WITH ADDITIONAL MATERIAL Teaching English Michael Meyer, Laurenz Volkmann, Nancy Grimm Second, updated and completely revised edition Michael Meyer ist Professor für englische Literaturwissenschaft und Fachdidaktik an der Universität Koblenz-Landau, Campus Koblenz. Nancy Grimm ist Referentin für Medienbildung am Brandenburger Landesinstitut für Schule und Medien. Laurenz Volkmann ist Professor für Englische Fachdidaktik an der Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena. Teaching English 18393_Titelei.indd 1 18393_Titelei.indd 1 23.05.2022 10: 05: 51 23.05.2022 10: 05: 51 narr BACHELOR-WISSEN.DE ist die Reihe für die modularisierten Studiengänge ▸ die Bände sind auf die Bedürfnisse der Studierenden abgestimmt ▸ das fachliche Grundwissen wird in zahlreichen Übungen vertieft ▸ der Stoff ist in die Unterrichtseinheiten einer Lehrveranstaltung gegliedert ▸ auf www.bachelor-wissen.de finden Sie begleitende und weiterführende Informationen zum Studium und zu diesem Band 18393_Titelei.indd 2 18393_Titelei.indd 2 23.05.2022 10: 05: 51 23.05.2022 10: 05: 51 Teaching English Second, updated and completely revised edition Michael Meyer, Laurenz Volkmann, Nancy Grimm 18393_Titelei.indd 3 18393_Titelei.indd 3 23.05.2022 10: 05: 51 23.05.2022 10: 05: 51 Idee und Konzept der Reihe: Johannes Kabatek, Professor für Romanische Philologie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der iberoromanischen Sprachen an der Universität Zürich. Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http: / / dnb.dnb.de abrufbar. DOI: https: / / doi.org/ 10.24053/ 9783823393931 2., aktualisierte und vollständig überarbeitete Auflage 2022 1. Auflage 2015 © 2022 · Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG Dischingerweg 5 · 72070 Tübingen · Deutschland Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages unzulässig und strafbar. Das gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. Gedruckt auf chlorfrei gebleichtem und säurefreiem Werkdruckpapier. Alle Informationen in diesem Buch wurden mit großer Sorgfalt erstellt. Fehler können dennoch nicht völlig ausgeschlossen werden. Weder Verlag noch Autor: innen oder Herausgeber: innen übernehmen deshalb eine Gewährleistung für die Korrektheit des Inhaltes und haften nicht für fehlerhafte Angaben und deren Folgen. Diese Publikation enthält gegebenenfalls Links zu externen Inhalten Dritter, auf die weder Verlag noch Autor: innen oder Herausgeber: innen Einfluss haben. Für die Inhalte der verlinkten Seiten sind stets die jeweiligen Anbieter oder Betreibenden der Seiten verantwortlich. Internet: www.narr.de E-Mail: info@narr.de CPI books GmbH, Leck ISSN 1864-4082 ISBN 978-3-8233-8393-2 (Print) ISBN 978-3-8233-9393-1 (ePDF) ISBN 978-3-8233-0344-2 (ePub) ISBN 978-3-8233-0388-6 (Audiobook) 18393_Titelei.indd 4 18393_Titelei.indd 4 23.05.2022 10: 05: 51 23.05.2022 10: 05: 51 V Contents Contents Preface to the first and second editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI 1 The framework: history and politics (MM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Teaching English as a Foreign Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.1 The historical perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.2 The international perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.1.3 The national perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2 Current educational standards and curricula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.2.1 The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.2.2 Germany: new educational standards and more testing . 11 1.3 Teacher education in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2 Challenges of the teaching profession (NG, MM) . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1 What makes a good teacher? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.1.1 The reflective practice model of professional development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.1.2 Personal characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.1.3 Principles of good teaching practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.1.4 New technologies, new challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.2 What makes a good EFL teacher? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.2.1 Competences regarding oneself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.2.2 Competences regarding learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.2.3 Competences regarding content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.2.4 Competences regarding pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.2.5 Competences regarding context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.3 Education in the 21 st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.3.1 Paradigm shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.3.2 Teacher professional development and action research . . 33 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3 TEFL as a transdisciplinary project (MM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.1 Definitions and link disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 5 07.06.2022 15: 39: 28 07.06.2022 15: 39: 28 VI C ONTENTS 3.2 Language acquisition and learning in Psychology and Linguistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2.1 Behaviorism: feeding the parrot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.2.2 Nativism: genes, genes, genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.2.3 Cognitivism: the mind as processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.2.4 Constructivism: the creative mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.2.5 Sociolinguistic, Sociocultural, and Interactionist Approaches: the social agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 4 From methods to principles (MM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4.1 Approach-- method-- technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 4.2 Teacher-orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4.2.1 Grammar-Translation Method: knowledge of rules . . . . . 61 4.2.2 Direct Method: situated listening and speaking . . . . . . . . . 62 4.2.3 Audiolingual/ Audiovisual Method: habit formation . . . . . 63 4.3 Student-orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.3.1 Communicative Language Teaching: authentic communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.3.2 Task-based Language Teaching: problem-solving . . . . . . . 68 4.3.3 Collaborative and Participatory Methods: social and critical agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.4 Subject-orientation: Bilingual Teaching and Content and Language Integrated Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.5 Age and stage: early language learning and transition . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.6 Individual differences and factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.7 Postmethod principles in a nutshell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 5 Grammar and vocabulary (NG, LV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 5.1 Communication and competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 5.1.1 Today’s consensus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 5.1.2 Speech production and Interlanguage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 5.2 Teaching and learning grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 5.2.1 Choices and approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 5.2.2 Selected approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 5.2.2.1 Focus on form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 5.2.2.2 Task-based Language Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 5.2.2.3 The Acquisition-based Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 5.3 Teaching and learning vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.3.1 Psycholinguistic basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.3.2 Structuring vocabulary lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.3.3 Teaching activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 6 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 6 07.06.2022 15: 39: 28 07.06.2022 15: 39: 28 VII Contents 5.3.4 Learning strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 6 Language competences, learning strategies, and the individual learner (LV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 6.1 Key competences and skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 6.1.1 An integrative approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 6.1.2 Receptive skills: reading and listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 6.1.3 Productive skills: writing and speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 6.1.4 Mediation and intercultural competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 6.1.5 Authentic communicative tasks and activities . . . . . . . . . . 136 6.2 Learning strategies and learner types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.2.1 Learning strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.2.2 Learner types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6.3 Heterogeneous groups and inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 6.3.1 Heterogeneous groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 6.3.2 Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 7 Intercultural and transcultural learning (LV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 7.1 From Landeskunde to intercultural learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 7.1.1 Culture and language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 7.1.2 From Landeskunde to Cultural Studies and intercultural competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 7.1.3 Concepts of intercultural competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 7.2 Toward transcultural competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 7.2.1 Global issues and global education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 7.2.2 Assessing and evaluating interand transcultural competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 7.3 Ten principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 8 Literature matters (MM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 8.1 Functions of literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 8.1.1 Personal interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 8.1.2 Institutional interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 8.2 Approaches to teaching literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 8.2.1 Analytical approaches: nothing but the text . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 8.2.2 Making sense: subjective response and dialog . . . . . . . . . . 180 8.2.3 Context and culture as conditions of meaning . . . . . . . . . . 182 8.2.4 ‘Doing’ literature: task-based and creative work . . . . . . . . . 187 8.3 Literature for all levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 7 07.06.2022 15: 39: 28 07.06.2022 15: 39: 28 VIII C ONTENTS 9 Media (MM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 9.1 Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 9.2 Media competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 9.3 Media and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 9.4 Media in the classroom: examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 10 Lesson planning and classroom management (LV) . . . . . . . . . . . 219 10.1 Lesson frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 10.2 Using the textbook and other material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 10.3 Planning a lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 10.3.1 Advance reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 10.3.2 Structuring a lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 10.3.3 Models for lesson planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 10.3.4 General structure of a lesson plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 10.3.5 Assessing and evaluating lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 10.4 The lesson in progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 10.4.1 Teacher talk and student talk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 10.4.2 Optimizing classroom interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 11 Materials design (NG, LV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 11.1 Curricula and textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 11.1.1 Curriculum design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 11.1.2 The textbook: friend or foe? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 11.2 Designing effective materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 11.2.1 Materials and tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 11.2.2 Basic tips for designing worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 11.3 Digitally designed materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 12 Assessment and evaluation (LV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 12.1 Achievement as social parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 12.2 Functions of assessment and evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 12.3 Assessment and testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 12.3.1 Parameters and criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 12.3.2 Subjective factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 12.3.3 Toward a fair assessment culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 12.4 What are we testing and how? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 12.4.1 The process of testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 12.4.2 Teaching objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 12.4.3 Typology of tests and tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 12.5 Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 8 07.06.2022 15: 39: 28 07.06.2022 15: 39: 28 IX Contents 12.5.1 Grading scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 12.5.2 Alternative assessment formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 12.6 Correcting mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 12.7 Practical examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 9 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 9 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 10 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 10 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 XI Preface Preface to the second edition Feedback from colleagues and students as well as current developments required thoroughly updating and revising the book. The revisions mainly draw on recent papers and policies from the Kultusministerkonferenz, updates of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and its most recent Companion Volume (2020), new empirical research, fresh insight into professional teacher education as well as cutting-edge developments in media literacy and online teaching. Due to a new position outside academia, Nancy Grimm could no longer contribute to this edition. As the book addresses beginners and advanced student teachers, we suggest basic and advanced concepts for closer attention. Introductions to TEFL may want to omit the chapter on materials design and spend more time on the foundational chapters 1-4. We want to express our gratitude to our colleagues Felicitas Fein and Peter Hohwiller for their helpful comments on various chapters. Many thanks go to the student assistants Tabea Kurschildgen, Tirza Langenbach, Vanessa Rudolph, and Rebekka Stein for their valuable comments and support. We are thankful to Katharina Gerhardt and Kathrin Heyng for their patience and close readings of our revisions. Last but not least, we owe gratitude to our families for their patience and understanding. Of course, all the remaining mistakes are entirely our own. Jena and Koblenz, Spring 2022 Michael Meyer - Laurenz Volkmann 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 11 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 11 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 XII P REFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 12 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 12 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 XIII Preface Preface to the first edition This volume bridges the gap between theoretical approaches to foreign language teaching and the needs of lecturers, students, teacher trainees, and those teaching at the grassroots level. This book should help readers to profit from their own learning and teaching of English through reflected practice. Using English as a target language and language of communication, we apply Content and Language Integrated Learning to Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL). Technical terms will also be presented in German (unless the translation is evident) in order to facilitate the transfer to Studienseminare. Teaching English covers-- and reflects on-- major issues and current trends in language learning and teaching, such as the turns towards constructivism, differentiation, empiricism, output-orientation, inter-/ transcultural learning, and the digital classroom. The balance of practice and reflection in each chapter enables a flexible use of this volume in various teaching approaches. The sequence of the topics is structured for systematic introductions over the course of a semester. The first four chapters provide the historical background, the political framework, and the conceptual basis of TEFL in Educational Studies, Psychology, and Linguistics. All of the major topics of TEFL presented in the subsequent parts rely on this groundwork. In addition, individual readers can study the chapters in any order because core concepts are clearly defined at their first occurrence in the book and referenced in later chapters. The highlighting of key terms and important phrases, frequent cross-references, as well as the recapitulation and differentiation of core principles are designed to facilitate learning in the shape of a spiral curriculum. Each chapter comes with a thought-provoking cartoon, an overview of the learning objectives, key concepts, study questions, rewarding examples of classroom activities, and recommended reading. Additional material in the form of PowerPoint-presentations for teaching TEFL and pdf-files for learners is provided online. Furthermore, students will find sample answers to the tasks online at www.meta.narr.de/ 9783823383932/ Zusatzmaterial.zip. Nancy Grimm deserves special recognition: in addition to writing ‘her parts’ of the book and competently commenting on the others, she masterminded the organization of the project with enormous zeal and great efficiency. Ultimately, each chapter gradually developed in a long and truly collaborative process. Many thanks are due to everyone who gave us plenty of helpful feedback on various chapters: the colleagues Melanie Green, Constanze Juchem-Grund- 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 13 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 13 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 XIV P REFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION mann, Andrew Liston, Christian Ludwig, Carol Ann Martin, Nicole Maruo- Schröder, Peter Starling, Fred Thompson, John Thomson, and Kim Willis, the teachers Peter Hohwiller and Sieglinde Spath, the students Jason D. Smith, Kirsten Weise, Benedikt Mediger, who prepared the groundwork for the PowerPoint-presentations. We would also like to thank Kathrin Heyng from Narr Verlag for her patience and her careful reading of the whole script. Last but not least, special thanks to Teresa Mönnich (aka Frollein Motte, www.frolleinmotte. com), whose cheeky as well as thought-provoking cartoons add extra spice to each of the chapters. Jena and Koblenz, Spring 2015 N. Grimm-- M. Meyer-- L. Volkmann 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 14 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 14 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 Unit 1 1 The framework: history and politics Contents 1.1 Teaching English as a Foreign Language 2 1.2 Current educational standards and curricula 8 1.3 Teacher education in Germany 13 Recommended reading 16 This chapter provides the historical background and current framework of Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL). The overview of the historical development of basic issues in teaching and learning foreign languages helps to understand and evaluate contemporary discussions of language education and the development of TEFL in Germany within the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR, Gemeinsamer Europäischer Referenzrahmen für Sprachen). This chapter ends with a glance at the education and practical training of English teachers in Germany. Have a look at the cartoon on the next page: on the basis of your own experience, think about central aims, problems, and methods of teaching and learning English. Which of these do you consider to be fundamental at any time, and for which reasons? Lingua franca and World Englishes; language as system or communication; linguistic imperialism or empowerment; native speaker standard or plurilingual speaker; competence and knowledge; CEFR competences, reference levels, macro-functions of language; national educational standards/ Bildungsstandards, curriculum Discussing the pros and cons of the CEFR, Bildungsstandards, and the native speaker standard Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 1 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 07.06.2022 15: 39: 29 2 T HE FRAMEWORK : HISTORY AND POLITICS Teaching English as a Foreign Language The historical perspective The significance of (foreign) language teaching and learning is dependent upon a framework of social, economic, political, cultural, and academic interests, which have varied across history. It would be tempting-- but wrong-- to tell a linear story of progress in language teaching and learning. Many of the issues debated today have been part and parcel of teaching and learning languages Since the principle of communicative competence time immemorial. Pertinent topics include (1) principles of language acquisition and teaching a foreign language (FL), and (2) the political decision whether to train practical language skills only or pursue further educational objectives. English is not the first and only global language. In the Roman Empire, Latin served as a lingua franca, a common language used among speakers not sharing a native language (cf. James 2008: 134; Musumeci 2011: 43). In the Middle Ages, the alliance of the church and the state in Europe was firmly based on Christianity. Many political and legal documents employed Latin, as did formal education and the central medium of religious service, the Bible. Renaissance Humanists of the 15 th and 16 th centuries favored Greek over Latin in order to be able to read fundamental literary, political, and philosophical texts to provide a rounded education (Allgemeinbildung) for a rather small elite. 1.1 1.1.1 Latin and Greek William Hogarth: Scholars at a Lecture (1736) Fig. 1.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 2 07.06.2022 15: 39: 36 07.06.2022 15: 39: 36 Unit 1 3 T EACHING E NGLISH AS A F OREIGN L ANGUAGE The early modern period from the 15 th to the 17 th century was dominated by two models of teaching and learning a FL: (1) the instruction in FL as a system and (2) learning a modern FL for communicative purposes-- often in the form of pattern drills to habitualize formulaic expressions: (1) using the Grammar-Translation Method, the Jesuits gave students Latin sample sentences and explained the words and the rules of grammar in detail and in the students’ native language (cf. Musumeci 2011: 51-53). (2) However, international tradesmen acquired oral skills in the modern languages of their customers in order to negotiate business deals. The Czech scholar Comenius (see fig. 1.2), who was frustrated with the slow progress of language learners, found fault with the Grammar-Translation Method and the instructional material used. He considered efficient learning as a motivating process that should move from simple to complex issues and from content to form. He argued for a holistic style of learning (ganzheitliches Lernen), for which he developed multilingual textbooks with pictures and stories (e. g., Latin/ English; see ch. 9.3). His objectives for foreign language learning were both practical communication and knowledge of the language system. In addition to learning their own language and Latin in vernacular schools at home, students should study modern languages abroad- - an approach to FL learning which today is called ‘immersion’ (cf. Musumeci 2011: 54-58; see ch. 4.4). The English philosopher and teacher John Locke (1693, see fig. 1.3) considered the Grammar-Translation Method as an apt way of teaching the reading of classical Latin texts, but recommended early beginning in modern foreign languages according to what is now called the Direct or Natural Method. Based on mechanisms of learning the mother tongue, and on the observation that learning grammar rules at school is far less efficient than practicing communication with a native speaker, he advocated extensive monolingual input and practice in the foreign language. The teacher should form the model to be emulated, using pleasant exercises rather than painful drills. Practice should take the form of playful habit formation through imitating good examples, being more effective than rules children forget, and mistakes should be avoided and immediately corrected. Locke’s ideas anticipated those of the German reform movement and also Behaviorism (see ch. 3.2.1). From the 17 th to the late 19 th century, the German upper class admired the French aristocracy both for their lifestyle and the philosophy of Enlightenment. French was considered the language of diplomacy and refined culture. It is often argued that French followed Latin as a lingua franca of international relations in Europe, but one must not forget that many members of the lower classes did not have the opportunity to attend schools regularly and were barely able to read-- let alone speak-- any foreign language before the end of the 18 th century. With the rise of the British Empire in the 18 th and 19 th centuries, followed by the global dominance of the USA in the 20 th century, English became a Early methods French The spread of English Johan-Amos Comenius (1592-1670) Fig. 1.2 John Locke (1632-1704) Fig. 1.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 3 07.06.2022 15: 39: 36 07.06.2022 15: 39: 36 4 T HE FRAMEWORK : HISTORY AND POLITICS world language. Some consider this a blessing, others a curse: in British colonies such as India or South Africa, educating the elite in English existed parallel to educating the rest of the population in their native tongues. However, British imperialists only trained the local elites to enlist their collaboration in running-- and exploiting-- their countries. As in other British colonies, e. g., in Ireland, Canada, and New Zealand, native cultures were repressed. Indigenous children were compelled to attend colonial schools, were forbidden to speak their native tongues, and were alienated from their own cultures with the aim to control them and form them into British subjects (cf. Phillipson 2010; Pennycock 2017). The decline of the British Empire after World War II did not diminish the role of English in the world. Many former colonies did not completely turn their backs on Great Britain but rather joined the Commonwealth and formed their political and educational institutions along British lines, many of them pragmatically choosing English as one of their national languages. One can regard English as the key to empowerment or reject it as a killer language (cf. Schneider 2011: 213-15). Brutt-Griffler (2008: 30-31) argues that the major problem of the underprivileged is less the loss of their indigenous languages and cultures than the limited access to English as a skill required for economic participation and social rise. She regards this restriction as a colonial legacy of maintaining a manual labor force that served the imperial economy and now sustains class differences. In South Africa and in India, where English is one of several national languages, many middle-class families send their children to secondary schools in which English is the medium of instruction (see fig. 1.3). Since many of these schools charge fees the poor cannot afford, they are effectively excluded from advanced English deemed essential for white-collar jobs in, for example, the fields of IT, finance, or administration (cf. Brutt-Griffler 2008: 32-33; Hall 2018: 242-44). Some consider the global US-American influence a great progressive force as politicians and the entertainment industry have disseminated values and vistas of a democratic and capitalist culture as a potentially liberating alternative to authoritarian and repressive traditions. Others have criticized the rise of ‘American cultural imperialism’ as the ‘McDonaldization’ of the world (cf. Ritzer 2018). Linguists advocating language rights, such as Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas (cf. 2011: 28-30), consider the domination and teaching of English in close connection to US-American neoliberal ideology and economy as linguistic imperialism that continues colonial practices even today. Education in the medium of English deprives indigenous and minority children of their languages and the ‘intergenerational transfer’ of culture and identity: English ‘kills’ other languages and cultures if it is not added as an L2 to education in the mother tongue (ibid.: 33-34). However, learners appropriate languages and cultures in local contexts and find ways to resist cultural imperialism (cf. Pennycock 2017: 28-29). English is also a question of choice and nation-building because it connects people in multilingual and multiethnic societies, such English as a threat 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 4 07.06.2022 15: 39: 36 07.06.2022 15: 39: 36 Unit 1 5 T EACHING E NGLISH AS A F OREIGN L ANGUAGE as India and South Africa. In turn, varieties such as Black or Jamaican English have been gaining ground in the UK and the US (Mair 2015: 179-82, 229-36). What are the most important historical models of language teaching and learning, and what are their major features? Can you identify tasks you used to learn or teach a FL that fit these models? How effective were these? The international perspective Today, English has become the lingua franca of the world and dominates popular culture, the Internet, trade, finance, politics, and academia. However, which Englishes are used around the world and which are taught and learned? In the ‘non-native-English peripheries’ across the world, English has been appropriated and adapted to serve local purposes, establishing hybrid and heterogeneous World Englishes. According to Kachru (cf. 1996: n. p.), the Inner Circle of English consists of countries in which English is a native language (e. g., USA, UK, Australia), the Outer Circle of countries in which English serves as an official second language (L2; e. g., India, Nigeria, Singapore), and the Expanding Circle of countries in which English is studied as a FL (e. g., South America, Japan, China). Kachru’s model raises the question of who is the more competent speaker in which situation. In some cases, the non-native, plurilingual (mehrsprachig) speaker of English may have an advantage over the native, monolingual one (cf. Harmer 2007: 18; Gnutzmann 2019). Standard British English (BE, RP) and Standard American English (SAE or GA) enjoy a great deal of prestige, which pays off for many learners and institutions alike. Mastering standard English forms cultural capital (knowledge and education), social capital (esteem and status), and economic capital (job opportunities): thus, English has become a valuable commodity (Pennycock 2017; Hall 2018: 242-48). Schools and universities in Great Britain, Canada, Australia, and the USA attract students from around the world and charge considerable fees. Native speaker teachers from these countries are in great demand in the language programs at many schools and universities in non- Anglophone countries. Without a doubt, the local appropriation of English by non-native speakers has resulted in the development of numerous varieties of English with differences in vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and pronunciation (cf. Mair 2003: xviiixix; Schneider 2011: 54-59, 189-205). As an alternative to the Anglo-American standards and to diverse global varieties of the language, linguists are discussing the development of Global English or World Englishes. However the problem is how to define its structural, sociolinguistic, and historical-political characteristics (cf. Gnutzmann 2008: 109, 113-14; James 2008). The most 1.1.2 World English 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 5 07.06.2022 15: 39: 36 07.06.2022 15: 39: 36 6 T HE FRAMEWORK : HISTORY AND POLITICS important purpose of English as a lingua franca is intelligibility, and features of standard English not relevant to understanding are often disregarded, such as the pronunciation of the phoneme-/ th/ (*/ dis/ ), the inflection of the verb in the third person (*he talk), or ‘would’ in if-clauses (*If she would come, I would be there; cf. James 2008: 135-40; Jenkins 2008: 146-49). Imagine you are participating in a meeting of the Standing Commission of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder (Kultusministerkonferenz or KMK) and are involved in a discussion on FL teaching. Find pros and cons of why English as a first FL should be complemented or even replaced with Spanish, Russian, or Chinese. In a group of four, one group member defends English against others who advocate one other language each. What are the most important reasons for/ against English as the first FL in schools? Discuss reasons for/ against learning standard British or American English according to the native-speaker norm. The national perspective How has the German educational system responded to the global rise of English? In the 18 th century, English gained some ground in schools that focused on the education of the urban middle class, which included reading English literature and works of philosophy or practicing oral communication. Due to the three-tiered and class-based 19 th century system of the Volksschule for the common people (grades 1-8), the Realschule (grades 5-10) and the Gymnasium for the middle and upper classes (grades 5-13), the majority of the population was not taught any FL at all. Gradually, English became the second modern FL next to French in the Realschule, and a third or fourth option next to Latin and Greek in the Gymnasium. In the Gymnasium, teaching English in the classroom was often modeled on the Grammar-Translation Method used for Latin. The explicit teaching of vocabulary and grammar should enable students to form correct sentences and read the ‘classics’ in order to support their general education (cf. Reinfried 2016: 62-122). In the late 19 th century, Viëtor (see fig. 1.4) called for a reform of language education with a pamphlet entitled Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren (1882/ 1905). Instead of focusing on an elitist form of higher education, FL instruction should concentrate on functional skills of oral communication and knowledge about the target country (‘Realienkunde,’ today known as Landeskunde; cf. Klippel 2017: 14-17). Viëtor advocated the so-called Direct or Natural Method, employing the FL as the medium of instruction in order to promote oral skills besides studying authentic texts. At the same time, the Ber- 1.1.3 Beginnings Reform movement Wilhelm Viëtor (1850-1918) Fig. 1.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 6 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 6 07.06.2022 15: 39: 36 07.06.2022 15: 39: 36 Unit 1 7 T EACHING E NGLISH AS A F OREIGN L ANGUAGE litz schools were among the first institutions which implemented the monolingual, Direct Method of immersion in order to offer a fast track form of FL education (cf. Christ 2010: 18). It took about forty years to adopt the reformers’ demands for something like Landeskunde as a classroom topic, and about one hundred years to implement communicative and intercultural competences on a broad scale. In the 1920s, the target culture was taught in comparison to one’s own culture, enhancing the awareness of national culture, which in fact supported the construction of stereotypes (cf. Sharp 2017: 74-84). In the 1930s, the fascists elected English as the first FL and fostered learning about culture in order to prove the superiority of German national culture. Despite all their rhetoric about the Volk, the fascists maintained traditional class discrimination in education: the majority of learners-- in the Volksschule-- had no FL classes at all. Due to the separation of spheres of political influence among the USA, France, Great Britain, and Russia after 1945, the Federal Republic of Germany introduced English as a first FL in all secondary schools, and the German Democratic Republic Russian as the first FL. The West German curricula steered away from the mutual stereotyping of national identities in the 1920s and ‘races’ in the 1930s. They stipulated teaching British English for practical communication, and added US-American culture as a minor topic to English culture, represented in literature. The allies’ idea of educating citizens for democracy was neglected in favor of international understanding (cf. Ruisz 2017: 87-94). In the 1970s, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) shifted the priority from teaching knowledge about language (grammar and syntax) to performance in language (e. g., listening comprehension and speaking; see chs. 4.3.1, 6). Today, teachers of English face multiple challenges: ▶ The pragmatic communicative approach to teaching and learning foreign languages put forward in the CEFR has changed educational standards from a focus on content to testable output (see ch. 12.1). ▶ The learning objective of the native-speaker standard has been replaced by the norm of the plurilingual speaker, who connects his or her competences in diverse languages and cultures in order to communicate effectively with different interlocutors (cf. Council of Europe 2001: 4-5; Byram 1997; Schneider 2011: 226; see ch. 7). ▶ Early foreign language teaching and learning (Fremdsprachenfrühbeginn) requires different materials and methods (see ch. 4.5). ▶ Content and Language Integrated Learning increases learning objectives (see ch. 4.4). ▶ The digital revolution and the transformation of the Internet into a mass medium has increased the media repertoire for schools in general and for the FL classroom in particular (see chs. 2.1.4, 9.4). ▶ The policy of inclusion focuses on heterogeneity among learners and demands more differentiation (see ch. 6.3). From Kulturkunde to Volksand Rassenkunde After World War II 21 st century 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 7 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 8 T HE FRAMEWORK : HISTORY AND POLITICS Current educational standards and curricula If the introduction of CLT in the 1970s led to the biggest change in 20 th -century language education, then the ‘PISA-shock’ of the year 2000 and the publication of the CEFR in 2001 initiated a revision of language teaching and learning for the 21 st century. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) started PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) in order to test the learning outcomes of 15-year-old learners in reading, mathematical, and scientific literacy across the globe. Germany, which had always taken pride in its educational system, was shocked to learn that the overall performance of its learners was below the OECD average of more than 50 countries. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages The CEFR has served to redefine language learning policy in Germany. The objectives of the CEFR are quite comprehensive, straddling the general divide between pragmatic and educational aims of language learning: ▶ Communicative skills in foreign languages ▶ Intercultural communicative competence ▶ Individual education and emancipation ▶ Social skills and values ▶ Economic empowerment and mobility ▶ Political participation in a democratic and multicultural Europe ▶ Learner-centered methods of teaching through real-life tasks The CEFR claims not to tell teachers what to do but is committed to educational reform with the specific agenda of “enabling learners to act in real-life situations” (2001: 29). The CEFR advances concepts of the learner as a social agent and language as (inter-)action. The CEFR favors an action-oriented approach to language and a task-based one to learning through interaction and collaboration. Individual members of society are understood as social agents, who use all of their competences to solve tasks together with other people in particular circumstances: Language use, embracing language learning, comprises the actions performed by persons who as individuals and as social agents develop a range of competences, both general and in particular communicative language competences. They draw on the competences at their disposal in various contexts under various conditions and under various constraints to engage in language activities involving language processes to produce and/ or receive texts in relation to themes in specific domains, activating those strategies which seem most appropriate for carrying out the tasks to be accomplished. The monitoring of these actions by the participants leads to the reinforcement or modification of their competences. (Council of Europe 2001: 9; 2020: 32, emphasis in the original) 1.2 1.2.1 A common framework 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 8 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 Unit 1 9 C URRENT EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS AND CURRICULA Competence is a comprehensive and fuzzy term. The CEFR merges and goes beyond the conventional linguistic concepts of competence as knowledge of the language system and performance as its usage. The CEFR subsumes knowledge, know-how, ability, and skills under the heading of competences, as the following list reveals (cf. CEFR 2020: 32-35; see chs. 6.1, 7.2.2). 1. General competences: ▶ Declarative knowledge (savoir; knowing what, including sociocultural and intercultural knowledge) ▶ Know-how and skills (savoir-faire, including sociocultural and intercultural know-how as well as flexible problem solving) ▶ Existential competences (savoir-être; personality traits, points of view, attitudes) ▶ The ability to learn (savoir apprendre; e. g., learner strategies, metacognitive awareness, media literacy) 2. Domain-specific communicative language competences: ▶ Linguistic competence about language structures and how to use these (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and intonation, spelling) ▶ Reception (listening and reading) ▶ Production (speaking and writing) ▶ Interaction ▶ Mediation In order to avoid confusion, ‘competence’ will be used henceforth as a superordinate category including knowledge and performance, such as communicative or intercultural competence, and ‘skill’ as a subordinate category that refers to listening, speaking, reading, writing, and mediating. Psychology and Pedagogy define ‘knowledge’ in detail. Declarative knowledge of facts is distinguished from procedural knowledge of know-how. Declarative knowledge is usually explicit, procedural knowledge implicit (or tacit). You know how to speak, but explaining how speech is produced is difficult (see ch. 5.1.2). Episodic knowledge results from experience and has a great impact on subjective theories, i. e. conceptions of how learning and teaching work. Subjective theories are deeply ingrained and need critical reflection to be developed. Explicit conceptual knowledge is applied to reflect where learning and teaching routines run into difficulties (cf. Feryok 2018; Viebrock 2020). Apart from the competences summarized above, the CEFR established six reference levels, which are specified in ‘can do’-descriptors (2020: 175; see fig. 1.5): CEFR competences Competence and knowledge in learning and teaching Reference levels 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 9 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 9 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 10 T HE FRAMEWORK : HISTORY AND POLITICS Read through the descriptors for the different levels and rate your own language competence. In your opinion, which levels of language proficiency are expected of FL learners in, for example, grades four, ten, and twelve? Check your predictions against the reference levels postulated in the curriculum for the level and type of school you are teaching at or want to teach at. CEFR (2020: 175) common reference levels-- global scale Fig. 1.5 Proficient User Mastery C2 Can understand virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express themselves spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations. Effective operational proficiency C1 Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognize implicit meaning. Can express themselves fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices. Independent User Vantage B2 Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in their field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options. Threshold B1 Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise while travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans. Basic User Waystage A2 Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance (e. g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/ her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need. Breakthrough A1 Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce themselves and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where they live, people they know and things they have. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 10 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 10 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 Unit 1 11 C URRENT EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS AND CURRICULA Germany: new educational standards and more testing The CEFR has shifted attention from the input of teaching (next to communicative skills) to the output of learning and the testing of functional competences. This document has had an enormous impact on educational policy making and test design, on teaching, and on academic debates: the KMK used the CEFR as the framework of the national educational standards in Bildungsstandards für die erste Fremdsprache (Englisch/ Französisch) für den Hauptschulabschluss (2004), für den Mittleren Abschluss (2003), and Allgemeine Hochschulreife (2012a). The KMK has also created its own comprehensive list of competences for the Sekundarstufe I (see fig. 1.6). All over Europe, the CEFR has influenced the design of language tests (see the Association of Language Testers in Europe, www.alte.org; the European Language Certificates, www.telc.net; the European Association for Quality Language Services, www.eaquals.org). Following the guidelines of the CEFR, the KMK monitors the outcome of language education through the development and implementation of comparative tests. The DESI test (Deutsch-Englisch Schülerleistungen International, 2003-2004) comprehensively examined the skills of listening comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing, language awareness, and intercultural awareness. DESI has revealed considerable heterogeneity in competence levels in all school types, fairly poor skills in listening and reading comprehension across the board, but better results in oral and written skills. In general, female and pluri- 1.2.2 KMK competences Testing DESI Sprachlernkompetenz Sprachlernkompetenz Interkulturelle kommunikative Kompetenz Interkulturelle kommunikative Kompetenz Verstehen Handeln Verstehen Handeln Wissen Einstellungen Bewusstheit Wissen Einstellungen Bewusstheit Sprachbewusstheit Sprachbewusstheit Funktionale kommunikative Kompetenz Funktionale kommunikative Kompetenz Hör Hör--/ Hörsehverstehen / Hörsehverstehen Lesev Leseverstehen erstehen Schreiben Schreiben Sprechen Sprechen Sprachmittlung Sprachmittlung Ve Verrfügen über sprachliche Mittel fügen über sprachliche Mittel und kommunkative Strategien und kommunkative Strategien Text- und Medienkompetenz Text- und Medienkompetenz mündlich schriftlich medial mündlich schriftlich medial KMK competence framework (Kultusministerkonferenz 2012: 12) Fig. 1.6 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 11 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 11 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 12 T HE FRAMEWORK : HISTORY AND POLITICS lingual learners scored better than male learners with a monolingual background. In addition, video recordings show that teachers talk most of the time in spite of the fact that communicative approaches to teaching and learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) should provide plenty of opportunities for learners to interact (cf. Hall 2018: 9-11). VERA (VERgleichs Arbeiten) is a test taken a year before students finish primary school (VERA 3) or secondary school (VERA 8) in order to give both teachers and learners feedback on what to improve to meet the required competence levels at the end of their level of schooling. However, VERA only examines listening and reading comprehension, a fact that might be related to both easy empirical assessment and to the problems the DESI test of 2003-2004 revealed in these particular skills (see above). The European language portfolio complements the institutional monitoring of competences (Council of Europe 2011). A portfolio is the collection of a learner’s output such as written exercises, drafts of essays, or results from project work. It documents the learner’s progress and proficiency (see ch. 12.5.2). It aims at motivating learners to become aware of (plurilingual) language acquisition within and outside of school, to assess their own skills, to identify their strengths, and to assume responsibility for their own learning with regard to their aims, fostering both self-esteem and life-long learning. Apart from the functions for the learner, the portfolio may be used as additional information for school or job applications. Many teachers are vaguely familiar with the CEFR and do not see how it makes a difference in the classroom (cf. Vogt 2012: 87-88). One might say that they have a point because communicative competence, a core element of the CEFR, has formed the central goal of teaching for decades. However, since the German federal states used the more comprehensive CEFR as a framework for educational standards and subsequent curricula, preand in-service teachers must have noticed the many adjustments to the curricula they work with. After all, curricula provide the framework of teaching with regard to: ▶ Educational and functional aims ▶ Orientation for planning, implementing, and reflecting on teaching and learning ▶ The definition of progression toward certain levels of competences ▶ The framework for the design of materials and tests ▶ The basis of comparable performances of classes and schools within a state (cf. Hallet & Königs 2010: 54-58) Academics have hotly debated the aims and standards of the CEFR for some time (cf. Zydatiß 2005; Timm 2006; Klieme 2007; Bach & Breidbach 2013). In general, they appreciate the basic function of the CEFR as a guideline for developing comparable curricula and exams across Europe, and the focus on the positive ‘can do’-standards of achievement rather than on learners’ defi- VERA Portfolio Impact of the CEFR Criticism of the CEFR 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 12 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 12 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 Unit 1 13 T EACHER EDUCATION IN G ERMANY cits. However, they also find fault with particular standards, competences, and descriptors for the following reasons: ▶ The Bildungsstandards ignore Bildung in the sense of personal growth, orientation, and reflection (see ch. 8.1.2). ▶ The narrow focus on functional communicative competences and testing is detrimental to intercultural and methodological goals. ▶ Competence comes with little content as if content was less relevant. ▶ The descriptors and scales of language proficiency are not always clear and distinct. ▶ Average standards (Regelstandards) should be changed to minimum standards (Mindeststandards, for weaker learners) and maximum standards (Maximalstandards, encouraging best performance). ▶ Standardization jars with individualization and differentiation. ▶ Output orientation neglects standards of good teaching and insights into processes of language acquisition and learning. ▶ Output standards encourage teaching to the test (backwash). The Council of Europe (2020) published a more specific and user-friendly Companion Volume to the CEFR in response to criticism. The Companion defines the three macro-functions of language as (1) transactional language use (e. g., retrieving or giving information), (2) creative and interpersonal language use (e. g., reading for leisure, self-expression, conversation), and (3) evaluative, problem-solving language use (e. g., presentation, discussion). Under the headings of Reception, Production, Interaction, and Mediation, the descriptors specify situated communicative activities and strategies with distinctive aims. The enlarged section on mediation through plurilingual and pluricultural competences meets the growing diversity of Europe (cf. Burwitz-Melzer 2019; Quetz 2019). Updated descriptors address young learners (pre-A level) and differently-abled learners (sign language). Descriptors introduce more distinctions (‘plus levels’) and include multimodal online communication. Finally, the Companion delineates consequences for teaching and learning: the descriptors help establish learners’ needs profiles, project learning aims, design tasks to accomplish these, and furnish criteria for assessment beyond standardized tests. Following the action-based approach, collaborative learning should involve learners as plurilingual and -cultural social agents in real-world tasks (see chapters 3.2.5 and 4.3.2). Teacher education in Germany The KMK briefly defined standards of teacher education in Educational Studies (Erziehungs- und Bildungswissenschaften) and Psychology (2004, 2012a), and in modern foreign languages at secondary schools (2019: 44-46). In cooperation with other academic associations, the Deutsche Anglistenverband and the 1.