The feedback will be incorporated into the further development as part of an internal teacher training course. The final steps will involve making the teacher training module accessible across Germany. 210 Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald <?page no="211"?> 1 https: / / www.uni-wuerzburg.de/ lehre/ coteach/ https: / / www.youtube.com/ watch? v=P0ArLYQuFD8 4.2. Expanding Interand Transcultural Competences through SVR (University of Würzburg) Building on the project “CoTeach - Connected Teacher Education” funded by the BMBF (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung) (2020-2023), 1 the sub-project at the University of Würzburg is about developing an advanced training module that will enable teachers to contribute to a diversity-sensitive English classroom through expanding interand transcultural competences using social virtual reality (SVR) as part of an ethically-reflective digital literacy. The objective of the project is for students and teachers to reflect on the ways in which multimedia, multimodal, and communicative experiences, both in daily life and within the English classroom, shape their learning environment. VR technologies are believed to promote this reflection through the immersive and interactive nature of virtual experiences. The presence, embodiment, and agency provided by VR allow participants to engage deeply with virtual peers from diverse cultural backgrounds. By fostering empathy through these immersive interactions, VR can enhance both interand trans‐ cultural competences. Our research shows that the pedagogical use of VR contributes to enhancing overall digital competences in teacher education and to improving the overall effectiveness of using VR as a teaching tool. First, the InteractionSuitcase, a collection of culturally connoted objects, was developed as a VR design element to facilitate the use of virtual objects in SVR applications. This tool was specif‐ ically designed for use in interactive learning environments and demonstrated high user-friendliness, as highlighted in the accompanying studies (Hein et al. 2021). Participants reported that the InteractionSuitcase made interactions with virtual objects more intuitive and accessible, which contributed to an improved learning experience. Another focus was on the development of a seminar concept for teacher ed‐ ucation, targeting pre-service teachers in the subject of English. The goal of the seminar was to provide participants with the opportunity to develop teaching activities in SVR that aim to build intercultural and transcultural competences in English language teaching. Within this initiative, three seminars were successfully conducted, resulting in the development of six teaching activities. These activities were documented and described using a specifically developed methods map (Hein et al. 2023: 201) (see Fig. 2). This concept map was devel‐ oped for visualisation and enables the extraction of intervention modules, Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education 211 <?page no="212"?> enhancing the comparability and reproducibility of various interventions. For instance, focusing on virtual objects from the InteractionSuitcase, these objects are positioned on the y-axis of the map. The choice of a virtual object, the manner of its use, and the peers involved serve as variables from which conclusions can be drawn about key themes such as tolerance of ambiguity, acceptance of stereotypes, and self-reflection. The InteractionSuitcase thus functions not only as a quantifiable behavioural measure but also as a communication initiator in intercultural and transcultural encounters in VR (Steinbock et al. 2022: 259-260). One example of these activities is the lesson titled “Changing bodies changes minds”, where students engaged in a VR setting to experience ster‐ eotyping directly. In this scenario, students could take on avatars of different ages, genders and/ or cultural backgrounds, allowing them to experience how others respond to them based on these visual cues, and also to understand how it might feel to be in someone else’s shoes. This immersive experience prompted them to reflect on their encounters, aiming to raise awareness of exclusion mechanisms and explore strategies for countering prejudice. Another activity was the “gallery walk of (cultural) identities”, in which the classroom was transformed into an exhibition space for students to freely explore each other’s work. In this seminar, the students adapted the gallery walk method to incorporate virtual objects, facilitating transcultural learning processes through interaction and communication. This approach encouraged them to identify commonalities with peers from diverse cultural backgrounds. Participants selected three objects from the InteractionSuitcase that represented either their personality or cultural identity and presented their selections during the gallery walk, fostering a deeper understanding of their own and others’ cultural perspectives. 212 Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald <?page no="213"?