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 13 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 13 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 07.06.2022 15: 39: 37 14 T HE FRAMEWORK : HISTORY AND POLITICS Deutsche Gesellschaft für Amerikastudien (2012) specified the competences-- and above all, the content- - of English and American studies and TEFL in greater detail. The KMK agreed on two basic stages of teacher education (see fig. 1.7): ▶ Stage 1: studying at least two major subjects and Educational Studies at university or at a college of education (Pädagogische Hochschule). The first stage concludes with the B. Ed., M. Ed., or the First State Examination, which consists of a final thesis as well as written and oral examinations in the major subjects and Educational Studies. ▶ Stage 2: practical training (Referendariat) at teacher seminars (Studienseminare) and assigned schools (Ausbildungsschulen). The practical training aims at connecting classroom management with competences in English Studies, in TEFL, and in Educational Studies, ending with the Second State Examination. In spite of the similar requirements, the education of language teachers within these two stages varies considerably across the German federal states with regard to the subjects of academic education and the link to practical teacher training. The academic education of teachers at primary schools may be separated from that of teachers at secondary schools. For example, Baden-Wuerttemberg offers programs for teaching English at primary schools and secondary schools at a college of education. Students of teaching English at the Gymnasium enroll at a university with more study time allotted to Cultural, Literary, and Linguistic Studies than to TEFL and Educational Studies compared to colleges of education. The federal states also offer a third stage of in-service teacher Stages Teacher education in Germany Fig. 1.7 Stage 1 Stage 2 ▶ B. A.: 3-4 years + M. A.: 1-2 years ▶ First State Examination: 4-5 years ▶ Traineeship & Second State Examination: 1-2 years Forms of instruction ▶ Lecture ▶ Seminar ▶ Tutorial ▶ Practical language training ▶ Short-term practical training or student-teaching semester (Praxissemester) ▶ Seminar: theoretically informed reflection of teaching and learning ▶ Observation of teaching (Hospitation) ▶ Guided and independent teaching Content & competences ▶ English language ▶ Area & Cultural Studies ▶ Linguistics ▶ Literary Studies ▶ TEFL ▶ Educational Studies (socialization, motivation, learner psychology, counseling, conflict management, etc.) ▶ Planning, implementing, and reflecting processes of learning English (methods, learning processes, assessment, etc.) ▶ Institutional education, functions of professional teachers ▶ School development and educational research 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 14 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 14 07.06.2022 15: 39: 38 07.06.2022 15: 39: 38 Unit 1 15 T EACHER EDUCATION IN G ERMANY training (Lehrerfortbildungen), aiming at lifelong professional teacher development (KMK 2020; see ch. 2). The gap between Anglophone Studies as an academic subject and its teaching at school has generated a long debate. Recently, centers of teacher education (Zentren für Lehrerbildung) have been founded, in which academic scholars, teacher trainers, and administrators work on bridging the gap between university and school. Most federal states require university students to attend stints of practical training at schools, often supervised by experts from both school and the university (cf. Volkmann 2012: 474-75). It is true that academic subject knowledge-- apart from TEFL-- goes beyond what is needed at school. However, generating knowledge is a genuine function of a university, and it is often only a matter of time until academic content and methods filter into primary and secondary education: for example, linguistic research in language acquisition has influenced the methods and implementation of early EFL teaching. The focus on race/ ethnicity, class, and gender in Cultural Studies has had a lasting impact on textbooks, such as the representation of women and minorities. The expansion of literary studies led to opening the canon to works from Commonwealth authors, comics, and film adaptations. In turn, teachers’ reflected practice is a valuable form of theorizing that has fed back into TEFL as an academic subject. Obtain information on the particular requirements in TEFL at your university or your school and the links to studying English as a subject. As Zydatiß (2005: 312-20, 363-67) argues, educational standards and curricula are not sufficient in order to improve the quality of FL education. Among others, the following factors play a crucial role (see ch. 2): ▶ The quantitative conditions of the educational system (e. g., financing, staffing, and resources) ▶ The quality of schools (e. g., their management and focus) ▶ The quality of teaching in the classroom (e. g., the interaction between teachers and learners, the methods, and the use of media) The European Profile for Language Teacher Education (Kelly et al. 2004) and the European Profiling Grid for Assessing Language Teacher Competences (North 2013) support self-assessment and the professional development of teaching staff. The Profile sets up standards of education, training, and qualifications of teachers with regard to communicative, intercultural, media, methodological, and administrative competences. The research and effort that go into institutionalized language teaching has not escaped criticism. The educational and functional objectives of institutionalized language teaching aim at competences that work in real-life interaction, but it is difficult to implement activities that help to achieve these competences. Bridging the gap Crucial factors 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 15 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 15 07.06.2022 15: 39: 38 07.06.2022 15: 39: 38 16 T HE FRAMEWORK : HISTORY AND POLITICS For example, the gradual progression along language structures in textbooks is in conflict with demands for authentic language use, especially for beginners and intermediate learners. The simulation of real-life situations may founder on the rocks of missing vocabulary or pragmatic skills in the average classroom. The simulation of intercultural dialogs in English among speakers of German may be awkward and demotivating if one cannot express what one could easily do in the mother tongue. In a real-life situation where the FL is the only means of communication, language input may exceed one’s level of skills, and one needs to solve problems of communication under time pressure in addition to fulfilling the task at hand. Media and the contact with native speakers help to integrate authentic discourse in the classroom. Ideally, the immersion into the FL during an extended stay in an English-speaking country should complement both the academic training of pre-service teachers and language learning at school-- a demand Comenius introduced hundreds of years ago. Recommended reading Council of Europe (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. https: / / rm.coe.int/ common-europeanframework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/ 16809ea0d4 (26 June 2021). Fäcke, Christiane & Franz-J. Meißner, eds. (2019). Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik. Tuebingen: Narr. Gnutzmann, Claus & Frauke Intemann, eds. (2008). The Globalisation of English and the English Language Classroom. 2 nd ed. Tuebingen: Francke. Schneider, Edgar W. (2011). English Around the World: An Introduction. Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press. Zydatiß, Wolfgang (2005). Bildungsstandards und Kompetenzniveaus im Englischunterricht: Konzepte, Empirie, Kritik und Konsequenzen. Frankfurt a. M. et al.: Lang. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 16 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 16 07.06.2022 15: 39: 38 07.06.2022 15: 39: 38 Unit 2 17 T EACHER EDUCATION IN G ERMANY Challenges of the teaching profession Contents 2.1 What makes a good teacher? 18 2.2 What makes a good EFL teacher? 27 2.3 Education in the 21 st century 32 Recommended reading 35 This chapter provides a structured, yet complex answer to the question of what it means to be a good teacher. It will first discuss the general prerequisites for good teaching practice based on the reflective practice model of professional development. This chapter will then address the question of what is required to be(come) a professional teacher of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). It closes with a focus on the paradigm shift in 21 st century education as well as the essential role of foreign language (FL) teacher professional development and school innovation. Reflective practice model; TPACK, knowledge and competences; characteristics of good teachers, principles of good teaching, paradigm shift from teaching to learning Professional teacher development and action research Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 17 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 17 07.06.2022 15: 39: 38 07.06.2022 15: 39: 38 18 C HALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION Have a look at the cartoon. Think about the challenges teachers face today and the knowledge and competences teachers should have or develop to be able to cope with these challenges. What makes a good teacher? A good teacher has been defined by characteristics, competences, and development. Teacher education has come in three shapes. In the craft model of master and apprentice, the experienced teacher hands down principles and rules to the novice. The novice applies these precepts to practice without critically reflecting whether they are appropriate to current learners and situations. In the applied science model, teachers translate knowledge from academic disciplines such as psychology and linguistics into teaching and learning principles. Research 2.1 Wilhelm Busch: Lehrer Lämpel Fig. 2.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 18 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 18 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 Unit 2 19 W HAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER ? and testing provide reliable results of learning processes. Still, the problem is how to transfer these findings to teaching and serve individual learners' needs. The reflective practice model combines experience and academic knowledge and aims at bridging the theory-practice gap. Theory should reflect on practice as practice feeds into theory (cf. Benitt 2015: 55-60; Farrell 2019: 38-39). The reflective practice model of professional development The reflective practice model of professional development (cf. Farrell 2019; see fig. 2.1) shows what teachers bring to the teaching profession (stage 1), how this is modified and refined during their professional education (stage 2), and how continuous reflection then leads to professional competence (goal). It promotes a view of teachers as professionals competent to teach, educate, evaluate, and innovate, reflecting upon educational policies, pursuing personal and professional growth, analyzing their practice and performance in lessons, and striving for creating a humane school environment. The reflective teacher should be able to develop: ▶ Multiple perspectives: the ability to approach educational issues from a wide range of perspectives (e. g., personal, regional, national, global, socio-economic, philosophical) ▶ Experiential learning: the ability to reflect upon practical field experience and combine one’s teaching experience with insights from academic discourses ▶ Construction of knowledge: the ability to keep record of, diagnose, evaluate, and discuss one’s personal and professional growth (e. g., portfolios, reports, presentations, exchange with peers) ▶ Critical inquiry: the ability to reflect on the impact of one’s own teaching practice as well as general school settings and policies on students, their families, and the school community 2.1.1 Who dares to teach must never cease to learn. - John Cotton Dana What one should bring to the teaching profession Trainee’s existing conceptual schemata or mental constructs Stage 1 (Pre-training) Stage 2 (Professional education/ development) GOAL Received knowledge Practice Reflection PROFFESIONAL COMPETENCE “Reflective cycle” Experiential knowledge The reflective practice model of professional development (Wallace 1991: 94; Borg 2015: 332-33) Fig. 2.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 19 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 19 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 20 C HALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION Reflective teachers need to develop competences in every dimension of teaching and learning (see fig. 2.3): Self-reflection and transformation are central means and ends of education for both learners and teachers. What are favorable personal qualities in learning and teaching? Next to cognitive ability, social and emotional competences contribute to success in education. The Big-5 model of personality traits offers concepts for self-reflection: “Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, Openness to Experience” (Nießen et al. 2020: 3). While extraversion and agreeableness do not correlate with the highest academic achievement (ibid.), they are conducive to establishing good relationships and a positive atmosphere in the classroom and the staffroom. All of the qualities above contribute to the relevant positive attitude towards learners of any class, ethnicity, gender, and ability (cf. Dewaele & Mercer 2018: 179-82, 189-90). Besides, motivation and self-efficacy promote development: being confident, able, and willing to make decisions and take responsibility for one’s own and others’ learning under given conditions and constraints. Learning means changing concepts, opinions, and behavior upon contextual challenges and critical reflection (cf. Hiver, Kim & Kim 2018: 20-23; White 2018: 199-20; Wyatt 2018: 122-24). A positive learning environment with the learners at its center and the teacher acting as facilitator requires of teachers to have advanced knowledge of child and adolescent development (e. g., emotional, psychological, physical, cognitive). On the basis of this knowledge, teachers should be able to diagnose developmental delays in students and provide support and counseling in cooperation with the parents, the school counselor, or therapists. Teachers today Knowledge and competences of teachers Oneself Learners Oneself Learners Content Pedagogy Context Reflection on knowledge and competences regarding Competences of reflective teachers Fig. 2.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 20 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 20 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 Unit 2 21 W HAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER ? also face the challenge of increasingly heterogeneous and inclusive classes (see ch. 6.3). Teachers will encounter students with different learning histories from pre-school and primary education and are required to apply their knowledge of learning theories to the individual needs of their students. Teachers may also encounter a large cultural diversity in their classrooms, and they might also teach children whose success in school may be negatively affected by a poor socio-economic background, where financial and/ or parental support may be lacking. Teachers’ good domain-specific knowledge in their subjects is necessary but far from sufficient for effective teaching. They have to respect the curriculum that provides the framework and rationale for selecting the areas of knowledge that need to be taught to learners in different grades. Being aware of pre-school, primary school, and secondary school curricula, including the principles and objectives of education in these school types, will help teachers respond adequately to learners’ previous experiences and current needs. Knowing about the curricula of other subjects allows for interdisciplinary approaches (fachübergreifender Unterricht). A comprehensive and in-depth knowledge of modern pedagogy is essential for reflective teachers. It will help them reflect upon their teaching and their role in promoting a productive learning environment. It will also provide them with guidelines for developing lesson sequences based on their students’ needs and interests. Such a student-centered approach must inevitably be informed by a variety of methods to facilitate learning processes, involve students, and assess them. Teachers need a thorough knowledge of the larger educational context they find themselves in. Even if they teach at a specific school in a specific place, they need to know about other schools and school forms in the region. They need to know about the population of the region and specifically, the student populace of their school. Teachers should adjust their teaching to the specific teaching and learning conditions at their school. Personal characteristics Good teachers are often described as establishing positive relationships and a respectful atmosphere in the classroom, the school, and beyond (cf. Shulman & Shulman 2004; Hattie 2009; Bailey 2011; Prusse-Hess & Prusse 2018; Wyatt 2018). Learners, teachers, researchers, and teacher educators frequently mention the following characteristics (see fig. 2.4): Content Pedagogy Context 2.1.2 A good teacher can inspire hope, ignite the imagination, and instill a love of learning. - Brad Henry 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 21 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 21 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 22 C HALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION Characteristic Description Check Engaging Teachers should facilitate interesting learning experiences, create interactive learning environments, and use a variety of materials and methods. Enthusiastic Teachers should show their own enthusiasm for the subject matter at hand and explicitly invite students to share this enthusiasm. Intelligent Teachers should be in command of the subject matter taught and demonstrate a sound basis of general knowledge. Well-organized Teachers should invest time and effort into lesson preparation and make the course of teaching and learning transparent to their students. Flexible Teachers should be able to solve unexpected problems without getting panic-stricken in the face of challenges. Fair Teachers should refrain from cynicism of any kind as well as be sensitive and know when to criticize, correct, discipline, and when not. Professional Teachers should have high qualifications and show a professional attitude. Reflective Teachers should be willing to constantly evaluate their own teaching performance, adjust their own teaching methods, and sense what works and what does not in their own teaching. The list is not meant to be understood as a ranking, but rather as a list of eight characteristics considered to be equally important for defining good teachers. Discuss why these characteristics are important. Choose three that you consider most important and elaborate on your choice. Tick the characteristics that you can honestly say apply to you. Principles of good teaching practice Excellent teachers should be able to put into practice the principles of good teaching (cf. Helmke 2006; Thompson 2009; Prusse-Hess & Prusse 2018; Meyer 2019; see fig. 2.5): Principle Elements Rank Clear teaching structure ▶ Process clarity ▶ Clearly defined roles ▶ Agreement on rules, rituals, and what is permissible High amount of time on task ▶ Intelligent time management ▶ Punctuality ▶ Reduction of organizational work in the classroom Personal characteristics of teachers Fig. 2.4 2.1.3 Effective teaching is not the drilling and trilling of the less than willing. - John Hattie Principles of good teaching practice (Meyer 2006: 5-8, adapted) Fig. 2.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 22 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 22 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 Unit 2 23 W HAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER ? Atmosphere conducive to learning ▶ Mutual respect ▶ Rules that are adhered to ▶ Balancing of responsibility ▶ Equality and care for one another Content clarity ▶ Well-defined tasks ▶ Plausibility of thematic processes ▶ Clarity and continuity of retaining that which was taught Meaningful communication ▶ Participatory planning ▶ Discussions on the meaning of tasks ▶ Frequent mutual feedback Variety of teaching methods ▶ Multitude of teaching and learning patterns ▶ Balancing of individualized and collective learning, of self-regulated and guided learning Individual support ▶ Being patient with students and taking time for them ▶ Internal differentiation ▶ Individual learning analyses and individual learning plans ▶ Paying particular attention to at-risk students Intelligent exercises ▶ Making students aware of learning strategies ▶ Precise assignments for exercises ▶ Concerted support Clear description of goals to be achieved ▶ Learning situations fitted to the curricula and the capabilities of the students ▶ Punctual feedback on learning progress Well-prepared learning environment ▶ Well-organized, functional facilities ▶ Useable learning tools Take a critical look at the table above. Discuss how easy or difficult (1-= very easy, 2-= rather easy, 3-= rather difficult, 4-= very difficult) it would be to adhere to this code of conduct. Both the characteristics of good teachers as well as the principles of good teaching practice can then be translated into four pieces of practical advice for teachers in the fields of instruction, diagnosis, learning environment, and professionalism (cf. Thompson 2009: 8-9): ▶ Instruction: design instruction that appeals to the various learning modalities of your students. Use educational standards to inform instruction. Differentiate instruction so that the individual needs of all learners are met. Use techniques that minimize the loss of time when disruption occurs. Use technology to enhance your instructional practices. ▶ Diagnosis: demonstrate knowledge of your students’ development, skills, abilities, and aptitudes. Administer appropriate assessments to determine student mastery level. Help students establish and achieve learning goals. Practice 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 23 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 23 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 07.06.2022 15: 39: 46 24 C HALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION ▶ Learning environment: understand how students learn and use that knowledge to reach your students. Use sound judgment about which teaching practices are suitable for your students. Use a variety of methods to motivate students to perform well in school both academically and behaviorally. Establish a positive relationship with every student. Establish a safe and productive classroom environment. Provide a risk-free and supportive learning environment. Treat all students with dignity and respect regardless of factors such as ethnicity, class, or gender. ▶ Professionalism: assume responsibility for your own professional growth. Work collaboratively with colleagues for the benefit of all staff members and students. In this context, one cannot but refer to Hattie’s extensive meta-study Visible Learning (2009; cf. Hattie 2012), which has been lauded as “[r]esearch [that] reveals teaching’s Holy Grail” (Mansell 2009: n. p., cf. Terhart 2011). In this study, the following six items regarding the positive impact of teachers and their teaching on student achievement are listed in the top ten (Hattie 2009: 297-300; cf. Lipowsky 2006, Maier 2012; see ch 4.7): ▶ Providing formative evaluation: feedback to teachers which draws on dataand evidence-based models (cf. ibid.: 181). ▶ Microteaching: short lessons that are videotaped, analyzed, and discussed with peers and mentors. Microteaching provides teachers with “an often intense under-the-microscope view of their teaching” (ibid.: 112). ▶ Comprehensive interventions in mixed-ability classes: beneficial interventions include segmenting information, sequencing of tasks, controlling task difficulty, learning in small interactive groups, strategy training (cf. ibid.: 217-18). ▶ Teacher clarity: communicating the intentions of a lesson, organizing it, providing clear explanations, guiding students’ learning and assessing it (cf. ibid.: 125-26). ▶ Reciprocal teaching: a dialogic process between teachers and students with the aim to enable the latter to learn and apply cognitive strategies (e. g., predicting, questioning, clarifying, summarizing; cf. ibid.: 203-04). ▶ Feedback: it “needs to be clear, purposeful, meaningful and compatible with students’ prior knowledge, and to provide logical connections. It also needs to prompt active information processing on the part of the learner, have low task complexity, relate to specific and clear goals, and provide little threat to the person at the self level.” (ibid.: 178) New technologies, new challenges Problems arise in all areas of information and communication technology (ICT) in education: access, skills, and usage. Next to obtaining technological Know thy impact. - John Hattie 2.1.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 24 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 24 07.06.2022 15: 39: 47 07.06.2022 15: 39: 47 Unit 2 25 W HAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER ? resources, teachers need to be convinced of the added value of ICT, get support, and find the time to learn how to use it. Also, ICT may call for changing methods (Zinger, Tate & Warschauer 2017: 583-86, 588; Lightfoot 2019: 60-65). The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge model (TPACK, see fig. 2.6; Koehler & Mishra 2009) displays the interface between content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and technological knowledge: ▶ Content knowledge: teachers’ knowledge about the subject matter to be learned or taught.-[…] Knowledge and the nature of inquiry differ greatly between fields, and teachers should understand the deeper knowledge fundamentals of the disciplines in which they teach. ▶ Pedagogical knowledge: teachers’ deep knowledge about the processes and practices or methods of teaching and learning.- […] A teacher with deep pedagogical knowledge understands how students construct knowledge and acquire skills and how they develop habits of mind and positive dispositions toward learning. ▶ Pedagogical content knowledge: the transformation of the subject matter for teaching.- […] [T]his transformation occurs as the teacher interprets the subject matter, finds multiple ways to represent it, and adapts and tailors the instructional materials to alternative conceptions and students’ prior knowledge. Content - pedagogy - technology The TPACK framework and its knowledge components (Koehler & Mishra 2009: 63) Fig. 2.6 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 25 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 25 07.06.2022 15: 39: 47 07.06.2022 15: 39: 47 26 C HALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION ▶ Technological knowledge: requires a deeper, more essential understanding and mastery of information technology for information processing, communication, and problem solving than does the traditional definition of computer literacy. ▶ Technological content knowledge: an understanding of the manner in which technology and content influence and constrain one another. Teachers need to master more than the subject matter they teach; they must also have a deep understanding of the manner in which the subject matter (or the kinds of representations that can be constructed) can be changed by the application of particular technologies. Teachers need to understand which specific technologies are best suited for addressing subject-matter learning in their domains and how the content demands changing the technology-- or vice versa. ▶ Technological pedagogical knowledge: an understanding of how teaching and learning can change when particular technologies are used in particular ways. This includes knowing the pedagogical affordances and constraints of a range of technological tools as they relate to disciplinarily and developmentally appropriate pedagogical designs and strategies. (Koehler & Mishra 2009: 63-65, adapted) All these components must interact to build Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (Koehler & Mishra 2009: 66): TPACK is the basis of effective teaching with technology, requiring an understanding of the representation of concepts using technologies; pedagogical techniques that use technologies in constructive ways to teach content; knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress some of the problems that students face; knowledge of students’ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology; and knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones. If teachers are expected to show a mastery of this wide-ranging knowledge base, then teacher education, school infrastructure, and in-service teacher training programs have to offer them expert technological as well as methodological training. Imagine teaching an EFL lesson with an interactive whiteboard. Use the TPACK model to describe the knowledge and competences necessary to teach effectively with this tool. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 26 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 26 07.06.2022 15: 39: 47 07.06.2022 15: 39: 47 Unit 2 27 W HAT MAKES A GOOD EFL TEACHER ? What makes a good EFL teacher? In the attempt to boil down all of the delineations above to the central question of what makes a good EFL teacher, one should choose a differentiated approach that avoids homogenization. This is done for one particular reason: [The] development from students to teachers, from a state of expertise as learners through a novitiate as teachers exposes and highlights the complex bodies of knowledge and skills needed to function effectively as a teacher. The result is that error, success, and refinement-- in a word, teacher knowledge growth-- are seen in high profile and in slow motion. (Shulman 1987: 4, emphasis added) The complex body of knowledge and competences that this section will depart from is based on the reflective practice model of professional development and the necessary knowledge and competences of reflective teachers introduced before. Competences regarding oneself High cognitive ability and conscientiousness (see the Big-5 model of personality traits, p. 20) may support systematic self-reflection and self-development. Critically reflecting on one’s own political and sociocultural views and values is important to check one’s attitudes towards learners and the subject. Subjective opinions influence selecting, interpreting, and evaluating material for the EFL classroom. While one’s own experience of learning English is one of the important resources of teaching, it is crucial to address different learners through various materials and methods. Teachers need to take care of keeping up their language competences, motivation, and an open mind for the experience of Anglophone countries in and beyond the USA and Great Britain - both through the media and in reality. Openness to experience also includes the willingness to learn from learners, e. g., their interest in new music and audiovisual media in English. Besides, it pays to listen to colleagues and teacher educators’ in professional dialog (cf. Woodward, Graves & Freeman 2018: 36-45, 50-52). Socio-emotive competences help enable respectful and cooperative interaction with and among learners. Teachers also need to cooperate with colleagues, school administrators, curriculum planners, professional teacher trainers, and learners’ parents. It is advisable to make a list of one’s individual characteristics, from individual traits to knowledge and sociocultural position, and reflect on their impact on creating opportunities for learning (cf. Gurzynski-Weiss 2017: 462) for everyone involved in education. 2.2 2.2.1 Teachers teach as they were taught, not as they were taught to teach. - Howard B. Altman 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 27 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 27 07.06.2022 15: 39: 48 07.06.2022 15: 39: 48 28 C HALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION Case study 1 Staying in control of the classroom is the most important thing for Frank, who describes himself as a perfectionist. In fact, he hates it when things get out of control and do not run as smoothly as he planned at home when preparing his lessons. However, reflecting upon his English lessons today made him feel very uneasy. It struck him that his obsession with staying in control had affected his relationship with his students negatively. Sure, he was in control of the classroom, his students received good test results and he got his work done. The problem was that there was no humor, no enthusiasm, and no real motivation for learning English in the classroom. It just wasn’t any fun for him or his students. What is problematic about Frank’s code of conduct in class? What should he change about himself and his perception of teaching and learning? What could help him to add fun, motivation, and enthusiasm to his English lessons? Competences regarding learners A sound knowledge of child and adolescent development patterns and developmental stages will help teachers understand student behavior and academic development. In the EFL classroom, knowledge of developmental patterns is essential: depending on the students’ developmental stage, teachers will have to adapt their teaching materials, adjust their teaching methods, as well as their classroom instruction and interaction (see chs. 5.1.2, 10.2, 11.2). Student behavior in classroom settings as well as their academic development will also depend on their individual learning histories. In pre-school or primary education, the ways and complexity of FL instruction differ immensely from that in secondary education. Especially at stages of transition, teachers will have to diagnose their students’ FL competence levels (see ch. 4.5). In order to allow for smooth transitions, teachers need a sound knowledge of language learning theories and processes in pre-school, primary, and secondary education. Teachers will also have to take into consideration their students’ social status, ethnicity, and gender. For example, while a multicultural classroom offers a wide range of opportunities for intercultural learning, it may also pose problems resulting from critical incidents in the classroom (see ch. 7.1.3). Also, students’ views of English as a school subject and the merits it holds for them will have an impact on their individual success. Some students might hold the view that FL learning is bothersome and difficult, to some English might just not be their favorite subject, and others might simply love it. It is the teacher’s task then to motivate students with a negative view of the subject by catering to different 2.2.2 Learners first 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 28 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 28 07.06.2022 15: 39: 48 07.06.2022 15: 39: 48 Unit 2 29 W HAT MAKES A GOOD EFL TEACHER ? types of learners (e. g., by providing a wide range of language learning materials, varied activities and tasks). Case study 2 Driving home after a long day at school, Katharina was at the end of her rope. She felt that the high expectations she held for students were interfering with classroom interaction. All she had wished for her English lesson today was to have a good conversation with her students about a short story they had read the lesson before. But she ended up getting very angry at some of her students whose interpretations of the short story were totally off. Other students just would not talk at all. Instead of having a productive conversation about the short story and its meaning, conversation in class stalled. What is problematic about Katharina’s expectations for this lesson on literature? What should she change about her approach in order to invite all students into the discussion? Competences regarding content Besides teaching experience and methodological proficiency, subject-specific expertise has a positive impact on creating opportunities to learn (cf. Gurzynski-Weiss 2017: 458-62). Content is not neutral. Domain-specific competence does not mean the mechanical accumulation of factual information but experience-based and reflexive “epistemic cognition: the process of thinking that draws on beliefs and knowledge to reason, to problem solve or to make decisions.” (Maclellan 2017: 258) Being aware of subjective, socioculturally inflected views helps avoid teaching a normative, ‘hidden curriculum’ that favors young or middle-aged, able-bodied, heterosexual, and middle-class members of society and their values (cf. Hall 2018: 241-42; Alter 2020: 166-67; Lütge & Merse 2020: 180-85). The mastery of English as a language and a subject enhances teachers’ selfefficacy. Knowledgeable teachers “seek to engage their learners in the complex processes of understanding, reflection and critical reflection, whilst monitoring learners’ difficulties and providing calibrated support. [… T]eachers who have limited conceptual grasp of content are likely to avoid inquiry and learnercentered approaches […]” (Maclellan 2017: 257-58). In addition to competences in Anglophone Studies, teachers need interdisciplinary knowledge if interested in CLIL or cross-curricular teaching, for example the topic of migration in English, History, Geography, Ethics, and Social Studies. 2.2.3 It is less the content of curricula that is important than the strategies teachers use to implement the curriculum so that students progress upwards through the curricula content. - John Hattie 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 29 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 29 07.06.2022 15: 39: 48 07.06.2022 15: 39: 48 30 C HALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION Case study 3 In order not to disappoint his mentor and make a good impression at the school, Mark made a point of moving through the topics exactly as they were outlined in the curriculum and scheduled in the in-school syllabus for grade eight. Recently, a couple of his students had suggested to discuss a popular song in one of his English lessons. Although the students made a convincing case for discussing the song, Mark turned them down, telling them that the song did not fit in his overall plan and that there was simply no time to stray from the syllabus. The students were very disappointed, word got around, and, consequently, many of his students gave Mark the cold shoulder during the next couple of weeks. Mark is obviously very focused on meeting what is required of him by the curriculum. This seems to interfere with his relationship with his students. How could he have handled the situation differently? Should teachers judge themselves or be judged by others mainly on the basis of whether or not they manage to comply with curriculum requirements? Elaborate. Competences regarding pedagogy Profound knowledge of pedagogy - in combination with psychological and linguistic theories - is the basis for defining the roles and goals of teachers and learners in the process of language acquisition and education (see chs. 3 and 4). The network of knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and values informs every teacher’s practice. Still, experience also feeds back into beliefs and both are embedded in a sociocultural context. Beliefs can contradict each other and change. Classroom performance may contradict a specific belief but follow another (Borg 2018: 87). Teachers need to draw on situation-specific cognitive competences to observe processes, interpret these, and quickly make decisions to restructure the lesson (cf. Blömeke and Kaiser 2017: 785-95). The gap between theoretical knowledge and practical performance does not invalidate pedagogical concepts. These concepts provide flexible tools for planning, implementing, and reflecting on lessons. In turn, experimenting in class feeds back into reflecting on theory and developing expertise (cf. Woodward, Graves & Freeman 2018: 32-35). Planning and ad-hoc restructuring lessons demand content-specific and pedagogical decisions about teacher guidance and learner participation, inductive or deductive instruction, transactional or interactive phases of communication, individual work, pairor group work, timing, the balance between challenge and support, autonomy and discipline, trust and control. It goes without saying that mutual feedback with respect, recognition, and appreciation is conducive to learning. 2.2.4 Positive learning environment and teacher-student relationships We need classes that develop the courage to err. - John Hattie 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 30 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 30 07.06.2022 15: 39: 48 07.06.2022 15: 39: 48 Unit 2 31 W HAT MAKES A GOOD EFL TEACHER ? Case study 4 In order to improve her students’ oral skills, Stefanie had set presentation topics for her students to prepare and present. During the presentations, Stefanie noticed that many of them lacked structure and language accuracy. Some of her students even quoted directly from Wikipedia and others just read out their notes. After the presentation days, Stefanie realized that none of her students had received a good grade. In fact, most of the grades for the presentations were average or below. What was even worse, students were angry about Stefanie’s grading and claimed that they did not know what was expected of them beforehand. What should Stefanie have done differently? Make suggestions for improvement with regard to preparing students for presentations as well as making the grading process more transparent. Competences regarding context Context is everywhere: the social situation of learners, the culture of knowledge, and the politics of education (cf. Hall 2018: 242). School types and levels have different educational principles. Teachers need to acquaint themselves with the infrastructure, organization, management, colleagues, and student populace of the specific school they are or will be working at. For EFL teachers, it is especially important to know about the special focus or field of expertise their school specializes in (e. g., the Arts, Music, Sports, the Sciences, Languages). Teachers are also required to critically reflect upon the purposes and conditions of formal education. In FL teaching, this would include being aware that FL teaching is an intercultural endeavor which requires teachers to be interculturally aware and sensitive in their teaching of other cultures (cf. Kramsch 1994), being active in advancing FL learning environments, and pushing for better FL learning equipment (e. g., textbooks, school library, media, soft-/ hardware). Case study 5 Marie works at a school that has recently begun to put the concept of inclusion into practice. While Marie is convinced of this concept, teaching English in one of her mixed-ability classes was becoming more and more difficult. The students in this class were just so heterogeneous, and Marie’s teaching methods did not reach all of them. In fact, too many students were falling behind. Sure, she did some pair and group work here and there, but in order to meet curriculum requirements most of her teaching was teacher- 2.2.5 It is school leaders who promote challenging goals, and then establish safe environments for teachers to critique, question, and support other teachers to reach these goals together that have most effect on student outcomes. - John Hattie 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 31 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 31 07.06.2022 15: 39: 48 07.06.2022 15: 39: 48 32 C HALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION centered. She felt that her university education had not prepared her for what it meant to teach mixed-ability classes; she just did not know what to do and felt completely left alone. What could Marie do to improve her knowledge about teaching in mixedability classes? What should the school do to support its teachers? Which adjustments need to be made to teacher education if teachers and schools are to meet the challenge of successfully integrating students with disabilities in mainstream schooling? Education in the 21 st century Paradigm shifts Schools and teachers will do students disservice if they do not equip them with the competences necessary in the 21 st century (cf. The New London Group 2000; Trilling & Fadel 2009; see chs. 7.2, 9.1). The ways of teaching in 21 st century classrooms have already changed immensely, but still have to be further improved in light of the many challenges education is facing: fast changes in society, technology, economy, and culture require open minds, flexibility, problemsolving skills, self-management, social skills, etc. These skills and competences go far beyond perceptions of the teaching profession, classroom settings, educational objectives, and approaches to teaching one generation ago. The following adjustments should be considered (see fig. 2.7): 2.3 2.3.1 What should education look like today and in the future? Knowledge & comprehension Fragmented curriculum Teacher-centered Product-oriented Reproduction Textbook-driven Passive & isolated Teacher assessment Homogenizing Fragmented literacies Local Interdisciplinary curriculum Student-centered Process-oriented Application Analysis & synthesis Project-driven Active & collaborative Self-& peer-assessment Diversifying Multiliteracies Local-global (glocal) Paradigm shift Fig. 2.7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 32 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 32 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 Unit 2 33 E DUCATION IN THE 21 ST CENTURY ▶ Education should be student-centered and process-oriented with the students at the center and the teacher as a facilitator of varied learning scenarios and a learning coach to students. ▶ It should focus on students’ application of knowledge and competences to new situations and, consequently, needs to shift from the mere distribution of declarative knowledge and testing student comprehension to providing students with ample opportunities and time to analyze and synthesize knowledge (procedural knowledge). ▶ It should be project-driven instead of merely textbook-oriented to facilitate active and collaborative learning as well as interdisciplinary approaches to teaching and learning. ▶ It should make use of a variety of assessment methods that go beyond mere teacher assessments and involve, for example, language portfolios, peer assessment, and learning diaries. ▶ It should differentiate between students, their skills, needs, and interests instead of considering students as a homogenous mass. ▶ It should make students aware of the fact that they need to acquire a large amount of competences and literacies (multiliteracies) in order to meet the global challenges of the 21 st century. Discuss the proposed changes and modifications to education with regard to, for example, questions of implementation, practicality, effectiveness, and long-term success. Teacher professional development and action research In this chapter, much space has been taken up to outline what teachers should know as well as how they should teach and act. However, one must be aware that changes to education cannot be mandated, but must be implemented from the bottom up. In other words, only individual teachers can implement the necessary adjustments and thus play a fundamental role in school innovation. Therefore, continuous professional development, starting during pre-service teacher education and continuing throughout in-service teaching over the years, is of utmost importance (see ch. 1.3). What is teacher professional development, and why is it necessary? While it plays an important role for in-service teachers, the willingness to improve on a personal, social, and professional level is a paramount prerequisite already during pre-service teacher training at university. Professional development at its most basic level requires of both pre-service and in-service teachers to be able and willing to reflect on their teacher training, practical training, and teaching practice: “It [teacher development] serves a long-term goal and seeks to facilitate growth of teachers’ understanding of teaching and of themselves as teachers.” 2.3.2 If we are to have a revolution in education, it probably won’t come from the top down but from the bottom up. - Sir Kenneth Robinson 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 33 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 33 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 34 C HALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION (Richards & Farrell 2005: 4) Goals of teacher professional development include the following (ibid.): ▶ Understanding second language development ▶ Comprehending how our roles change with different learners ▶ Understanding decision making during lessons ▶ Reviewing theories and principles of language teaching ▶ Developing different styles of teaching ▶ Understanding learners’ perceptions of classroom activities Teachers can implement reflective practice through classroom observations by visual recordings, taking notes in journals, or documenting and reflecting on their work in portfolios. Surveys, questionnaires, tests, and evidence-based diagnostic methods complement subjective impressions as these are likely to be biased (cf. Benitt 2015; Woodward, Graves & Freeman 2018; Helmke et al. 2018; Bechtel & Schramm 2019). Reflective practice profits enormously from dialogic collaboration. Teacher educators or in-service teachers coach microteaching at university or the practicum at school (also called service learning). Teachers may form pairs of ‘critical friends’ or buddy groups, who discuss critical incidents and solving problems, engage in team teaching, peer coaching, and action research (Aktionsforschung, Farrell 2019: 40-47; Dragas 2019: 143-49). Action research involves the following: ▶ Philosophical assumptions: people within social situations can solve problems through self-study and intervention ▶ Purpose: to develop solutions to problems identified within one’s own social environment ▶ Main methods: mainly qualitative, interpretive; complemented by quantitative empirical data ▶ Outcome: action to effect change and improvement, and deeper understanding of one’s own social situation ▶ Criteria for judgment: subjectivity, feasibility, trustworthiness, and resonance of research outcomes with those in the same or a similar social situation Action research empowers teachers to develop their performance and practical theory (experience-based or grounded theory) as part of their professional identity. Action research usually follows a sequence of four phases that move from (1) identifying a problem and developing a plan to solve it, (2) implementing the plan in class, (3) observing its effects, and (4) drawing conclusions from critical judgment. The reflection may lead to changing assumptions about teaching and learning, adopting new proceedings, or locating new problems and devising new plans in a cyclical development (Benitt 2015: 71; Banegas & Villacanas de Castro 2019: 573-74; Farrell 2019: 46; see fig. 2.8): While teachers talk to their colleagues about curriculum, assessment, children, lack of time and resources, they rarely talk about their teaching. - John Hattie 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 34 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 34 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 Unit 2 35 E DUCATION IN THE 21 ST CENTURY Phase Action Planning A problem or issue is identified and a plan of action is developed in order to bring about improvements in specific areas of the research context. Action The plan is put into action over an agreed period of time. Observation The effects of the action are observed and data are collected. Reflection The effects of the action are evaluated and become the basis for further cycles of research. Teachers should employ their authority and responsibility to make decisions and take action for the sake of individual and social transformation and wellbeing (White 2018: 199-203). Ideally, teachers become researchers and learners, driving innovation in education through research of practice (cf. practical and detailed research methods in Caspari et al. 2022 and Woodward, Graves & Freeman 2018). Without a question, teachers and schools will never be perfect, but we can all strive to make them so, thus catering to both student achievement as well as to the contentment and health of teachers (cf. Jantowski & Hartleib 2013). Get a clearer idea of the teaching profession and assess whether your personality, experiences, and interests match a career in teaching: www.cctgermany.de. Recommended reading British Council. Teachers: Professional Development. https: / / www.teachingenglish.org.uk/ professional-development/ teachers (5 April 2021). Hattie, John (2012). Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximizing Impact on Learning. London et al.: Routledge. Mann, Steve & Steve Walsh, eds. (2019). The Routledge Handbook of English Language Teacher Education. New York and London: Routledge. Mercer, Sarah & Achilleas Kostoulas, eds. (2018). Language Teacher Psychology. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Multilingual Matters. Meyer, Hilbert (2019). Was ist guter Unterricht? 10 th ed. Berlin: Cornelsen Scriptor. Prusse-Hess, Barabara & Michael Prusse, eds. (2018). Wirksamer Englischunterricht. Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verlag Hohengehren. Woodward, Tessa; Kathleen Graves & Donald Freeman (2018). Teacher Development over Time. Practical Activities for Language Teachers. Milton: Taylor & Francis. Teachers as agents of change Phases of action research (Burns 2017, adapted; cf. Kemmis & McTaggart 1988) Fig. 2.8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 35 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 35 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 36 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 36 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 Unit 3 37 E DUCATION IN THE 21 ST CENTURY TEFL as a transdisciplinary project Contents 3.1 Definitions and link disciplines 38 3.2 Language acquisition and learning in Psychology and Linguistics 40 Recommended reading 57 In order to teach successfully, one needs to understand how learning works in general and language learning as well as foreign language learning in particular. In addition, one needs to know what students should learn. In order to answer these fundamental questions, Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) draws on Educational Studies and English Linguistics, Literary Studies, and Cultural Studies. The wide conception of education encompasses the formation of an individual and social identity as well as participation in society, culture, and the economy. Various branches of Linguistics and Psychology explore how the first language (L1) and foreign languages (FL) are learned, which form the very basis of TEFL. Education and learning, language acquisition and learning; Behaviorism, habit formation, and Contrastive Hypothesis versus Natural Approach, Identity Hypothesis and Krashen’s five hypotheses; Cognitivism, interactive top-down and bottom-up processing of information; Constructivism, perturbation, viability; social approaches, social agent, zone of proximal development, interactionist hypothesis, negotiation of meaning Critical reflection of benefits and shortcomings of approaches as theories per se and as models for teaching; IRE and dynamic feedback; Processability Hierarchy and Teachability Hypothesis; incubation period Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 37 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 37 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 07.06.2022 15: 39: 50 38 TEFL AS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY PROJECT What does education mean to you? (1) Think about the roles of teachers and learners, and the processes of teaching and learning. Jot down your ideas related to the cartoon above. (2) Compare these ideas to the concepts of learning and teaching in this little story: In Japan at the time of the Samurai, a boy leaves home in search of a teacher. After three days of walking in the hills, he finds a Zen master in his hermitage and politely asks whether the master would accept him as his disciple. The master remains silent, prepares tea, gives the boy a bowl, and pours the tea. He keeps on pouring when the bowl is full and the hot tea scalds the boy’s fingers. ‘Master, what are you doing? ’ ‘This,’ says the Zen master, ‘is the first lesson.’ (3) Imagine how the story will continue and discuss your ideas with your peers. Definitions and link disciplines TEFL is a sea of knowledge fed by many disciplines that provide useful approaches and principles: ▶ Educational Studies (Erziehungs- oder Bildungswissenschaften) include, among other disciplines, Pedagogy (more like Schulpädagogik or Allgemeine Didaktik), Sociology, and Psychology. The boundaries between these 3.1 Link disciplines 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 38 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 38 07.06.2022 15: 39: 52 07.06.2022 15: 39: 52 Unit 3 39 D EFINITIONS AND LINK DISCIPLINES disciplines are fuzzy, their interests overlap, and their approaches are often combined (e. g., in Developmental Psychology or Pedagogical Psychology). These studies reflect on education related to society, schools, and the goals, content, and processes of teaching and learning. ▶ Linguistics is concerned with language as a system, pragmatic communication, psychological and social phenomena, language acquisition, and intercultural communication. ▶ Anglophone Literary Studies, Cultural Studies, and Media Studies deal with understanding texts, media, and practices of all kinds in and across countries and cultures. Not reflecting on basics of learning could lead one into the trap of ineffective teaching because “most teachers teach as they were taught” and “concentrate on the coverage of the material over retention of the material-- that is, teaching over learning” (Straumanis 2012: n. p.). The approaches and ideas presented in the following serve as a challenge to make preand in-service teachers think about their own learning and future teaching. Educational Studies cover general issues, specific types and levels of schools (e. g., Grundschuldidaktik), and individual subjects or skills (e. g., TEFL, literacy). They describe, analyze, and propose goals, ways, and contents of teaching and learning. Educational Studies conceive theoretical frameworks for educational practices, which feed back into theory and are analyzed in empirical research. The key question is: who should learn what in which way and through which means, with whom and from whom, and for what purpose? (cf. Jank & Meyer 2014: 16, 41-60) Education refers to both the process and the product of individual development in the context of institutions. Individual cultivation or Bildung is often associated with the following qualities (cf. Hentig 1996: 54; Bieri 2012: 229-40; Prisching 2012: 21-26, 44-53; Spaemann 2012: 224-27): ▶ Personal growth: the cultivation of language, values, aesthetic taste, and judgment; coping with complexity and uncertainty ▶ Reflection on and control of one’s emotions, thoughts, and actions ▶ Relativization of the self, insight into one’s limitations, being able to see the world through others’ eyes, and valuing both self and other ▶ Orientation: insight into the systematic and historical relationships of social, cultural, and economic phenomena ▶ Action: emancipation, independence, and responsibility Learning can be considered as conceptual and behavioral change in cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills: ▶ Cognitive learning aims at knowledge such as the acquisition, integration, and recall of information and skills of reasoning such as analysis, interpretation, and critical evaluation. Educational Studies Goals and kinds of learning 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 39 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 39 07.06.2022 15: 39: 52 07.06.2022 15: 39: 52 40 TEFL AS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY PROJECT ▶ Affective and ethical learning means a change in feelings, attitudes, and disposition, for example developing empathy, self-confidence, and responsibility. ▶ Acquiring psychomotor skills goes beyond practical skills in the Arts or Physical Education and comprises attendance, participation, effort, etc., which contribute to efficient work habits (cf. Guskey 2013: 3-4). Some of the competences outlined in the CEFR and the national educational standards, such as sociocultural and intercultural competences, require the combination of several kinds of learning (see ch. 1.2). Contextual and individual factors of learning, such as aptitude and motivation, are dealt with after discussing approaches to language development and TEFL (see ch. 4.6). Language acquisition and learning in Psychology and Linguistics Consider your beliefs about learning a language and mark your position on these sliding scales (see fig. 3.1) before and after reading this chapter and chapter 4 (in different marks or colors). If you think that both concepts are of equal importance, put your mark in the middle of the scale. Do not guess if you are not sure but tick the extra box on the right. What is language? ▶ System of rules Communicative practice I don’t know. ▶ Tool of thinking Form of behavior I don’t know. ▶ Languages share universal features Languages are different systems I don’t know. How do we develop language skills? ▶ Instinct, human nature Input, nurture I don’t know. ▶ Imitation Individual construction I don’t know. ▶ Habitualization of patterns Negotiation of meaning with others I don’t know. ▶ Subconscious acquisition Conscious learning I don’t know. ▶ Cognitive process Holistic process (including emotions, social relations) I don’t know. What are the teacher’s and the learner’s roles? ▶ Expert and novice Guide and partner I don’t know. ▶ Model and imitator Facilitator and autonomous individual I don’t know. 3.2 Beliefs about learning a language Fig. 3.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 40 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 40 07.06.2022 15: 39: 54 07.06.2022 15: 39: 54 Unit 3 41 L ANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING IN P SYCHOLOGY AND L INGUISTICS What do we teach and how do we teach English? ▶ Content Form I don’t know. ▶ Vocab, vocab, vocab Grammar rules I don’t know. ▶ Discrete items (e. g., use of articles) Holistic language (e. g., phrases in situations) I don’t know. ▶ Listening, speaking Reading, writing I don’t know. ▶ Simplified input Authentic input I don’t know. ▶ Contrast between L1 and L2 L2 only I don’t know. ▶ Language skills Intercultural communicative competence I don’t know. ▶ Tolerating mistakes Correcting mistakes I don’t know. ▶ Declarative knowledge (what: explanations of rules) Procedural knowledge (how: use) I don’t know. ▶ Linear progression (from simple to complex) Cyclical approach (moving forward and repeating previous elements) I don’t know. Psychologists and linguists have developed theories of first language acquisition (LA1, Erstspracherwerb), which often informed concepts of second language acquisition (LA2, SLA, Zweitspracherwerb). The term language acquisition (Spracherwerb) is mainly used, as in this chapter, for developing implicit knowledge in a subconscious way as opposed to language learning, which refers to the explicit and conscious appropriation of language items and rules. Increasingly, language acquisition has been used as a general term for all processes of developing language because often the question whether something has been acquired or learned cannot be clearly answered. In spite of the parallels that some approaches establish between LA1 and LA2, the difference between a natural and an instructional setting needs to be taken into account (see fig. 3.2, adapted from Lightbown & Spada 2013: 124-26): Natural setting Instructional setting ▶ Socio-cultural context ▶ Contact with native speakers ▶ Exposure to varied, authentic, much input ▶ Meaning before accuracy ▶ Errors usually go uncorrected ▶ Time pressure on production ▶ Educational institutions, classroom ▶ Often non-native teacher as model ▶ Usually modified, simplified, limited input ▶ Meaning and/ or accuracy ▶ Feedback and correction ▶ Time to learn and produce In light of these differences, pertinent questions include (1) whether the classroom offers better opportunities for (language) learning or life outside the classroom, (2) whether teaching should mirror the learning opportunities of a natural setting in the classroom, or (3) whether teaching can combine advantages of the natural setting (the focus on meaningful, authentic input) and the instructional First and second language acquisition Differences Second language acquisition: natural vs. instructional setting Fig. 3.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 41 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 41 07.06.2022 15: 39: 54 07.06.2022 15: 39: 54 42 TEFL AS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY PROJECT setting (simplified input and time for learning through feedback). The answers to these questions depend upon the approach to SLA that one believes in. Three basic approaches have been prominent in the research on language acquisition, stressing environmental influences, the learner’s innate capacity, or the interaction between the learner and the environment: ▶ The Empiricist Approach, in particular the behaviorist one, assumes that learning is based on the experience and imitation of the language used in the learner’s environment. ▶ The Nativist Approach proposes that a specific genetic or innate capacity enables language acquisition. ▶ Cognitive, Social, or Radical Constructivist Approaches maintain that language learning results from the individual’s interaction with the world. Behaviorism: feeding the parrot Behaviorism, a theory of learning from the early 20 th century, believes in a blank mind without inherited capacities and in the environment as the dominant force in development. In other words, given the right stimuli, anybody can learn anything. Learning is based on conditioning, which offers the learner a stimulus and positively reinforces the correct response. For example, a dog can learn to stand on its hind legs and a parrot learns to repeat phrases if rewarded by food. In the 1950s, the psychologist Skinner looked at the habit formation of language in childhood by imitation and practice. Skinner proposed that the “quality and quantity of the language the child hears, as well as the consistency of the reinforcement offered by others in the environment, would shape the child’s language behavior” (Lightbown & Spada 2013: 15). According to the Contrastive Hypothesis, since different languages consist of contrasting structures in sound, word formation, and syntax, the FL learner needs to change his or her speech habits in order to produce the different target language structures. In educational settings, behaviorism takes the form of correct input (stimulus), repetition (response), and feedback as positive reinforcement or error correction in order to prevent the formation of wrong habits, the ‘fossilization’ of errors (see fig. 3.3). Approaches to language acquisition 3.2.1 The environment as dominant force Environment Learner Stimulus - Positive re-inforcement - Negative feedback Habit-formation Conditioning Response The behaviorist model Fig. 3.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 42 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 42 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 Unit 3 43 L ANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING IN P SYCHOLOGY AND L INGUISTICS Behaviorism had a large impact on the Audiolingual Method, which was prominent from the 1950s to the 1960s. Behaviorism considered pattern drills as effective for acquiring fluency and accuracy, and explicit grammar teaching as detrimental to fluency. While empirical evidence reveals that very young children imitate frequent and basic language patterns, they do not simply parrot input but select what they imitate (cf. ibid.: 16-19). According to the Contrastive Hypothesis, some errors can be attributed to interference from the L1, which needs to be prevented (e. g., false friends, different adverb positions in German and English). However, neither imitation nor interference can fully explain that learners with different native languages display similar errors in the beginning of SLA, such as not using the third-person -s (cf. ibid.: 57-59). In sum, Behaviorism over-estimates imitation and disregards factors such as aptitude, insight, motivation, and comprehensive educational goals. Nativism: genes, genes, genes The linguist Chomsky criticized that behaviorists cannot explain that virtually all children learn to speak their mother tongue competently in spite of vastly different conditions. A generative process should explain this phenomenon: “an infinite number of utterances are possible because of a limited number of underlying linguistic principles. In other words, the linguistic system of a child will develop beyond the input to which the child is exposed. This argument is called the poverty of the stimulus.” (Whong 2011: 31, emphasis added). Children are frequently exposed to a limited amount and partly defective oral language (e. g., fragmentary sentences), but they can usually sense the difference between a grammatically correct and an incorrect sentence (see ch. 5.1.2). Therefore, Chomsky assumed that human beings have a genetic potential to acquire language through what he termed the Language Acquisition Device (LAD, Spracherwerbsmechanismus) on the basis of Universal Grammar, a fundamental set of principles that structures languages in general. Language learning happens if input activates certain structures in the LAD, for example the distribution of English sounds in phonology (pat/ pet/ pit/ pot/ put), the combination of morphemes in word formation (re-consider-ation), or of lexical items in syntax (SVO, see fig. 3.4). Following Chomsky, nativists argued that the innate capacity needs to be activated in a critical period until puberty in order to master the L1 well. Concerning SLA, the evidence is mixed: in areas such as grammar, adolescent and adult learners may advance faster than children because most of them have a greater competence in abstract thinking and metalinguistic awareness. However, younger learners have motor organs that are still able to develop and learn new sounds, and they may attain a better level of ultimate achievement (cf. Whong 2011: 14; Lightbown & Spada 2013: 93-99). Discussion 3.2.2 How do children acquire language? The role of age in SLA 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 43 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 43 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 44 TEFL AS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY PROJECT Translating Chomsky’s idea of LA1 to LA2, Krashen and Terrell assume that LA2 mirrors LA1. This analogy is called Identity Hypothesis, motivating the Natural Approach. Krashen suggested five famous-- if contested-- hypotheses (cf. Whong 2011: 37; Lightbown & Spada 2013: 116; Spiro 2013: 13): 1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: meaning motivates acquisition. Students unconsciously acquire a FL rather than consciously learn it. 2. The Natural Order Hypothesis: students learn features of the L2 in the same order as in the L1, for example plural -s before the -s attached to verbs in the third person singular, or ‘no+verb’ (*‘I no like.’) in negation before ‘auxiliary+negation+verb’ (‘I don’t like.’). Listening to the FL promotes speaking skills and reading fosters writing skills. 3. The Monitor Hypothesis: the explicit learning of rules does not contribute to acquisition and only allows speakers to monitor or edit what they acquired before. 4. The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis: input needs to be comprehensible if somewhat challenging. Teachers should provide input a little above the level of the learners in order to offer them new language together with familiar material tailored to their needs. Learners need a silent period in order to process input. 5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis: a supportive and anxiety-free learning atmosphere and learner motivation are relevant because fear or boredom prevent input to get through to the student; in other words: negative affect clogs the filter of language input. How would you teach English if you followed Krashen’s hypotheses? Krashen and Terrell have influenced the turn from the teacher-centered Grammar-Translation and Audiolingual Methods toward learner-oriented Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) that focuses on meaning rather than form. Empirical evidence reveals that focusing on extensive comprehensible input, especially with beginners, yields good results both in listening comprehension and speaking. Psychological evidence has confirmed the relevance of a positive learning atmosphere and emotions (cf. Lightbown & Spada 2013: Hypotheses on language learning Discussion Environment Learner Limited stimulus of utterances activates Innate linguistic principles in Language Acquisition Device Nativist model of language acquisition Fig. 3.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 44 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 44 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 Unit 3 45 L ANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING IN P SYCHOLOGY AND L INGUISTICS 161-64). However, nativists have come under fire: Chomsky has been criticized for ignoring the pragmatic and social use of language as well as for his disregard of differences between speakers of different native languages, who transfer some features from their L1 to the L2 rather than sharing one underlying structure (cf. Whong 2011: 65). Krashen’s Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis mistakenly cuts a clear line between the import of conscious learning and subconscious acquisition. Children do acquire language subconsciously, but they also consciously memorize and reflect on language. In short, comprehensible input is important but not sufficient to produce accurate and socially appropriate language (cf. Roche 2020: 144-46). Cognitivism: the mind as processor A third group of language acquisition theories roughly takes the middle position between external input feeding a virtually empty mind (nurture, behaviorism) and a capable mind with a language instinct (nature, nativism). Cognitive or Constructivist Approaches focus on learning processes on the level of the individual mind without assuming that there is a language acquisition device (cf. Lightbown & Spada 2013: 26-28). Sociocultural Approaches to language development concentrate on the function of interaction in social contexts. All of these theories are concerned with one major question: how does the learner process which kind of input in which social situations? Some scholars assume that the Sociocultural Approach is compatible with the large variety of Cognitive Approaches, which focus on information processing and skills learning, but others see a fundamental difference between the individual processing of input and the mutual construction of meaning in social interaction (cf. Myles 2013: 65). The developmental psychologist Piaget postulated that children form cognitive schemata on the basis of their embodied experience of the world, moving from the concrete handling and thinking of objects to abstract thinking or generalization. If children discover something unknown to them, they form new schemata, and if they are confronted with something that does not make sense they try to modify their schemata in bottom-up accommodation: data provoke ‘a change of mind.’ In top-down assimilation, schemata inform the re-cognition of something as belonging to a familiar pattern: information is added and connected to previous conceptions (cf. Adey & Shayer 2013: 28-29; see fig. 3.6). These processes could be viewed as opposites: assimilation resists mental change and reduces new phenomena to existing concepts, whereas a new experience leads to new or revised concepts in accommodation (cf. Piaget 1977: 274). This opposition would correspond to a split personality: Mr. Stone sticks to stereotypes, but Mr. Water quickly changes his mind. However, it is more appropriate to regard these processes as complementary: each individual needs to find a balance between clinging to schemata and being open to 3.2.3 A middle position between nurture and nature Schemata 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 45 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 45 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 46 TEFL AS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY PROJECT experience, arriving at “a true equilibrium, that is, a harmony between internal organization and external experience” (ibid.: 277). Ideally, development leads to a growing formation, differentiation, and coordination of schemata that allow for a more sophisticated understanding of phenomena. For example, a small child may apply the concept ‘horse’ to a donkey, a zebra, and a cow, assimilating all of these animals to the simple schema of head and tail, big size, and four legs. He/ she will learn to differentiate and accommodate the concept ‘horse,’ recognizing specific features and applying the concept more selectively to include different kinds of horses. In addition, the child forms new schemata of the other animals mentioned above and coordinates these under the shared schemata of mammals and quadrupeds: “if the schema is differentiated, it marks the start of new assimilations” (ibid.: 274). Piaget regards social interaction as governed by the same mechanism as cognitive processing: the individual needs to accommodate or adjust his/ her egocentric point of view to the totality of the perspectives of others, and, in turn, may influence others’ perspectives, ideally in “the reciprocal formation of relationships of perspectives” that enables cooperation (ibid.: 294). The individual is part of society and dependent upon cognitive cooperation and the coordination of perspectives: “It is by cooperation with another person that the mind arrives at verifying judgments-[…]. [T]he interdependence of the search for truth and of socialization seems to us undeniable.” (ibid.: 279). In sum, language serves as the symbolic representation of the interaction between the child’s individual cognitive development and its material world, which is checked against social perspectives in interaction. To use an example: when a girl of two years boarded an airplane for the first time, she started weeping because ‘the airplane was gone.’ Her concept of an airplane only related to the external shape she could no longer see when on the plane. Being told that she was inside the airplane, to look at the wings visible through the windows, and her experience as a passenger made her accommodate her concept of an airplane to something like a flying bus (‘airbus,’ see fig. 3.5). While the girl had no problems to assimilate unusual airport vehicles to her concept of ‘truck,’ she initially assimilated the men and women in uniform to her schema of the police, but was told-- and experienced-- that these were flight attendants who serve food and drinks. So she accommodated her concept of uniform to cover different professions. How are theories of cognitive development related to education? Education should intervene in and accelerate cognitive development less by explaining schemata than by activating existent schemata, by stimulating the formation of new schemata, and by challenging learners to differentiate or alter schemata (cf. Hallet 2006: 18-20). According to Piaget, “the mind develops in response to challenge, or to disequilibrium, so the intervention must provide some cognitive conflict” (qtd. in Adey & Shayer 2013: 29). However, students need to experience that puzzling information is not an annoyance but a problem they Impact on education Example ‘airbus’ Fig. 3.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 46 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 46 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 Unit 3 47 L ANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING IN P SYCHOLOGY AND L INGUISTICS may want to solve (cf. Piaget 1977: 275). The mind profits from “reflective abstraction, the mind’s growing ability to become conscious of and so take control of its own processes, so the intervention must encourage students to be metacognitive”(ibid.). The Cognitive Acceleration Method also recognizes the social dimension of learning. The teacher supports the learners’ mutual exploration and discussion of new concepts (ibid.), for example different meanings of the concepts ‘friend’ or ‘woman’ in various cultures. The results of empirical studies confirm that Piagetian approaches are among the most successful strategies to enhance academic achievement (cf. Hattie 2009: 299). Some contemporary Cognitive Approaches in Psychology and Linguistics build on Piaget’s interaction of top-down and bottom-up information processing but expand the factor of situated communication (the social dimension of language). In contrast to Chomsky, they do not see any special differences between general learning and language learning: [L]anguage is learned from participatory experience of processing input and producing language during interaction in social contexts where individually desired non-linguistic outcomes (a bank transfer, another cup of milk) are goals to be achieved (or not) by communicating intentions, concepts and meaning with others. (Robinson & Ellis 2008: 490) The anthropologist Tomasello proposes that two socio-cognitive mechanisms form the basis of language acquisition: pattern-finding ability allows infants to find patterns in perceptual or linguistic input, while intention-reading allows them to connect linguistic forms with intended meanings. Language emerges from usage: the “child learns language from actual ‘usage-events,’ i. e. from particular utterances in particular contexts, and builds up increasingly complex and abstract linguistic representations from these” (Lieven & Tomasello 2008: 168, see fig. 3.7). Small children attend to the objects named and pointed out to them by their parents: they would associate the sound ‘doggie’ with the fam- Basis of language acquisition Speech has both an individual and a social side, and we cannot conceive of one without the other. - Ferdinand de Saussure Conception Embodied perception of the world Bottom-up accommodation Top-down assimilation Linguistic meaning Linguistic form Perspectives: - Reciprocal formation - Cognitive cooperation - Coordination Information processing of experience Symbolic representation Social interaction The Piagetian model of learning as cognitive processing Fig. 3.6 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 47 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 47 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 07.06.2022 15: 39: 55 48 TEFL AS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY PROJECT ily pet, a certain smell, a wet tongue, soft fur, barking, and a dog in a commercial. Thus, the phonological form is mapped onto conceptual meaning and connected to communicative intentions (cf. Myles 2013: 61; see fig. 3.8). Neuropsychology confirms anthropological findings as children associate new words and phrases with new objects and situations in the parallel processing of sense data and linguistic data in neuronal networks, which “modify themselves in response to new data” (Holme 2018: 620-21). Children may apply their concept of ‘doggie’ at first to other furry animals with four legs and a tail. When they are told that a cat and a horse are no ‘doggies,’ they develop the conceptual and lexical difference between these new phenomena. Frequent repetitions of perceived patterns strengthen neuronal associations and lead to cumulative learning and appropriate usage by “frequency-based associationist preferences” (Myles 2013: 61) rather than by activating innate structures or learning rules by rote. For example, learners understand and generalize the schematic meaning of transitive verbs as it emerges from frequent examples of phrases that use this pattern, such as agent+process+patient in ‘She broke a jug’ and ‘He ate a banana’ (cf. Holme 2018: 610). The relevance of insight into frequent and meaningful constructions confirms modified and consistent input in English textbooks, which frequently repeat certain lexical items and grammatical forms within units. However, the question is whether learners are ready to process the input offered to them according to the (grammatical) gradation of the textbook syllabus. Regardless of age, LA2- - very much like LA1- - moves from simple to complex forms. For example, the processing of words precedes that of phrases and sentences. Certain forms of negation are acquired in a particular sequence without being able to skip stages, a fact that calls for the introduction of simple forms before complex ones (cf. Lightbown & Spada 2013: 48-49): Teaching constraints Conceptual knowledge of embodied schemata Experience + situated utterance Pattern finding + intention reading (Re-)organizing Linguistic knowledge: Meanings Socio-cognitive mechanisms of language acquisition Fig. 3.7 Example ‘doggie’ Fig. 3.8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 48 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 48 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 Unit 3 49 L ANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING IN P SYCHOLOGY AND L INGUISTICS 1. A simple ‘no’ is placed before the verb (*‘I no like rice.’) 2. ‘No’ may alternate with ‘don’t’ (*‘He no/ don’t like rice.’) 3. The negation follows the auxiliary verb (*‘He don’t like rice.’) 4. ‘Do’ is marked for tense, person, and number (‘He doesn’t like rice.’) This acquisition sequence from simple to complex forms is called Processability Hierarchy, which, in turn, puts constraints on teaching and leads to the Teachability Hypothesis: teaching cannot promote learning if learners are not developmentally ready for the form (Pienemann & Keßler 2012: 240-41). Cognitive Approaches to teaching take into account the limited processing capacity: “what is processable by students at any time determines what is learnable, and thereby, what is teachable” in terms of understanding and producing language (Long 2011: 380; Roche 2020: 152-64; see ch. 5.1.2). Understanding the Processability Hierarchy and the Teachability Hypothesis generates tolerance for beginners’ typical errors. Errors are a necessary part of SLA and a basic feature of the learner’s ever-developing Interlanguage (Lernersprache, Interimssprache), the changing level of constructing a language by mixing elements of L1 and L2, even inventing new forms. *‘He have the ball getaked and to Sarah gethrowed’ would be a perfectly comprehensible utterance at a German primary school. Identify and explain the errors in the utterance above, and suggest ways of developing the Interlanguage. The utterance fails to mark the third-person -s, reveals interferences from L1 in tense, and overgeneralization in morphology. For constructivists, the learner does not know or feel the need to use the correct forms because they make sense to other learners and thus are viable, i.e. it works. Cognitivists would explain the errors in the phrase above with the limits of processability: this learner may not yet be ready for the correct forms. Cognitive support could provide more input of similar form-function pairings, offering tasks that require learners to use these constructions, and giving different forms of feedback on errors. Dynamic feedback becomes increasingly explicit if learners do not notice implicit feedback: ▶ Implicit negative feedback in recasts: ‘So, he took the ball and threw it to Sarah.’ ▶ Clarification requests: ‘What did he do with the ball? ’ ▶ Elicitation of the correct form by repetition and leaving a gap: ‘He-…’ ▶ Explicit correction provides the correct form: ‘You would say, he took the ball and threw it to Sarah.’ ▶ Metalinguistic feedback does not give the correct form but comments on the type of error or the rule of using an item: ‘In German, we often use the present perfect tense if we talk about something that happened in the past: Different approaches to errors 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 49 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 49 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 50 TEFL AS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY PROJECT Er hat den Ball genommen. In English, a finished action is usually expressed in the simple past tense: He took the ball.’ (cf. Lightbown & Spada 2013: 139-44; see chs. 5.1.2, 12.3). Cognitive Approaches scaffold (unterstützen) (1) meaningful language input, (2) increasingly complex tasks that stimulate cognitive processing, and (3) metalinguistic as well as metacognitive reflection such as raising awareness of language and of learning processes (cf. Robinson & Ellis 2008: 496-97). Complex tasks demand authentic interaction, which involves the cognitive processing of verbal information, joint attention, reading the interlocutor’s communicative and social intentions as well as pursuing one’s own intentions (cf. Segalowitz & Trofimovich 2012: 187-88). Critics and defenders of cognitive approaches refer to empirical evidence to support their arguments. For critics who hold the non-interface position (knowing how to communicate is unrelated to knowing rules), empirical evidence proves that implicit learning in the sense of high-frequency exposure is effective without the need of explicit (meta-)cognitive learning because of the learner’s innate syllabus and the extensive subconscious processing of experience-- unless problems are noticed (Bleyhl 2013: 35-37). Others do not consider implicit learning alone to be sufficient for successful language learning and call for an alternating focus on meaning and focus on form (DeKeyser 2011: 129-30). For DeKeyser, it is evident that “no procedural, let alone automatized or implicit knowledge develop[s] in the absence of declarative knowledge, even after thousands of exposures” (2011: 127). Given that the goal of language learning is automatized processing and production, cognitive psychologists and SLA researchers are debating how explicit, declarative knowledge of vocabulary and grammar relates to procedural knowledge of interacting (cf. ibid.: 121). In focus on form stages, explicit feedback and periods of guided instruction promote noticing (Aufmerksamkeit) the gap between input and one’s own production, or the gap between one’s own speech and declarative knowledge, which “is a handy crutch to lean on whenever our procedural knowledge is insufficient” (ibid: 130). Guided instruction does not necessarily mean teachercentered explanation, but can take the shape of guiding the learners’ discovery of meaningful form. Structured input activities “encourage learners to make form-meaning connections,” such as identifying the subject in active and passive constructions via different cues rather than taking the first noun as the subject of a sentence according to the basic SVO-pattern (Barcroft & Wong 2018: 644-45). For example, in the sentence ‘The car was searched by the policeman’ the marker ‘inanimate’ helps learners decide that the first noun is not the subject: it is not the car or its driver that search a policeman. Empirical evidence Guided instruction 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 50 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 50 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 Unit 3 51 L ANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING IN P SYCHOLOGY AND L INGUISTICS Constructivism: the creative mind While many cognitive models of learning propose a rather balanced interaction between the learner and the world, Constructivist Approaches attribute more weight to the learner as a self-referential, autonomous system. Radical Constructivism acknowledges the relevance of individual cognition and social interaction, but points out that no one has direct access to material reality and other people, which reveals skepticism toward Piaget’s concepts of ‘truth’ and ‘verification.’ Experience cannot be matched against ‘the world’ as such and is not directly accessible to others. No one can ‘find’ meaningful information in the world but people literally ‘make sense’ of experience. Noticing difference is important, but difference is not meaningful in itself. The individual mind does not mirror the world but actively ‘constructs’ models of the world on the basis of sense data (cf. Wendt 2002: 25-26). There is no objective truth outside the observer or a reality as such, but the only reality is the one ‘realized.’ Subjective truths need to be tested in interaction with others in order to become intersubjective truths, but interlocutors do not co-construct the same knowledge (cf. von Glasersfeld 1995: 142). Individuals do not talk about the same concepts but aim at compatible or viable concepts that work. People do not find meaning in words but attribute meaning to them and test it. For example, they need to perceive the difference between the sound of a burp and that of a word, but the difference does not make sense unless they attribute sense to the sound as a bodily function or lexical item. Consequently, “[e]very learner of a language must construct his or her word meanings out of elements of individual experience and then adapt these meanings by trial, error, and hanging on to what seems to work in the linguistic interactions with others” (von Glasersfeld 1995: 137). In turn, a piece of language directs the receiver to build up a conceptual structure, but there is no direct transmission of the meaning the speaker or writer intended. The only building blocks available to the interpreter are his or her own subjective conceptualizations and re-presentations. (ibid.: 141) In the constructivist view, learning does not simply mean processing input in linear progression (Wendt 2002: 27). On the contrary, experience triggers cognitive constructions, which develop in leaps (the so-called Aha-Erlebnis). Learning is motivated by interaction and through perturbation (Erwartungswiderspruch, Verstörung), the confrontation with cognitive problems that need to be negotiated in order to modify schemata. In simple terms, one needs to change schemata and behavior upon noticing that what one has done does not work, what one has read does not make sense, or what one has said is not understood. If individuals ignore rather than face the challenge, learning does not take place. Learning means adapting actions, concepts, and language in order to make them viable. In the classroom, teachers can prepare food for thought, but 3.2.4 The mind does not mirror the world but creates meaning Learning through perturbation 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 51 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 51 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 52 TEFL AS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY PROJECT it is up to the learners to ‘eat and digest’ it. Teachers cannot teach anybody anything in the sense of handing down knowledge (see fig. 3.9). They rather need to offer authentic material, tasks, and support that may trigger individual perturbation and reflection: if you are not confused, you haven’t understood anything. Facing a complex task, a novice uses trial and error and aims at processing data, whereas the more advanced learner searches for strategies that work and aims at interpretation (cf. Hattie 2009: 30). However, too much complexity and uncertainty may frustrate learners, and may provoke resistance rather than personal interest and effort. Reich’s Interactionist Approach to Constructivist Pedagogy (systemisch-konstruktive Pädagogik) tries to find a balance between the social quality and the individual process of learning. Learners are rarely left alone with making sense of raw experience. Social or Interactionist Constructivism recognizes that language is acquired in situated communication, which suggests intersubjective connections between forms and meanings in social and cultural contexts. The social level of interaction in terms of the relationship among the interlocutors, the expression of one’s own attitude, and the appeal to others form the basis of communication on the content level (cf. Timm 2013: 45-46). The sheer quantity of reconstructing social models of reality far surpasses that of directly constructing reality from individual experience. Thus, testing social against individual constructions, and vice versa, is a central process of understanding; and learning takes place at three levels (cf. Hallet 2006: 17; Timm 2013: 45-46; see fig. 3.10): You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink. Fig. 3.9 - Experience: sense data - Interaction: linguistic data - Constructing models of reality - Re-constructing social models of reality - De-constructing social models of reality Testing verbal and conceptual constructions Environment: situated communication Constructivist mind Social Constructivist model of learning Fig. 3.10 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 52 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 52 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 Unit 3 53 L ANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING IN P SYCHOLOGY AND L INGUISTICS ▶ Constructing individual models of reality based on experience ▶ Reconstructing social models of reality in interaction with others and in relation to the learner’s own models ▶ Critically deconstructing social models of reality in order to reconstruct more comprehensive and complex concepts Constructivist teaching favors learner-centered, holistic, and action-based methods (handlungsorientierter Unterricht) with an emphasis on autonomy, attention, discovery, learning by doing, involvement, meaningful interaction, negotiation, and reflection in order to raise awareness of language, learning, and culture (cf. Timm 2013: 54-59). Constructivists take some of the burden of being responsible for learning off the teachers’ shoulders. In turn, the question arises whether learners can shoulder the load of being responsible for their own learning, especially if they have difficulties. In addition, both teachers and learners have to cope with the problem of testing cognitive and linguistic achievement because viability is a fairly open concept and allows for various individual responses to a communicative task. How would a constructivist explain the process of learning and teaching in the story of the boy and the Zen master at the beginning of this chapter? Sociolinguistic, Sociocultural, and Interactionist Approaches: the social agent Shifting the perspective of Cognitive Linguistics on language as “a reflection of general cognitive processes-[…] grounded in lived human experience with the real world” (Tyler 2008: 459), Sociolinguistic, Sociocultural, and Interactionist Approaches assume that social interaction in cultural contexts is the most important factor in LA1 and LA2: “human thinking is mediated by culturally organized and transmitted symbolic meaning” (Lantolf 2012: 57). Social Approaches to SLA in general conceive of the learner as a social agent and of learning a language as socialization and enculturation through participant observation and negotiating meanings or co-constructing knowledge in social interaction (see fig. 3.11). Levels of learning 3.2.5 Language is a social art. - W. V. O. Quine Mediating symbolic meanings Negotiating meanings/ Co-constructing knowledge Social interaction in cultural context Learner as social agent and participant observer Sociocultural model of language development in social interaction Fig. 3.11 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 53 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 53 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 54 TEFL AS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY PROJECT In contrast to the rather narrow view of language as a communicative instrument, Sociolinguistics envisions a larger learning agenda of developing voice, agency, empathy, and respect, which ties in with the goal of political emancipation favored in some branches of Educational Studies (cf. Jank & Meyer 2014: 282-85). The sociolinguistic perspective on the connection between language, society, ideology, and power regards teaching normative standards as ambivalent. Teaching one standard language as a global tool of empowerment neglects the values and communicative functions of different varieties and registers of languages representing different groups and identities in a multicultural world (see ch. 1.1). The recognition and teaching of linguistic diversity would help the mutual understanding of and mediating between various groups (cf. Stroud & Heugh 2011: 424-29). In addition to class and ethnicity, sociolinguistic perspectives also take gender into consideration. For example, men tend to interrupt women more often than other men, while women tend to hedge their utterances (‘I think,’ ‘I believe’), which men mistakenly identify as a sign of uncertainty. Recognizing and teaching diversity can take the forms of listening comprehension exercises with recordings of speakers from different social and ethnic backgrounds, of presenting social issues from different perspectives in the textbook, or of reading about intercultural encounters in literature. Sociocultural Approaches to SLA are concerned with the gradual development of the learner from a dependent infant to an autonomous social agent. The psychologist Vygotsky contended that language emerges in social interaction between caretakers and children and that thinking is internalized, dialogic speech (cf. Storch 2017: 70). In the private sphere, mothers speak to young children in a simplified and highly repetitive language and at a slower pace (motherese), a practice that teachers have adopted in the role of caretakers of early and intermediate learners (teacherese), scaffolding their language and their support according to learners’ needs (cf. Spiro 2013: 15). Adapting Vygotsky’s observation, involving children in personal interaction would be much more effective than simply making them watch media that transmit information. In a communicative situation that challenges the learners a little above their current level (zone of proximal development), they solve problems with a teacher or a more advanced peer and co-construct knowledge (Storch 2017: 70, 77-78). Thus, learning “is mediated both through learners developing use and control of mental tools (with language playing a central role), and it is socially mediated through interaction and shared processes such as problem solving and discussion” (Myles 2013: 68). Learners do not imitate a model mechanically (as in Behaviorism) but connect it with intention and reconstruct it as a resource for future performance (cf. Lantolf 2012: 58). Like the language employed, feedback needs to be attuned to learner ability in order to gradually build up learner agency from dependency on explicit feedback to independent self-correction (cf. Lantolf 2012: 60-63). Working within the zone of proximal development is particularly effective Larger learning agenda From infant to autonomous social agent Involvement, agency, responsibility 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 54 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 54 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 Unit 3 55 L ANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING IN P SYCHOLOGY AND L INGUISTICS if learners themselves create and manage situations that organize assistance to make them perform better (cf. Ohta 2013: 667-68)- - in other words, if they assume responsibility and agency on the way to learner autonomy. Involvement, agency, and responsibility are relevant as goals of education and motivation in general and as factors of learning and communication in particular. Social interactionists look at specific ways of achieving mutual comprehension among speakers of different language levels. Long’s Interactionist Hypothesis states that in case of comprehension problems learners and L2 speakers need to negotiate meaning in order to achieve mutual understanding. Negotiation of meaning (Bedeutungsaushandlung) means that both interlocutors need to express, comprehend, and adjust utterances in order to offer and receive comprehensible input (cf. Kim 2017: 127-28). Both the more and the less proficient participant can modify interaction through gesture, checking comprehension, paraphrasing, and requesting clarification. Since input needs to be comprehensible in order to be processed and become intake, teachers should give learners the opportunity to modify interaction in order to avoid Krashen’s problem of finding the right level of input (Input Hypothesis). While Krashen focuses on input, Swain contests that producing comprehensible output also furthers language development since learners have to focus on content and form in order to be understood. Being required to produce output, learners may notice the gap between what they want to say and how to say it or to express it accurately, a fact that motivates them to reflect on language and learn more in order to communicate better (cf. ibid.). More advanced speakers should give corrective feedback, recasting the incorrect phrase implicitly by repeating it in the correct form or explicitly by commenting on the accurate use of language. Empirical evidence suggests that collaborative expert-novice interaction with corrective feedback is of particular value, whether between teacher and learner or among more and less advanced peers (cf. Lightbown & Spada 2013: 166-72). Sociocultural, Sociolinguistic, and Interactionist Approaches stipulate that communicative language skills are learned through communication-- as an end and a means, which is the hallmark of CLT. The theories of language acquisition discussed in this chapter suggest methods and proceedings on a sliding scale between the extreme poles of instructivism and constructivism. Teachers who believe that learners need controlled input and practice tend toward an instructivist model of teaching, in which they take the role of the model speaker and the sage on the stage. The instructivist teacher assumes the role of the authority, passes on knowledge, and gives explanations in the shape of explicit and declarative knowledge of rules or structures. The standard sequence of instruction is the teacher’s initiation of speech and the learner’s response, followed by the teacher’s evaluation of the response (IRE): accuracy is of paramount importance. However, instructivism meets with limitations: “learners, not teachers, have most control over their language development” (Long 2011: 378, see fig. 3.12). Challenge: content and form Instructivism 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 55 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 55 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 07.06.2022 15: 39: 56 56 TEFL AS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY PROJECT According to some cognitivists and most constructivists, a strictly controlled gradual progression of language input would not respect individual learners’ needs and differences (cf. ibid.: 382). Learners need rich, varied, and challenging input as well as plenty of time for individual intake (incubation period). The teacher acts as the guide by the side and the facilitator, providing opportunities for individual learning processes and interaction. Authentic input is as important as the experience of perturbation. Because the viability of concepts and language are at stake, negotiating meaning and focus on form when needed are on the agenda (cf. ibid. 2011: 380-81). Hattie criticizes the opposition of instructivist and constructivist teaching because developing teaching in response to the perspective of the learner requires educators not only to facilitate learning in constructivist ways but also to activate processes of learning in instructivist ways (cf. Hattie 2009: 26, 243-44; see cartoon at the beginning of ch. 4). Concept of language Teacher and student Teaching and learning Instructivist Approaches ▶ System of rules, skills T ▶ Sage, expert, model in lecture hall T ▶ Direct instruction, controlled, linear progression ▶ PPP, IRE S ▶ Novice S ▶ Imitation, reproduction, habitualization ▶ Input becomes intake and output Bettina Winkler: Teaching and learning as mountaineering Fig. 3.12 Overview of approaches (cf. Wolff 2002: 19-24; Wendt 2002: 25-28) Fig. 3.13 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 56 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 56 07.06.2022 15: 39: 57 07.06.2022 15: 39: 57 Unit 3 57 L ANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING IN P SYCHOLOGY AND L INGUISTICS Cognitive and Constructivist Approaches ▶ Patterns of formmeaning pairings ▶ Symbolic representation of cognitive concepts T ▶ Facilitator of rich learning environment T ▶ Stimulating cyclical, reflexive cognitive and meta-cognitive processes through challenging input S ▶ Cognitive processor ▶ Autonomous, selfreferential individual S ▶ Form-meaning mappings ▶ (Re-)constructing schemata Sociocultural and Interactionist Approaches ▶ Mediation in social interaction ▶ Internalized speech T ▶ Guide, interlocutor in market place T ▶ Guidance, scaffolding, dialog S ▶ Social agent, sharer of meaning S ▶ Internalization of dialog, appropriation of forms and meanings, negotiation of meaning ▶ Participation, socialization, individuation Which approach fits which classroom situation depicted in the cartoon at the beginning of the chapter? Recommended reading Gass, Susan M. & Alison Mackey, eds. (2012). The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. London et al.: Routledge. Hattie, John (2009 ). Visible Learning: A Synthesis of over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement. London et al.: Routledge. Lightbown, Patsy M. & Nina Spada (2013). How Languages Are Learned. 4 th ed. Oxford et al.: Oxford University Press. Loewen, Shawn & Masatoshi Sato, eds. (2017). The Routledge Handbook of Instructed Second Language Acquisition. New York et al.: Routledge. Mann, Steve & Steve Walsh, eds. (2019). The Routledge Handbook of English Language Teacher Education. London et al.: Routledge. Roche, Jörg (2020). Fremdsprachenerwerb-- Fremdsprachendidaktik. 4 th ed. Tuebingen et al.: Francke. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 57 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 57 07.06.2022 15: 39: 57 07.06.2022 15: 39: 57 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 58 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 58 07.06.2022 15: 39: 57 07.06.2022 15: 39: 57 Unit 4 59 L ANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING IN P SYCHOLOGY AND L INGUISTICS From methods to principles Contents 4.1 Approach-- method-- technique 60 4.2 Teacher-orientation 61 4.3 Student-orientation 66 4.4 Subject-orientation: Bilingual Teaching and Content and Language Integrated Learning 75 4.5 Age and stage: early language learning and transition 78 4.6 Individual differences and factors 81 4.7 Postmethod principles in a nutshell 84 Recommended reading 88 The present chapter delineates major methods of teaching English, many of which are clearly based on psychological and linguistic approaches to second language acquisition (SLA, see ch. 3). The discussion of advantages and disadvantages of various methods as general recipes for teaching will lead to considerations of individual differences in learning and effective principles of teaching and learning that have been validated in empirical research. Approach, method, technique; Grammar-Translation versus Direct Method; Audiolingual Method, drills; Audiovisual Method, dialog; CLT, communicative competences; TBLT: task as work plan and process, task cycle; Collaborative and Participatory Method, cooperative principles; Bilingual teaching and CLIL principles; early learning and transition, principles; individual differences, motivation Discussing pros and cons of methods; postmethod principles Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 59 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 59 07.06.2022 15: 39: 57 07.06.2022 15: 39: 57 60 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES Take a close look at the cartoon and spell out the problems of learning and teaching English at the beginner level. Find similarities and differences between the situation in the cartoon and your most enjoyable and successful experience of learning English. Could your experience serve as a model for learning and teaching English? Approach - method - technique In a general sense, method covers everything from theoretically based approaches down to particular forms of teaching and learning (Hall 2018: 85-87; Hallet, Königs & Martinez 2020). A specific use of the term defines method as a link between theory and classroom practice. A teaching technique (Inszenierungstechnik) is only the smallest step in the ordered sequence of a procedure (Vorgehen, Verlauf) in the classroom. The procedure is the result of a design or a method (Methode, Verfahren), which defines the roles of teachers and learners, the content, material, and types of activities as systematized in a curriculum. In turn, the method may be based on an approach (Ansatz), a theory about the principles and functions of language, learning, and education (cf. Harmer 2015: 62). Considered from top to bottom, an approach pro- 4.1 Method: between theory and practice 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 60 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 60 07.06.2022 15: 39: 59 07.06.2022 15: 39: 59 Unit 4 61 T EACHER - ORIENTATION vides you with reasons why you should use a method, which then tells you how to plan and implement classroom procedures as a systematic sequence of techniques. Why do teachers love using the song “Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes” (see YouTube) to help primary students learn vocabulary about the body? One possible procedure would involve six techniques: (1) The teacher slowly plays or sings the whole song and (2) touches the parts of his/ her body he/ she mentions, then (3) encourages a small group of fast learners to touch their own bodies while he/ she repeats the song, and (4) signals that their peers should observe and imitate the performance. (5) The teacher repeatedly sings the song line by line with those who are ready in the class, (6) who, in turn, exhort more peers to sing along. The approach behind this procedure, Total Physical Response (TPR, developed in the 1960s), stipulates that teachers serve as models and guides, who involve students in imitative acquisition rather than conscious learning. Teachers demonstrate vocabulary by enacting what they say and have learners perform the actions without having to speak. Learners are allowed to remain silent and start to speak when they are ready to do so in order to take pressure off them, reduce anxiety, and facilitate intake (cf. Glas 2019: 213-18; Frisch 2020: 64-65). Total Physical Response appeals especially to very young learners. Knowing about various approaches and methods helps pre-service and inservice teachers notice many aspects of teaching and learning and encourages them to reflect on their own beliefs and practices (see ch. 2.1.1). Some teachers adhere to the one and only method they find convincing and feel comfortable with, others select different methods appropriate to particular learners, levels, or goals. Approaches and methods aim at finding general principles of learning and teaching and therefore tend to neglect individual differences among students and specific learning scenarios. Good teaching needs to arrive at a fit between principles, goals, methods, and content, while also regarding the context and individuals involved in teaching and learning. Teacher-orientation Teacher-oriented methods follow an instructivist approach (see fig. 3.13). The teacher takes the position of the sage on the stage, who directs and monitors learning step by step in a linear progression toward a goal defined by the curriculum. Grammar-Translation Method: knowledge of rules The time-honored Grammar-Translation Method (17 th -20 th centuries) introduces vocabulary and grammar through explicit and teacher-fronted instruction. The teacher assumes the role of the master, the students the role of apprentices. The comparison and contrast of the first language (L1) and the second Example: why choose which technique? Deliberate choices 4.2 4.2.1 Focus on vocabulary and grammar 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 61 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 61 07.06.2022 15: 39: 59 07.06.2022 15: 39: 59 62 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES (L2) highlights the particular structures of the native and the target languages. Declarative knowledge and accuracy are important: rules and patterns are explicitly taught and memorized. Translating discrete written samples that display models of good language serves to prepare learners to read texts from the target culture. ‘Imitating’ these texts through writing compositions increases the learners’ grasp of the target language and culture. Reading canonical literary or philosophical texts serves the cultivation of the individual (Persönlichkeitsbildung; cf. Roche 2020: 15-16). Pick a very short passage from a literary or cultural text as a translation exercise for your peers. Translate it yourself to check whether it is a challenge your peers could master. Find comprehension questions. Elaborate on the cultural and educational value of the passage. Identify a few words or phrases you would single out for exercises on rules of word formation and grammar and provide these rules for yourself. Work in pairs. (1) Translate the passage. (2) Answer the comprehension questions. (3) Apply the grammar rule given to you and complete the exercise. (4) Reflect on your learning process and the result. The aims of accuracy, cultural knowledge, and cultivation make sense, but the method requires learners to first master lists of vocabulary and grammar rules before they get to ideas of interest-- if they are interested in elite culture. Studying grammatical rules does not automatically result in correct spoken or written language production. The instruction in the mother tongue supports the understanding of the structure and content of texts, but this focus neglects listening and speaking relevant to everyday communicative practice. This method was later abandoned in favor of monolingual teaching. However, recently, advocates of ‘enlightened monolingualism’ (aufgeklärte Einsprachigkeit) have stressed that the intermittent use of German as the linguistic and conceptual knowledge base-- the comparative foil-- and the language of explanation is more ‘natural’ and efficient than the Direct Method of monolingual immersion (cf. Butzkamm 2012: 95-114). In some cases, beginners and intermediate learners find it easier and faster to translate and learn about certain English constructions in contrast with German equivalents (cross-lingual analysis) rather than getting explanations of English grammar in English. Direct Method: situated listening and speaking Advocates of the Direct Method are critical of the fact that the Grammar-Translation Method does not provide training in what foreign language learners actually need: oral communication skills for interaction with native speakers Discussing the method 4.2.2 Focus on oral communication skills Fig. 4.1 | 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 62 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 62 07.06.2022 15: 39: 59 07.06.2022 15: 39: 59 Unit 4 63 T EACHER - ORIENTATION in specific situations. The Direct Method was developed by the Berlitz School in the late 19 th century and is still being implemented at this institution today. The Direct Method claims to be more ‘natural’ since it ‘directly’ uses the target language as a medium of instruction. Objects, pictures, or demonstrations help to connect words directly with meaning, i. e. without recourse to the learners’ mother tongue. Vocabulary is taught and learned through chunks and sentences rather than by teaching discrete items and learning them by heart from word lists. Grammar is not a central concern, and explanations-- if necessary at all- - move from the language sample to the rule in an inductive way. The imitation of the (near-)native model and the immediate correction of errors are intended to guarantee accuracy. Learners need to communicate with the teacher and among each other in the target language. The practice of oral skills is embedded in everyday situations and is connected to contextual knowledge speakers of the target culture would take for granted (e. g., greetings or ordering dishes at a restaurant). The teacher (T) says the following to intermediate learners, who already know English terms for food and basics about eating out (grade 8): ‘Let’s suppose we are in New York City and have heard about delicious Southern food at Sylvia’s Soul Food in Harlem. Let’s have a look at what’s on the menu and make a reservation for the weekend.’ Students (S) google the restaurant and read the online menu. The S ask the T to help them out with the kind of food on offer (or check the list of ‘soul food’ and dishes on Wikipedia). S talk about which dishes they might like or dislike. Individual S, sitting with their back to the T, simulate a phone call to place a reservation, get online directions about the location, and discuss the best way of getting there. Subsequently, S do a role play on ordering their meals, practicing conventional expressions (e. g., ‘I’ll have-…,’ ‘I think I’ll go for-…,’ ‘I’d like to order-…’). The practicing of everyday language and typical situations in the Direct Method addresses regular ways of processing information, a proceeding that complies with insights of Cognitive Psychology: people organize their knowledge of life in terms of conceptual schemata, which provide the structure of situations and scripts that define roles (cf. Mandler 1985). However, the Direct Method ignores the linguistic and cultural frames existent in the L1 as a means to create awareness of frames in L2. Furthermore, it seems difficult to impart more complex meanings or grammar issues without explaining them in a deductive and comparative way. Audiolingual/ Audiovisual Method: habit formation The Audiolingual Method (1950s-60s) draws upon the idea of habit formation from Behaviorism (see ch. 3.2.1) and of language as a formal system of Example Discussing the method 4.2.3 Focus on speech habits 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 63 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 63 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 64 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES sounds, words, and sentences from Structural Linguistics. The term ‘audiolingual’ reveals that listening and speaking in dialogs is preferred to reading and writing. Learners need to imitate and practice step by step the different sounds, words, and syntactic patterns of English in order to use these as habitually as their L1. Monolingual teaching is valued because the L1 should not interfere with habit formation in the L2. Positive feedback for correct usage reinforces ‘good habits,’ and the immediate correction of mistakes prevents the formation of ‘wrong habits.’ Instruction proceeds in the sequence of stimulus-- response-- reinforcement (Reiz-- Antwort-- Verstärkung; cf. Roche 2020: 18-20): the teacher as a language model or the audio file in the language laboratory offer input, usually in the form of a dialog, which learners repeat and practice in order to produce correct sounds and structures (see fig. 4.1). The major aim is not understanding how language works but intuitive response in L2 dialogs. Rote learning (Auswendiglernen), repetition drills (Wiederholungsdrills), transformation exercises (Umformungsübungen), and substitution drills (Satzschalttafeln) are some of the preferred methods of practicing (cf. Larsen- Freeman & Anderson 2011: 47-48): ▶ Repetition drills require individual students or the class to repeat the teacher’s model in chorus. ▶ Chain drills require learners one-by-one to use a minimal speech pattern the teacher can closely monitor (e. g., ‘My name is Tom. How are you? ’-- ‘I’m fine. My name is Susan. How are you? ’). ▶ Transformation drills ask students to transform sentence patterns (e. g., an affirmative into a negative, an active into a passive sentence pattern). ▶ Single-slot substitution drills practice the use of words or phrases in certain positions in sentences. The teacher presents a line followed by a word or phrase, called a cue, which the students adapt when they repeat the line. Identify the kind of drills and explain their functions in this lesson for early beginners: ▶ After an introduction to animals on a farm, the teacher (T) plays the song “The Farmer Takes a Wife” to the students (S). ▶ T sings the song line by line and all the S repeat the lines. ▶ T sings the song line by line and individual S repeat the line one-by-one. ▶ T sings the song line by line but leaves out the object of the first line and later the subject of the following line and has the class fill in the words: ‘The farmer takes a- […]. The- […] takes a- […].’ T says: ‘I like horses. I don’t like rats.’ T asks an individual S which animals he/ she likes and dislikes. S responds and asks the same question of the S beside her. This continues until all S have had the opportunity both to respond and to ask their neighbor the question. Methods of practicing 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 64 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 64 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 Unit 4 65 T EACHER - ORIENTATION The Audiolingual Method maximizes time for practicing and quickly produces results for beginners, especially with pronunciation, intonation, vocabulary, and syntactic patterns. However, the focus on memory and drill ignores the learners’ cognitive and emotional needs. Wrong output is only seen as a need for more practice and not an indication of the learners’ ever-developing Interlanguage (see chs. 3.2.3, 5.1.2). The close control of learner behavior leaves little room for flexibility and cultural knowledge needed in real conversations. The Audiovisual Method (1960s) added to the Audiolingual one by visualizing and contextualizing the dialog in a situation through visual media. The visual support takes the form of a sequence of pictures illustrating utterances. The typical proceeding is as follows (cf. Reinfried 2013: 61-64): ▶ The presentation of a sequence of pictures one-by-one before the corresponding utterances are played ▶ Explanation, aiming at a global understanding of the dialog through pointing, imitation, and paraphrasing in dialog with learners ▶ The imitation of recorded utterances in order to practice pronunciation and phrases ▶ The exploitation of the input through questions and answers as well as role play ▶ The learners’ transposition of the dialog to a new topic or situation The Audiovisual Method inspired the use of more visualized and situated dialogs, but it fell short of serving motivational and practical needs due to its rigid proceeding, its neglect of reading and writing, and its failure to develop language awareness. Still, the Audiolingual and Audiovisual Methods are part and parcel of current commercial language learning software, which uses imitation and pattern drills, complemented by tutoring functions. The teacher-centered methods outlined above attribute authority and close control over input and output to the teacher: he/ she manages in detail the learners’ exposure to and practice of language. The gradual, step-by-step progression allows for the easy monitoring and testing of discrete items or patterns. The premium on accuracy ignores the relevance of the learners’ Interlanguage development. The practice of phrases and patterns in these methods quickly yields results that may work in stereotypical situations but does not lead to the flexibility necessary to cope with limitations and unexpected turns in communication (cf. Lightbown & Spada 2013: 158-59). Successful communication tolerates certain mistakes, such as the missing third-person -s, but not the violation of sociolinguistic rules, such as forms of politeness and turn-taking, which Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) pays attention to. Discussing the method Focus on dialogic situations Discussing the method Summary: teachercentered methods 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 65 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 65 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 66 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES Student-orientation Student-oriented methods have shifted attention from teaching to learning, inspired by the turn from Structural Linguistics to Pragmatic Linguistics and Sociolinguistics, as well as from Behaviorist to Cognitive, Constructivist, and Sociocultural Approaches. In order to communicate successfully, learners need forms and functions, but meaning and fluency come before accuracy. Practicing communication requires a move away from the didactic teacher-learner communication and a focus on authentic interaction among learners, which requires picking topics of interest to them. Communicative Language Teaching: authentic communication CLT (1970s) inverts the structural idea of mastering an abstract system as a basis of accurate language use. It aims at meaningful and appropriate communication, which requires more flexibility and awareness of pragmatic and social contexts than the reproduction of patterns practiced in the Direct, Audiolingual, and Audiovisual Methods. Fluency and comprehensibility are more important than accuracy. Pragmatic linguists, sociolinguists, and sociologists served as ‘midwives’ of CLT with their definition of communicative competence as the ability to interact in meaningful ways and to express one’s intentions in a socially appropriate form in specific situations as well as within a framework of cultural norms. In order to do so, speakers need linguistic (or grammatical) competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence (cf. Council of Europe 2020: 32, 129; see fig. 4.2): 4.3 4.3.1 Focus on meaningful communication Linguistic competence Knowledge of the language code ▶ Vocabulary ▶ Word formation ▶ Sentence formation ▶ Pronounciation and spelling ▶ Semantics Sociolinguistic competence Knowledge of sociocultural rules of language use ▶ Appropriateness in sociolinguistic contexts depending on status of participants, purposes of interaction, norms/ conventions of interaction (e.g., politeness, formality, directness) ▶ Awareness of culture-specific aspects of language (e.g., idioms, expressions, cultural references) Mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies ▶ To compensate for breakdowns in communication (e.g., paraphrasing) ▶ To enhance the effectiveness of communication (e.g., through deliberate choices such as slow and soft speech for rhetorical effect) Strategic competence Mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres ▶ Cohesion in form (e.g., through the use of cohesive devices such as pronouns, ellipses, synonyms, etc.) ▶ Coherence in meaning (e.g., through repetition, progression, non-contradiction, relevance) Discourse competence Communicative competence Model of communicative competence (based on Canale & Swain 1980; Canale 2013) Fig. 4.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 66 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 66 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 Unit 4 67 S TUDENT - ORIENTATION CLT comes in many shapes and forms, which share basic principles: ▶ Communication is the means to and the purpose of language learning. ▶ Conveying meaning is the aim of communication. ▶ Meaning should be negotiated among learners with little intervention by teachers. Adherents of the method have debated whether the focus should be on meaningful communication alone or on teaching forms to practice communication. The so-called ‘strong’ version of CLT uses communication as the means of learning how to communicate, and the ‘weak’ or ‘balanced’ version teaches the linguistic means of communication in order to facilitate communication (cf. Ellis 2012: 196). In the strong version, teachers contrive contexts and interactions which require particular forms to communicate effectively, such as reading a dialog covering shopping as a topic and then performing a role play, which demands forms of politeness and requests as well as positive and negative responses. The “idea is that if learners put the language to appropriate use, they will be able to infer a knowledge of the code that enables them to do it” (Widdowson 2012: 9). However, communication is to some extent possible by using non-standard, unconventional forms, and learners would not necessarily notice errors if ‘it works’ and fulfils the criterion of viability (see ch. 3.2.4). According to Spada (2007: 275), the strong version has given rise to five misleading assumptions that CLT means (1) focusing on meaning only, (2) providing no corrective feedback, (3) offering pure learner-orientation, (4) focusing on listening and speaking only, and (5) strictly adhering to the principles of monolingual teaching. Due to the limitations implied in these myths, most teachers avoid the strong version and tend to follow the weak version of CLT, which clearly introduces and reflects on means of communication before learners are expected to read texts or produce output: for example, by offering learners notions and functions to express intentions, such as the notion of possibility (‘may’) needed to express predictions (function) about the future (‘I may go to university.’) or politeness in order to achieve intentions (‘May I borrow your pen, please? ’). The ‘strong’ version of CLT does not explicitly introduce notions but expects students to acquire them through trial and error. Often, CLT moves from simplified, comprehensible input with a sharp focus on a particular new structure to more authentic input. It gives learners plenty of time for practicing authentic communication and negotiating meaning in interaction. It is essential to address the learners’ needs in order to get them interested in talking or writing about a relevant topic rather than having them interact as part of a classroom exercise to practice correct forms of English. However, it is not always easy to cater to each learner’s interest and simulate authentic sociocultural situations and interactions, which vary according to generation, gender, ethnicity, and class in different cultures. Textbooks Basic principles of CLT ‘Strong’ and ‘weak’ CLT Differences Proceeding 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 67 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 67 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 68 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES have to select characters, situations, and topics, but the focus is on a majority of young male and female white middle-class characters, rather than ‘Black British,’ Asian, African, or lower-class characters, a fact that may alienate less privileged learners. Media, such as interviews, literature, or movies, may help learners observe authentic language. A typical textbook pattern conforms to the following sequence: ▶ Presentation: the introduction of a topic with pictures and texts that may frequently display specific forms and speech functions ▶ Practice: exercises that focus on language form ▶ Production: tasks that address specific skills and aim at using specific functions in situated communication ▶ Metacognitive reflection on communicative or learning strategies ▶ Further practice and differentiation with additional material or tasks Compare and evaluate the units on a topic of your choice, such as pets, friends, or sports, in two textbooks for grade 5 from different publishers: how do they address the learners’ interests? Is the input appropriate or inappropriate, simplified or authentic? Which vocabulary, speech functions, and communicative competences would you need to express yourself in the situated tasks? Do the tasks promote both the practice of relevant speech functions and authentic communication at the same time? Which of the material and activities would you select if you were to teach the unit? Would you adapt material and tasks or add others? In spite of the fact that many practitioners endorse the principles of CLT, their practice often lags behind their aims because they talk most of the time and favor teacher-centered patterns of initiation-response-evaluation (IRE) rather than stimulating genuine interaction among learners (cf. Spiro 2013: 8-9, 32). Task-based Language Teaching: problem-solving Task-Based Language Teaching or Learning (TBLT or TBLL, 1980s; aufgabenbasierter Unterricht) is often considered a ‘strong’ version of CLT with the aim of authentic language acquisition through usage in interaction (see Interactionist Hypothesis and negotiation of meaning, p. 55). German schools prefer Task-Supported Language Teaching (TSLT) within a structural curriculum that uses tasks to learn language in a graded progression. In contrast to a language exercise that only focuses on form and accuracy, a task involves learners in meaningful and goal-oriented interaction as the means and ends of learning for life (cf. Bach & Timm 2013: 12-15; Ellis 2017: 108-10; Eisenmann 2019: 80-86). Learners employ their linguistic and cognitive resources to retrieve and exchange information or to discuss opinions in order to achieve an out- Typical textbook pattern ‘Mind the gap’: theory and actual practice 4.3.2 Focus on communicative tasks 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 68 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 68 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 Unit 4 69 S TUDENT - ORIENTATION come that is not primarily of a linguistic nature (e. g., arriving at a decision on how to travel to New York, where to stay, and what to do there within a week; cf. Ellis 2012: 198). TBLT and its German variant, Holistic and Action-based Language Teaching (ganzheitlicher und handlungsorientierter Unterricht), relate to Cognitive, Sociocultural, and Interactionist Approaches (see ch. 3.2.3-5): the learner is seen as a social agent, who wants to communicate, solve problems, and achieve goals in particular situations. TBLT conforms to the aim of holistic and humanistic language teaching, which is to unfold “the students’ full potential for growth by acknowledging the importance of the affective dimension in learning as well as the cognitive” (Ellis 2003: 31). The teacher creates opportunities for authentic interaction. Does accuracy fall behind when learners concentrate on achieving an outcome with their own resources? It should not, as learners may need to develop a more accurate and complex interlanguage to negotiate meaning and accomplish a task. Teachers can raise language awareness, provide lexemes and structures before the task, monitor and support interaction during the task, and guide the reflection and revision of output after the task. Learners may pick up new words and forms, comment on both the content and form of each other’s contributions (collaborative scaffolding), and modify their output. Planning and rehearsal enhance accuracy and fluency (cf. Ellis 2017: 111-14; Skehan 2018: 29-32, 61-62). A task as a work plan (see fig. 4.4) focuses on tasks comparable to those in the real world with a clearly defined communicative outcome (cf. Ellis 2003: 10-11). The famous airport project for intermediate learners aims at coping with information and communication in English in the context of international travel. At the next international airport, groups of learners look for and sample English texts (e. g., announcements, menus), interview passengers in English about their country of origin and their destination, record these, later locate their itineraries on a map, present the most interesting results to their peers, and reflect upon the results. They practice organizing teamwork, reading, interaction (e. g., listening comprehension, forms of politeness, paraphrasing), presentation, and reflection (Legutke 2013: 104-06). The task as a work plan differs from task as a process, the actual activities learners perform according to their interpretation of the task. In TBLT, teachers may use the textbook and its media package as a resource, which may already contain appropriate tasks or may need to be complemented by complex tasks that involve learners in cognitive, social, interactive, and practical activities. However, complex tasks present a challenge to both teach- Learners as social agents Definition: work plan versus process Textbook as resource Problem solving Fig. 4.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 69 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 69 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 70 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES ers and students because the difficulties for learners as well as the process and outcome are less predictable than in tightly sequenced and monitored lessons. Consequently, teachers need to reflect on the complexity of input, the required cognitive and interactive processes, the output, and to collaborate with learners to make them recognize the diagnostic value of tasks (see fig. 4.4; Müller- Hartmann & Schocker-von Ditfurth 2011: 94-117; Ellis 2012: 200; Hallet 2012: 14-18; Bach & Timm 2013: 17-21; Eisenmann 2019: 82-86). Since teamwork is of crucial importance for solving problems, special attention should be given to its functions and implementation. Teamwork gives more speaking time, agency, and responsibility to learners in comparison to their responsive role in teacher-centered lessons. However, the fairly open proceeding and outcome of teamwork may lead to poor results if tasks are too complex, collaboration is inefficient, and scaffolding insufficient to meet learners’ abilities and needs. Teachers should offer clear orientation and specify the product, appeal to individual responsibility and accountability, foster collaborative skills of how to negotiate meaning effectively, maintain the same groups to keep positive interdependence among learners, monitor and scaffold the process, and insert phases of focus on form (cf. Ellis 2003: 266-72). Genetsch et al. (2012: 100-05) give an example of how to use the textbook as a resource and develop motivating and challenging tasks. In the textbook Red Line 3 for grade 7 (Haß 2008: 62-63), a magazine report on child labor in Task as a work plan: three steps Teamwork central to TBLT Example Pre-task: framing Task-cycle: implementing Post-task: reflecting ▶ Setting or negotiating the goal, defining the learner roles and outcome (relevant purpose and orientation) ▶ Providing a model of the task by teacher or in guided student activity ▶ Background information ▶ Pre-teaching language and discourse structures if necessary ▶ Guided planning, time frame, materials, etc. ▶ Unguided planning of proceeding (if not pre-task), scaffolding if necessary ▶ Observing time limit ▶ Working with material of input via discursive and social practices ▶ Preparing presentation and product (poster, presentation, etc.) ▶ Ad-hoc process, e.g. peripheral focus on form: asking for clarification, recasting utterance, correction ▶ Reporting the outcome and discussing the results ▶ Focusing on form and practising language functions ▶ Evaluating the group performance ▶ Consolidating competences: repeating the performance of the task, e.g. in plenary instead of group ▶ Planning of further tasks Methodology and principles of the task as work plan (adapted from Ellis 2012: 200-02; Keller 2013: 77; Skehan 2018: 32; an alternative to ‘task cycle’ is ‘main task’) Fig. 4.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 70 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 70 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 07.06.2022 15: 40: 00 Unit 4 71 S TUDENT - ORIENTATION India appears under the headline “Cheap Children,” which serves as a starting point for tasks that aim at the following learning goals: (1) topical and ethical global knowledge, understanding, and evaluation, related to the learners’ situation (their own position as privileged consumers); (2) coping with a social and transcultural topic through participating in reflexive social thinking and action. A conventional task is to read and scan the core text for relevant information to find out about these children. An information grid serves as a means of scaffolding for below-average learners. For the sake of differentiation and for more advanced learners, sophisticated tasks include (1) finding out about, presenting to each other, and discussing further cases of child labor on the basis of pre-selected, accessible websites or a WebQuest, (2) discussing whether rules for child labor should be drawn up with reference to children’s rights, or (3) designing a poster and preparing a short talk at a (simulated) conference on child labor concerning economic, social, ethical, and cultural issues. Critics raise objections to TBLT, claiming that it does not define precisely what a task is, nor does it lead to rapid acquisition of relevant vocabulary and chunks necessary to build up language skills, especially those of beginners. In addition, it takes a lot of time, accuracy is neglected, and it is difficult to assess. According to critics, TBLT should complement rather than replace a structural syllabus (cf. Ellis 2017: 114-15). Advocates claim that tasks are flexible patterns that serve the acquisition of relevant competences. Topical, authentic, complex tasks pose problems similar to those in the real world. They require language competences, cognitive and pragmatic problem solving strategies, as well as interactive and socio-cultural competences. To support learning, the familiarity, complexity, and conditions of the tasks need to be appropriate to learners, involving them in the planning, negotiation, and transaction of tasks without time pressure (cf. Skehan 2018: 113-24). TBLT works with beginners, too, because tasks can vary a lot in complexity, addressing only one skill or several, doing something familiar or transferring competences to a new situation. For example, the teacher can introduce the topic of giving directions by telling learners where something is located and asking individuals to fetch it. Then peers can direct an individual learner, who has been waiting outside the classroom, to the hiding place of an object in the classroom. Next, learners can discuss how to furnish a little toy house they are drawing or building in class, or tell each other how to get from school to their homes with the help of maps that they are asked to draw. Learners can also show and tell each other where to go on a map. More advanced learners can give directions (without demonstrating them), which Discussion of the method TBLT and beginners Scaffolding Fig. 4.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 71 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 71 07.06.2022 15: 40: 01 07.06.2022 15: 40: 01 72 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES their partners trace with a pencil on the map (information gap), and discuss whether the partner followed the directions and whether alternative routes might be better (opinion gap, comparing, problem solving). Time is a relative issue, because quickly acquired vocabulary and language functions do not help if learners cannot retrieve and use these in situated communication, which is practiced best via meaningful tasks. The focus on meaning may risk the fossilization of errors (stabilization of Interlanguage), which can be prevented by a proactive focus on form, i. e. anticipating learners’ errors and providing input that creates awareness of problems before output, or reactive focus on form after learner output, which can take place in an intermittent way while learners interact after a task (cf. Ellis 2012: 227-28, 303-05; see ch. 5.2.1). Examiners need to define their criteria and consider the relationship between the learners’ performance, the ability to display their competences, the task itself, and task conditions (cf. Skehan 2018: 305-16). Evaluating task performance, for example in the form of an interview or locating a place in a city, connects the learning experience in the lessons, the form of assessment, and real-life challenges (cf. Ellis 2003: 279). “In TBA [task-based assessment], language ability is measured in relation to some subject content” (Ellis 2003: 309) and requires a multi-dimensional assessment in order to be reliable and valid, or it should be complemented by discrete-item tests. Collaborative and Participatory Methods: social and critical agency What are the benefits and problems of group work? Consider the potential effects on cognitive, social, and language learning. What is your preferred role in groups (e. g., leader, devil’s advocate, or mediator)? How do you support others, and what do you learn from them? What is necessary to improve the cognitive, social, and linguistic effects of group work? Collaborative (also known as Cooperative) and Participatory Methods recognize the fundamentally social dimension of human life, learning, and language. In the Collaborative Method, interaction, controversy, and cooperation are central means to and goals of learning, and are based on findings in Social Psychology as well as Socioand Psycholinguistics. The social focus of the Collaborative Method fully complies with the democratic agenda of the CEFR (see ch. 1.2.1). The education system relies heavily on individual competition (see ch. 12) and needs to be complemented (or replaced-- in the ‘strong’ form) by teambased cooperation for pedagogic and pragmatic reasons. If learners are to “become citizens capable of making reasoned judgments about the complex problems facing society, they must learn to use the higher-level reasoning TBLT and errors TBLT and assessment 4.3.3 Focus on collaboration and participation Cooperation before competition 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 72 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 72 07.06.2022 15: 40: 01 07.06.2022 15: 40: 01 Unit 4 73 S TUDENT - ORIENTATION and critical thinking processes involved in effective [and collaborative] problem solving” (Johnson & Johnson 1994: 71). Where competitive, individualistic learning is concerned, debate often foregrounds a dualist either/ or, right or wrong, and leads to winners and losers. Open discussions among individuals tend to generate relativist positions beyond mutual understanding or agreement. In cooperative, social learning in teams, privileging harmony is detrimental to achievement since it may result in outcomes of the lowest common denominator. However, structured controversy negotiates pros and cons to arrive at a more integrative argument or a more complex solution to a problem. Respectful but challenging controversy tends to involve learners and to stimulate cognitive processing and social skills through an exchange of divergent arguments and perspectives. It “tends to result in greater mastery and retention of the subject matter being studied as well as greater ability to generalize the principles learned to a wider variety of situations” (ibid.). In terms of socioand psycholinguistic factors of language learning, social interaction in groups surpasses other classroom activities in maximizing the opportunity and time for comprehensible input and output in a low-anxiety atmosphere, in providing practice in turn-taking, active listening, sharing of information and perspectives as well as in negotiating meaning and interaction strategies. The Collaborative Method uses teamwork not only intermittently, as CLT does, but as the core of all lessons. It allocates four heterogeneous learners each to a base team over a longer period, for example a whole school year or more, in order to build stable and supportive relationships that foster cognitive and social development. In addition to these ‘home groups,’ learners work in different ‘ad hoc groups’ on a particular assignment for a limited period of time (e. g., in expert groups) and return to their home groups to teach the newly won expertise to each other (jigsaw peer-tutoring technique; cf. Eisenmann 2019: 94-96). Learners need clear tasks and objectives for efficient group work. Most importantly, they need to internalize cooperative principles of successful teamwork (cf. Johnson & Johnson 1994: 58-59): ▶ Positive interdependence: ‘one for all, all for one’; insight into boosting learning through sharing individual resources and mutual support to enhance individual and group achievement (e. g., bonus points in a test if all group members achieve a high score) Teamwork as core of the lesson Principles of teamwork Collaboration Fig. 4.6 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 73 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 73 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 74 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES ▶ Face-to-face promotive interaction: helping each other with cognitive learning of concepts and problem-solving strategies, and encouraging each other in non-verbal and verbal responses ▶ Individual accountability: an individual learner’s achievement represents that of the group if his or her product or test score is taken as the result of a joint effort, which makes the group take care of individual progress, and vice versa ▶ Social skills: teaching social skills is as important as teaching academic skills (e. g., arriving at decisions, building trust, managing conflicts, leading a team) ▶ Group processing: reflecting on the quality of group work in order to improve the planning and implementation of successful cognitive and social processes While empirical evidence proves the efficiency of mutual feedback and reciprocal teaching (Hattie 2012: 269-70), it may be difficult to implement cooperative principles, to contain the competitive mode, and to maintain structured collaborative work in the face of heterogeneous learners. Critics may contend that the Collaborative Method as defined above can be simply employed to make learners work more on pre-defined topics and in a prescribed way rather than starting at the preliminary level and letting learners participate in the selection of aims, topics, and activities. In addition, taking group work as the dominant form of learning may frustrate learners who are more inclined to work on their own and those who prefer to get a lot of feedback from the teacher as an authority figure. The Participatory or Critical Method is based on insights from Critical Pedagogy into the politics of power, language, and knowledge (cf. Gerlach 2020; Lütge & Merse 2020; see ch. 8.2.3). Participation is the method and the aim: learners participate in determining the topics of education in order to participate in improving their living conditions and society. Critical Pedagogy aims at raising awareness of social injustice and economic discrepancies. Its intention is to empower learners to raise their voices in a bid to change inequality and discrimination rather than reproducing the status quo. Since language is not neutral but inflected with social and cultural norms and values, learners need to develop critical thinking and critical literacy through critical discourse analysis, which uncovers how bias is often implied in language use for the purpose of manipulation and domination (e. g., race, class, gender, generation): for example, the term ‘human capital’ does not mean using capital for humanitarian purposes, but reduces employees to the factors of cost and profit. The stereotypical discourse about the ‘problem of migrants’ insinuates that migrants are the problem and often ignores that the policy of containment, which may harbor racist or xenophobic sentiment, creates problems for migrants, who could actually contribute to solving the problem of aging societies. Topics are Discussing the method Focus on critical agency 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 74 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 74 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 Unit 4 75 S UBJECT - ORIENTATION : B ILINGUAL T EACHING AND C ONTENT AND L ANGUAGE I NTEGRATED L EARNING not picked by the teacher (or the textbook), but developed together with the learners, who are encouraged to talk about their lives. The teacher formulates the problems suggested by the learners’ experiences and supplies the language needed to discuss these. Problems of mutual interest are cooperatively discussed in class, which guarantees relevance for life and motivation in learning the language. Given that many classes are multicultural, the method should generate numerous opportunities to discuss problems with divergent sociocultural norms and values embedded in different languages. However, teachers must be as willing and ready as learners to talk about critical incidents and touchy issues, for example conflicts due to differences in politeness, respect, relationships across boundaries of ability, ethnicity, race, gender, and generation. Needless to say, opening up presupposes trusting teachers and peers, and the hope that sharing the problem will help to solve it. Critics who are more or less happy with the status quo may find fault with the progressive political agenda of the method. Teachers who feel the need to be in control of the class and who believe that learners need graded input might object to the focus on learner issues rather than language functions. Subject-orientation: Bilingual Teaching and Content and Language Integrated Learning The term ‘Content and Language Integrated Learning’ (CLIL) has been used in a broad sense as an umbrella term for approaches that combine languageand subject-orientation in various degrees. In a more specific sense, the principles and methods of CLIL, Bilingual Teaching (bilingualer Sachfachunterricht), and Immersion reveal similarities and differences (cf. Fein 2021). Immersion dramatically increases the L2 exposure to promote (mainly implicit) language acquisition in analogy to LA1. Programs range from shortterm intensive exposure to long-term immersion programs. The Canadian model of immersion makes students plunge into a ‘language bath.’ Canada introduced immersion in the 1960s, teaching all non-language subjects in French. Immersion taught monolingual English speakers, who are in the majority, the other of the two official national languages to promote mutual understanding and recognition. The motivation to introduce CLIL in Europe followed political interest in advancing intercultural understanding and economic interest in practical foreign language competences on the part of companies and increasingly mobile individuals. In addition, educators were interested in boosting language skills through increasing input and motivating learners by making foreign languages immediately useful in developing domain-specific knowledge. A bilingual speaker is able to use two languages, but it is a matter of debate to which extent this speaker needs to be proficient in both of these. An ordinary Discussing the method 4.4 Bilingual teaching: ‘Two for the price of one? ’ Immersion 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 75 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 75 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 76 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES bilingual speaker, who masters basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS), could hardly be expected to write a technical report about a chemical experiment, which requires cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). However, the gap between BICS and CALP varies. In ordinary life as in academic discourse, people describe things or processes (what), analyze and explain these (how), give reasons for or against something, and evaluate it (why). Regular, advanced English classes also require argumentative, academic essays (cf. Fein 2021: 165). Cognitive Linguistics alerts us to the fact that learners have acquired numerous concepts and words in their L1, which may interfere with their development of concepts in the L2 if they simply translate words and are not made aware of divergent categorizations. Consequently, bilingual teaching needs to be literally bilingual and raise awareness of different conceptual mappings in different languages (cf. Niemeier 2010: 24-28, 37-40; Diehr 2016). The substantial number of learners who have different first languages and German as L2 calls for connecting bilingual learning with plurilingual learning (cf. Bonnet 2019). Bilingual teaching uses the L2 as a medium but does not explicitly offer language instruction such as explaining grammar rules. Bilingual teaching employs the L2 and the L1 in various degrees to ensure that learners understand the content and academic concepts in both languages. Content and Language Integrated Learning follows a double agenda and integrates content and foreign language learning (without the L1-phases as in bilingual teaching). A single coherent method does not exist due to different academic discourses taught in CLIL. However, there is a consensus about a set of preferred principles concerning content, cognition, communication, and culture (4 C; cf. Lyster 2017; Ellison 2019; Krechel 2019; Lopriore 2020; Fein 2021): ▶ Double focus on academic and language learning ▶ Cross-curricular topics and projects ▶ Language across the curriculum ▶ Active, cooperative, task-based, and holistic learning ▶ Scaffolding (building on learners’ existing experience and knowledge; clarifying goals, expectations, and processes; modeling and rehearsing a task; supporting learners to cope with particular problems) ▶ Development of concepts and skills in specific subjects (describing, analyzing, judging, evaluating; performing practical and social tasks and roles) ▶ Comprehensible input and output, negotiation of meaning, routine discourse ▶ Authenticity in communication and materials ▶ Message before accuracy ▶ Media literacy ▶ Learner strategies to advance learner autonomy ▶ Raising awareness of language, cultural differences, and transcultural connections CLIL principles: 4C 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 76 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 76 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 Unit 4 77 S UBJECT - ORIENTATION : B ILINGUAL T EACHING AND C ONTENT AND L ANGUAGE I NTEGRATED L EARNING There is a great variety of bilingual and CLIL programs in Germany (cf. Elsner & Keßler 2013; Keßler & Schlemminger 2013; Lopriore 2020; Fein 2021). A few hundred pre-schools and primary schools offer immersion or bilingual learning. Bilingual modules may deal with the topics of ‘animals and pets,’ ‘the seasons,’ ‘my home and town,’ thus addressing the learners’ personal interests: for example, in drawing their rooms and learning to talk about their features and functions (language and Sachkunde; cf. Mehisto et al. 2008). Research British online newspapers, British and German historical sources on the Great War (Erster Weltkrieg), and watch the episode Blackadder Goes Forth from the British satire in order to come up with arguments for and against the British commemorations of the beginning (! ) of the Great War in 2014. Select and critically reflect on material that highlights different perspectives within Great Britain and between British and German views of the Great War. Reflect on the difference between this comparative approach and the idea of a modular concept that teaches one topic in one language and from ‘one’ cultural point of view. With regard to the principles mentioned above, suggest tasks and materials for working on the topic in grades 11 or 12. Sceptics have raised four objections to CLIL and bilingual education: (1) the L1 may suffer because language development may lag behind that of monolingual speakers. (2) Either the content knowledge or the L2 suffers from the double focus. Knowledge in the subject taught in the L2 may turn out to be shallower than that of peers taught in the L1. (3) Only an elite of learners benefits from CLIL. (4) Bilingual classes are more demanding on teachers, who may not master the necessary academic English and may lack appropriate material. The first three objections have been largely defeated (cf. Heine 2010: 209-11; Zydatiß 2010: 268; Poarch 2013: 9-15; Roche 2020: 169-71; Fein 2021: 21-31): (1) Young bilingual learners may have a smaller vocabulary than monolingual speakers, but the combined vocabulary is larger. The variations in language development are considerable among monolingual learners, too. Bilingual learners mix languages and switch codes, but so do adult bilinguals. Subject-specific discourse should be introduced in the L1 along with the L2. (2) Evidence suggests that sufficient proficiency due to early and extensive exposure to the L2 has a positive effect on cognitive development. In comparison to classes taught in the L1 only, the greater effort of finding appropriate concepts and words in the L2 leads to greater cognitive depth of processing. And the more careful negotiation of meaning in L2 classes accounts for the fact that achievement in subject knowledge is often comparable, if not better, in CLIL-classes, and this is in spite of, or even because of, deficits in the L2. Fluency increases considerably over the years, but accuracy may lag behind if content is foregrounded. Phases of focus on form help repair errors-- as in regular English classes. (3) Immigrant children, who are often at a disadvantage in German, start at the same level as their Implementation in Germany] Discussing the method 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 77 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 77 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 78 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES German peers. If learners are given a choice between classes in their L1 and in the L2, the potential problems of learners with low aptitude will be avoided. (4) The development of teachers and creation of appropriate materials are work in progress (Krechel 2019; Fein 2021: 51-68). Many teachers have not had training in Bilingual Teaching. Knowing an L2 and a subject does not mean having expertise in teaching the subject in the L2. Methods and goals of teaching English and the subject need to be coordinated. English material is not tailored to meet L2 learners’ demands and needs to be adapted, or teachers need to create materials of their own (see ch. 11; cf. Montijano Cabrera 2012: 124-40). For example, English and American textbooks in Political or Social Studies often move inductively from anecdotes or case studies to abstract principles in the tradition of pragmatism, whereas German textbooks often proceed in a deductive way from explaining the system to an example: an American textbook would tell the story of the Watergate scandal (1972-73), the Republican President Nixon’s illegal tapping of the phones of Democrats and members of his own administration, the discovery of the scandal by journalists, and the legal proceeding against Nixon as an intriguing case study to explain how US-American politics and the media work. German textbooks present the system of the US-American government and the media, and, if learners are lucky, Watergate as a short example. In terms of assessment, the question may be whether language problems impede the display of the learners’ cognitive skills and knowledge, an issue that can be solved by using both languages in tests. Yet the potential disadvantages pale in comparison to the gains in terms of increased language awareness concerning both L1 and L2, advancement of language skills through intensive and extensive exposure, competence in subject knowledge in the L2, and motivation through authentic communication. Age and stage: early language learning and transition In light of children’s considerable capacity to acquire language and the European goal of plurilingualism to foster belonging and participation in society and economy, German federal states introduced English in grades 1 or 3 of primary school (Fremdsprachenfrühbeginn). Optimists believe that first language acquisition (LA1) is easy within the early critical period and that LA2 works like LA1. However, most early learners only receive one to three hours of English per week and thus have a fraction of exposure to the L2 compared to natural LA1 (cf. Johnston 2019: 18-21). Empirical evidence has not confirmed fixed limits for a critical period in LA2 - as opposed to LA1. Besides, there is no evidence that early beginning leads to better LA2 competences by the end of secondary school. Many children are at an advantage concerning pronunciation, but good L1 literacy facilitates LA2 as adolescent learners can transfer cognitive and linguistic skills to the L2. In addition to age and maturation, con- CLIL is more than the sum of content and language 4.5 ‘The earlier, the better’? 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 78 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 78 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 Unit 4 79 A GE AND STAGE : EARLY LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TRANSITION text plays an important role, such as the difference between natural and formal LA, and the time and kind of instruction: “a normal, ‘drip-feed’ input school situation” lags far behind language learning in CLIL and immersion programs (Singleton & Pfenninger 2019: 39; cf. Hall 2018: 142-44; Roche 2020: 46-50). Secondary school teachers often complain that they have to start all over again because the children only play and do not learn anything of use in primary school (e. g., language structures, reading and writing skills). Primary school teachers respond that teachers and the linear curriculum in secondary school neglect learner-orientation, motivation, and the knowledge acquired so far (cf. Wagner 2009: 17-24, 123-25, 327-30). The issue of transition returns between school and university (e. g., when professors wonder what students learned at school) and between university and school (e. g., when pre-service teachers are told that academic knowledge from university is of no use at school). The ‘gap’ is an issue for learners and teachers alike, albeit of a different kind in each case. Learners need to face a change of school, peer groups, teachers, methods, subjects, and expectations concerning their performance, but quite a few are excited about moving on and cope quite well with the new challenges (cf. ibid.). Teachers should know about the goals, methods, and the content of both primary and secondary schools in order to ease the transition phase for learners (cf. Mertens 2019). The primary school pursues the following major goals in English (cf. Schmid-Schönbein 2008: 37-61; Mayer 2013: 89): ▶ Stimulating a positive attitude toward and awareness of the target language and culture ▶ Promoting basic communication skills to cope with very simple everyday situations ▶ Developing learning strategies ▶ Strengthening confidence and self-efficacy The following principles and techniques of teaching beginners address the goals above (cf. Keßler 2006; Schmid-Schönbein 2008; Mindt & Wagner 2009; Wagner 2009; Böttger 2016): ▶ Motivation through topics of interest to children, situated in meaningful contexts ▶ Comprehensible input through teacherese, expressive non-verbal interaction and pantomime ▶ Rich input, appealing to all senses with objects and authentic audio/ visual media ▶ Qualifying L2 communication only if necessary ▶ Addressing prior knowledge: English words learners know as used in German ▶ Metalinguistic knowledge from learners’ first languages to reflect on English ▶ Creative Interlanguage, e. g., motivating the formation of hypotheses Facilitating smooth transitions: communication between teachers needed Goals in primary schools Teaching principles and techniques in primary school 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 79 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 79 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 80 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES ▶ Accurate pronunciation but tolerating structural errors ▶ Alternating proceedings through discovery learning, explicit teaching of skills, and guided practice ▶ Authentic speech production in playful and holistic tasks ▶ A positive atmosphere to lower the affective filter A closer look at the curricula, methods, and contents of primary and secondary schooling reveals many similarities: the aims of communicative competence, appropriate topics of interest to learners, language awareness, intercultural awareness, learner strategies, and many of the related principles and techniques of teaching and learning (as listed above). The major differences are listed in figure 4.7 (cf. Wagner 2009: 19, 92-117; Jäger 2012; Copland & Garton 2019). Primary school Secondary school ▶ Modular: topics and processes ▶ Primarily implicit acquisition ▶ German only if necessary ▶ Multisensory and holistic learning ▶ Accuracy in pronunciation ▶ Oral skills, supported by reading and writing ▶ Mainly receptive media literacy ▶ Intercultural awareness ▶ Little or no homework and testing ▶ Linear: structural curriculum ▶ Acquisition and learning ▶ Mediation as a skill ▶ More cognitive learning ▶ More accuracy in grammar ▶ Oral skills and literacy ▶ Receptive and productive media literacy ▶ Intercultural communicative competence ▶ Regular homework and relevant assessment If there are as many similarities as differences, the question is why the issue of transition continues to provoke discussions regarding steps teachers can take to narrow the gap. Many reasons account for the tensions concerning transition: secondary school teachers’ negative beliefs and misguided expectations of what learners can do, the difference between what is stipulated in curricula and in current teachers’ handbooks in comparison to what teachers and learners actually do in the classroom. A look at beginners’ textbooks does not necessarily help. The grammatical progression of many textbooks for both primary and secondary school violates the psycholinguistic sequence of LA2, a problem which calls for the alignment of processability, learning to express communicative intentions, and the introduction of grammar (cf. Keßler 2006: 119-24, see ch. 5.2). Most beginners are not yet ready for some of the grammatical functions in the curriculum and the textbooks (e. g., the third-person -s, accurate forms of negation or questions; cf. Keßler 2006: 278-82). Still, many secondary school teachers expect learners to master these language structures (as do Mindt & Wagner 2009: 90-98). Reading and writing are not among the core skills for beginners. Thus, they cannot be expected to perform well in reading and writing at the point of transition. Beginners may not have been offered rich input and the opportunity to produce (rather than reproduce) language, which is why they may not be able to cope well with simple communicative situations. Comparison of primary and secondary schools Transition: a sensitive issue Beginners’ textbooks Differences in teaching English at primary and secondary school Fig. 4.7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 80 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 80 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 07.06.2022 15: 40: 02 Unit 4 81 I NDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND FACTORS What can teachers do to narrow the gap? Primary school teachers can prepare children for transition by focusing more on language production and learner strategies. They can document learners’ performance in portfolios to inform secondary school teachers about their individual competences. In turn, secondary school teachers can elicit previous knowledge and skills in order to know where to start, and implement holistic activities learners are familiar with (cf. Schwarz 2006: 7). In addition, they can diagnose grammatical competence at the beginning of secondary school in order to manage continuity and transition (cf. Keßler 2006: 143-48). Keßler (2006: 228-32) established an empirical transition profile, which reveals that most children certainly acquire stages 1 and 2 (and some stage 3) of the Processability Hierarchy (see chs. 3.2.3, 5.1.2) in two years of primary school: this means that most learners can use a number of words and formulae (stage 1, possessive -s, plural -s), past -ed, continuous -ing, and SVO in declarative sentences, questions (rising intonation) and negations (*‘He no eat apples,’ *‘He don’t eat apples’; stage 2). The testing of learners would reveal individual differences (heterogeneity), which is related to many factors and will be dealt with further below. Compare the example of TPR at the beginning of this chapter and a ‘spot the difference’ task (between two different pictures) from a current primary school textbook with the goals, principles, and expectations of early language learning. Individual differences and factors The basic assumption underlying most curricula, textbooks, and teaching until recently has been that learners of roughly the same age form a fairly homogenous group in spite of evidence to the contrary in every class. At primary school, heterogeneity is probably greater than at secondary school. However, the policy of inclusion has increased an awareness of individual differences at all school types (see ch. 6.3). In addition to the curriculum, the methods, and the materials, learning is subject to numerous influences (cf. Hattie 2009: 33-36, 62-70, 247; Riemer 2013: 168-70; Roche 2020: 41-43): ▶ Sociocultural background (socio-psychological environment at home, the parents’ knowledge of schooling, expectations and aspirations) ▶ Personality traits (see ch. 2.1.1) ▶ Experience (achievement, self-concept, self-efficacy: ‘can do’) ▶ Attitude toward the target language and culture ▶ Quantity and quality of teaching ▶ Situation and conditions of learning ▶ Classroom climate and culture of trust, caring, and safety related to students and teachers Solutions: narrowing the gap 4.6 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 81 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 81 07.06.2022 15: 40: 03 07.06.2022 15: 40: 03 82 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES Empirical studies undermine some of the dearly held beliefs about impact factors on academic achievement. The structural features of schools, such as the financing of schools, class size, and the streaming of children (as in the threetiered system in Germany) do not seem to have a major beneficial influence on individual achievement. Neither do more discipline and more homework (Hattie 2009: 33, 2012). If, for example, the class size is halved, but teaching follows the traditional pattern of transmitting knowledge to passive learners, it is unlikely that achievement increases. The attribution of reasons for achievement to structural conditions or the individual learner deflects the responsibility for achievement away from the teacher and his or her teaching: “The greatest danger in individual difference research is characterizing learners as ‘types’ who are either able or not able to take advantage of language instruction.” (Ellis 2012: 333) Successful learning is dependent upon the interaction of many factors. Aptitude and motivation, the ‘big two’ of learning, used to be considered as stable, individual properties, which made it easy for the teacher to attribute failure to the learner rather than the ways of teaching and learning (cf. Hattie 2009: 253). However, Educational, Social, and Cognitive Psychology maintain that cognition, motivation, and affect are interrelated in complex and dynamic ways with social contexts and educational processes. For the sake of clarity, factors of individual differences can be separated (see fig. 4.8, adapted from Dörnyei & Skehan 2003: 619; Dörnyei 2010: 249; Schlak 2013: 258; Ellis 2012: 308-16; Eisenmann 2019: 58-59): Cognition Language aptitude (Sprachlerneignung): ▶ Phonemic coding: noticing and identifying new sounds ▶ Semantic processing: connecting sounds and meanings ▶ Language analysis: comparing input with mental grammar, inferring grammatical rules and integrating new features Working memory: ▶ Directing processes of attention, encoding, storing, and retrieving ▶ Various components: storing acoustic, verbal, visual, kinesthetic information, parallel processing, and an ‘episodic buffer’ that combines different information in stories ▶ Rehearsing elements from input Long-term memory: ▶ Accessing stored knowledge to process input and output Motivation ▶ Integrative: displaying an interest in the other social culture ▶ Instrumental: focusing on the use of skills for particular purposes (e. g., job, travel) ▶ Intrinsic: pleasure and pride in being able to communicate ▶ Extrinsic: interest in reward and grades Affect ▶ Trait anxiety as a personality feature ▶ State anxiety in a specific situation We should focus on the greatest source of variance that can make the difference - the teacher. - John Hattie Student achievement: interrelated factors Cognition - motivation - affect Individual learner differences Fig. 4.8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 82 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 82 07.06.2022 15: 40: 03 07.06.2022 15: 40: 03 Unit 4 83 I NDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND FACTORS Recall particularly motivating and demotivating learning experiences. Reflect on individual and contextual factors of influence. Establish a list of recommendations of what to do and what to avoid as a learner and a teacher to stimulate and maintain motivation. Psychology and LA2 research have turned from the “individual differences myth” to the “cognition/ motivation interface” (Dörnyei 2010: 259; emphasis added). Aptitude, cognition, motivation, and affect have been recognized as intertwined, situated, and dynamic (see fig. 4.9). Emotions facilitate or impede attention and cognitive involvement due to the affective appraisal (affektive Wertung) of stimuli according to “novelty, pleasantness, goal significance, self and social image, and coping potential” (Dewaele 2011: 24; cf. Arnold 2011: 13). Aptitude or talent (‘can do’) does not explain why someone is motivated to invest time and energy in order to learn something (‘will do’). Cognition sets goals, but affect makes people work toward goals. For example, high motivation can drive cognitive effort. In turn, high achievement due to cognitive ability can be motivating. However, motivation, involvement, time on task, and teaching that addresses individual needs can all compensate for low aptitude: “Motivation is less a trait than fluid play, an ever-changing one that emerges from the processes of interaction of many agents, internal and external, in the everchanging complex world of the learner.” (Ellis & Larsen-Freeman in Dörnyei 2010: 253). Among the internal agents, the self and possible selves can play a significant role in SLA. The acquisition of communicative, social, and cultural knowledge, values, and skills suggests that foreign language learners assume something like a ‘foreign language identity.’ Individual learners’ identities are related to possible selves, the idea of what learners might become, what they would like to become as ideal selves, and what they are afraid of becoming. Possible selves serve as guides, motivating learners “to reduce the discrepancy between our actual and our ideal selves” (Dörnyei 2010: 265). The ideal self motivates the real learner to ‘integrate’ with his or her ideal self (rather than with ‘the target culture,’ as in the traditional definition of integrative motivation, which simplifies the link between the target language and a particular culture rather than cultures; cf. Ushioda & Chen 2011: 45). Individuals can imagine who they would be, how they would feel, and what they would think and do as ideal selves, connecting cognition, emotion, motivation, and action. The motivating force of an ideal self can take effect if it is plausible and in harmony with expectations of relevant others, if it incurs clear negative consequences in case of failure, if it is vivid and regularly activated, and if it is “accompanied by relevant and effective procedural strategies that act as a roadmap towards the goal” (Dörnyei 2010: 257; cf. Czizér 2017: 424, 427). Discussion of the impact of different factors 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 83 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 83 07.06.2022 15: 40: 03 07.06.2022 15: 40: 03 84 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES Imagine your ideal self as a teacher of English in detail. What do you look like? How do you feel? What motivates you? What do you think and do? What can you achieve? How do you work with and relate to learners, colleagues, and parents? How would you motivate your students? Imagine a movie or write a story that takes you step by step from your present self to your ideal self as an English teacher. Include what the emotional and motivational consequences of failing your ideal self as a teacher are in the form of a nightmare. The relationships within the system do not simply follow cause and effect but vary according to the relative strength of one particular factor in the network of multiple other factors. The sociocultural context influences-- but does not determine- - the learning opportunities on offer and communication in the classroom. On the level of the individual, a talented learner may not be motivated to accomplish a task if it does not seem worth the effort or if peer pressure sanctions high achievement. A learner with a low sense of self-efficacy and extrinsic motivation may decide to work hard if the demands are reasonable and good grades clearly within reach. Motivation is a system and a process. The evaluation of achievement may have an impact on future choice motivation and the performance of a task. If good achievement is attributed to effort and strategies rather than luck, motivation, positive affect, and self-efficacy will increase. If a student attributes poor performance to little effort, he or she may be motivated to study harder, if to low aptitude, he or she may no longer make any effort because of a low self-concept as a learner. The positive evaluation of the performance may also affect the teacher’s and the peers’ expectations of future achievements, the current atmosphere, and communication in class. Look at every item in the dynamic system of motivation (see fig. 4.9): reflect on your strengths and your weaknesses and mark these. Think about what you can do to improve your own cognition/ motivation. Work on your three most important weaknesses and monitor your progress. Discuss with your peers which topics and activities would stimulate your motivation. Postmethod principles in a nutshell Many teachers appreciate the orientation and guidance that methods offer. Nevertheless, the differences in models of LA2, teaching methods, in the age, stage, and individuality of learners render a decision of how to teach difficult. This dilemma has resulted in the turn from a rivalry over the ‘best recipe’ to a set of postmethod principles. In spite of conceptual differences, alternative methods often propose similar procedures, and abstract strategies give way Motivation: a dynamic system 4.7 The pros and cons of methods 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 84 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 84 07.06.2022 15: 40: 03 07.06.2022 15: 40: 03 Unit 4 85 P OSTMETHOD PRINCIPLES IN A NUTSHELL Contextual factors Sociocultural context: ▶ Family’s, friends’ & further relevant others’ norms, interests & expectations of education ▶ Discrimination against or recognition of ethnicity, race, class, gender ▶ Institutional goals & mission, organization, sociocultural function Opportunities to learn at school & outside: ▶ Role models & modeling of tasks ▶ Kinds of task & practice ▶ Resources Actional stage: executive motivation ▶ Carrying out task (also related to selves & expectancy of success) ▶ Appraising & controlling action ▶ Quality of the learning experience (pleasantness, needs, coping potential) ▶ Knowledge & use of self-regulatory strategies (attention, emotions, etc.) ▶ Sense of autonomy Post-actional stage: motivational retrospection ▶ Received feedback, praise, grades ▶ Elaborating standards & strategies ▶ Attributing external or internal causes to the results ▶ Self-concept (self-confidence, self-worth, self-efficacy) ▶ Further planning Classroom situation & interaction: ▶ Teacher’s & groups’ attitudes, beliefs, behavior, interaction: ▶ Open - controlled ▶ Rewards - sanctions ▶ Supportive - disruptive ▶ Cooperative - competitive Pre-actional stage: choice motivation ▶ Self-image & possible selves (ideal & negative) ▶ Setting specific goals with realistic & appropriate demands ▶ Values attributed to goals (intrinsic/ integrative, instrumental, extrinsic) ▶ Attitudes to the target language, society, and culture ▶ Expectancy of success & perceived coping potential: ▶ Self-efficacy, expectation of domain-specific aptitude, competence, progress ▶ Cognitive resources (capacity of attention, working memory) ▶ Command of cognitive & metacognitive strategies to cope with task ▶ Confidence or anxiety related to task ▶ Forming intentions ▶ Launching action Individual factors & process Dynamic system of motivation (adapted from Dörnyei & Skehan 2003: 619; Dörnyei 2012: 429-30; Riemer 2013: 171; Czizér 2017: 420-21) Fig. 4.9 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 85 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 85 07.06.2022 15: 40: 03 07.06.2022 15: 40: 03 86 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES to on-the-spot tactical decisions in the classroom (cf. Long 2011: 373-74). In addition, it is difficult to verify empirically which method is best. Since many teachers think of lessons in terms of activities or tasks, Long contends polemically, the idea of a prescriptive method “is an inappropriate, even irrelevant, way of conceptualizing or evaluating language teaching” (2011: 374). Hattie follows suit (2009: 237): “What seems needed is not another recipe for success, another quest for certainty, another unmasking of truth” but principles derived from better insight into students’ learning to provide more effective ways of teaching and learning. However, these principles are derived from approaches and methods. The postmethod concept is mainly characterized by principled eclecticism, i. e. the teacher’s informed and critical selection of linguistic and psychological models of learning languages as well as aspects of methods that are promising in consideration of the particular target group of learners, their level of proficiency, their needs, the competences aimed at, and the cultural context (cf. Kumaravadivelu 2006; Summer 2017: 11; Hall 2018: 113-15). Within the postmethod paradigm, Competence-Based Teaching (kompetenzorientierter Unterricht) reflects on the best ways to support learners in achieving the competences outlined in the CEFR (see ch. 1.2.1). In addition to communicative competences, learners should acquire knowledge in selected subjects, practical problem-solving skills, metacognitive strategies, as well as personal and social competences (cf. Keller 2013: 8-9). Its main principles are often related to a combination of teacherand learner-orientation, processand output-orientation, task-based, and holistic learning (cf. Keller 2013: 14-16, 59-60). The favored principles tally with most of the criteria recommended in Educational Studies as well as in international motivational and empirical research on teaching strategies favorable to academic achievement (cf. Dörnyei 2012: 431; Hattie 2009: 31-37, 245-46; Riemer 2013: 172; Summer 2017: 12; Meyer 2019: 23-126; see ch. 2.1.3): ▶ Setting a personal example and inspiring (life-long) learning ▶ Creating a safe, caring, positive atmosphere and good relationships to reduce anxiety, to promote mutual understanding and respect ▶ Reckoning with heterogeneity in terms of aptitude, skills, and motivation ▶ Diagnosing preconceptions, competences, and needs, e. g., asking for frequent feedback ▶ Stimulating motivation, e. g. interest in target culture, individual and social relevance, present and future use of material, knowledge, and skills ▶ Defining specific, proximate, and realistic objectives: goal-orientation, learning intentions ▶ Selecting multiple and varied topics, methods, and media that address learners’ interests It is up to the teacher! Pedagogical principles facilitating student achievement Fig. 4.10 | 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 86 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 86 07.06.2022 15: 40: 04 07.06.2022 15: 40: 04 Unit 4 87 P OSTMETHOD PRINCIPLES IN A NUTSHELL ▶ Clearly structuring the process of lessons, e. g., rules, roles, tasks, time, and actions ▶ Providing comprehensible, contextualized, and salient input to stimulate attention and noticing ▶ Designing clear, activating, and challenging tasks for discovery and holistic learning to appeal to cognitive, affective, motivational, and psychomotor factors ▶ Offering choices and helping students pursue individual goals and strategies of problem solving, learning, self-evaluation, and self-regulation (from scaffolding toward autonomy) ▶ Providing much time on task and multiple opportunities of negotiated interaction and the deliberate practice of integrated skills ▶ Fostering confidence, responsibility, autonomy, and cooperation (e. g., peer interaction, reciprocal teaching) ▶ Making learners observe peer models of successful learning and reflect on language, culture, and strategies (awareness and meta-cognitive competences) ▶ Giving feedback that connects progress to effort and builds self-confidence ▶ Providing clear success criteria and developing appropriate tests ▶ Supporting remedial learning Method Aims: competences Roles of teacher and learner Proceeding of teaching and learning Grammar- Translation ▶ Knowledge of language system, literature, culture ▶ Reading and writing ▶ Cultivation T ▶ Master, authority S ▶ Disciple, apprentice ▶ Top-down communication ▶ Deductive: move from rule to example ▶ Comparison L2-L1 ▶ Translation, memorizing, reading, writing Direct ▶ Everyday oral skills in situated cultural interaction T ▶ Language model S ▶ Imitator ▶ Direct association of meaning with target language ▶ Oral conversation in simulated everyday situations Audiolingual, Audiovisual ▶ Correct oral reception and production: sentence and sound patterns T ▶ Instructor, drill master S ▶ Trainee, imitator ▶ Habit formation ▶ Pattern drills ▶ PPP: Presentation - Practice - Production Table of basic methods (adapted from Larson-Freeman & Anderson 2011: 222-23). TBLT, Cooperative and Participatory Approaches share the tenets of CLT but add specific goals, roles, and methods, which is why they are depicted in one section. Fig. 4.11 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 87 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 87 07.06.2022 15: 40: 04 07.06.2022 15: 40: 04 88 F ROM METHODS TO PRINCIPLES CLT ▶ Linguistically, socially, culturally appropriate interation T ▶ Facilitator, guide ▶ Communication, negotiating meaning ▶ IRE: Initiation - Response - Evaluation ▶ Group work, role play ▶ Problem-solving in situated tasks: goal-oriented learning by doing ▶ Training social skills ▶ Critical discourse analysis ▶ Dialog with learners on solving learners’ problems TBLT ▶ Real world problemsolving S ▶ Social agent ▶ Practically capable individual Cooperative LT & Participatory LT ▶ Social cooperation ▶ Socio-political insight, emancipation and empowerment ▶ Team-worker ▶ Socio-political agent Recommended reading Bach, Gerhard & Johannes-P. Timm, eds. (2013). Englischunterricht: Grundlagen und Methoden einer handlungsorientierten Unterrichtspraxis. 5 th ed. Tuebingen: Francke. Eisenmann, Maria (2019). Teaching English: Differentiation and Individualisation. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. Hallet, Wolfgang & Frank G. Königs, eds. (2013). Handbuch Fremdsprachendidaktik. 2 nd ed. Seelze-Velber: Klett/ Kallmeyer. Hallet, Wolfgang; Frank G. Königs & Hélène Martinez, eds. (2020). Handbuch Methoden im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Hannover: Kallmeyer. Hattie, John (2012). Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximizing Impact on Learning. London et al.: Routledge. Larsen-Freeman, Diane & Marti Anderson (2011). Techniques & Principles in Language Teaching. 3 rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Loewen, Shawn & Masatoshi Sato, eds. (2017). The Routledge Handbook of Instructed Second Language Acquisition. New York et al.: Routledge. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 88 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 88 07.06.2022 15: 40: 04 07.06.2022 15: 40: 04 Unit 5 89 P OSTMETHOD PRINCIPLES IN A NUTSHELL Grammar and vocabulary Contents 5.1 Communication and competence 90 5.2 Teaching and learning grammar 96 5.3 Teaching and learning vocabulary 104 Recommended reading 113 The role and methods of introducing grammar and vocabulary have been discussed intensively. This debate will be addressed throughout this chapter together with fundamental linguistic findings relevant for teachers. The chapter will then present effective methods of teaching grammar and vocabulary with an emphasis on activities, learning strategies, categorizing errors, and evaluating textbooks. Communicative Language Teaching, Interlanguage, speech production; Processability Hierarchy, errors and mistakes; teaching grammar: inductive vs. deductive, focus on form; Task-based Language Teaching; the Acquisition-based Method; teaching and learning vocabulary: the mental lexicon, word retrieval, high-frequency words, explanation techniques, learning strategies Discussing alternative and integrative approaches and methods, the use of L1 and the issue of progression and sequencing Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 89 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 89 07.06.2022 15: 40: 04 07.06.2022 15: 40: 04 90 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY Have a look at the cartoon. Recapitulate how grammar and vocabulary were taught in your own school days. Discuss the place the teaching of grammar and vocabulary should have in the foreign language classroom and how it should be taught. Communication and competence Today’s consensus If communicative competence is seen as the paramount goal of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT; cf. Piepho 1974; Council of Europe 2001; Brandl 2008), teaching grammar and vocabulary must be integrated into a model of communicative competence (see ch. 4.3.1, fig. 4.2). Keßler and Plesser (2011: 47) contest that “the mere focus on communication that stresses the role of message as always being more important than the role of accuracy may be a little short-sighted and may lead to a simplified (Tarzan-like) use of the target language.” However, Savignon (2002: 7) clarifies that CLT does not regard the role of grammar or the attention to language structures as obsolete: While involvement in communicative events is seen as central to language development [in CLT], this involvement necessarily requires attention to form. Communication cannot take place in the absence of structure, or grammar, a set of shared assumptions about how language works, along with a willingness of participants to cooperate in the negotiation of meaning. 5.1 5.1.1 Und wenn es auch gelänge, ihm die beste Grammatik und das umfassendste Wörterbuch in den Kopf zu schaffen, so hätte er noch immer keine Sprache gelernt. - Wilhelm Viëtor 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 90 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 90 07.06.2022 15: 40: 07 07.06.2022 15: 40: 07 Unit 5 91 C OMMUNICATION AND COMPETENCE For example, a learner utterance such as ‘Don’t be so sensible! ’ (a false friend) in response to another student being sad or angry about something requires attention to form (semantic mistake) and, possibly, correction in the form of a recast or clarification request in order to avoid misunderstandings in communication. This utterance should also call for attention to form regarding the rules of politeness in conversations, especially in intercultural communication (see chs. 1.2.1, 6.1.4, 7.1.3). A rather straightforward utterance like this might be perceived as rude by a native speaker of English. Speech production and Interlanguage Some preliminary remarks on the mechanisms of speech production and on Interlanguage (Interimssprache, IL) seem apt for reasons of knowing when to teach what, why learners make which kinds of errors and mistakes, and how to adapt textbook content to learner needs (cf. Keßler & Plesser 2011: 138). To understand the complexity of second language acquisition (SLA), one should start with a look at how speech production works. Levelt’s psycholinguistic model of speech production (see fig. 5.1) shows that language processing works like programming, involving complex processes of encoding and decoding: 5.1.2 CONCEPTUALIZER CONCEPTUALIZER FORMULATOR FORMULATOR Speech- Speechcomprehension comprehension ARTICULATOR ARTICULATOR LL EXICON EXICON AUDITION AUDITION Message Message generation generation Monitoring Monitoring Grammatical Grammatical encoding encoding Grammatical Grammatical encoding encoding Preverbal message Preverbal message Discourse model, Discourse model, situation knowledge, situation knowledge, encyclopedia, etc. encyclopedia, etc. Surface structure Surface structure Phonetic plan Phonetic plan (internal speech) (internal speech) Overt speech Overt speech Lemmas Lemmas Forms Forms Phonetic string Phonetic string Parsed speech Parsed speech SYSTEM SYSTEM Psycholinguistic model of speech production (Levelt 1994: 91; for a model that covers speech reception and production, cf. Roche 2020: 82-87) Fig. 5.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 91 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 91 07.06.2022 15: 40: 07 07.06.2022 15: 40: 07 92 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY A simple sentence such as ‘I went to the movie theater yesterday’ would involve the following processes (cf. Levelt 1994: 90-92): ▶ Conceptualizer: the speaker conceives of his/ her communicative intention. He/ she wants to share information about where he/ she went yesterday. ▶ Formulator: for this message to be uttered, the speaker needs to cast it in a linguistic form. This means that he/ she has to select appropriate words (lemmas) and word forms from the lexicon (e. g., past tense of the irregular verb ‘go,’ retrieving the right word for ‘Kino’). Then, the speaker has to put them into a correct syntactic order (e. g., SVO, time adverbial at the end of the sentence). At the end of this sub-process, the speaker arrives at a surface structure of his/ her utterance, which then needs to be encoded phonologically (internal speech). ▶ Articulator: the articulatory system (lungs, larynx, tongue, lips, etc.) transforms internal speech into audible speech (overt speech). ▶ Audition: the speaker listens to his/ her own speech. ▶ Speech comprehension system: if the speech comprehension system detects speech errors or mistakes in the phonetic string the speaker parses his utterance (parsed speech). This means, he/ she analyzes his/ her utterance by breaking it down into smaller parts of speech and checking grammar, syntactic relations, etc. In case of a serious error, the speaker may even stop to speak and start all over again after making a self-repair (self-monitoring). Parsing, self-monitoring, and self-repairing, which usually come natural to humans in their first language (L1), can often only be carried out successfully by proficient speakers of a foreign language (FL). How can these insights into the complexity of speech production be related to SLA, especially to the teaching and, consequently, the acquisition of grammar and vocabulary? FL learners will only produce language structures if the processing procedures are available in the formulator. The question of availability is of paramount importance here because “[t]he learner does not learn the TL [target language] structures in the sequence in which they are presented by a teacher, but rather in the sequence in which the human language processor can handle them” (Keßler & Plesser 2011: 86). Therefore, teachers must understand that there are constraints to what can be taught (Teachability Hypothesis, cf. Pienemann 1998: 250-64; Arntzen et al. 2019). This is due to a universal hierarchy of processing procedures, a developmental path with predictable stages of acquisition that all learners go through due to the linear layout of the human language processor (cf. Pienemann 1998: 169-81). In other words, “[t] eachability is constrained by processability” (ibid.: 250). This can be illustrated best by introducing to readers the empirically validated Processability Hierarchy for English as second language (L2, see fig. 5.2; see chs. 3.2.3, 4.5): Speech production Processability and teachability 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 92 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 92 07.06.2022 15: 40: 07 07.06.2022 15: 40: 07 Unit 5 93 C OMMUNICATION AND COMPETENCE Processing procedure Universal L2 process English Morphology English Syntax 6 Subordinate clause procedure Main and subordinate clause ▶ Neg/ auxiliary-2 nd ? Why doesn’t he go home? ▶ Cancel inversion: I wonder why he sold the car. 5 Sentence procedure Interphrasal information exchange ▶ Interphrasal morphemes (e. g., subject-verbagreement): He gets up at six o’clock. ▶ Passive construction: The ball was kicked by Peter. ▶ Wh-auxiliary-2 nd : Why did he sell the car? ▶ Wh-copula inversion: Where has he gone? 4 Verb phrase procedure Interphrasal information exchange ▶ Yes/ no inversion: Has he seen you? ▶ Wh-copula: Where is John? ▶ Copula inversion: Is John at home? 3 Phrasal procedure Phrasal information exchange ▶ Phrasal morphemes (e. g., noun phrase agreement): two boys ▶ Neg + verb: *Me no go home. ▶ Adverb first: *In the morning, he drink coffee. ▶ Do-fronting: Do you like it? *Do he go home? ▶ Wh-SVO-? *Why he go home? ▶ Aux-SVO-? Can he go home? 2 Category procedure Lexical morphemes ▶ Plural: boys ▶ Past -ed: Walked ▶ Canonical order (SVO)-Question: *He go home? ▶ Canonical order (SVO): *He go home. 1 Word / lemma ‘Words’ / formulae Various lexical items (e. g., finite verbs, short sentences), which are stored as one unit in the learner’s mind. No creative use of those items. Hi. / How are you? / What’s your name? It is important that this developmental path is understood as a hierarchical order in the sense that (1) no stage can be skipped; (2) learners need to master one stage before they can enter the next; (3) with each stage, the morphological as well as syntactical structures-- and thus the challenges for the language learner-- become more complex, and, most importantly; (4) the developmental path cannot be altered or sped up by classroom instruction. Consequently, grammar instruction will be ineffective if the developmental state of individual learners is not diagnosed or simply ignored (cf. Keßler 2006; Arntzen et al. 2019). Processability Hierarchy for English as L2 from beginners (1) at the bottom to advanced (6) at the top (Pienemann in Keßler & Plesser 2011: 86-87, adapted) Fig. 5.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 93 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 93 07.06.2022 15: 40: 07 07.06.2022 15: 40: 07 94 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY One famous example that runs through the secondary literature on SLA is that of the third-person -s (see ch. 3.2.3), which is taught in the first year of English language teaching. According to the Processability Hierarchy, the third-person -s is only acquired at stage five. Teachers, who have always wondered why students just do not internalize the mnemonic verse ‘he/ she/ it-- s muss mit! ’ and fail to attach the third-person -s to the verb, might be relieved to find the answer to this phenomenon in SLA research: “[T]he processes required for this attachment are complex-[…]. Subject-verb agreement happens across phrase boundaries and is, thus, a more complex task for the human mind than to achieve agreement within one and the same phrase.” (Keßler & Plesser 2011: 89; cf. Ellis 2006: 88) Producing the third-person -s requires of learners to match number (value: singular), person (value: 3), tense (value: present), and aspect (value: non-continuous; cf. Pienemann 2008: 19; Keßler & Plesser 2011: 89-90). The Processability Hierarchy also provides insights into learner errors (see chs. 3.2.3, 12.6). Learners, as they go through the various stages of the developmental path, cannot and will not speak ‘proper English’ right away in the sense that their language production will be free of errors and mistakes. Teachers must understand and accept the fact that learner errors are a natural part of SLA (cf. Ellis 2002, 2018). They are, in fact, an indicator of the “learner’s current level of processing” (Pienemann 2005: 48), which Selinker (1972) termed ‘Interlanguage’: IL posits that learners are involved in a continual process of hypothesis formulation and testing. As new elements of L2 are acquired, language is tested and assessed. L2 items are also constructed through analogy with items and rules already known. This may be carried out subconsciously, along with the processing of feedback and how this may or may not change the IL as the learner moves along the continuum. The changes may bring the IL closer to the desired L2 form, but not necessarily. (Cherrington 2000: 307) According to Selinker (1972: 215-20), IL utterances result from the following five cognitive processes at work in the learner’s mind: ▶ Language transfer: interference from the L1, often identifiable in German learners by their overuse of the present perfect instead of simple past ▶ Transfer of training: items of the L2 language training procedures; for example, if a teacher repeatedly provides activities in which the third-person -s is trained exclusively by using the pronoun ‘he,’ then students might produce ‘he’ for both ‘she’ and ‘it’ ▶ Strategies of L2 learning: approaches to the material to be learned such as, for example, reducing the TL to simpler norms ▶ Strategies of L2 communication: approaches to communicate with native speakers of the TL such as coping with comprehension problems ▶ Overgeneralization of TL linguistic material: rules and semantic features (see fig. 5.3) The third-person -s: Why do learners omit it? Interlanguage 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 94 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 94 07.06.2022 15: 40: 07 07.06.2022 15: 40: 07 Unit 5 95 C OMMUNICATION AND COMPETENCE The boy in the picture has acquired the simple past tense of regular verbs. However, he has not yet acquired the difference between regular and irregular verb inflection. He simply attaches the regular past-tense suffix ‘-ed’ to the irregular verb ‘put’ and thus overgeneralizes a previously acquired grammatical structure. The conversational recast (korrigierendes Rückkopplungssignal) provided by the adult goes unnoticed because “the boy does not see the mother’s correction to be a morphological one (*putted vs. put) but a semantic one (I vs. you)” (Keßler & Plesser 2011: 44). Teachers must understand that many of the errors learners make are due to the stage they find themselves in on the developmental path. This requires teachers to make use of their diagnostic skills in order to discern where each individual learner is at in his/ her IL development. Learners will benefit from classroom instruction and language learning material that exposes them to “structures from ‘the next stage’” (Pienemann 1998: 250), which are structures they are close to acquiring. This, of course, is easier said than done because teachers will encounter great variation in the pace of IL development across increasingly heterogeneous learner groups. Heterogeneity calls for differentiation in terms of teaching methods, instructional material, activities, etc. (see chs. 4.3, 6.3, 10.3.2). Should teachers then simply ignore errors and mistakes? To answer this question, one must distinguish between developmental errors and variational mistakes (cf. Keßler & Plesser 2011: 110-13). ▶ Developmental error: if a learner makes an error because he/ she has not yet reached the specific stage in the Processability Hierarchy, correction will be ineffective for this individual learner. However, it might be beneficial for others who have already advanced further along the developmental path Errors and mistakes Example of overgeneralization (Lightbown & Spada 2013: 16) Fig. 5.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 95 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 95 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 96 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY and have thus already entered this stage. Salient examples of developmental errors include, for example, the omission of plural -s, the omission of thirdperson--s, the overuse of the article ‘the’ (and corresponding under-use of ‘a’), the double comparative (e. g., *‘more faster’), resumptive pronouns in relative clauses (e. g., *‘The man who my sister had married him’), and process verbs (e. g., *‘The size was increased greatly’; cf. Ellis 2002: 22). ▶ Variational mistake: if a learner makes a mistake although he/ she has already entered the respective developmental stage, this mistake must receive corrective feedback. This is vital for the student not only to help him/ her along the developmental path and prepare him/ her for the next stage, but also to avoid the fossilization of a simplified IL version. Helpful books on common learner errors and mistakes are The Mistakes Clinic for German-speaking Learners of English (Parkes 2003), the Longman Dictionary of Common Errors (Turton & Heaton 2004), and Learner English: A Teacher’s Guide to Interference and Other Problems (Swan & Smith 2011). Recapitulate and reflect on what has been stated in this section about (1) processability and teachability, (2) Interlanguage theory, and (3) learner errors. Teaching and learning grammar Choices and approaches In instructional settings as well as in secondary literature on grammar teaching, a basic distinction is usually made between deductive and inductive approaches to teaching grammar (cf. Larsen-Freeman 2011; Timmis 2013). In the deductive approach, a grammar rule is presented by the teacher, then practiced by the learners, and often tested at the end of the grammar teaching sequence. Inductive approaches provide rich input in which a grammatical structure is repeated several times so that students can discover the rule on their own. While the deductive approach is usually more explicit in its treatment of grammatical rules, it would be wrong to assume that the inductive approach treats grammar rules only implicitly: In inductive learning the teacher first presents a couple of examples and the learners are supposed to discover the rules from the examples. This inductive approach to grammar teaching, however, is not an implicit but an explicit one. Inductive and implicit learning of language rules hardly ever takes place in foreign language but is rather a feature of first language acquisition as it is learning from the full and rich input of the target language without any providing of grammar rules. (Keßler & Plesser 2011: 28) 5.2 5.2.1 Deductive and inductive grammar teaching Why grammar matters Fig. 5.