> Fig. 2: Methods Map for VR Interventions (inspired by Bolten 2016; Hein et al. 2023: 201) The accompanying research, involving interviews with seminar participants, provided valuable insights into the impact and potential of SVR in the educa‐ tional context. One key finding was that avatars were the most frequently used elements in the developed teaching activities (Hein et al. 2021; Steinbock et al. 2022). This underscores the importance of avatar embodiment in virtual environments, as it enables a shift of perspectives that participants identified as the greatest potential of SVR, and aligns with the findings of the quoted studies. In particular, the ability to create a stronger perceived closeness to the subject matter through the use of avatars was positively highlighted. Finally, participants emphasised the importance of acquiring digital skills during their studies. They indicated that early experiences with digital technologies, such as VR, help them to better utilise and further develop these skills in their future teaching practice. This demonstrates that integrating digital technologies into teacher education is not only beneficial but also necessary to prepare future teachers for the demands of an increasingly digitalised educational environment. The valuable experiences and insights gained so far will inform the devel‐ opment of teacher training modules. As with the CoTeach project, our sub- Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education 213 <?page no="214"?> project in DiSo-SGW will also use the ViLeArn platform developed at the University of Würzburg. This platform includes the collaboration tool Notion, virtual tablets, a screen for presentations, a voice memo function and the InteractionSuitcase. Thus, participants can assume different roles, such as moderator, observer, or participant. The steps and objectives related to profes‐ sional teacher development encompass several key components. The initial phase during the winter term 2023/ 24 involved assessing the effectiveness of the teaching concepts that were developed for use in immersive educational settings. This evaluation provided valuable insights into the applicability and impact of these concepts in English language education. The implementation of the student study can significantly enhance the professional development framework, providing added value by incorporating empirical data and practical insights into the training process. Building upon the conducted seminars, the goal is to expand them into a comprehensive professional development program. Such a program is designed to enhance digital sovereignty by equipping teachers with the necessary skills and knowledge to effectively utilise fully immersive environments for building not only intercultural and transcultural competences but also global citizenship education in their English language teaching. In addition to the universitybased evaluation of task formats, we established a partnership with a Bavarian Gymnasium for cooperation. This partnership enabled the compilation of task formats from the preliminary work from both a theoretical research-based and a practice-oriented perspective. These task formats were tested and evaluated with an upper-level secondary school class in July 2024. This practical trial provided a concrete teaching example, complete with empirical accompanying research, within the context of teacher training. Simultaneously with the collaboration on the development and evaluation of a concrete teaching example as a practical resource for teacher training, a framework for professional development programs was designed. This framework defined the target dimensions of digital sovereignty according to the DigCompEdu Bavaria model (2021), and clarified the scope, theoretical content, and organisational conditions (e.g., location of the training sessions). The professional development framework is currently undergoing continuous evaluation and refinement following the principles of design-based research, an approach that enables the iterative improvement of the program, ensuring it remains responsive to the evolving needs of educators and the dynamics of digital learning environments. In the next step, the project will be piloted with English teachers. This process is set to take place during the winter term 2024/ 25, with the results to be integrated into the final teacher training 214 Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald <?page no="215"?> program in February and March 2025. These steps are intended to advance the professional development of teachers by integrating digital skills and immersive technologies into their teaching practices, ultimately aiming to enhance the digital sovereignty and educational experiences of English language learners. 4.3. VR and ESD in English Language Teaching (University of Bamberg) The sub-project at the University of Bamberg called “VR and ESD in English Language Teaching” aims to develop research-based training modules on virtual reality (VR) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) for teaching English at secondary and vocational schools (see also Zirkel/ Summer 2024). VR is a rather broad term that encompasses two varieties of immersion: 1) lowimmersion VR which refers to “a computer-generated three-dimensional virtual space experienced through […] a desktop computer with a two-dimensional monitor” and 2) high-immersion VR which refers to “a computer-generated 360° virtual space that can be perceived as being spatially realistic, due to the high immersion afforded by a head-mounted device” (Kaplan-Rakowski/ Gruber 2019: 1). The goal of this sub-project is to enable foreign language teachers to (1) select appropriate VR apps for language learning and ESD, focusing on high-immersion VR, and (2) to create (or instruct their learners to create) appropriate VR learning environments for language learning and ESD. For the former, we searched for and analysed already existing apps to identify their potential for foreign language education and ESD, which resulted in numerous fact sheets on VR apps for ESD developed for teachers to use in English lessons (Zirkel forthcoming a). For the latter, we are cooperating with the Taiwanese company AR2VR, which provides an authoring software for using smartphones and cardboard headsets for creating VR content in a user-friendly way, thus facilitating the creation of virtual worlds by teachers and learners alike. This cooperation allows us to experiment with the software in the context of foreign language education while also giving valuable feedback to the company so that specific functions can be optimised for classroom usage. A further advantage of this cooperation is that the company offers free trial licences for schools, so that teachers can try out the software in their classrooms, providing learners with the opportunity to produce their own immersive digital textualities and spaces. Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education 215 <?page no="216"?> Fig. 3: Structure of the teacher-training course ‘VR and ESD in English Language Teaching’ Figure 3 shows the four main components of our teacher training course (for a detailed description of the concept, see Zirkel forthcoming b). In an online kick-off (1), teachers are given the opportunity to briefly get to know each other and share their experiences and expectations. In addition, we introduce the goals and concept of the course, so that they can plan ahead and integrate VRbased teaching sequences during their English lessons before the final wrap-up session. This practical exploration in class is a prerequisite for the course. In addition, the pre-test allows us to collect data on teachers’ previous experiences, their attitudes towards VR and ESD, and their self-perceived competencies. Finally, teachers are briefly introduced to the Moodle platform where they can find the course outline, options for collaboration, and all materials developed for the course. These include lists, a glossary of important terms, further texts and links to support their individual needs and interests, and explanatory videos, which they are asked to watch before the workshop. These videos, which we developed with the support of the sub-project digi4all at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg and the studio hau-rock, provide important input on VR (i.e., what it is and what its potential is for ELT) and ESD (i.e., concepts and practical applications to ELT) condensed into short learning units. In the workshop (2), after a brief reflection on important background information on VR and ESD, presented through the videos, and an open discussion, teachers receive a full day of training on the use of VR headsets, commercial VR apps as well as authoring tools such as AR2VR at the University of Bamberg. On 216 Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald <?page no="217"?> interactive displays in our language lab, teachers can individually follow the learning path we created to learn about the usage of VR, and they can try out different headsets and apps, guided by the project team. What is more, they are given the opportunity to explore the research-based materials and critically reflect on the content of VR apps through guided tasks, all of which we are developing as a part of our design-based research concept (McKenney/ Reeves 2019). In the practical implementation phase (3), we offer support to teachers by inviting them to collaborate with each other (through the Moodle platform), by offering online support through our helpdesk, and by visiting schools, if teachers wish to get support or do not have any technical equipment. Whereas some teachers are well equipped with VR technology, others lack the financial means to purchase necessary equipment, which thus necessitates further support through the project to experiment with this new technology. Finally, in the wrap-up phase (4), teachers are given the opportunity to share their experiences and teaching concepts, discuss challenges, investigate further materials, and outline future desiderata. A post-survey allows us to gather the necessary data to evaluate the training course and teachers’ reported competencies. In line with a socio-constructivist understanding of teacher education, and in accordance with Vygotsky’s (1979) understanding of the notion of the “more knowledgeable other”, we invited critical friends to be part of our project (for a detailed outline, see Zirkel forthcoming b). These included teacher trainers from the Academy for Teacher Training (ALP) in Dillingen, the head of teacher trainers for Bavarian Realschulen, several experienced English teachers, an expert and researcher from the field of ESD and foreign language education, and an expert and researcher in the field of VR for language learning. In several phases of our project, they provided valuable feedback on the organisation and structure of our teacher training courses, the content and design of our explanatory videos, and the development of our teaching and learning materials. Their feedback helped us optimise the concept of our teacher training course and its contents. Overall, this collaborative process allowed us to ensure that the course concept and content meet the needs of practitioners. 5. Future Perspectives The concept of digital sovereignty can give direction to the development of teacher training coures for teaching foreign languages in the digital age. More specifically, the concept of digital sovereignty links the societal impact of digital technologies with individual experiences and needs in the context of education, emphasising the need to equip all teachers and learners with central digital Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education 217 <?page no="218"?> competences necessary for 21 st century teaching and learning. The concept of digital sovereignty therefore forms the foundation of our research in current foreign language teaching and provides a framework for the creation of up-todate teacher training materials in which functional and critical-reflective skills are developed side by side. This contribution provided first insights into the research-based development of foreign teacher training courses at the universities of Bamberg, Bremen, and Würzburg. It contextualised the overarching concept of digital sovereignty within the research project DiSo-SGW and provided insights into the three subprojects, which are part of the nationwide competence network lernen: digital in Germany (funded by the BMBF from June 2023 to December 2025). By focusing on two future technologies, namely, AI and VR, these projects aim to provide a basis for the goal-oriented integration of these technologies into foreign language classrooms, while at the same time considering potential dangers and challenges in reflection phases (for an overview of risks involved in using digital technologies see Hockly’s digital risk grid: Hockly 2022: 88-92). This requires a careful consideration of ethical questions and a critical approach towards engaging with these technologies, as also outlined in the concept of digital sovereignty. For the development of learning materials, this means that these must aim to promote a critical engagement with digital content. Therefore, our projects support teachers in handling and making functional and pedagogical use of digital equipment and thus further strengthen their digital sovereignty. Building on the insights gained from our projects, the next phases involve further refining and expanding the training modules to encompass a broader range of languages and teaching contexts. So far, our findings suggest that teachers seem to greatly value teacher training courses that offer research-based materials and take their needs for the development of digital competence as a starting point for improving teaching practices. What is more, by using the concept of digital sovereignty as a starting point (see Section 2), in which both the perspective of society and the individual is represented, we aim to ensure that these two perspectives are considered and put into practice. In other words, the focus is not only on the functional use of digital technologies but also on advancing reflective and critical competence, which are crucial when working with AI and VR. In the future, our efforts will focus on the further integration of AI-driven language learning tools and VR environments in the classroom to provide personalised and interactive learning experiences. Additionally, nationwide dissemination will follow the evaluation and revision of the training courses. We plan to collaborate with additional educational institutions and technology developers to enhance 218 Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald <?page no="219"?> the adaptability of the modules, ensuring they remain relevant and accessible to educators with varying levels of technological proficiency. Further research needs to be directed towards assessing the long-term impact of these training courses on the development of teachers’ competencies, their digital sovereignty, and their attitudes towards innovative digital technologies. Ultimately, research needs to be directed towards learners’ perspectives and their digital competence development. By gathering feedback from participating teachers and considering new developments in the fields of AI and VR, the project aims to empower foreign language teachers by providing them with the skills and tools they need to succeed in an increasingly digital and interconnected world. This is an important step in the transformation of education, especially in the context of integrating digital textualities and spaces into foreign language classrooms. Funding The DiSo-SGW (Digitale Souveränität als Ziel wegweisender Lehrer: innenbildung für Sprachen, Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftswissenschaften in der digitalen Welt) project is funded by the European Union - NextGenerationEU and the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. The views and opinions expressed are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Union, the European Commission or the Federal Ministry of Education and Research. Neither of these institutions can be held responsible for them. References Artelt, Cordula (2023). Digitale Souveränität - Ein Bildungsauftrag! 1.2023. 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Teacher Training Courses for Integrating AI and VR into Foreign Language Education 221 <?page no="222"?> Zirkel, Michelle (forthcoming b). Immersive virtuelle Realität im Fremdsprachenunterricht: Virtuelle Welten, reale Lernerfolge. In: Thaler, Engelbert, ed. Impulsgeber Fremdsprachen: Best Practice und Diskussionen aus der Tagung des Gesamtverbands Moderne Fremdsprachen Bayern. Berlin: Cornelsen. 222 Theresa Summer, Maria Eisenmann, Andreas Grünewald <?page no="223"?