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 96 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 96 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 Unit 5 97 T EACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR Consequently, teachers are required to take “an informed and principled approach to grammar teaching” (Timmis 2017: 119). They need to consider it from many different angles to come to an informed conclusion as to how to teach grammar and to be able to combine different approaches in order to address different learner groups and types (see ch. 6.2.2). For example, some learners may profit from inductive, less explicit grammar teaching, while others may prefer a deductive, more explicit introduction to new grammatical structures. The historical account of FL teaching methodology has already drawn attention to the fact that the role of grammar is a different one in the respective methods and remains disputed to this day (cf. Timmis 2017: 119; see chs. 1.1, 3.2, 4.2). The Grammar-Translation Method was based on rote learning of grammatical rules and language features, deductive teaching of prescriptive grammar rules and a detailed meta-analysis of grammar, as well as on strict adherence to grammatical accuracy. With the advent of the Direct Method, inductive teaching of grammar was introduced, and the focus shifted from grammar to lexical items and chunks important to everyday communication. The Audiolingual and Audiovisual Methods sought to arrive at grammatical accuracy through pattern drills and rigid error correction with little or no explicit grammar instruction. Against the background of today’s communicative approach to FL teaching, knowledge of grammar is considered a part of communicative competence. However, while we might have arrived at a communicative approach to FL teaching theoretically, in day-to-day teaching practices, the remnants of traditional teaching methods such as pattern drills, gapfill exercises, etc., appear ever so often. Grammar teaching still meets criticism: Ellis notes that “problems of selection probably explain why grammatical syllabuses are so similar and have changed so little over the years; it is safer to follow what has been done before” (2006: 89). Grammar teaching still tends to favor form over meaning and neglects teaching English as it is spoken in actual use. It treats grammatical structures in isolation, usually follows along the way grammar is presented in the textbook, and exposes students to inauthentic language material, which is tailor-made to teach a single grammatical structure. Regarding grammar in textbooks, Lenzing (2008: 221) contests that “crucial insights into how learners acquire a language have not been considered in the design of curricula and textbooks” and, consequently, calls into question “whether the learning goals that are promoted in the textbooks are realistic ones” (ibid., emphasis added): ▶ Grammar progression in textbooks is said to progress from simple to complex structures. However, this claim lacks a theoretical rationale. As can be deduced from the example of the third-person -s, textbooks very often run counter to SLA research and findings (processability). ▶ The density of grammatical structures presented in textbooks as well as the pace of grammatical progression is often overwhelming. For example, the The role of grammar in different methods The trouble with teaching grammar 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 97 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 97 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 98 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY textbook English G 21: A1 (Schwarz 2013) for grade 5 covers personal pronouns-+ be, can/ can’t, imperatives, have got/ has got, there’s/ there are, simple present statements, the plural of nouns, possessive determiners, the s-genitive, simple present questions, the present progressive, the simple past, word order in subordinate clauses, and the going to-future. ▶ Large sections of textbooks are apportioned to grammar exercises and the explanation of grammatical rules in the grammar file. However, it remains questionable whether this explicit treatment of rules helps students in their IL development and in how far it aids the transfer of declarative to procedural knowledge. What is more, in isolated lessons on grammar, the classroom atmosphere often does not encourage learners to become active participators in meaningful communication (cf. Bleyhl & Timm 2007: 270). Consequently, grammar teaching-- more often than not- - still ‘produces’ learners who might do well in isolated test formats (see ch. 12.4.3), but who fail to perform well in communicative situations. Look at current textbooks and discuss how grammar is presented in them. Selected approaches Acknowledging that “research is some way from being able to offer conclusive evidence in favour of particular approaches or positions” (Timmis 2017: 119), a weak interface position, which suggests that explicit and implicit knowledge “can work cooperatively in any given instance” (Gass 2013: 286; cf. Ellis 2006, 2018), should be favored. Ellis (2006: 20) explains the role that explicit knowledge plays in SLA: [E]xplicit knowledge plays various roles (1) in the perception of, and selective attending to, L2 form by facilitating the processes of ‘noticing’ (i. e. paying attention to specific linguistic features of the input), (2) by ‘noticing the gap’ (i. e. comparing the noticed features with those the learner typically produces in output), and (3) in output, with explicit knowledge coaching practice, particularly in initial stages, with this controlled use of declarative knowledge guiding the proceduralization and eventual automatization of language processing, as it does in the acquisition of other cognitive skills. Relying on SLA research, Keßler and Plesser (2011: 60) conclude “that an adequate focus on form in the L2 classroom can be conducive to the SLA process”. However, teachers should avoid teaching grammar as linear textbook progression and abandon the idea of learner grammar as developing in a linear way. SLA “is a gradual, cumulative, [and] often non-linear process” (Long 2005: 3). 5.2.2 Explicit and implicit knowledge 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 98 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 98 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 Unit 5 99 T EACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR If the power of teachers regarding grammar instruction is limited, should or can grammar be taught at all? Keßler and Plesser (2011: 35-36, adapted) make a strong case for teaching grammar: ▶ Any use of language (spoken or written) is grammar; grammar can be seen as the backbone not only of language but also of literature: without being able to change the syntax, we would always have to stick to the same sentence pattern and thus make communication rather monotonous. ▶ Grammar is a system of finite rules that can generate an infinite number of utterances; teaching grammar can help us understand that system in more detail and put learners into the position of having a choice between different ways of expressing something. ▶ Quite a number of grammar rules can be transferred from one language to another; teaching grammar concepts (e. g., nouns, verbs, number, gender, tenses, aspect) in both the L1 and the FL supports successful language use by native and non-native speakers. In the following, three approaches to teaching grammar in the EFL classroom are outlined. The examples presented are not meant as templates but as suggestions, for “any ‘ready-made’ recipes do not cater for individual classroom situations and individual leaners’ needs” (Keßler & Plesser 2011: 170-71, emphasis added). Teachers are encouraged to follow an approach that Timmis (2017: 128) calls “principled eclecticism,” resulting in the challenge “to match the approach with the type of learner and the type of language structure” (ibid.): “[W]hat is important is to recognize what options are available, what the theoretical rationales for these options are, and what the problems are with these rationales. This is the starting point for developing a personal theory of grammar teaching.” (Ellis 2006: 103, emphasis added) Focus on form Focus on form (FonF, Long 1991) must not be confused with an exclusive Focus on formS (FonS): “[F]ocus on form entails a focus on formal elements of language, whereas focus on formS is limited to such a focus” (Doughty & Williams 1998: 4). The latter often creates questionable teaching scenarios “where students spend much of their time working on isolated linguistic structures in a sequence predetermined externally and imposed on them by a syllabus designer or textbook writer, in conflict with the learner’s internal syllabus” (Doughty & Long 2003: 64). Activities that involve students noticing a grammatical feature and then being able to integrate it into their IL can be explained as follows (Keßler & Plesser 2011: 152, adapted): Grammar matters 5.2.2.1 FonF vs. FonS 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 99 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 99 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 100 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY ▶ Noticing: the learner registers a particular linguistic form in communication or instructional material. ▶ Comparing- - noticing the gap: the learner compares the linguistic feature noticed in the input with his/ her own mental grammar, registering to what extent there is a ‘gap’ between the input and his/ her IL. ▶ Integrating: the learner integrates a representation of the new linguistic feature into his/ her IL. For a grammatical feature to be noticed by students, teachers should make use of implicit and explicit Input Enhancement techniques (see fig. 5.5): Feedback (Teacher) Material Implicit ▶ Recasts: S: ‘I want read.’ T: ‘Oh, you want to read? ’ ▶ Clarification requests: S: ‘What the woman do? ’ T: ‘I don’t understand. What do you mean? ’ ▶ Oral equivalent of textual enhancement through stress, intonation, gestures: S: ‘I have seen her yesterday.’ T: ‘You saw her yesterday? ’ ▶ Visual textual enhancement via typographical alterations: italicizing, boldface type, color coding, etc. ▶ Input flooding: T (wants to introduce the use of the preposition ‘on’ and provides many examples of its use): ‘My books are on the table. You are sitting on your chairs. The answers are on the blackboard. There is a stain on my shirt.’ ▶ Task-essential language: requires a learner to use a target structure in order to complete a given activity Explicit ▶ Metalinguistic feedback: S: ‘Where he is study? ’ T: ‘Well, watch out for your grammar. You need to use the -ing-form after auxiliary verbs to indicate the present progressive. And you need to reverse the place of auxiliary and subject - Where is he studying? ’ ▶ Negative evidence through overt error correction: S: ‘Last weekend I go shopping and do homework.’ T: ‘No, that’s not exactly how we would say that. Remember that you are talking about the past. The correct sentence is - Last weekend I went shopping and did my homework.’ ▶ Processing instruction: T provides a sample sentence with a grammatical structure; the learners have to understand the underlying grammatical structure in order to capture the meaning of the sentence. Input Enhancement can help learners to ‘notice the gap’ and facilitates SLA. With FonF, teachers can select from two options: (1) proactive FonF (teachers prepare instructional materials that facilitate the elicitation of a grammatical structure) and (2) reactive FonF (a grammatical structure comes into focus only if the need arises). An example of proactive FonF is provided in figure 5.6. Input Enhancement techniques (based on Keßler & Plesser 2011: 153, adapted) Fig. 5.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 100 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 100 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 Unit 5 101 T EACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR Input Enhancement activity T provides enriched material: S listen to a dialog between two individuals talking about their last holiday. Production activity Pair work: T asks S to talk to each other about their last holiday. Main task Picture description task: S are given a picture sequence which shows an individual carrying out different activities. The title says that these pictures refer to a past event. S are asked to describe the pictures. Task-based Language Teaching Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT, see ch. 4.3.2) focuses more on meaning than on form. It draws on learner-learner interaction by posing tasks: Classroom tasks should facilitate meaningful interaction and offer the learner ample opportunity to process meaningful input and produce meaningful output in order to reach relevant and obtainable goals. In other words, tasks invite the learner to act primarily as a language user, and not as a language learner. (Van den Branden 2006: 6-9) TBLT draws attention to the process of working on a given task: there is a distinct focus on how students work on the task(s) and on the process by which they arrive at results. Tasks in TBLT should adhere to a well-structured framework (see ch. 4, fig. 4.2). The teacher’s role in TBLT is mainly that of a motivator, advisor, and facilitator in the pre-task phase, of a monitor and supporter during the task cycle, and of moderator, exemplifier, and evaluator in the posttask phase (see fig. 5.7). Pre-task ▶ Aim: to introduce the topic of celebrations and to give S exposure to language related to them. ▶ Activation: T shows S pictures of a celebration (e. g., a family celebrating Christmas or someone’s birthday). T tells S how the celebration went. T uses the pictures to provide as many details as possible. ▶ Pre-activity: T distributes a card with the following questions and has S answer them. When was your last family celebration? Which are some of the special occasions you celebrate with family or friends? What is your favorite celebration with friends or family? What was the last celebration you had with your family or friends? How was it? What details make a celebration a success? Do you remember an especially happy celebration with friends or family? What happened? 5.2.2.2 Tasks in TBLT Proactive FonF focusing on past -ed (Keßler & Plesser 2011: 150, adapted) Fig. 5.6 Example of TBLT (Rodríguez-Bonces & Rodríguez-Bonces 2010: 172-74, adapted) Fig. 5.7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 101 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 101 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 07.06.2022 15: 40: 13 102 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY Task cycle Task Planning Report ▶ T tells S (in groups of four) that they will plan a celebration including all aspects around it like invitation cards or a newspaper article to report all the facts about the celebration. ▶ The groups discuss possibilities for a celebration and brainstorm vocabulary (e. g., kinds of celebrations, objects used for certain celebrations). ▶ T provides grading schemes so that S know how they will be assessed. ▶ T monitors and answers questions. ▶ S (in groups) plan their celebration (e. g., Christmas, Halloween, birthday, 4 th of July). T provides a task card which explains the process and requirements. ▶ S prepare to report. ▶ T checks how roles and assignments are distributed within the group (all S should be involved). ▶ T provides language feedback. ▶ The classroom is divided. Each group is assigned a place in the classroom to decorate the environment for their celebration. ▶ S present, classmates listen and participate in the celebration. They can ask questions after the presentation. ▶ T gives feedback on the content and comments on it briefly. ▶ S vote and choose the best presentation. Post-task: language focus Analysis Practice ▶ T writes selected sentences uttered by S on the board. ▶ T highlights language structures that need to be addressed. ▶ S review phrases in context and take notes of the language they need. ▶ Option A (in the classroom): each S asks two questions about one of the celebrations. ▶ Option B (at home): T assigns homework to practice new words or structures. Evaluation ▶ S complete a task evaluation form ▶ T completes grading schemes The Acquisition-based Method The Acquisition-based Method (ABM, erwerbsorientierter Grammatikunterricht; Ziegésar & Ziegésar 2007, 2009) suggests teaching grammar inductively within authentic communicative situations (see fig. 5.8). Ziegésar and Ziegésar (2007: 292-97; 2009: 9-23) propose that teachers proceed through the following five phases: 1. Demonstration: the teacher presents the grammatical structure in a typical communicative context, which provides rich, holistic, and lively input. The grammatical structure is repeated up to 15 times. 2. Understanding and reacting: the students show their understanding of the structure by reacting to, for example, questions by the teacher with language structures they have already acquired. In the pre-task, the T exposes S to present and past tense forms in the input and motivates implicit uptake in the preactivity. If learners connect grammatical structures with usage situations and not with grammar drills, much has already been achieved (cf. Niemeier 2017: 264). 5.2.2.3 Phases 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 102 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 102 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 Unit 5 103 T EACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR 3. Reproduction: the students use the grammatical structure for the first time in a guided teacher-student dialog. 4. Clarification and focusing: the teacher engages students in a classroom discussion through which students should discover the grammatical rule. An explanation of the rule follows. 5. Production: the students apply the structure in meaningful ways in team or partner practice (e. g., information gap tasks). Demonstration T: You all know quite a lot of English now. One day you’ll speak it so well that you’ll be able to go to Britain for a holiday. If you go to Britain you’ll need a passport or identity card, of course. If you don’t have these documents they won’t let you into the country (T shows S his/ her own passport). Now let’s think about how you’ll get there. How could you travel? S: Fly or by train and ferry. T: (shows S a travel brochure and air connections on a transparency) You can fly from Stuttgart to Heathrow. That takes just over an hour. Can you find Heathrow on the map? Or from Frankfurt to Manchester. It will be faster if you fly. But if you fly you won’t see very much, will you? You’ll see much more if you go by train and ferry. T: (shows S a timetable with ferry connections) Let’s see which way you can go. If you go this way, through Belgium, you’ll get to Ostend (S mark travel routes and connections on a map). If you get on a ferry in Ostend you’ll arrive at Ramsgate. Who can show us the Ostend-Ramsgate route on the map? That’s a long way. If you go from Ostend you’ll be on the ferry for about four and a half hours. So let’s find a different route (to be continued with more alternative routes). Now, let’s say you’ve arrived in Britain and you haven’t been seasick. Let’s think about what you’re going to do. If you go to London you’ll see lots of famous sights. But then you won’t see much of the rest of the country if you stay there all the time, will you? What would you like to see in Britain? (S comment) Understanding and reacting T: (prepares copies of traffic signs, prohibition signs, notices) When you arrive in Britain you’ll probably see some of these notices. Let’s see if you can understand them all. Listen. Which notice am I talking about? 1. They won’t let you into the country if you haven’t got one. S: Passports. T: That’s right. Can you go on? Which notice is this? (to be continued with more statements by T and corrections or comments by S) Reproduction T: (challenges students with false statements about British customs and conventions and writes statements with highlighted words on the blackboard) Let’s imagine you’re going to Britain on holiday. Let’s see if you know everything you’ll need to know. Tell me if this is right: You won’t need a passport if you go to Britain. S: That’s wrong. You will need a passport if you go to Britain (to be continued with more statements by T and corrections by S). Clarification and focusing T asks students for regularities. S should recognize and explain the underlying grammatical structure of Conditional I (simple present in conditional subordinate clause, will-future in main clause). Production T provides student pairs with tandem sheets with tips for going to Britain that differ on each of the two sheets. S1 has to ask S2 for tips and vice versa (information gap exercise). Example of ABM (Ziegésar & Ziegésar 2007: 292-98, adapted) Fig. 5.8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 103 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 103 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 104 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY Discuss possible advantages and disadvantages of these three approaches to grammar teaching. Consider, for example, (1) the relation between meaning and form, (2) the explicitness/ implicitness of the approach, (3) the time and material needed. Teaching and learning vocabulary Psycholinguistic basics Referring back to Levelt’s model of speech production (see fig. 5.1), speech production only works if the mental lexicon feeds words into the formulator so that they can be grammatically encoded. Structured like a network, the mental lexicon contains a myriad of information about lexical items and their connections to each other: “Our lexical knowledge includes information about a word’s spelling, its pronunciation (including numerous variants), its word-class, its possible meanings, its derivations, its reference to synonyms, antonyms and collocations, its register and numerous connotations.” (Hutz 2017: 106) To illustrate this, one may look at the lexical complexity of the simple word ‘bird’ (in extracts): ▶ Pronunciation: ▶ Spelling: bird ▶ Morphology: substantive (word class), birds (plural) ▶ Syntax: subject or object ▶ Conceptual meaning: a two-legged creature with feathers and wings, which lays eggs and can usually fly ▶ Referential meaning: ‘bird’ (British slang: a girl or a young woman), ‘for the birds’ (slang: useless or worthless, not to be taken seriously), ‘a rare, odd, clever bird’ (informal: denoting a person), ‘to kill two birds with one stone’ (idiom: to accomplish two things with one action), ‘birds of a feather’ (idiom: people with the same ideas or interests), ‘the birds and the bees’ (idiom: basic information about sex and reproduction), etc. The above list is far from complete, for the word ‘bird’ is also used as a verb: ‘to bird’ (catching or shooting birds). The list goes on with back-formation lexemes such as ‘to bird-watch’ (identifying wild birds and observing them in their natural habitat) and ‘to bird-nest’ (plundering bird nests). Furthermore, in sports, ‘bird’ can also denote a clay pigeon or shuttlecock and in informal use, an aircraft, a spacecraft, or a guided missile. According to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), “[l]exical competence, knowledge of, and ability to use, the vocabulary of a language, consists of lexical elements and grammatical elements” (Council of Europe 2001: 110, emphasis added). Thus, complete knowledge of a word means to be able to recognize and perform the following (see fig. 5.9): 5.3 5.3.1 How words are presented in our minds What is behind a word? To know a word A synonym is a word you use when you can’t spell the other one. - Baltasar Gracián 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 104 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 104 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 Unit 5 105 T EACHING AND LEARNING VOCABULARY Form Spoken ▶ Receptive: what does the word sound like? ▶ Productive: how is the word pronounced? Written ▶ Receptive: what does the word look like? ▶ Productive: how is the word written and spelled? Position Grammatical patterns ▶ Receptive: in what patterns does the word occur? ▶ Productive: in what patterns must we use the word? Collocations ▶ Receptive: what words or types of words can be expected before or after the word? ▶ Productive: what words or types of words must we use with this word? Function Frequency ▶ Receptive: how common is the word? ▶ Productive: how often should the word be used? Appropriateness ▶ Receptive: where would we expect to meet this word? ▶ Productive: where can this word be used? Meaning Concept ▶ Receptive: what does the word mean? ▶ Productive: what word should be used to express this meaning? Associations ▶ Receptive: what other words does this word make us think of? ▶ Productive: what other words could we use instead of this one? How does the mental lexicon store this enormous amount of information? In order for words to be retrieved in milliseconds, the mental lexicon is craftily organized: ▶ Lexical items which are semantically related seem to be stored together. Paradigmatic relations, such as synonymy (e. g., ‘to start’/ ‘to begin,’ ‘furious’/ ‘angry’/ ‘enraged,’ ‘deep’/ ‘profound’), antonymy (e. g., ‘fast’/ ‘slow,’ ‘rich’/ ‘poor’) or hyponymy (e. g., ‘flower’-- ‘daisy,’ ‘furniture’-- ‘table’) seem to play an important role in connecting words in the mind. In this case, words that belong to the same word class (e. g., adjectives) are strongly associated with each other. ▶ Lexical items which often co-occur in the same context seem to be stored together. These so-called syntagmatic relations (e. g., collocational links such as ‘to ride a bicycle,’ ‘to quench one’s thirst,’ ‘to make hay,’ ‘a juvenile delinquent,’ ‘a burning/ keen/ passionate/ strong/ unfulfilled desire’) consist of adjective-noun pairs or verb-noun pairs that are frequently used together. ▶ Lexical items which have a similar sound structure seem to be stored together. Such ‘clang associations’ can be found, for example, in word pairs such as ‘consolation’ and ‘compensation’ or ‘merry’ and ‘Mary’ (Hutz 2017: 106, adapted; cf. Roche 2020: 88-90). Organization of the mental lexicon Lexical competence (Nation 1990: 31, adapted) Fig. 5.9 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 105 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 105 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 106 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY Considering that “[i]n normal fluent speech, we retrieve words at a rate of two or three per second” and usually “hit the appropriate words, sure as a gun, in a huge lexicon containing several tens of thousands of items” (Levelt 1994: 96), speaking is truly a fascinating capability. However, sometimes the way our mental lexicon organizes words along the structures delineated above gets in the way and speakers produce unwittingly hilarious utterances: ‘perple’ (blend of people/ person, intended: ‘people’), ‘I must let the house out of the cat’ (syntactic misordering, intended: ‘I must let the cat out of the house’), ‘foon speeding’ (phonological speech error, intended: ‘spoon feeding’). Of what nature is the relationship between the L1 and L2 lexicons? SLA research offers differing theories on this, but what has come to be called the Subset Hypothesis (lexical items of the L1 and L2 are stored in the mental lexicon as different sub-sets with close connections) is credited the most. The Subset Hypothesis accounts for L1 interference and code switching (cf. Hutz 2017: 110). Due to the restricted quality and quantity of lexical input learners receive in the FL classroom, the L2 lexicon will never cover as many lexical items as the L1 lexicon. The depth of knowledge about these items in terms of form, meaning, and use is often incomplete. With your knowledge about word retrieval, the organization of the mental lexicon, and the relation between the L1 and L2 lexicons, explain what went wrong in the following utterances: 1) ‘He hit me so hardly that it gave me a black eye.’ 2) ‘I love to color eggs for Christmas.’ 3) ‘The accident I witnessed yesterday was torrible.’ The good news is that-- once acquired-- “lexical knowledge is very stable” (De Bot 2017: 410, emphasis added). While native speakers are estimated to have a vocabulary of 20,000 word families (that is a passive lexicon of around 75,000 words and an active lexicon of about 30,000 words), FL learners “will be lucky to have acquired 5,000 word families even after several years of study” (Thornbury 2002: 20, emphasis added). Nation and Chung (2011: 543) state that for FL learners “it takes at least a year, and usually much longer, to increase vocabulary size by a thousand words”. An estimated 400 to 700 words are supposed to be taught in an average school year (depending on the learner group, a maximum of 10 to 20 new words per lesson; cf. Reinisch 2013: 102). However, teaching vocabulary does not necessarily result in vocabulary acquisition. Therefore, working on extending vocabulary size is as much the responsibility of teachers as it is that of students. If meaningful communication is to take place in the FL classroom as soon as possible, then “[t]here is a strong argument-[…] for equipping learners with a core vocabulary of 2,000 words as soon as possible” (Thornbury 2002: 21, emphasis added). These high-frequency words can be found in the classic General Service List of English Words (GSL, West 1960) and, as an Word retrieval The relationship between the L1 and L2 lexicons Which words to know and how many? 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 106 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 106 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 Unit 5 107 T EACHING AND LEARNING VOCABULARY updated version, in the New General Service List (NGSL, Browne et al. 2013; www.newgeneralservicelist.org). This core vocabulary accounts for most of the words occurring in normal conversations and “cover[s] between 80 % and 90 % of the running words in a text” (Nation & Chung 2011: 545). These 2,000 words should be considered the threshold level. Thornbury (2002: 21) recommends a basic vocabulary of 3,000 and, for more specialized needs, 5,000 word families. For learners wanting to pursue academic studies in English, Nation and Chung (2011: 545) recommend the Academic Word List (AWL, Coxhead 2010; www.victoria.ac.nz/ lals/ resources/ academicwordlist). The CEFR, too, recommends “to follow lexico-statistical principles selecting the highest frequency words in large general word-counts or those undertaken for restricted thematic areas” (Council of Europe 2001: 151, emphasis added). However, the CEFR also points out other options of lexical selection: ▶ To select key words and phrases 1) in thematic areas required for the achievement of communicative tasks relevant to learner needs, 2) which embody cultural difference and/ or significant values and beliefs shared by the social group(s) whose language is being learned ▶ To select (authentic) spoken and written texts and learn/ teach whatever words they contain ▶ Not to pre-plan vocabulary development, but to allow it to develop organically in response to learner demand when engaged in communicative tasks (ibid.: 150-51, adapted) Have a look at the vocabulary file in a current textbook and assess according to which principle(s) lexical selection has been made. Discuss your findings. Structuring vocabulary lessons Just as with grammar, one needs to differentiate between vocabulary teaching and vocabulary acquisition. While the teaching of vocabulary is an externally controlled process, the actual acquisition of vocabulary is largely a self-regulated process carried out by learners in order to consolidate and increase their vocabulary size (cf. Stork 2003: 39). With beginners, teachers should use a systematic approach (Doyé 1985; Neveling 2010: 333-34) with four phases: 1. Presentation (Darbietungsphase): words are introduced in a multichannel fashion (see fig. 5.10) in order to appeal to as many senses as possible (auditory, visual, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile). Words should be introduced in meaningful contexts that clarify their meaning and use in the TL. Correct pronunciation is trained. While the written form may be introduced, correct spelling is of secondary importance in this phase. ‘Words’, he said, ‘is oh such a twitchtickling problem to me all my life. So you must simply try to be patient and stop squibbling. As I am telling you before, I know exactly what words I am wanting to say, but somehow or other they is always getting squiffsquiddled around.’ - Roald Dahl 5.3.2 Introducing vocabulary to beginners: a systematic approach 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 107 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 107 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 108 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY 2. Practicing (Übungsphase): the integration of the words into the mental lexicon is facilitated by different exercises and activities. The form of these exercises needs to cater to the inherent structure of the mental lexicon (syntagmatic, paradigmatic). It is also important to link these words to vocabulary previously learned. Pronunciation and spelling are practiced, as are a variety of learning strategies and techniques that help students file, structure, and learn vocabulary in systematic ways. 3. Application (Integrationsphase): this phase is more communicative in nature than phase two. In other words, the lexical items need to be embedded in meaningful communication in order to help students understand and practice syntagmatic connections (e. g., syntax, collocations). 4. Assessment (Überprüfungsphase): the testing of lexical knowledge should mirror the ways in which lexical items were introduced by the teacher. This means that the multichannel way of vocabulary introduction in the presentation phase should reappear in test formats. This, in turn, means that vocabulary testing “should go beyond knowledge of decontextualized items” (Laufer & Goldstein 2004: 401) and instead “incorporate communicative competence in addition to the knowledge of discrete items” (ibid.). The presentation phase should also involve a negotiation of meaning between the teacher and the students, as in the following example (Quetz 2007: 281, adapted): T: Now our next word is ‘to smell.’ Now watch me and look at me. Now I’m smelling. (T schnüffelt) Hmmmm. The smell is OK in here. It’s not too bad.-… Now-- when you smell, what do you smell with? (S schnüffeln) S1: Er-- with my nose. Ways of introducing and explaining new vocabulary A closer look at the presentation phase Explanation techniques Visual Verbal Picture Real - Thing - Demonstration - Gestures / ... - Graphic - Phonetic Logical relation - Defintion - Rule-of-three part : whole - ... Logical relation - Synonym/ antonym - Super-/ subordination - Derivation/ compound - Collocation - ... Target language Holistic Context Feature-based Resemblance Translation Mother tongue Explanation techniques (Quetz 2007: 277, adapted) Fig. 5.10 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 108 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 108 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 Unit 5 109 T EACHING AND LEARNING VOCABULARY T: That’s right. Yeah, you smell with your nose. And sometimes things also smell. And they can smell good, or they can smell-… S: (mehrere murmeln) …-bad. T: Right.-… My socks, for example, smell terrible. S2: (leise) Müllabfuhr-… While with beginners, the introduction of vocabulary proceeds in a rather systematic way, it should move in the direction of a more self-regulated process with intermediate and advanced students. The teaching activities as well as the learning strategies introduced in the next two sections should facilitate this. Practice presentation. How would you introduce and explain the following words/ word fields: 1) to shout (verb) 2) tall (adjective) 3) handy (adjective) 4) vegetables (word field) 5) hobbies (word field) 6) hurricane (noun) 7) global warming (noun) Teaching activities For the successful acquisition of vocabulary, teachers need to provide students with repeated encounters with words, create communicative situations in which students can use the words in various contexts to facilitate cognitive and affective depth, give them time for vocabulary rehearsal, and introduce learning strategies to use in the classroom and at home. Above all, teachers should remind students that increasing vocabulary size is a lifelong undertaking that requires constant attention: “As a teacher-[…], you should share your sense of the excitement and fascination of words with your students. Vocabulary learning never stops, even long after the grammar system is firmly in place.” (Thornbury 2002: 160) The activities presented in the following should make for interesting vocabulary lessons (cf. Thornbury 2002: 145-59; Quetz 2007: 283-90; Hutz 2017: 112-13; Nation 2017: 96-99; Roche 2020: 109-14): ▶ Structuring vocabulary: word forks (see fig. 5.11), word ladders (see fig. 5.12), antonym/ synonym-pairs, etc. all help to establish connections between words and increase vocabulary size and depth. ▶ Guessing the category: based on a list of ten words, students have to find one superordinate term that covers the ten words. This also works the other way around with students having to name words that fit into a general category 5.3.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 109 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 109 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 07.06.2022 15: 40: 14 110 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY (hyponymy/ hyperonomy). Either way, these approaches also work very well when set up as a competition between students or student groups. ▶ Word thieves: while the teacher is reading out a text, students have to ‘steal’ words from it that fit into a general category provided by the teacher. For example, the teachers reads out a text about his/ her Easter holidays and the learners have to detect and ‘steal’ words related to Easter (e. g., Easter egg, Easter bunny, Easter basket). ▶ Word clouds: using Internet tools such as Wordle (www.wordle.net) or Tagxedo (www.tagxedo.com), teachers create word clouds with lexical items that students then need to categorize into meaningful categories (see ch. 11.3). ▶ Finding collocations: the teacher provides students with a choice of words and students have to find suitable collocations. ▶ Word cards: originally a learning technique for vocabulary revision, students’ sets of word cards can also be employed fruitfully in the classroom. For example, students can teach each other words that they do not share in their set of word cards, students try to create a coherent sentence using two words from a word card set, etc. A useful digital tool to create and use word cards digitally is Quizlet (quizlet.com). ▶ Vocabulary guesswork: the teacher creates sentences with nonsense words and students have to guess the right word from the context provided by the sentence. ▶ Associations: words which students can combine with certain feelings and emotions help to enter their long-term memory. This can be achieved by presenting/ drawing memorable pictures, employing/ writing rhymes, or embedding words into funny or nonsense stories. ▶ False friends: Germans have a tendency to use English words in wrong ways (e. g., ‘handy,’ ‘public viewing’) and are masters of inventing words that do not exist in English (e. g., ‘smoking island’ instead of ‘smoking area,’ ‘baby body’ instead of ‘onesie’). Working with lists of false friends is one way to draw students’ attention to this phenomenon. Instead of merely using lists, however, three ingenious collections of German translation blunders by Robert Tonks (see fig. 5.12) are recommended here for classroom use: It Is to make dinner Word fork (Hutz 2017: 115) Fig. 5.11 Halloween pumpkin soup spoon dinner guest Word ladder (Hutz 2017: 112) Fig. 5.12 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 110 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 110 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 Unit 5 111 T EACHING AND LEARNING VOCABULARY Not All English What Shines (2011), Denglisch in Pool Position (2012), The Denglisch Doosh Reader (2013). This may even motivate students and teachers to go on their own hunt for ‘Denglish’ in their neighborhood. ▶ Using dictionaries: it goes without saying that teachers should train students in the basic skills of working with (online) dictionaries/ thesauri (e. g., finding words fast; finding synonyms, antonyms; finding out about pronunciation, register, connotations, collocations, idioms). Working with dictionaries can also involve negotiation of meaning, as in the following example: teachers hand out copies with a text that contains a number of unfamiliar words. Individually, students make a shortlist of five words that they are allowed to look up in the dictionary. Students then compare their lists in pairs (and then in successively larger groups). This gives students the chance to explain the meaning of words that they do not have on their respective lists to each other. Finally, a class vote is executed and a final five-word list is created. ▶ Vocabulary games: integrating vocabulary games into the EFL classroom makes for refreshing learning scenarios. There are a number of board games and other (online) games such as Scrabble, Memory, and many more. ▶ LearningApps: this platform (LearningApps.org) offers a wide range of motivating vocabulary learning and memorization activities, including matching exercises, quizzes, games such as the Millionaire game, grids, crosswords, etc. (see ch. 11.3). ▶ Extensive reading: reading texts suitable for students (e. g., graded readers) will help them improve their vocabulary size by taking up lexical items incidentally. It also trains them in decoding words from context. The above list of teaching activities is far from complete. There are many more activities provided in books and online (cf. Nation 2008; Jentges 2009; Kilp 2010; Grimm & Riecken 2014; Müller 2017). From the activities listed above, choose three that you like most and three you do not really like. Discuss the choices made and the reasons for them. Collect more activities for motivating vocabulary lessons. Hilarious ‘Denglish’ (Tonks 2012: 2; www. robert-tonks.de) Fig. 5.13 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 111 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 111 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 112 G RAMMAR AND VOCABULARY Learning strategies With regard to learning vocabulary and extending vocabulary size, successful learners apply the following strategies (Thornbury 2002: 144-45, adapted): ▶ They pay attention to form: to the constituents of words, to their spelling, to their pronunciation, and to the way they are stressed. ▶ They pay attention to meaning: to the way words are similar or different in meaning, to the connotations of words, to their style, and to their associations. ▶ They are good guessers: they work out the meanings of unfamiliar words from their form and from contextual clues. ▶ They take risks and are not afraid of making mistakes: they make the most of limited resources, and they adopt strategies to cope when the right words simply do not come forth. ▶ They know how to organize their own learning: by, for example, keeping a systematic record of new words, using dictionaries and other study aids resourcefully, using memorizing techniques, and putting time aside for the ‘spade work’ in language learning, such as repetitive practice. To foster successful vocabulary learning and acquisition, teachers should familiarize students with learning techniques, such as (cf. Haß et al. 2017: 98-102): ▶ Using pictures to memorize the meaning of words ▶ Picturing words in one’s mind ▶ Connecting words to personal experiences ▶ Connecting new words to synonyms, antonyms ▶ Grouping words together in grids, mind maps, etc. that show their semantic relations ▶ Paraphrasing the meaning of words ▶ Guessing from context ▶ Listening to words ▶ Acting out words ▶ Making up a story using new words ▶ Putting English labels on physical objects ▶ Engaging actively with English-language media (literature, songs, movies) ▶ Using learning software, online word games, and tests Finally, a few remarks seem apt about the presentation and treatment of vocabulary in contemporary textbooks. Unquestionably, textbooks have made considerable headway when it comes to presenting lexical items in memorable ways and thus supporting vocabulary acquisition. Different ways of structuring lexical items and techniques of learning vocabulary are integrated both in the textbook proper as well as in separate skill sections. However, the vocabulary file that students usually learn their words from is still presented in the form of 5.3.4 Successful learners The presentation of vocabulary in textbooks 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 112 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 112 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 Unit 5 113 T EACHING AND LEARNING VOCABULARY rather unstructured lists of isolated lexical items occurring in a unit. While these lists nowadays feature sample sentences, pictures, and mnemonic verses, they still contain the traditional English-German translation in two separate columns. This results in two major problems: (1) learning from vocabulary lists may lead to success in the short run (e. g., in announced vocabulary tests), but it does not help students to enter words in their mental lexicon in the long run and to be able to retrieve them from long-term memory. (2) Learning from vocabulary lists may result in a backwash effect in that students understand vocabulary lists as the one and only means to structure vocabulary. As a result, they will write down lexical items in the form of lists even in their own vocabulary notebooks. To counteract this tendency, it is important that teachers integrate into EFL lessons teaching foci on learning strategies (see ch. 6.2.1). Recommended reading Cummings, Louise (2018). Working with English Grammar: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, Rod (2006). Current Issues in the Teaching of Grammar: An SLA Perspective. In: TESOL Quarterly 40.1, 83-107. Hutz, Matthias (2017). Storing Words in the Mind: The Mental Lexicon and Vocabulary Learning. In: Maria Eisenmann & Theresa Summer, eds. Basic Issues in EFL Teaching and Learning. Heidelberg: Winter, 105-17. Keßler, Jörg-U. & Anja Plesser (2011). Teaching Grammar. Paderborn: Schöningh. Nation, Paul (2008). Teaching Vocabulary: Strategies and Techniques. Boston, MA et al.: Heinle. Roche, Jörg (2020). Fremdsprachenerwerb-- Fremdsprachendidaktik. 4 th ed. Tuebingen et al.: Francke. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 113 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 113 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 114 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 114 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 Unit 6 115 T EACHING AND LEARNING VOCABULARY Language competences, learning strategies, and the individual learner Contents 6.1 Key competences and skills 117 6.2 Learning strategies and learner types 138 6.3 Heterogeneous groups and inclusion 141 Recommended reading 149 Using an integrative model, this chapter delineates how the key language skills of reading, listening, writing, and speaking as well as mediation and intercultural communicative competence can be developed together with relevant learning strategies. Moreover, general foreign language learning strategies and types of foreign language learners are taken into account to respond to differences, diversity, and individual learners. Specifically, the issues of dealing with heterogeneous learner groups and working in an inclusive classroom are addressed. Standardization vs. differentiation; three-phase models of activities; mental schemata; receptive and productive skills (reading, listening, writing speaking); bottomup and top-down processes; meaningful scenarios for learning and practicing; mediation; politeness and non-verbal communication; learning strategies and learner types; inclusion Discussing the dilemma of standardization and differentiation; discussing the inclusive classroom Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 115 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 115 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 07.06.2022 15: 40: 15 116 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER Look at the cartoon and consider the question of how students acquire foreign language skills inside and outside the classroom. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 116 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 116 07.06.2022 15: 40: 21 07.06.2022 15: 40: 21 Unit 6 117 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS Key competences and skills This chapter uses the term ‘skill’ with regard to the traditional four language skills- - reading, writing, speaking, and listening. The term ‘competence’ is used to imply broader, procedural, and less easily categorizable skills (see ch. 1.2.1). An integrative approach Learning to speak a foreign language (FL) requires much more than knowing its grammatical rules and having a good command of its vocabulary (see chs. 4, 5). Learners also need to become competent in expressing themselves fluently and appropriately in interpersonal exchanges. They need to acquire skills in understanding written and spoken English in various contexts. Furthermore, competence development entails an increasing awareness and active command of verbal and non-verbal cues, cultural nuances, and connotations. The development of such a complex set of interrelated competences cannot be fostered through the teaching and learning of isolated skills. Rather, receptive skills (listening, reading) and productive skills (speaking, writing) as well as mediation and other communication skills (particularly non-verbal as well as intercultural competences) must be learned and taught in accordance with an integrative model, which forms the basis of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR 2001, 2020). This chapter addresses the general and communcative competences used in the CEFR and its Companion and corroborates the stance that FL teaching first and foremost needs to be concerned with language in actual use. Furthermore, this chapter stresses the importance of teaching learning strategies and taking different learner types into consideration. It specifies some of the concerns of the CEFR about differentiation by suggesting methods to teach English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in heterogeneous and mixed-ability learner groups. Moreover, the issue of inclusion (integrating and including students with various physical or mental disabilities) is addressed by suggesting a number of teaching and learning methods which can help teachers handle challenging situations in mixed-ability classes and/ or with physically or mentally challenged students. However, when following the basic concept of the CEFR, two serious drawbacks of the CEFR model need to be pointed out (see ch. 1.2.1): (1) It is exactly the focus on teachable, testable, and comparable practical skills featured in the CEFR and its Companion which has created a utilitarian neglect of general goals such as those in the fields of education, ethics, aesthetics, and literature since these areas are notoriously difficult to itemize according to testable categories and ‘can do-descriptors’ (see “reading as a leisure activity”; Council of Europe 2020: 58). (2) In the wake of the PISA shock and in accordance with official 6.1. 6.1.1 Integrating various skills and competences Standardization vs. differentiation: focus on the individual learner 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 117 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 117 07.06.2022 15: 40: 21 07.06.2022 15: 40: 21 118 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER documents such as the CEFR, the drive toward standardization and compatible teaching and learning targets has gained fresh momentum. The demand for differentiation and inclusion runs absolutely counter to the prioritization of standardization and competence testing. This is clearly a contradiction in terms and one of the great challenges of teaching: finding a practical and flexible solution to these diametrically opposite demands. As a foundation for describing the various skills, competences, learning strategies, and learner types as well as the need for differentiation and inclusion, it seems important to stress five basic assumptions about competence development in the EFL classroom (cf. O’Malley & Chamot 1996: 217; Council of Europe 2001: 5; Eisenmann 2017): ▶ Language learning involves highly complex cognitive competences that have properties in common with other complex processes in terms of information storage and learning. ▶ Language learning must be viewed as a stage-wise progression: it starts with initial awareness and the active forging of language skills as a tool. It then involves more comprehensive skills until using the tool becomes a natural and increasingly automatic activity. ▶ Language learning is, on the one hand, “a life-long task to be promoted and facilitated throughout educational systems, from pre-school to adult education” (Council of Europe 2001: 5, emphasis added). ▶ Language learning is, on the other hand, also about autonomous learning: empowering individuals to acquire and fine-tune the ‘language tool’ themselves. ▶ Therefore, learners need to acquire manifold learning strategies, which have the potential to influence their individual learning outcomes in a positive manner. In the CEFR, the acquisition of the key language skills of reading, writing, speaking, and listening (and mediation as the ‘fifth’ skill) is clearly interrelated with the need to acquire general learning strategies as well as competencerelated strategies. Consider the following passages from the CEFR. They sum up the interrelationship of language competences and learning strategies. Look for suggestions for furthering strategies of learning and language use when reading this chapter. In interaction at least two individuals participate in an oral and/ or written exchange in which production and reception alternate and may in fact overlap in oral communication. Not only may two interlocutors be speaking and yet listening to each other simultaneously. Even where turn-taking is strictly respected, the listener is generally already forecasting the remainder of the speak- Competence & skill development 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 118 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 118 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 Unit 6 119 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS er’s message and preparing a response. Learning to interact thus involves more than learning to receive and to produce utterances. High importance is generally attributed to interaction in language use and learning in view of its central role in communication. Language use, embracing language learning, comprises the actions performed by persons who as individuals and as social agents develop a range of competences, both general and in particular communicative language competences. They draw on the competences at their disposal in various contexts under various conditions and under various constraints to engage in language activities involving language processes to produce and/ or receive texts in relation to themes in specific domains, activating those strategies which seem most appropriate for carrying out the tasks to be accomplished. The monitoring of these actions by the participants leads to the reinforcement or modification of their competences. (ibid: 14, 9) In the CEFR, progression in skill development is described in terms of ‘can dodescriptors’ in detailed lists for all skills and all six levels of competence (see ch. 1). As an introduction to this skill-based model of categorization, a look at the descriptive tables for overall language skills is useful. For instance, teachers at the beginning of each new school year could assess the level of their student group in general and individual students in particular. To take one example, the description for the A1-level (basic user) reads as follows (see fig. 6.1, ibid.: 66): Listening Can follow speech which is very slow and carefully articulated, with long pauses for him/ her to assimilate meaning. Reading Can understand very short, simple texts a single phrase at a time, picking up familiar names, words and basic phrases and rereading as required. Spoken interaction Can interact in a simple way but communication is totally dependent on repetition at a slower rate of speech, rephrasing and repair. Can ask and answer simple questions, initiate and respond to simple statements in areas of immediate need or on very familiar topics. Written interaction Can write simple isolated phrases and sentences. In accordance with the CEFR’s six proficiency levels (A1-C2), skill-based definitions of competences are described as developing in vertical progression (see ch. 1). The individual skills grow and widen from level to level. The CEFR has more than 50 lists categorizing and describing areas concerning skills and subskills for each of the four traditional skills as well as for mediation. Using just a part of one such list, fig. 6.2 shows how one of the skills (oral production) progresses from A1 to B1 (ibid.: 58): CEFR: a skill-based model Skill description for the A1-level Fig. 6.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 119 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 119 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 120 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER B1 Can reasonably fluently sustain a straightforward description of one of a variety of subjects within her/ his field of interest, presenting it as a linear sequence of points. A2 Can give a simple description or presentation of people, living or working conditions, daily routines, likes/ dislikes, etc. as a short series of simple phrases or sentences linked into a list. A1 Can produce simple mainly isolated phrases about people and places. In the CEFR, there is a clear link between communication strategies and metacognitive strategies (cf. ibid.: 222; Oxford & Amerstorfer 2019): “The use of communication strategies can be seen as the application of the metacognitive principles: Pre-planning, Execution, Monitoring, and Repair Action to the different kinds of communicative activity: Reception, Interaction, Production and Mediation.” (Council of Europe 2001: 57) In many German publications a different terminology is used: the strategies are often aligned with pre-, while- (=during), and post-phases of activities (see ch. 4.3.2) that are geared toward working with various text types or engaging in various tasks. Below, skill-specific activities will be explained in more detail. In general, the development of skills and learning strategies should not be viewed merely as a ‘disability model,’ compensating for deficient language proficiency (cf. ibid.: 57). Native speakers, too, regularly employ the strategies outlined below. In the following the basic functions of the three activity phases are explained. Pre-activities: for implementing pre-activities it seems crucial to take into account the concept of mental schemata (see ch. 3.2.3). The mental image or concept individuals have of certain words, combination of words, speech acts, or ‘scripts’ is (1) ‘habitualized,’ (2) culturally conditioned, and (3) reflected in prototypical language items or utterances. For example, a word like ‘tree’ triggers different associations in individuals, some visualizing it as a palm tree, others as an apple tree, or a fir tree. Similarly, the ‘scripts’ of a telephone conversation or a political speech follow certain routines, as do literary or filmic genres (e. g., a thriller). Schemata make us “engage in predictions and ask questions which will be answered in our interaction with the real world,” and are therefore a basic precondition for teaching “effective listening, speaking, writing, and reading in the EFL classroom” (Weskamp 2001: 119, our trans.). In the pre-activity phase, the schemata which will be used or encountered in the activity phase can be triggered, augmented, changed, and focused upon. Also in the pre-activity phase, the following representative strategies can be employed (see fig. 6.3, based on O’Malley & Chamot 1996: 44-46): Three-phase model If we go to a restaurant, we store the experience in our restaurant schema, if we attend a party, our party schema, and so on. - Nila Banton Smith Oral production-- progression from A1 to B1 Fig. 6.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 120 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 120 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 Unit 6 121 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS Selective attention & planning Planning ▶ Students focus on special aspects of a learning task, as in planning to listen for key words or phrases. ▶ Students decide in advance which aspects to focus on and to ignore irrelevant information or distractors (e. g., as in scanning a text later on for information). ▶ Students plan for the organization of either written or spoken discourse (e. g., they can write cue cards with expressions they want to use later on; they learn about the overall composition of a response in a letter). ▶ Students structure their expected activity according to expectations regarding a certain topic, proposing strategies for handling an upcoming task. ▶ Students generate a plan for details of handling a task, planning for and rehearsing linguistic items necessary to carry out an upcoming task. (While-)activities: the principles of execution, but also monitoring and repair action can be regarded as coming to the fore in the phase of engaging in activities such as reading a text or interacting in a discussion. The following representative strategies can be employed in the EFL classroom (see fig. 6.4): Execution, monitoring, and repair action ▶ Reviewing attention to a task ▶ Ignoring irrelevant information ▶ Checking one’s comprehension during the task ▶ Inferencing (e. g., guessing meaning from linguistic clues) ▶ Using linguistic, pragmatic, and strategic competences ▶ Checking the accuracy or appropriateness of one’s language production while it is taking place Post-activities: This does not just include ‘repair action’ but also the elements of self-evaluation and self-management. Representative strategies are shown in fig. 6.5: Self-management and self-monitoring Self-evaluation ▶ Understanding the conditions that help one learn or engage in the activity used and set up those conditions ▶ Checking one’s comprehension or command of the skill after the activity and learning from that ▶ Checking the outcomes of one’s own language learning or command against a standard after it has been completed ▶ Evaluating language production and learning how to improve it Most situations involve a mixture of strategy and activity types. In a typical EFL lesson, students may be required to listen to the teacher’s input or an audio file at the beginning, comment on a visual stimulus, read a text (silently or aloud), interact with fellow students in pairs, in group or project work, respond to the input or a text by writing something into a file. For teachers, it seems advisable to check intermittently whether they emphasize skill development in all four areas and in an integrative manner or whether they tend to neglect skill devel- ‘Balanced’ skill development Pre-activity phase strategies Fig. 6.3 Activity-phase strategies Fig. 6.4 Post-activity strategies Fig. 6.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 121 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 121 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 122 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER opment in a certain area. Next to the four classic skills, the CEFR focuses on mediation, plurilingual and online communication. Receptive skills: reading and listening Crucially, reception strategies involve verbal, visual, or multimodal schemata-- those of the students and those of the ‘text’ (written or spoken). Teachers need to consider the ‘horizons of expectation’ or the prior knowledge of their learners with regard to the text and its linguistic, contextual, or generic challenges. Schemata should be activated with a task prefiguring the encounter with the text, thus facilitating text reception before exposure. During the reception process, expectations are compared with the actual encounter: “Through a process of successive approximation, apparent and possible gaps in the message are filled in order to flesh out the representation of meaning, and the significance of the message and of its constituent parts are worked out (Inferring).” (Council of Europe 2001: 72) Students constantly check textual schemata with regard to how they fit into their own schemata. They revise hypotheses and reinterpret incoming clues. Such ‘negotiation of schemata’ can be quite challenging under time pressure. If, as in many scenarios, students are asked explicitly or implicitly to understand everything, authentic materials can discourage students and daunt them. It is therefore recommended that, when authentic language is used, students should be encouraged to learn how to read or listen selectively for gist or for basic information: “Instead of simplifying the language of the text, simplify the task that is demanded of the student.” (Field 2002: 244) Reading The CEFR (Council of Europe 2001: 69-70, 2020: 53-60) differentiates between several types of reading: reading for gist (general understanding, skimming), for specific information (scanning), for detailed understanding, for implications, etc. Reading skills have come into the public focus since the ‘PISA shock’ (see chs. 1.2, 10.1) and the general discontent concerning waning reading skills. The decline in reading skills has been widely lamented, and debates about fostering reading skills often revolve around the following arguments: (1) there are fewer reading role models in families and society, (2) allegedly fewer people read and reading no longer appears as a key competence, and (3) other competences like ‘media competence’ or ‘multiliteracies’ are increasingly in demand in the age of the digital revolution (cf. Eisenmann & Meyer 2018; see ch. 9). (4) There is a vicious circle, with students finding reading difficult or boring because they have not learned to read effectively and thus sooner or later make less of an effort to gain reading competences and employ avoidance strategies. Obviously, FL classes have to contribute to fostering a ‘culture of reading’ (cf. Henseler & Surkamp 2007), based on these two hypotheses: (1) a certain degree of lan- 6.1.2 Get the task right! People learn to read by reading, not by doing exercises. - William Grabe 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 122 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 122 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 Unit 6 123 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS guage proficiency is needed in order to be able to read and enjoy FL texts (Linguistic Threshold Hypothesis) and (2) reading strategies and habits acquired in the mother tongue are applied to those in the FL (Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis) (cf. Grabe 2011: 447-52). Solutions galore have been suggested for remedying the general reading malaise: for example, favoring silent reading periods (also in class), allowing students to select meaningful, interesting, and adequate reading material, choosing a wider range of literary texts than ever before such as young adult fiction and picture books, and encouraging extended periods of reading longer texts (cf. Bland 2015). Like listening, reading can be described as an interaction of two processes (cf. Hermes 2007: 229-30): (1) the bottom-up process of recognizing letters, words, sentences, etc., and (2) the top-down process of comparing one’s own schemata with those of the text. If, for instance, the reader knows that a text is a sonnet (and has read a sonnet before), certain expectations are created with regard to form and content. If a reader is told that the text is from a left-wing magazine about the topic of globalization, a certain line of argumentation or certain key words may be encountered in the reading process. These processes can be utilized for pre-reading activities, helping students to make predictions about a text, to find these confirmed later on or not, and to correct expectations in the reading process. Reading has been described as a highly complex activity, requiring “a number of processing subskills and linguistic knowledge bases” (Grabe 2011: 441; cf. Hattie 2009: 129). This includes visual skills (perceiving the written text), orthographic skills (recognizing the script), linguistic/ syntactic skills (identifying the order), semantic skills (understanding the basic meaning), and cognitive skills (analyzing and interpreting). Techniques to improve reader skills are summed up in fig. 6.6 (based on Weskamp 2001: 133-34; Grabe 2011: 455-56; Reckermann 2017): Pre-reading Reading Post-reading ▶ Brainstorming about the topic, genre, author (activating prior knowledge) ▶ Inferring from title, poster, other visuals ▶ Making hypotheses about possible content, style, language, etc. ▶ A quick first look at the text: what could this text be about? ▶ Using various ways of reading from skimming to scanning ▶ Clarifying linguistic and semantic meaning (guessing from context); using annotations and dictionaries ▶ Making further predictions and clarifying meaning with others ▶ Re-reading, if necessary ▶ Reflecting on how what has been read fits into the schemata ▶ Reflecting on what the readers have learned, how they can use this text, how it appeals to them ▶ Underlining key passages, summing up, responding to the text in various ways ▶ Reviewing and discussing a text in context Bottom-up & topdown processes Improving reading skills Fig. 6.6 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 123 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 123 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 124 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER A number of metacognitive, cognitive, social, and affective strategies can be taught to develop reading skills (cf. O’Malley & Chamot 1996: 6, 137, 179, 211; also cf. Hattie 2009: 129-141; Eisenmann 2019: 87-9): ▶ Getting into reading routines (e. g., reading on a regular basis) ▶ Finding suitable and interesting reading material ▶ Identifying reading strategies in L1, then applying the same strategies to L2 ▶ Elaboration of prior knowledge ▶ Selective attention to scan for specific information ▶ Making inferences about meanings of new words through their context ▶ Using known grammar or word formation rules to identify unknown words ▶ Checking, verifying, and correcting one’s understanding ▶ Taking notes, underlining key passages, key words, etc. ▶ Producing summaries of the main argument ▶ Questioning for clarification and verification of meaning ▶ Keeping a reading log ▶ Evaluation of one’s own comprehension ▶ Using reference material (e. g., dictionary, annotations) ▶ Working with others to understand and discuss texts ▶ Doing online research to gain more information on a topic or a text In an article on ‘getting rid’ of worn-out and outdated teaching methods in the EFL classroom, Arendt (1999: 402-03) suggests that when teaching reading skills, teachers should no longer (1) have students read out a text; (2) couple reading tasks with tasks focusing on understanding, interpreting, or analyzing; and (3) they should scrap comprehension questions completely. In Arendt’s opinion, all these methods run counter to ‘natural’ practices of reading. What is your opinion? Should these time-honored classroom practices be dropped completely, continued, or modified? Listening Listening has been called “the Cinderella skill in foreign language learning” (Nunan 2002: 238). The CEFR and its Companion contain little information on ‘aural reception’ or listening activities used by the language learner who receives and processes spoken input produced by one or more speakers (Council of Europe 2001: 65; 2020: 48-53). This is all the more regrettable as in EFL classroom scenarios there is a dearth of opportunities to interact with native speakers, which, in turn, creates an urgent need to expose learners to various kinds of scenarios where native-speaker input can be taken in. This need can be met by audiovisual materials such as audio files, videos, films, and TV material including genres such as documentaries, newscasts, podcasts, or serials (see ch. 9.1). This material can provide attractive and informative content and raise student Strategies to develop reading skills Listening - ‘the Cinderella skill’? 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 124 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 124 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 Unit 6 125 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS motivation. It can be used to expose learners to a wide range of authentic language use with different registers, accents, intonation, rhythms, and stresses. These media provide examples of language in actual use, thus adding relevance to the learning of English (cf.-Shumin 2002: 209). The Cinderella status of listening may be exacerbated by two established practices of teaching listening skills in the EFL classroom: (1) listening tends to be tested rather than taught: “We tend to judge successful listening simplistically in terms of correct answers to comprehension questions and tasks.” (Field 2002: 246) (2) Both teaching and testing tend to present rather artificial listening scenarios which often do not address the kind of listening that takes place in real life. Instead, artificially articulated exchanges are presented, marked by slow pace and close connection to the textbook. Generally, comprehension exercises tend to focus on the product of listening rather than on the complex process of listening. The latter needs to be thoroughly understood by teachers so that they can help students to be more successful in developing listening skills. This includes taking into consideration the types of listening that can be defined and then practiced with adequate listening tasks, the mental processes taking place in listening activities, and, finally, the listening strategies and techniques that should be taught and practiced. Listening activities include listening to various types of listening material including public announcements (e. g., information, instructions, warnings), listening to media (e. g., streamed content that addresses audiovisual reception, Hör-Seh-Verstehen). Audiovisual activities (Shumin 2002: 209) can be based on a variety of material, ranging from pictorial aids and visual imagery to videos, from music video clips to feature films (Eisenmann 2019: 114-43). Visual input creates an additional sensory impact and allows for the extension of situational contexts through which students can focus on or gain help in understanding through non-verbal behavior, interpersonal exchanges, gesture, mime, etc. Listening activities can also include taking part in live events (e. g., theater productions, public meetings, public lectures, entertainments, which may demand a more elaborate pre-listening preparation, see below), or engaging in a conversation and using interactive skills. The types of listening scenarios can be further differentiated according to the degree of information content (high information content can be found in a news bulletin, low information content in casual exchanges between friends); the semantic and acoustic complexity of the exchange (often depending on the number of speakers involved); the difficulty of the topic, accents, the quality of the recording, etc. Moreover, the question of whether the listener is required to take part in an interaction (‘reciprocal listening’) needs to be considered. This degree of difficulty is connected to problems EFL learners may encounter when exposed to listening tasks: Teaching listening skills: wrong approaches? Listening scenarios 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 125 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 125 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 07.06.2022 15: 40: 22 126 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER ▶ Words once spoken cannot be repeated or listened to for a second time. ▶ Oral communication is frequently fast (up to 10 phonemes per second). Phonemes can influence each other or be contracted, and there are few pauses between words or sentences. ▶ Problems of audibility may arise depending on the quality of a recording, background noise, etc. ▶ Problems could occur with colloquialisms, slang, non-standard English, dialects, varieties, etc. Most importantly, the purpose of listening needs to be considered as different listening processes and strategies need to be involved depending on whether one is listening for specific information, for gist, or for implications or clues which need to be taken up in a written or oral response. As with reading, two views of listening have influenced FL teaching since the 1980s (cf. Nunan 2002: 239; Vandergrift & Goh 2011: 399-402; Rossa 2012). Both must be seen as being reciprocal processes influencing listening: (1) the bottom-up processing perspective focuses on listening as a step-by-step, linear process of decoding the sounds that one hears from the smallest meaningful units (phonemes) to words, phrases to sentences, and finally whole ‘texts.’ This perspective has been called the ‘tape recorder view’ of listening “because it assumes that the listener takes in and stores messages sequentially, in much the same way as a tape recorder” (Nunan 2002: 239). (2) The complementary, top-down perspective holds that the listener decodes the meaning using incoming sounds as clues and assimilating what is heard into his/ her prior knowledge of the context or situation. This is where the listener’s (cultural) schemata come into play (i. e., previous knowledge of the world, events, people, countries, and the FL). The interrelatedness of the bottom-up and top-down processes has implications for teaching listening skills: In developing courses, materials, and lessons, it is important to teach not only bottom-up processing skills, such as the ability to discriminate between minimal pairs, but also to help learners use what they already know to understand what they hear. If teachers suspect that there are gaps in their learners’ knowledge, the listening itself can be preceded by schema-building activities to prepare learners for the listening task to come. (Nunan 2002: 239) Students therefore need systematic training in the following areas: ▶ Learning to distinguish between key sounds, intonation patterns, different accents, etc. This can be achieved by ‘remedial exercises’ or ‘microlistening activities’ (e. g., students listen to differences between voiced and unvoiced consonants) ▶ Listening to material containing parts and passages unknown to students ‘One hears what one knows.’ Training listening skills (Mis-)understanding dialect: ‘Mousehole’ in Cornwall is pronounced like ‘muzzle’. Fig. 6.7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 126 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 126 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 Unit 6 127 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS ▶ Listening to material incorporating different features of spoken language (e. g., gender, different accents, different tones of voice: angry vs. excited) ▶ Being prepared for situations where listeners will not have a full understanding of what they hear (e. g., background noise, unknown vocabulary, dialect) ▶ Different types and purposes of listening, from listening selectively to listening for gist It goes without saying that such training should focus on the kind of language and situations students are most likely to encounter in real life. Likewise, training should not work with the assumption that learners will identify most of the words they hear. Instead, lessons should be modelled most closely to the kind of process “that takes place in a real-life situation where understanding of what is said is less than perfect” (Field 2002: 246). Techniques used to further listening skills are listed in fig. 6.8 (cf. Field 2002: 242-45; Vandergrift & Goh 2011: 402-05; Council of Europe 2020: 48-53): Pre-listening Listening Post-listening ▶ Activating students’ prior knowledge about the topic(s) to be featured in the listening activity (e. g., building hypotheses about topics, possible vocabulary and grammar) ▶ Pre-teaching new vocabulary items of the recording and/ or basic context/ content ▶ Giving hints as to understanding unknown accents, dialects, etc. ▶ Creating motivation ▶ Establishing objectives of listening activity ▶ Establishing the type of listening activity (selective listening or detailed understanding) ▶ Giving a number of attention pointers beforehand ▶ Using various listening types from detailed understanding to listening for gist ▶ Inferring meaning ▶ Dealing with pre-set task(s) ▶ Checking answers and comparing hypotheses with actual content ▶ Predicting what will be communicated next ▶ Taking notes ▶ Paying attention to linguistic markers that signal main ideas, details, or discourse structure ▶ Reflecting on how what has been listened to fits into the schemata ▶ Reflecting on what has been learned, how this can be used ▶ Analyzing language ▶ Repeating ▶ Checking and comparing answers and understanding ▶ Pooling the information received, then presenting it in oral or written summaries ▶ Responding to recording in various ways Arendt (1999: 404-05) argues against using listening comprehensions featuring listening for discrete items (discrimination tasks) and uninteresting topics. Most importantly, Arendt surmises, listening tasks should not have several repetitions of the recording. These practices run counter to listening scenarios in real life. What is your opinion, especially regarding the suggestion that recordings should be played only once? Improving listening skills Fig. 6.8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 127 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 127 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 128 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER Productive skills: writing and speaking With regard to productive skills, the CEFR distinguishes between evaluative/ transactional and interactive activities and skills. Evaluation and transaction can be seen to take place when somebody writes something creative, follows a certain narrative and rhetorical pattern (e. g., a report, an essay) or engages in a sustained monolog (e. g., putting a case to an audience, delivering a speech, giving a public announcement). Interaction in writing includes different types of correspondences (e. g., notes, messages, forms which will be responded to). Writing A written text is (usually) produced to be received by readers. Writing includes completing forms and questionnaires; writing contributions for (online) newspapers, newsletters, forums, etc.; producing posters for display; writing reports, essays, etc.; taking notes in class; taking notes for future reference; creative and imaginative writing; writing personal or professional letters, etc. As with reading, L1 approaches and insights into developing writing skills need to be regarded (cf. Hattie 2009: 141-43). There appears to be a strong link between writing skills in the L1 and the FL, which indicates that negative results in writing tasks are not necessarily related to a lack of FL proficiency. Writing in any language requires composition proficiency, which needs to be fostered. However, in FL writing learners tend to stay closer to the text or text model their writing responds to or is based on. They need to be encouraged to develop their own ideas and both language and argumentative skills, which enable them to refrain from sticking closely to the original text. Similarly, typical expressions, chunks, and rhetorical strategies used in a certain text genre need to be introduced and practiced (e. g., ‘to sum up,’ ‘in a nutshell’). Most significantly, writing needs to be considered as a process. The process approach to teaching writing does not mean that writing is completely dissociated from the written product but to “construct process-oriented writing instructions that will affect performance” (Freedman et al. in Seow 2002: 316; cf. Polio & Williams 2011: 490-91). The writing process may be seen as comprising four interrelated phases of planning, drafting, revising, and editing. However, the phases are not necessarily sequential or orderly; rather, they may take place in an exploratory, recursive, and non-linear manner. When teaching process writing, in contrast, teachers usually follow a highly structured and orderly phasing. For advanced learners, though, such a ‘formulaic’ approach needs to be expanded to cover free variations of writing stages. In the following, the four phases will be briefly discussed (cf. Seow 2002: 316-17; Polio & Williams 2011: 490-96). Planning: students are encouraged to write. Methods and strategies include the following: 6.1.3 Writing is the geometry of the soul. - Plato Writing as a complex process Phases of writing 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 128 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 128 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 Unit 6 129 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS ▶ Generating ideas (e. g., through brainstorming, think-pair-share activities, establishing clusters of ideas) ▶ Getting into the mood or habit of writing: individual students jot down freely and quickly (rapid free writing) their ideas about a topic, a time limit is given, ideas and phrases are compared ▶ Ideas and phrases are structured and selected, the topic or task is focused on ▶ Wh-questions: students generate who, why, what, where, when, and how questions about a topic. This is elaborated on by adding more questions consecutively ▶ Writing strategies can be gleaned from other texts, multimedia sources, etc. Drafting: having collected sufficient ideas on a topic, the first attempt at writing can proceed. This involves a focus on the fluency of writing down ideas, getting them into a linear order, considering the implied reader or audience. Both the overall composition of what will be written needs to be kept in mind as well as the arrangement of single ideas or phrases. Additionally, the text genre needs to be observed. Students could be encouraged to experiment with different draft versions, ranging from just writing down key ideas in bullet-point fashion to composing a complete first draft already including more elaborate parts. Writing: writing itself is a complex activity. It includes keeping both the overall and paragraph composition in mind, considering style, grammar, lexis, etc. It also involves constant reflection on how to formulate and revise while in the process of writing, adding or modifying aspects, as well as restructuring. The formulation component, to focus on one important element, “takes the output from the planning component and assembles it into linguistic form. This involves lexical, grammatical, phonological (and in the case of writing, orthographic) processes” (Council of Europe 2001: 91). Revising and editing: revising does not just mean checking for language errors and mistakes, but also re-examining parts of the text or the whole text with regard to how meaning is most effectively communicated to the reader. Revision may also build on responses or assessments by peers or the teacher. Editing takes place both after the drafting phase and after a product has been evaluated and assessed by peers or the teacher. Editing is done for grammar, spelling, punctuation, diction, sentence structure, development of argument and the like. Teachers could issue a simple checklist (based on Seow 2002: 318): ▶ Have you used the verbs in the correct form and the correct tense (e. g., past tense vs. present perfect)? ▶ Have you used the correct articles, pronouns, and prepositions? ▶ Is your choice and use of adjectives, adverbs, and nouns correct? ▶ Is your syntax correct and are your sentences complete? ▶ Have you linked your sentences and ideas through adverbs, fixed phrases, etc.? ▶ Is your line of argumentation coherent? Writing checklist 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 129 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 129 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 130 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER Writing should not take place in a cultural vacuum but rather in a certain (inter-)cultural context where it becomes clear to students that they generate meaning in writing- - meaning which may be responded to by other readers. Therefore, writing activities must be fashioned as meaningful, personal, and imaginative scenarios (cf. Hattie 2009: 142), where the genre of the text to be written, its content, its addressee and mode (from speech to report) need to be observed from the beginning of the writing process to its end (cf. Polio & Williams 2011: 496-98). Responses to postings on the Internet or participating in online discussions of global issues (e. g., concerning the environment) are among such student-oriented writing activities with a high degree of real world relevance. Post-writing activities include sharing a complete piece of writing (or several of them) by publishing it, reading it with others, reading aloud, acting it out, or displaying it: The post-writing stage is a platform for recognising students’ work as important and worthwhile. It may be used as a motivation for writing as well as to hedge against students finding excuses for not writing. Students must be made to feel that they are writing for a very real purpose. (Seow 2002: 319) Arendt (1999: 407) suggests that writing skills should never be practiced with rigid and patterned activities such as writing ‘model dialogs’ but rather by focusing on real-life and creative forms of writing. Think of ways to make writing more creative, with students writing responses resembling real-life situations. Speaking The functions of spoken language are both transactional and interactive. Generally, the main goal of the former is to convey information and ideas, while that of the latter consists of maintaining social relationships (cf. Shumin 2002: 208). This differentiation should have an effect on the teaching of oral skills, since most of our daily communication is interactional: “Therefore, language instructors should provide learners with opportunities for meaningful communicative behavior about relevant topics by using learner-learner interaction as the key to teaching language for communication” (ibid.). Crucially, this can be supported and stimulated through extensive exposure to interesting and meaningful, authentic language material. Interactive activities based on or stimulated by such authentic material should (1) motivate learners to manipulate and play with certain specific features of language (i. e., not pattern drills, but playing out real-life scenarios with unexpected or unknown elements), (2) allow learners to rehearse communicative skills they need outside of the classroom, and (3) encourage them to learn and practice more autonomously. As with listening, speaking- - specifically as part of an interactive task- - needs to be seen as a process consisting of four main phases: conceptualizing, Meaningful writing scenarios Transaction and interaction Speaking as a process 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 130 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 130 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 Unit 6 131 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS formulating, articulating, repair/ self-control (cf. Bygate 2011: 419-20). When using a FL, speakers are influenced in each phase by the phonological, grammatical, and lexical system of their mother tongue, and, in general, by the schemata and scripts of their own culture. These schemata are especially influential in the phase of conceptualization (see ch. 5.1): here, speakers become aware of their communicative needs and intentions. They structure these according to what has already been communicated and according to their cultural or intercultural schemata. When formulating utterances, words are provided to formulate sentence structures including components of phonology and prosody. This leads to articulation, the execution of ‘inner speech’ by means of the organs of speech. Finally, while articulating, the speaker monitors himor herself constantly and makes use of repair mechanisms. Interaction encompasses both receptive and productive skills. Since real oral communication is based on some kind of commonly shared cultural and situational context and two or more interlocutors can be seen as ‘negotiating’ a process of creating meaning or common ground, there are a number of competences and skills involved: for example, soft skills and intercultural communicative competences such as knowing how to interact in a specific situation (cf. Schubert 2006). In other words, grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic, and strategic competences (see ch. 4.3.1) are all components of interactive communication skills. Teaching and learning interaction can feature the following activities and development of sub-skills: Planning or framing: speakers activate cultural and language schemata. They envision-- sometimes in split seconds-- what would be the possible and probable forthcoming activity. They identify what is expected from them, what options they have, and prepare possible moves in interchanges. Similar preactivities can be practiced as in listening tasks. In addition, speech routines and certain speech acts can be practiced in role plays-- again, with an emphasis on practical applicability and flexibility. Activities preparing for the process of exchanges include (cf. Bygate 2011: 419-20): ▶ Initiating and maintaining conversation: this includes the routines of greeting and establishing contact and rapport, routines of small talk, avoiding problematic topics, finding common ground and mutual understanding, staying focused on a certain subject, cooperating, using politeness routines, specifically ‘face-work’ (e. g., apologies and praise) ▶ Turn-taking strategies and taking the floor: this includes routines used to Speaking as interacting Interaction skills ‘Denglish pronunciation’ Fig. 6.9 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 131 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 131 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 132 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER respond, verbally and non-verbally, to signal understanding, affirmation, confirmation, etc.; polite ways of disagreeing, defending one’s position; staying with a subject, and changing the subject of a conversation ▶ Monitoring and repair work: asking for assistance in formulating something; clarifying miscomprehension or ambiguities; if necessary, re-establishing communication and clearing up misunderstandings (communication repair on the levels of language, politeness, intercultural understanding, etc.) Interactional activities in the classroom should be characterized by (1) intrinsic motivation through relevant topics, (2) an anxiety-free atmosphere with students knowing that the communicative phase is based on the principle of fluency before accuracy, (3) the teacher providing additional support such as linguistic help, visual or textual support (e. g., a map of London if the lesson is about finding one’s way), (4) the class feeling no need to seek one-to-one equivalences for words, avoiding artificial language and slipping into the mother tongue, (5) a sense of achievement and as many students as possible being involved, and (6) topics which are made relevant or ‘spiced up’ through interesting tasks. Examples of effective speaking activities include the following (c. f. Eisenmann 2019: 91-105): ▶ Mini-debates: following the example of debating societies, speakers take on contrary opinions and defend them. ▶ Interviews: interviews can be with experts or non-experts, structured or not, and may be done inside and outside the classroom. Typical examples are media interviews (e. g., simulating an interview with a famous person), job interviews, or real interviews where there is a reason to conduct them in English (e. g., at the airport, with international companies, online interviews via Skype). ▶ Think-pair-share and similar scenarios: here students are asked to think alone first, then share ideas with partners, then respond to all members of the class. Similar arrangements are ball-bearing (inner and outer circle, students move on one chair to talk to the next person) or fish-bowl discussions (two or three discuss in the middle, the others seated around them may join in). ▶ Discussions on a topic in small groups, expert groups, panel discussions: these discussions can include the participation of the whole group at one point and/ or allow contributions aided by notes. ▶ Responses to literature/ film: students discuss their responses to literary or filmic texts (see chs. 8, 9). This may involve teacher participation, especially with the teacher as an expert on analyzing literary texts. ▶ Role playing: students perform their own script, based on a text or an original script. Learning speaking through speaking 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 132 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 132 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 Unit 6 133 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS ▶ Storytelling: students present their own texts. The emphasis, again, is on pronunciation and prosody. ▶ Formal speeches and illustrated talks: with or without the help of media (e. g., PowerPoint presentations) and notes, students present a short or long talk. Eye contact, pauses, intonation, pitch, etc. are taken into consideration. A talk could also be accompanied by an interactive part (e. g., a question and answer session). Finally, a note on teachers as role models for oral skills: non-fluent teachers may be advised to hone their own skills with the help of audio files and tapes used in class, and pay careful attention to articulation and intonation compared with native speakers on recordings. They should carefully watch themselves for inhibitions about speaking the FL since this will create an atmosphere where students are quite unwilling to speak the FL themselves. It seems advisable to use techniques which encourage students to use the FL as much as possible, and to be patient and persevere in improving one’s own oral skills (e. g., by watching TV shows or serials in original language versions in one’s spare time). Arendt (1999: 405-06) suggests that frontal teaching is one of the main obstacles to students’ developing speaking or interaction skills. Think of ways to decrease teacher talk time. Compare with suggestions in chapter 10.4.2. Mediation and intercultural competence The skill of mediation (cf. Kolb 2016) may at first appear like a revamping of time-honored and much-maligned activities of (literal and exact) translating and interpreting. However, a revived interest in ‘mediating’ between the mother tongue and the FL can be attributed to insights into what happens in real-life situations. Various forms of acting as an intermediary between two or more languages may be required, such as in the following scenarios (cf. Council of Europe 2020: 32, 104): ▶ Summing up a FL text in one’s own language to present information required for a certain activity later on-- particularly for others who do not speak the FL or do not understand certain technical terms ▶ Being asked to interpret, not verbatim, but by paraphrasing a text the other person does not understand (e. g., the content of an inscription, basics of a manual) ▶ Being asked to translate simultaneously at a meeting (e. g., for a foreign visitor to one’s country, to native speakers when abroad) ▶ Negotiating meaning in non-native-speaker to non-native-speaker contexts, where some speakers speak English, while others do not 6.1.4 Real-life mediation 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 133 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 133 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 134 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER Elements of plurilingualism and interculturality are important in mediation activities, given “the increasing linguistic and cultural diversity of our societies” (ibid.: 22): The linguistic and cultural competences in respect of each language are modified by knowledge of the other and contribute to intercultural awareness, skills and know-how. They enable the individual to develop an enriched, more complex personality and an enhanced capacity for further language learning and greater openness to new cultural experiences. (Council of Europe 2001: 91) Mediation activities can be structured according to the pre-activity, activity, and post-activity pattern described for listening and reading activities above. In addition, mediation-specific skills such as the following need to be developed: ▶ Being able to take the communicative need of the partner(s) into account ▶ Being able to do things simultaneously by anticipating what will be communicated next while interpreting ▶ Being aware of ‘untranslatable’ or culturally different expressions ▶ Bridging gaps and finding impromptu repair mechanisms and equivalents (e. g., if a word is unknown) ▶ Being able to repair by using reference works efficiently ▶ Using knowledge of other languages and their syntax, vocabulary, etc. (e. g., French, Spanish, Turkish, Latin) for the purpose of communicating with native and non-native speakers Think of possible scenarios where students would use mediation skills. Make a list and consider ways of preparing students for such scenarios. All language skills, including mediation, must be regarded as being inextricably intertwined with intercultural competence (cf. Byram 1997, see ch. 7.2.2). Frequently, intercultural competence boils down to adhering wisely to politeness conventions of the target culture or of the individuals one encounters. Basically, this means avoiding frankness and bluntness, using ‘please’ and ‘thank you’ appropriately, and knowing the difference in the use of positive and negative politeness (cf. Schubert 2006). While ‘positive politeness’ implies showing interest in the other person’s well-being by establishing rapport, expressing admiration, affection, and gratitude, ‘negative politeness’ strategies aim at avoiding ‘face-threatening behavior’ (e. g., direct orders, corrections, prohibitions). In intercultural situations, politeness is often connected with non-verbal communication, and there is great need for highlighting these elements in the EFL classroom: Because of the influence or interference of their own cultural norms, it is hard for non-native speakers to choose the forms appropriate for certain situations. For instance, in Chinese culture, paying a compliment to someone obliges that per- Politeness skills 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 134 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 134 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 07.06.2022 15: 40: 23 Unit 6 135 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS son to give a negative answer (such as ‘No. It is not so good.’) in order to show ‘modesty’, whereas in North American culture such a response might be both inappropriate and embarrassing. (Shumin 2002: 206) There is an enormous variation across cultures and languages in how people express themselves with mime, gesture, and body language (cf. Oomen-Welke 2004). Learners often do not know how to interpret non-verbal messages. In intercultural encounters, this creates misunderstandings as described in the following example from a US-American setting: One day, when a Chinese student heard ‘Let’s get together for lunch sometime.’ he immediately responded by proposing to fix a specific date without noticing the speaker’s indifferent facial expression. Undoubtedly, he was puzzled when his interlocutor left without giving him an expected answer. (Shumin 2002: 206) It is obvious that the Chinese student had different concepts of politeness and, on top of that, did not understand the non-verbal cue. In the following, a number of activities aimed at fostering students’ communicative, intercultural, and nonverbal skills are suggested. These take into account the categories of non-verbal signals as described by Argyle (1975; cf. Oomen-Welke 2004): bodily contact, proximity, orientation, appearance, posture, head-nods, facial expressions, gestures, and looking. In addition, they alert us to the functions of non-verbal signs in intercultural contexts: to manage the immediate social situation, to sustain verbal communication, and/ or to replace verbal communication. Read the following suggestions for practicing non-verbal communication skills. Try some of them in your class. Activity Description Observe the teacher/ student Teachers or students act out everyday situations in front of students (without words); they read out a text using gestures; students observe, comment, and imitate What’s the meaning? This is an activity about understanding sign language across cultures: students interpret several typical gestures (V-sign with index and middle fingers and how they differ across cultures (e. g., displayed on a transparency) Acting out small scenes This could start with textbook dialogs and go on to scenes from (mini-)dramas or scenes composed by the students: the focus is on non-verbal communication and how it can underline or contradict verbal messages Analyzing literature Students discuss the use of non-verbal communication in literary texts, ranging from drama to conversations in novels Describing pictures One student explains a picture the other student cannot see; the other student draws; then they discuss the use of gestures Non-verbal messages Teaching non-verbal communication-- activities raising awareness Fig. 6.10 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 135 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 135 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 136 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER Playing ‘Activity’ Cards with terms or phrases are prepared and need to be explained without words (e. g., ‘spiral staircase,’ ‘blackout,’ ‘stage fright’) Watching (scenes from) a film This is done with the sound off: what can be inferred just from nonverbal communication? Alternatively, scenes from a silent movie can be worked with Intelligent guessing Gestures and non-verbal aspects of communication are shown visually: students are asked to infer the mood of the person shown Role play: using sign language A scenario is set where, in a foreign country, the students do not speak the language. They are asked to think of ways to express needs like: ‘I’m hungry,’ ‘I’m looking for the bathroom,’ etc. Alternatively, students are asked to reflect on how they communicate in situations where words cannot be used (e. g., across the classroom, at a concert) Discussing non-verbal language in a culturally diverse classroom, with exchange students, etc. Students are asked to consider specific gestures, eye contact, proximity, etc.: how close, for instance, would you stand to another person in a line waiting for the bus? How long would you look into the eyes of another person (same sex, different sex) in certain situations? Authentic communicative tasks and activities Similar to the tasks for raising awareness about the importance of non-verbal communication suggested above, there are tasks and activities which aim at making communication in the classroom similar to communication in real life by juxtaposing it with oral practices in traditional classroom settings (cf. Nunan 2002). Figure 6.11 shows on the left-hand side more traditional classroom activities, on the right-hand side authentic communicative activities or tasks (The Examinations Office for TELC 2002: 6.03-07, abridged). (Oral) practice in the classroom (Oral) practice outside the classroom What: content of communication Content or topic are decided by the teacher, textbook, etc. Content is highly predictable. Speakers express their own ideas, wishes, opinions, attitudes, etc. The exact meaning of any speaker’s message is unpredictable. Why: reason for communication Learners speak in order to practice speaking or because the teacher tells them to. Speakers have a social or personal reason to speak. There is an information gap to be filled or an area of uncertainty to be made clear. What is said is potentially interesting or useful to the participants. Why: result of communication The foreign language is spoken, the teacher corrects or accepts what is said; a grade is given (extrinsic motivation). Speakers achieve their aims: they get what they wanted, an information gap is filled, a problem is solved, a decision is reached or a social contract is made. The result is of intrinsic interest or value to the participants. 