> Editors and Contributors Daniel Becker (PhD) works as a senior lecturer in English language education at the University of Münster. His teaching and research cover a broad range of topics and interests, including cultural and literary learning, digital media, mental health education and game-based language learning. Anna Bösendörfer is a trainee teacher at a vocational school in Bavaria, Germany. With a master’s degree in business and human resource education and English, her research interests include education for sustainable development and the integration of virtual and augmented reality in English language teaching. Maria Eisenmann is Professor of EFL Teaching at Würzburg University ( JMU). Her research interests lie in the fields of global education, (digital) media literacy as well as Irish Studies and teaching literature including individual differences. She has published widely in the fields of critical environmental literacies as well as digital and literary literacy in the EFL classroom. Her recent publications include ZFF-Themenheft: Digitalisierung (Bd. 34, wvb, 2023; with Jeanine Steinbock) and Mental Health in English Language Education (Narr, 2024; with Christian Ludwig, Theresa Summer, Daniel Becker and Nadine Krüger). Ralf Gießler is a senior lecturer and post-doc researcher at Wuppertal University for Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Currently he holds a substitute professorship at Leipzig University in the Department of British Studies. His research interests encompass digital learning, materials development and lan‐ guage teachers’ professional development. Regina Grund is a PhD candidate and research fellow in English Linguistics at the University of Würzburg, Germany. With a teaching degree (first state exam) in English and French, her research focuses on the interface of linguistics and language education, more specifically on learning English grammar. Andreas Grünewald is Professor of Didactics of Romance Languages (Spanish and French) at the University of Bremen, Germany. His research interests lie in the field of qualitative teaching-related research, teacher professionalisation and foreign language learning with digital media and artificial intelligence. <?page no="224"?> Currently, he is involved in the nationwide competence network lernen: digital, in which researchers are developing research-based teacher training modules. His most recent publications deal with the effectiveness of teacher training, the function of basic pedagogical content knowledge for teacher education and science communication in the humanities. Sean Holt (M.Ed.) is doing his PhD at the Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, where he enjoys teaching and exploring the possibilities of (digital) technologies and media for English language teaching. His other research interests include multiliteracies, electronic literature, game-based language learning and mental health. Manfred Krug is Chair of English and Historical Linguistics at the University of Bamberg, Germany. He holds an MA from the University of Exeter, Eng‐ land, and obtained his PhD and postdoctoral degree from the University of Freiburg, Germany. He also worked at Portland State University, USA, and at the University of Mannheim, Germany. He has led several international corpusand questionnaire-based projects and has published widely in the area of variation and change, with a focus on grammaticalization, the Great Vowel Shift, contrastive linguistics, and World Englishes. He is also interested in research methods and language teaching methodologies. His current major project is the Bamberg Survey of Language Variation and Change. Christian Ludwig is currently Visiting Professor at the Freie Universität Berlin. His teaching and research focus on digital learning, literature in language teaching as well as Positive Psychology and mental health in English language teaching. His most recent publications include Happy Learning - Glücklich und erfolgreich Sprachen lernen (Hueber, 2023; with Michaela Sambanis) and Taboos and Controversial Issues in Foreign Language Education (Routledge, 2023; with Theresa Summer). Benedikt Meininger is a teacher of English, History, Politics/ Sociology and Ethics/ Philosophy at a Bavarian grammar school (‘Gymnasium’). He has taught English in various types of schools in and beyond Germany. His main EFL interest is the teaching of literature with the aim of exploring and promoting emotional literacy in the EFL classroom. Michaela Sambanis is Professor of English Didactics in the Institute for English Language and Literature at the Freie Universität Berlin. In her work, she com‐ bines evidence from didactics, neuroscience and psychology and encourages the dialogue between researchers and practitioners. Her focus currently lies 224 Editors and Contributors <?page no="225"?> on positive factors (well-being, psychological capital, etc.), embodied cognition, and on performative teaching and learning. Claudia Schnellbögl is a research assistant and PhD candidate in English Language Education at the University of Bamberg, Germany. With a background in school psychology, her research interests include evidence-based teacher education, virtual reality, and interdisciplinary cooperation in empirical educa‐ tional research. She is a member of the Bamberg Graduate School of Teacher Education (BaGraTEd). Jeanine Steinbock earned her doctorate with a dissertation focused on the use of Web 2.0 tools and educational apps in English language teaching. Currently, she works as a research assistant at the Chair of Modern Foreign Language Ed‐ ucation at Würzburg University ( JMU), where she explores innovative teaching methods, including the integration of virtual reality and artificial intelligence in language education. Theresa Summer is Associate Professor of English Language Education at the University of Bamberg, Germany. Her research interests encompass learner perspectives, global citizenship education, virtual reality, pop culture with a focus on songs, and grammar. Currently, she is involved in the nationwide com‐ petence network lernen: digital, in which researchers are developing researchbased teacher training modules. Her recent publications include Impulses for Teaching Poetry and Song Lyrics (Winter, 2024; with Pascal Fischer) and Taboos and Controversial Issues in Foreign Language Education (Routledge, 2023; with Christian Ludwig). Through her work, she aims to foster a meaningful, effective, and critical engagement with English with a focus on practical applications to language education. After working as a secondary school teacher for 20 years, Engelbert Thaler completed his doctorate and habilitation at LMU Munich. From 2010 to 2022, he held the chair of English Didactics at the University of Augsburg. His publica‐ tions deal with improving the quality of teaching (Balanced Teaching), literature didactics, music and film in TEFL, teacher training and the development of coursebooks. Isabelle Sophie Thaler is a PhD candidate at the University of Munich (LMU), whose PhD is funded by the Hanns-Seidel Foundation. She graduated from the University of Oxford (MSc in Teacher Education) and the University of Cambridge (MPhil in Research in Second Language Education). As a universitybased pre-service teacher educator at the University of Augsburg, Germany, she Editors and Contributors 225 <?page no="226"?> is primarily interested in researching language teacher educators’ identities and the professional development of pre-service foreign language teachers. Valentin Werner is Associate Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Bamberg, Germany. He has worked in the areas of applied linguistics (esp. learner Englishes and SLA), variational linguistics, media linguistics (esp. pop cultural linguistics and the language of digital journalism), stylistics, and sociolinguistics. He has been involved in several projects at the interface of linguistics and language education and currently co-leads the compilation and analysis of the corpus of Young German Learner English (YGLE). He is founding editor of the Journal of Language and Pop Culture and has co-edited several books, among them the award-winning volume Pop Culture and Language Education: Theory, Research, Practice (Routledge, 2021; with Friederike Tegge). 226 Editors and Contributors <?page no="227"?> Studies in English Language Teaching Augsburger Studien zur Englischdidaktik Herausgegeben von Engelbert Thaler Aktuelle Bände: Band 1 Engelbert Thaler (ed.) Shorties Flash Fiction in English Language Teaching 2016, 203 Seiten €[D] 39,- ISBN 978-3-8233-6997-4 Band 2 Engelbert Thaler (ed.) Short Films in Language Teaching 2017, 191 Seiten €[D] 39,- ISBN 978-3-8233-8098-6 Band 3 Stephanie Schaidt Ugandan Children’s Literature and Its Implications for Cultural and Global Learning in TEFL An Extensive Reading Project Study 2018, 517 Seiten €[D] 78,- ISBN 978-3-8233-8168-6 Band 4 Engelbert Thaler (ed.) Singer-Songwriters Music and Poetry in Language Teaching 2018, 209 Seiten €[D] 39,- ISBN 978-3-8233-8238-6 Band 5 Engelbert Thaler (ed.) Lit 21 - New Literary Genres in the Language Classroom 2019, 187 Seiten €[D] 39,- ISBN 978-3-8233-8307-9 Band 6 Doris Kocher Fremdsprachliches Lernen und Gestalten nach dem Storyline Approach in Schule und Hochschule Theorie, Praxis, Forschung 2019, 700 Seiten €[D] 128,- ISBN 978-3-8233-8303-1 Band 7 Dorottya Ruisz / Petra Rauschert / Engelbert Thaler (Hrsg.) Living Language Teaching Lehrwerke und Unterrichtsmaterialien im Fremdsprachenunterricht 2019, 261 Seiten €[D] 68,00 ISBN 978-3-8233-8319-2 Band 8 Katrin Thomson (ed.) Classroom Discourse Competence Current Issues in Language Teaching and Teacher Education 2022, 279 Seiten €[D] 49,- ISBN 978-3-8233-8374-1 Band 9 Jennifer Schilitz Lernen mit Bewegung und Lernen in Entspannung Effekte auf die Wortschatzaneignung im Englischunterricht der gymnasialen Oberstufe 2021, 237 Seiten €[D] 49,- ISBN 978-3-8233-8508-0 <?page no="228"?> Band 10 Engelbert Thaler (ed.) Teaching Transhumanism 2021, 173 Seiten €[D] 39,- ISBN 978-3-8233-8495-3 Band 11 Jürgen Meyer Fachdidaktik Englisch - Fokus Literaturvermittlung Eine hermeneutische Analyse von Lehrwerken der gymnasialen Oberstufe 2021, 312 Seiten €[D] 68,- ISBN 978-3-8233-8519-6 Band 12 Sophia Finck von Finckenstein Kompetenzentwicklung im filmbasierten Englischunterricht Eine Studie zu kognitiv-affektiven Prozessen Jugendlicher am Beispiel der Auseinandersetzung mit House of Cards 2022, 478 Seiten €[D] 84,- ISBN 978-3-8233-8547-9 Band 13 Christian Ludwig / Theresa Summer / Maria Eisenmann / Daniel Becker / Nadine Krüger (eds.) Mental Health in English Language Education 2024, 259 Seiten €[D] 58,- ISBN 978-3-381-11461-0 Band 14 Theresa Summer / Ralf Gießler (eds.) Digital Textualities and Spaces in ELT 2025, 226 Seiten €[D] 78,- ISBN 978-3-381-12121-2 <?page no="229"?> ISBN 978-3-381-12121-2 The digital world opens up a vast number of spaces such as immersive virtual reality, digital book corners, and discourses marked by hashtags. In this volume, we argue that digital spaces and textualities should play a more central role in English language teaching and learning (ELT), emphasising their multimodal and interactive nature as a means of engaging with different layers of meaning in the target language. Digital spaces function as contact zones where readers and writers communicate, negotiate experiences, and shape collective identities. Within these spaces, digital textualities create opportunities for competence development across various language-related domains, fostering a critical engagement with texts. Bringing together theoretical insights, conceptual developments, and case studies, this volume explores the potential of digital spaces and textualities for ELT while addressing their practical implications. www.narr.de