6.1.5 Traditional classroom discourse vs. authentic communicative activities Fig. 6.11 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 136 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 136 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 Unit 6 137 K EY COMPETENCES AND SKILLS Who: participants in communication A large group in which not everyone is facing the speakers or interested in what they say, except perhaps for one person, the teacher, who pays less attention to what they say than to how correctly they say it. Two or more people, facing each other, pay attention and respond to what is said rather than to how correctly it is said. How: means of communication Language from teacher or medium is very closely adapted to learners’ level. All speech is as accurate as possible, and usually in complete sentences. Learners are corrected if their speech deviates from standard forms, whether or not their meaning is clear. Little consideration is paid to the general language level of the speaker. If there are problems, compensation strategies are used. The interlocutor helps to ensure that the content is correct. In other words, for the classroom to change and to be as authentic as possible, classroom activities should be designed in accordance with the criteria of processand product-orientation, with verbal (a ‘text’) or non-verbal (a solution, a decision) elements. Suggest more activities that would entail the features described on the lefthand side. Write them into the right-hand column. Feature of activity Typical activities Other activities Has an end/ result/ end product Designing a poster, displaying it in class, discussing it; writing a CV for an application Participants are interested in achieving the aim/ result Writing an application for being in a chatshow, or for an appearance in a TV series; students have to follow a written instruction to assemble something The participants can make use of their own ideas, needs, experiences, views, etc. Responding to literature, films, videos They have an information and/ or opinion gap A specialist in class reports on sports; students watch live television coverage of an important event There is a reason for speaking/ writing and for reading/ listening The issue at hand is of global concern and the debate is on a global level, with English as lingua franca (e. g. writing to ATTAC, Amnesty International, a politician in another country) Communicative activities: learning reading through reading, writing through writing, speaking through speaking, listening through listening Communicative activities Fig. 6.12 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 137 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 137 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 138 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER Language behavior is as authentic as possible, i. e. no simplifications, no unnaturally slow speech, but use of compensation strategies, spontaneous speech Inviting a guest to class; skyping with an English-speaking person about an important and significant issue There is a reason for interaction, production and/ or reception Being invited to present a speech in English; having to organize a trip to another country Learning strategies and learner types Learning strategies The fostering of learning strategies, enabling learners progressively to become more autonomous, has already been an integral part of the delineations above. Such learning strategies involve taking into account different learner types (for an introduction cf. Viebrock 2017; Eisenmann 2017, 2019: 36-43; a critical discussion can be found in Hattie 2009: 195-99, 236, 244-47). Which strategies learners use and how they use them have been referred to in the vital fields of listening, reading, writing, and speaking, as well as in coterminous and related fields such as conversation skills, politeness and conversation routines, mediation, non-verbal communication, and intercultural skills. To illustrate the applicability of strategies with regard to concrete learning goals, a condition (IF) is linked to one or more action clauses (THEN) (O’Malley & Chamot 1996: 52, adapted): ▶ IF the goal is to comprehend an oral or written text, and I am unable to identify the word’s meaning, THEN I will try to infer the meaning from the context. ▶ IF the goal is to comprehend a concept in a written text, and I know the concept is not at the beginning, THEN I will scan through the text to locate the concept. ▶ IF the goal is to comprehend and remember an oral passage and I have heard a complete passage or thought expressed, THEN I will summarize the passage to ensure I understand it. Express in three lines, using IF and THEN constructions, goals and strategies for the following contexts: ▶ Initiate a conversation ▶ Sound like a native speaker ▶ Use grammatically correct English ▶ Avoid intercultural blunders ▶ Understand every detail of a recording ▶ Understand a political speech 6.2 6.2.1 Der Unterricht ist “auf die Mittelköpfe” ausgerichtet (Tillmann 2007: 2) - Teaching only to the ‘average’ student? Applying strategies 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 138 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 138 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 Unit 6 139 L EARNING STRATEGIES AND LEARNER T YPES Defined as “specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills,” learning strategies “can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language” (Oxford 2002: 124; for concrete learning techniques cf. Rampillon 1991, 2007). Learning how to learn appears as a vital skill with life-long implications, promising more effective language learning and use. Research (O’Malley & Chamot 1996: 196; Cohen 1998; Oxford 2002: 124-37; Eisenmann 2017, 2019; see ch. 5.3.4) has suggested that the following strategies should be considered in the EFL classroom: ▶ Effective FL learners are aware of the strategies they use and why they employ them. ▶ Mentally active learners are better learners, especially when linking new knowledge to existing knowledge and organizing new information accordingly. ▶ Strategies need to be regularly trained and should form an integral part of regular classroom events. ▶ Strategy training takes time and regular honing. It needs to be “planned, deliberate, and explicit” (Hattie 2009: 160). Strategy instructions should be incorporated in meaningful communicative contexts. ▶ Teachers should provide explicit explanation and modelling of strategy use and provide ample opportunities for practice. ▶ Students should be taught how to identify and analyze the learning strategies which are most useful for them individually. This can be done through action research but also by means of learning diaries and learning journals as well as through reflecting on one’s own preferences. ▶ Learning strategies can be transferred to new tasks, where students, once accustomed to using certain strategies, can apply their skills to tasks similar to the ones they initially were trained to fulfil. Learning strategies are usually differentiated into the categories of metacognitive, cognitive, and social/ affective strategies (O’Malley & Chamot 1996: 197; Oxford 2002: 121; Hattie 2009: 190). With regard to FL learning, the following definitions and important strategies can be discerned (see fig. 6.13): Metacognitive strategies Cognitive strategies Social/ affective strategies ▶ Planning one’s learning, comprehension, and production ▶ Evaluating one’s progress ▶ Learning to interact with the material to be learned by manipulating it mentally or physically (e. g., using vocabulary cards) ▶ Interacting with others to assist learning, cooperating ▶ Asking for clarification ▶ Using affective control to assist a learning task Definition: learning strategies Categories Learning strategies Fig. 6.13 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 139 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 139 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 140 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER ▶ Developing a plan to monitor progress (e. g., a learning diary), comparing with goals and other learners ▶ Focusing on a task (e. g., planning to listen for key words or phrases) ▶ Planning the organization of a written or oral task ▶ Using memory-enhancing strategies to help remember new words (e. g., visuals, keyword method) ▶ Learning inferencing and summarizing techniques ▶ Comparing notes with others ▶ Seeking feedback ▶ Developing a positive attitude toward target cultures ▶ Seeking chances to practice the FL Learner types Research indicates that a number of factors strongly influence how students of foreign languages choose and use learning styles. These factors include motivation, personality (The Big 5: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, Openness to Experience, see 2.1.1), gender, age, class, ethnicity, cultural background, language proficiency, and career or academic specialization. Motivation is one of the most important factors, since motivated foreign language learners generally use more strategies than less motivated learners (Oxford 2002: 127; Council of Europe 2020; see ch. 4). Within the wider context of the discussion of learning strategies certain learner styles or learner types have also been identified (c. f. Eisenmann 2019: 36-43 for details; see chs. 4.6, 5.3.4). Teachers, however, should refrain from pigeon-holing learners or from believing that catering to different learner types serves as the one-size-fits-all approach for solving all teaching or learning problems. There are, indeed, conflicting opinions in the literature on learner types: “The claim is that teaching is more effective when these learning preferences are taken into account- - although others have claimed the opposite: that we should be teaching students the learning styles they do not have” (Hattie 2009: 195). Moreover, most students are not solely one specific learner type such as the visual, the auditory, or the kinesthetic type. These well-known ‘VAK-types’ are often differentiated as follows according to the way information is taken in, stored, and recalled (Rosenberg 2013: 7, 16-18): ▶ Visual learner type: he/ she likes everything written down, marks materials with colors, likes visual stimulation and handouts and needs to take material ‘off ’ the page, rewrite it, rearrange it, learn it again. ▶ Auditory learner type: they need to listen or speak to remember information. They often sub-vocalize when reading, move in rhythm, or learn best with music in the background. They love class discussions and listening to stories or telling stories. ▶ Kinesthetic learner type: (1) The emotional learner type needs to feel comfortable in a group, needs positive experiences and personalized learning material. (2) The motoric learner type needs to try out everything for himor herself. He/ she learns by doing and by real-life experiences. This type 6.2.2 Factors influencing learners Learner types VAK learner types 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 140 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 140 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 Unit 6 141 H ETEROGENEOUS GROUPS AND INCLUSION enjoys moving about, often having problems staying put for a longer time. He/ she is more concerned with a whole experience than with details. At home he/ she may find that learning new vocabulary needs to be supported by walking about simultaneously. Other learner types have also been identified (cf. Eisenmann 2019: 36-43). Often opposite ‘types’ are defined such as the global vs. the analytic learner, the abstract vs. the concrete thinker, the systematic vs. the non-systematic way of processing and organizing information. However, students generally do not just fall into one category but tend to have certain preferences or penchants. Being aware of the fact that they have to teach different learner types, establishing what preferences individual learners have, and finding differentiated ideas and activities according to learner preferences can be an important teaching ‘tool’ (Rosenberg 2013: 7). Heterogeneous groups and inclusion Heterogeneous groups Since teachers increasingly need to cater to the diverse needs and abilities of learners, the following pages will first focus on learner types, then mixed-ability classes, and finally on including learners who are physically or mentally disabled (‘inclusion’). In the broader sense, the following suggestions focus on taking individual learners seriously, adapting activities for different learners while keeping this in balance with standardization and competence-orientation- - which can be an extremely demanding task, indeed. We want to satisfy the many different students in front of us, teaching to their individual strengths with activities designed to produce the best results for each of them, yet we also want to address our teaching to the group as a whole. (Harmer in Rosenberg 2013: 12) First of all, teachers need to recognize and/ or diagnose how students in their class are ‘different’: from others in the class and also from what the curriculum or textbooks presuppose as the ‘average’ learner-- if there ever was such a person. The following five categories help to define learning style dimensions (cf. Felder & Henriques 1995: 12; Rosenberg 2013: 27-28): ▶ What is the preferred type of information intake and processing of the student: sensory (sights, sounds, physical sensations) or intuitive (memories, ideas, insights)? ▶ How is sensory information most effectively used: visual (pictures, diagrams, graphs, demonstrations) or verbal (written and spoken words, formulas)? ▶ How does the student prefer to process information: actively (engagement in physical activity or discussion) or reflectively (introspection)? 6.3 6.3.1 Diversity, heterogeneity, individuality 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 141 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 141 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 142 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER ▶ How does the student progress toward understanding: sequentially (logical progression of small incremental steps) or globally (large jumps, holistically)? ▶ With which organization of information is the student most comfortable: inductive (facts and observations are given, underlying principles are inferred) or deductive (principles are given, consequences and applications are deduced)? It may seem like an enormous task to explore and identify the different styles and types of learners in a class. Yet beginning to notice how individual learners learn best can be both an enjoyable and rewarding experience for teachers and learners alike: “By encouraging learners to develop those strategies [which are best for them and] which will make them more autonomous in how they approach and work on material, we can help them to become life-long learners.” (Rosenberg 2013: 14) The practical implementations of the concept of different learner styles in the classroom can begin with offering teaching and learning scenarios which appeal to a great variety of learner types. Teachers need to make students aware of how they learn and communicate. They should encourage them and offer tasks which support their individual learning styles. Here is a list of teaching suggestions for ‘multi-style learning and teaching’ (based on Felder & Henriques 1995: 28-29; numerous other suggestions can be found in Börner et al. 2010; Eisenmann 2017, 2019): ▶ Motivating classroom atmosphere: new material is presented in true-to-life situations and students can relate their personal experience and anticipation about their lives. ▶ Balancing concrete information appealing to sensory perception and conceptual information (cognitive, deductive) according to the needs of learners, with an emphasis on concrete information in beginner classes. ▶ Balancing structured teaching approaches such as formal training with more open-ended, unstructured activities (communicative phases). ▶ Frequent use of visuals, e. g., films, photographs, drawings, sketches, and cartoons to illustrate and reinforce the meanings of words, to focus on cultural issues, and to foster media competence. ▶ Avoiding too much lecturing and writing on the board. Providing intervals for students to take in information, including brief writing exercises (reflective); posing questions and problems to be dealt with by students in small groups, and enacting dialogs and mini-dramas. ▶ Giving students the option of cooperating with homework assignments and encouraging interaction. “All students participate in respectful work.” (Eisenmann 2017: 300) ▶ Balancing inductive and deductive presentation of course material, leaving options for students’ own approaches, especially with more advanced learners. Multistyle approaches 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 142 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 142 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 Unit 6 143 H ETEROGENEOUS GROUPS AND INCLUSION For heterogeneous learner groups or mixed-ability classes teachers may use different textbooks in the same class. However, this may have a stigmatizing effect on students and, therefore, material and activities should be chosen satisfying both those with above-average and below-average skills. Such a multilevel approach is based on a few basic principles (cf. Bowler & Parminter 2002: 59; Müller 2012; Klippert 2016; Eisenmann 2017: 300): ▶ It is not necessary for every student to understand every item of the material presented or worked with. Rather, success is measured by how individual students complete the task that is set for them as members of a group or even as individuals. ▶ Success and student ability can be measured according to a simple equation: ‘text level of challenge-+ task level or support-= student success.’ ▶ In other words, a difficult and long text can be coupled with a simple task that makes reading it (scanning it, skimming it, looking for key words, etc.) achievable for weaker students. On the other hand, a short and simple text can be accompanied by a demanding task (e. g., finding the political symbolism in a fable). ‘Tiered tasks’ serve as a strategy of differentiation. Tiered assignments address heterogeneity through activities and tasks tailored to learners grouped according to their level of competences. Tiered assignments are a series of related tasks of different levels of complexity and scaffolding according to learners’ individual needs (cf. Bowler & Parminter 2002: 59; Eisenmann 2019: 60-61). Using the example of students having to respond to a written text, a tiered task would have a set of three different tasks: below-average students are provided with support for answers on the task sheet (e. g., more information) and the task is relatively simple (e. g., matching activities, multiple-choice options). Average students get less (or no) additional information, but an option of several correct or incorrect answers in matching exercises. Above-average students would not get any extra support, but possibly more abstract and demanding questions. Devise tiered tasks for below-average, average, and above-average students for (1) interpreting a scene from a film, (2) giving a short oral presentation on what students did during a school trip to London, (3) practicing a grammatical structure. Some textbooks provide several task types, appealing to weaker and stronger learners, but also to different learning styles. However, it remains the task of the teacher to refrain from sending out discriminatory signals by habitually allotting simple tasks to weak students and more demanding tasks to strong students. There should be an element of free choice involved and different activities and skill applications require re-allocation of tasks and learners. Multilevel approach to heterogeneity Tiered tasks 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 143 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 143 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 07.06.2022 15: 40: 24 144 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER Inclusion Discuss the following statement with regard to the challenge of ‘inclusion’: “From the first day of school our school system aims at securing the fiction of homogeneous learner groups.” (Tillmann 2007: 7, our trans.) In 1994, the World Conference on Special Needs Education, which took place in Spain, issued the so-called Salamanca Statement, which addressed the problem of millions of children all over the world being excluded from the regular educational system. The principles outlined in this document formed the framework for the UNESCO Guidelines for Inclusion: Ensuring Access to Education for All (2005). There is a particular concern with the identification and removal of barriers to mainstream educational processes: Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion within and from education. It involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a common vision which covers all children of the appropriate age range and a conviction that it is the responsibility of the regular system to educate all children. (UNESCO 2005: 13) Governments, especially in Europe, while subscribing to the principles and recognizing the appeal for concrete actions, have been either slow (Germany) or fast (England) in starting to implement (some of) the proposed inclusive educational principles. In England, for example, the DfES (Department for Education and Skills) decreed a Special Educational Needs and Disability Act and published an “Index for Inclusion” to be used for all English schools (Booth & Ainscow 2002/ 2011). Lagging behind, Germany ratified the UN Disability Rights Convention (Behindertenrechtskonvention) in 2009. In 2011, the Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales issued an action plan entitled Unser Weg in eine inklusive Gesellschaft. While most of the projects listed in this document are mere declarations of intent, increasingly concrete steps to implement inclusion have been demanded (c. f. Eisenmann 2019: 204-16). The federal states responsible for introducing inclusive principles into their educational systems have gradually begun practical implementations. In 2012, a leading article in a major German newspaper put the problem or challenge of implementing inclusion principles into a nutshell by stating that “inclusion is not a reform but rather a revolution for the classroom” (Osel 2012: n. p., our trans.). And indeed, there are manifold problems which should not be swept under the carpet when finding solutions to how inclusion can be implemented: 6.3.2 Inclusion as a ‘revolution’? UNESCO guidelines 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 144 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 144 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 Unit 6 145 H ETEROGENEOUS GROUPS AND INCLUSION ▶ Inclusion entails a break with traditional concepts deeply ingrained in the educational system with several tiers, governed by the principles of selection, competition, and achievement- - including special needs schools (Förderschulen). ▶ Inclusion means a rift with traditional concepts of an ability-based pedagogy by advocating different goals. ▶ Inclusion is advocated by many and is seen as the ‘politically correct’ approach. Yet, time and again there have been news reports on parents and pedagogues being extremely concerned about and opposed to concrete cases of inclusion if their own children are involved. ▶ Inclusion, without a doubt, cannot be implemented for free: it will create additional costs for more staff, special classroom equipment, preand inservice teacher training, cooperation, etc. ▶ There seems to be disagreement about what the term ‘inclusion’ should cover, with a broader concept including all individuals (including categories such as sex, gender, ethnicity, or ‘being different’ in any way) or a more concrete definition of being physically or mentally disabled. ▶ When using the narrow definition, there is still a wide variety of ‘disabled individuals’, and an across-the-board suggestion for how to deal with ‘inclusion of disabled people’ in the EFL classroom would be useless at best, counter-productive at worst. For example, there are at least ten types of dyslexia; and there is a tremendous difference between a blind person in the EFL classroom and a deaf person, a person with a speech impediment and a person who is slightly mentally challenged. ▶ There are no one-size-fits-all suggestions for implementing inclusion in the EFL classroom (cf. Dam & Legenhausen 2013; Bartosch & Rohde 2014; Burwitz-Melzer et al. 2017; Eisenmann 2019: 204-16; Falkenhagen & Volkmann 2021; Gerlach & Schmidt 2021). Discuss the issue of ‘inclusion’ with friends, parents, children, and your peers. Do you know of instances of ‘inclusion’? What is your personal position? Think of how teaching and learning methods need to be changed in general and for the EFL classroom in particular. The idea of inclusion is closely connected with the concept of integration. However, there is a crucial difference: Integrative schools did not see the need to change their organizational structure and their traditional teaching methods. The concept of integration implied that children with learning impairments and/ or disabilities were either transferred from special needs schools, or were just placed in mainstream schools where they were then given special attention according to their particular form of impairment and/ or disability; it was a question of integrating individual learn- Challenges From integration to inclusion Exclusion, segregation, integration, inclusion Fig. 6.14 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 145 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 145 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 146 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER ers into an existing system. This exempted the mainstream practitioners from the responsibility of adapting their ‘normal’ teaching to the needs of these children. This meant, in other words, that the mainstream approach as such was not challenged in integrative schools. Inclusion, by contrast, implies a change in terms of organization and approach. The system as such needs to be reconceptualised and adapted so that it can accommodate all learners. (Dam & Legenhausen 2013: 116-17; see fig. 6.15) Integration Inclusion Teaching, goals, assessment ▶ Traditional concepts, based on ‘bell curve thinking’ (see ch. 12.3.1) ▶ Teaching goal: academic achievement, based on competitive spirit, selection and distribution of chances ▶ Encompasses all learners, avoiding or negating ‘bellcurve thinking’: all individuals have certain abilities, talents, qualities, etc. for a community to learn from ▶ Holistic teaching goals: empathy, tolerance, cooperation ▶ Diversity as an enriching experience Teaching methods ▶ Traditional teaching methods ▶ Focus on multiple and learner-oriented methods Selective processes ▶ Segregation through special needs schools ▶ Or: special attention to individual learners who are integrated into existing structures and systems ▶ Inclusion as a reciprocal process: structures and systems need to be changed to incorporate all individuals Approach to ‘otherness’ No need for adaptation for mainstream pedagogy and teaching practices; different learners are ‘labelled’: (1) Disabled people are disabled because society constructs them as handicapped. This creates barriers and limits opportunities for equal participation. (2) Disruptive students, for example, are seen as a problem of individuals not playing by the rules of society and therefore having to change. Mainstream needs to make participation possible, become flexible, change teaching goals, question standardization drives: (1) Society handicaps individuals with certain differences, but not others. Concepts of ‘normalcy’ should be questioned. (2) Disruptive students could help to change and improve classroom rules. To summarize, inclusion requires a different approach to ‘difference’ and finally a change in attitude toward the educational goals of the school system. Often two interrelated arguments are brought forth against inclusive classrooms: (1) that special needs children fare worse in inclusive classrooms as opposed to special needs schools where certain learning difficulties are con- No body is disabled but every body has different ables. - Nolan Byrnes Differences between integration and inclusion (based on Damm & Legenhausen 2013; Eisenmann 2019: 206-15) Fig. 6.15 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 146 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 146 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 Unit 6 147 H ETEROGENEOUS GROUPS AND INCLUSION sidered from the outset, (2) that in inclusive classrooms the gifted learners are impeded in their progress through the presence of less gifted learners, who would get special attention. While there is still need for more detailed research, empirical evidence gathered in Great Britain suggests that both concerns cannot be verified through the data collected in longitudinal studies. It appears that the advantages of special needs pedagogy are negligible. Also, there is “no evidence of a correlation of inclusion and achievement or progress either way” (ibid.: 119). Instead, there is a clear possibility of learners profiting from inclusive teaching methodologies, such as less teacher-centeredness, more autonomous learning, etc. (Dam & Legenhausen 2013; Eisenmann 2019: 212-15). Dam and Legenhausen (2013: 122-28) present an interesting case study to illustrate how inclusion can be put into practice with special focus on fostering learner autonomy. In a longitudinal study, students of a Danish folkeskole class (a comprehensive school with mixed-ability classes for students six to fifteen years of age) were observed with a special focus on different abilities. A learner named Dennis, who had serious problems in reading and writing and presented a constant source of unrest and disruption, was assisted by (1) sitting and working together with a highly gifted learner and, crucially, (2) was encouraged to choose an acting-out activity, where he was involved in producing and presenting a play, (3) closely working together with classmates: he was cast as “Dennis the Menace” and quite enjoyed this role. A fellow student commented in her logbook: “See a play called Denis menase, It was a very good play because they have practiced very much. Dennis was very good to play Dennis menase. I have never heard hem say so much. They play very well.” (ibid: 127, original orthography) Another student, Susan, a severe dyslexic, was allowed to cooperate with fellow students in activities, finding other students who would help her with her spelling; and she was allowed to draw in simple vocabulary tests on objects, etc. The bottom line was: “Susan ended her schooling in the 10 th grade at Karlslunde school with one of the top marks in her English oral state exam.” (ibid.) However, Dam and Legenhausen add the following words of caution: It has to be emphasized, of course, that neither Dennis nor Susan needed or were provided with additional teacher support, which perhaps more severe learning difficulties or impairments might have necessitated.- […] [T]he problem arises of where inclusive pedagogy reaches its limits. It will probably not be feasible, for example, to include autistic learners with aggressive potential within a mainstream system without a support teacher. (ibid.: 128) What, then, are practical methodological principles for inclusive pedagogy and the inclusive EFL classroom? In general, there needs to be a shift toward a learning scenario where rich and sufficient learning opportunities are presented to everyone for all learners to participate in learning (cf. Eisenmann 2017). This entails: The inclusive classroom: case studies Principles 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 147 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 147 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 148 L ANGUAGE COMPETENCES , LEARNING STRATEGIES , AND THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNER ▶ Work choice: learners have more options to learn how, where, and with whom they want to learn. ▶ Peer tutoring: the inclusive classroom is a step toward students teaching students. ▶ Activities for all: it seems helpful to introduce and design activity types which everybody can participate in. This means that these activities do not presuppose a certain level of competence; students can start out from their existing knowledge and tackle tasks according to their preferences. ▶ Material choice: students can choose the material best suited for them. ▶ Clear structures: learners are provided with a clear and transparent organizational framework; especially for those with special learning difficulties or other impairments, clear instructions and adhering to procedural routines seems an urgent need. In general, the principles of autonomous learning, differentiation, and dealing with heterogeneity can be advocated for the inclusive classroom. “The focus should not be on how to remove or reduce weaknesses but on how to enhance students’ strengths.” (Eisenmann 2017: 307) Specifically, teachers should be encouraged to plan and design their lessons with the goal of furthering their students’ self-esteem. The following elements are part and parcel of such a student-oriented objective (cf. Borras et al. 2009): ▶ Security, fostered by a climate of mutual respect and trust which makes the learner feel safe, respected and valued: ‘I can feel safe.’ ▶ Belonging, meaning the learner can be authentic and feels that the interests and needs of all learners are respected and valued: ‘I belong to a group and they support me.’ ▶ Identity, feeling rooted in oneself and being able to refer to one’s own personal experience; feeling that learning contributes to personality development: ‘I am special.’ ▶ Purpose, by being presented structured learning tasks and clear instructions; developing an awareness of what language learning requires; becoming involved in the learning process: ‘I know what to do. I know my goals.’ ▶ Competence, including the capacity for self-evaluation and a determination to become better: ‘I am capable of doing things.’ Consider how principles used for different learner styles can be employed in the inclusive EFL classroom. Consider the crucial concepts of fostering autonomous learning and supporting the individual learner’s self-esteem. Helping students to gain and keep selfesteem 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 148 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 148 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 Unit 6 149 H ETEROGENEOUS GROUPS AND INCLUSION Recommended reading Burwitz-Melzer, Eva; Frank G. Königs; Claudia Riemer & Lars Schmelter, eds. (2017). Inklusion, Diversität und das Lehren und Lernen fremder Sprachen. Arbeitspapiere der 37.-Frühjahrskonferenz zur Erforschung des Fremdsprachenunterrichts. Tuebingen: Narr. Börner, Otfried; Christoph Edelhoff & Christa Lohmann, eds. (2010). Individualisierung und Differenzierung im kommunikativen Englischunterricht. Braunschweig: Diesterweg. Council of Europe (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. https: / / rm.coe.int/ common-europeanframework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/ 16809ea0d4 (26 June 2021). Dam, Leni & Lienhard Legenhausen (2013). Learner Autonomy- - A Possible Answer to Inclusion. In: Maria Eisenmann; Margit Hempel & Christian Ludwig, eds. Medien und Interkulturalität im Fremdsprachenunterricht: Zwischen Autonomie, Kollaboration und Konstruktion. Duisburg: Universitätsverlag Rhein-Ruhr, 115-32. Eisenmann, Maria (2019). Teaching English: Differentiation and Individualisation. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. Klippert, Heinz (2010). Heterogenität im Klassenzimmer: Wie Lehrkräfte effektiv und zeitsparend damit umgehen können. Weinheim et al.: Beltz. O’Malley, J. Michael & Anna Uhl Chamot (1996). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 149 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 149 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 150 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 150 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 Unit 7 151 H ETEROGENEOUS GROUPS AND INCLUSION Intercultural and transcultural learning Contents 7.1 From Landeskunde to intercultural learning 153 7.2 Toward transcultural competence 163 7.3 Ten principles 168 Recommended reading 172 This chapter will introduce one of the vital issues of teaching and learning a foreign language (FL). Language and communicative skills are always interrelated with ‘intercultural competence.’ Landeskunde (area studies/ regional studies) was strongly influential for many decades after 1945, focusing on the target cultures’ life and institutions, providing facts and figures and prioritizing the teaching and learning of ‘culture with a capital C.’ However, in the last decades, Cultural Studies (Kulturwissenschaft) and intercultural learning have changed concepts of learning about cultures. Increasingly, the perspective has widened with regard to the target cultures in the EFL classroom, with everyday life, popular culture, minority cultures, globalizing cultures, and English-speaking cultures beyond the UK and USA vying for attention. This chapter offers a survey of this shift from Landeskunde to intercultural and, finally, transcultural concepts, models, and practices of TEFL. Language and culture; Landeskunde (area studies), Cultural Studies, intercultural learning; concepts of intercultural competence; iceberg model of culture, critical incidents, stereotypes; issues of assessing and evaluating (Byram’s model) Differences between interand transcultural learning; transcultural learning and global education; limits to empathy and understanding other individuals and cultures Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 151 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 151 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 07.06.2022 15: 40: 25 152 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING Consider the introductory cartoon for this chapter together with the following statement: “If you get the present perfect and the simple past wrong you may lose marks; if you get the culture wrong you may lose face, money or even life.” (Gibson 1994: 127) Discuss why the intercultural encounter depicted in the cartoon goes wrong. Which assumptions lead to particular perspectives and problems, and how could one avoid the blunders shown in the cartoon? 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 152 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 152 07.06.2022 15: 40: 33 07.06.2022 15: 40: 33 Unit 7 153 F ROM L ANDESKUNDE TO INTERCULTURAL LEARNING From Landeskunde to intercultural learning Culture and language Consider the following two sentences: ‘It was at the end of November. Grandpa brought the bird to the table.’ Imagine the scene and discuss how the story would continue. A closer look at these inconspicuous-sounding two sentences sheds a revealing light on the perennial issue of how language and culture are interconnected. Graphemes and phonemes in any language, here English, trigger different images in the minds of individuals-- and these are clearly culturally inflected. Of the manifold possible images of this scenario created in the minds of individuals, only three can be singled out here. (1) The first one would spring to the mind of advanced EFL learners, who would grasp that for most US-Americans the association immediately created would be that of a Thanksgiving dinner (the traditional meal of stuffed turkey, mashed potatoes, beans, etc.), celebrated in American homes on the fourth Thursday of November. (2) In a more international context of English language use, for example in China, ‘bird’ could be associated with a singing bird, a canary for example, to be exhibited proudly to the rest of the family. (3) In yet another context, this could have rather dubious implications, with ‘bird’ being a slang expression for a young lady in Britain (see ch. 5.3.1) and ‘grandpa’ either a ‘dirty old man’ or a ‘sexy senior citizen.’ Again, the two attributes for ‘grandpa’ used here show how different linguistic expressions create different mental images. Just how close language and culture are linked has been the subject of long debates. Do languages create different realities? The so-called Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, influential since the 1920s, explicitly presupposes the formative power of words or languages on how individuals construct their environment. Famously, Inuits supposedly have dozens of different expressions for ‘snow’ and the Hanunov tribe of the Philippines uses 92 different words for ‘rice’ (Jandt 2015: 131). Nowadays, the idea that languages ‘determine’ concepts of reality is considered to be too extreme, and scholars favor more complex models of how reality is constructed by and in languages. There are, however, practically minded approaches to teaching foreign languages without reference to their cultural contexts. Such approaches basically hold that intercultural communication is possible without specific cultural knowledge-- that we are all ‘the same under the skin.’ Here language becomes a vehicle for the expression of similar values and the enactment of similar objectives. In separating the linguistic from the cultural context, the idea is to teach a few general rules of politeness and conversation strategies. At most, students are equipped with a list of Do’s and Don’ts with reference to the different cultures of the world where English is used by native speakers or as a lingua franca. 7.1 7.1.1 Language creates mental images Teaching language without culture? 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 153 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 153 07.06.2022 15: 40: 33 07.06.2022 15: 40: 33 154 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING This might be called the lingua franca-approach to TEFL, as for example practiced by the influential commercial Berlitz school, which favors a rather culture-neutral concept of communicative competence. However, FL teaching and learning in an educational context always imply more comprehensive educational goals than just a focus on communicative competence. In addition, most EFL scholars today would agree that language and communication are always embedded in a culture or cultures. In other words, language and communication are always inflected not only by national identities, but also by regions, ethnicities, social classes, and the like. As Byram states: “[A]bove all, learners need to reflect on their own social identities and their own cultures in order to better understand those of other people and the impact their perceptions of each other have on the success of intercultural communication.” (2000: 15) Here are a few examples of how language and culture are closely related. Consider the following examples and think about the cultural differences and peculiarities demonstrated here (hints for interpretation are given right after the task): ▶ If a student asks for a ‘rubber’, why may his or her British or American fellow student give him or her a strange look? ▶ Why is the following line in a song by John Lennon extremely difficult to translate: ‘Imagine there’s no heaven, above us only skies.’ ▶ Is a ‘friend’ on Facebook really what you would consider a ‘Freund’ in Germany? ▶ On the streets of Delhi, India, you see signs for a ‘hotel.’ Does this mean you can actually stay there overnight? ▶ Why are Americans taken aback if you ask for the ‘toilet’? ▶ What is a ‘black eye’? ▶ How would you translate ‘gemütlich’ into English? ▶ What do Americans and Europeans associate with the term ‘capitalism’? ▶ What is a ‘liberal person’ in America and in Europe? Suggestions for answers: ▶ In colloquial English, a rubber is an expression for a condom (socioculturally a different register). ▶ Heaven and sky for Himmel: polysemantic meaning of English expression. ▶ ‘Friend’ in English, especially in American English, would often be translated by Bekannter in German. In this case, culturally different concepts of relationships shape the use of words. ▶ In India, a ‘hotel’ is frequently just a food stall (see fig. 7.1). ▶ The term ‘toilet’ is a taboo word in the USA. Instead, expressions like ‘I Language and culture To speak a language is to take on a world, a culture. - Franz Fanon 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 154 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 154 07.06.2022 15: 40: 33 07.06.2022 15: 40: 33 Unit 7 155 F ROM L ANDESKUNDE TO INTERCULTURAL LEARNING need to wash my hands’ or ‘I need to go to the ladies- / gents room’ are used. In polite conversation, in most English-speaking countries euphemisms are used for taboo areas such as death, sexuality, or sanitary matters. ▶ A ‘black’ eye is a bruised eye (blaues Auge). Mit einem blauen Auge davonkommen: to be saved-/ to escape by the skin of one’s teeth. Metaphors and sayings are frequently culturally inflected. ▶ Gemütlich is a very German concept, and sometimes used as a loan word in English (as is the Danish hygge)-- it implies feeling cozy, comfortable, at home. ▶ For many Americans, ‘capitalism’ has positive connotations: freedom, independence, chances, individualism. For Europeans, it can imply a rampant, dog-eat-dog, laissez-faire or free-market economy. ▶ A liberal person in the USA is an open-minded, progressive person. In mainland Europe, this person would be politically in favor of less state interference. From Landeskunde to Cultural Studies and intercultural competence In German-speaking countries, a sea change in cultural learning happened in the 1980s when intercultural-learning approaches began to replace concepts of area studies, regional studies or background studies (also sometimes called ‘Life and Institutions’ of the target culture; all these terms are roughly encapsulated in the concept of Landeskunde, 1950s to 1980s). Landeskunde was partly conceived as a rational reaction to the pre-1945 approaches of Kultur- und Wesenskunde. Culminating negatively in the Wesenskunde of the Hitler regime, Kulturkunde since its beginnings in the late 19 th century had aimed at teaching the ‘spirit of a nation’ (Geist oder Wesen einer Nation), implying that, for example the English national psyche could be understood by reading the works of Britain’s greatest writer William Shakespeare. Kulturkunde based its concepts on focusing on cultural and national contrasts, with the Nazis using the teaching of British and US-American culture increasingly as negative contrastive foils to the preferred Arian model of Germany. After 1945, a break with irrational, militant, and essentialist concepts of cultural learning was needed (Volkmann 2010: 45-46, see ch. 1.1.3). The concept of area studies was marred from the beginning. Especially in university courses, it was often considered an ancillary area or discipline, which provided background knowledge for understanding great works of art. Its political or educative agenda remained vague, generally aiming at reducing national stereotypes and at creating ‘international or universal understanding’ (Völ- 7.1.2 Area/ background studies (Landeskunde): a problematic concept Indian food stall Fig. 7.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 155 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 155 07.06.2022 15: 40: 34 07.06.2022 15: 40: 34 156 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING kerverständigung) by conveying instructive knowledge. Implicitly, it intended to propagate concepts of democratic societies and their institutions as role models for a post-war generation of learners of English. Frequently, it offered a sort of sophisticated introduction for travels to London, assorted British tourist spots, and major sights of the USA-- hence it was sometimes dubbed a ‘touristkit approach.’ It often provided idealized social images, such as the complete nuclear family or the tension-free multicultural neighborhood. The target cultures-- usually presented either in neutral or positive terms-- were clearly defined as Great Britain (often focusing on England) and the USA, with occasional foci on areas of the Commonwealth (especially Australia). In addition, culture was defined as ‘culture with a capital C’. Knowledge transfer implied learning about facts and figures: typically, about the British Parliament and the American elections. Essential areas covered the following cultural phenomena: ▶ The uses of language in the context of literature (canonized texts): Landeskunde was seen as carrying the information needed to understand linguistic and literary phenomena ▶ History: timelines and significant historical dates (‘1066 and all that- …’), epochs ▶ Art: music, painting, art galleries ▶ Science: great scientific achievements ▶ Economics: industry, industrial relations, the financial sector, distribution of wealth, poverty ▶ Social structure: class systems, ethnic minorities, gender roles ▶ Political institutions: for example, ‘checks and balances’ in the USA ▶ Religion, ideologies, and ‘creeds’: for example, ‘the American creed,’ ‘the melting pot,’ the American Dream ▶ Minorities: regional, ethnic ▶ Geography, regionalism ▶ Codes of behavior: for example, the gentleman ideal Such a list of cultural elements cannot be completely abandoned when teaching and learning (inter-)cultural competence. However, already during the heyday of Landeskunde (between the 1960s and 1970s), there was a growing sense of discontent, culminating in various suggestions to conceptualize a Landeskunde plus that would go beyond the mere teaching of facts and figures. In this context, two often unrelated influences brought about the forceful shift from Landeskunde to Cultural Studies and intercultural learning in the 1980s. Both concepts- - Cultural Studies and intercultural learning- - introduced far-reaching changes in the perception of what culture is and how cultures or individuals interact (cf. Teske 2006). Both reflect the notion of culture as being Cultural Studies & intercultural learning Model kit of Tower Bridge Fig. 7.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 156 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 156 07.06.2022 15: 40: 34 07.06.2022 15: 40: 34 Unit 7 157 F ROM L ANDESKUNDE TO INTERCULTURAL LEARNING more than merely a normative system. They do not understand national culture as creating a fixed national identity finding its most valuable and typical expression in great works of art or literature. Rather, culture is seen as open, wide-ranging, shifting, and flexible; nations are constantly being constructed as ‘imagined communities’ (cf. Anderson 1983). In a reciprocal process, culture and cultural phenomena both shape the life of humans subject to values, tastes, customs and are shaped by them (humans as active agents, being empowered by their choice of cultural elements). Furthermore, elitist notions are rejected in favor of an inclusive concept of culture (culture as a way of life), in which popular and everyday cultural practices (‘small-c culture’) as well as media-shaped practices are also recognized as valuable cultural experiences. Finally, the perspective on what used to be clearly defined target cultures has utterly changed. Intercultural exchanges have been foregrounded. The focus is not merely on native speakers of the ‘core countries’ UK and USA, but on other Anglophone countries and areas such as Australia, India, New Zealand, South Africa, Jamaica, and Canada. Finally, international exchanges in English as a lingua franca in so-called non-native-speaker to non-native-speaker communication have become increasingly important. Since about the turn of the millennium, Cultural Studies, as an established academic discipline, has evolved with a dynamic set of theoretical perspectives with its own histories, methods, and agendas (cf. Delanoy & Volkmann 2006; Assmann 2017). It was first introduced in the 1960s and 1970s by British scholars Raymond Williams, Richard Hoggart, and E. P. Thompson, who initially propagated a rather socialist perspective for the cultural empowerment of the working classes and, later, for ethnic minority groups. It aimed at developing a counter-hegemonic perspective which would benefit students in the interest of a more equitable society and has repeatedly been linked to political intervention in the interest of specific gender issues and social as well as ethnic groups such as the working class or indigenous communities. Its focus shifted from literature to films and products of popular culture (e. g., soap operas, pop songs), and directed attention to the production, composition, reception, and circulation of cultural practices. While Anglo-Saxon approaches tend to move against elitist concepts of culture and their principally negative attitude to the popular, German proponents of Cultural Studies often view popular culture as ambivalent-- not so much as a source of individual and collective empowerment but rather as ideological brainwashing by what the Frankfurt school (Horkheimer, Adorno) dubbed the manipulative ‘Culture Industry’ (Kulturindustrie). While Cultural Studies is frequently linked to concepts of emancipation, egalitarianism, and critical thinking or carries ideological implications, the field of intercultural learning lacks such ambitious theoretical underpinnings or political concepts. Originating in culturally diverse societies such as the USA, intercultural learning or intercultural competence was first conceptualized in the 1960s as a national challenge, i. e., learning to live together in multicultural Cultural Studies as cultural counterdiscourse Pragmatic intercultural learning 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 157 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 157 07.06.2022 15: 40: 34 07.06.2022 15: 40: 34 158 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING and multiethnic communities. Learning about habits, norms, values, taboos, etc., of other immigrant groups has remained one of the driving forces behind intercultural learning programs. In the international business community, culminating in Hofstede’s concepts of ‘cultural norms’ (cf. Gibson 2000; Thomas 2005; Jandt 2015; Kölbl et al. 2019: 115-17), the goals are less educational or political, but rather practical and utilitarian: to make business communication in the increasingly globalizing world more effective and friction-free as well as to avoid social blunders and detrimental faux pas (see the cartoon at the beginning of this chapter). Handbooks of cultural Do’s and Don’ts offer plentiful suggestions of how to express politeness, what norms and values to obey, and how to exhibit adequate communicative behavior, verbally and nonverbally (cf. Gibson 2000). Intercultural learning scenarios, as part of English lessons at school, need to focus on certain parameters: (1) they have to be linked to and become an integral part of FL learning, starting with beginners who, for example, learn that Christmas is celebrated differently in other parts of the world, what to expect for breakfast there, and that, simply put, it can be helpful to add a ‘please’ to a demand. (2) Since the EFL classroom does not cover one or two target cultures only, intercultural learning could and should focus on conversation routines and language use with English as a linguistic tool in various contexts, where different rules and routines of politeness and conversation apply. (3) While the classroom should neither exclusively focus on political or ideological critique, nor be devoid of educational goals as in intercultural learning programs for managers, the educational objectives of tolerance, understanding other cultures, and solidarity with suppressed and discriminated against individuals and groups cannot be neglected. Bredella’s concept of Fremdverstehen offers a philosophical depth to the frequently merely pragmatic concepts of intercultural learning (Bredella 2010). Building on a hermeneutic notion of cultural exchanges as a ‘melting of horizons’ of two perspectives (Horizontverschmelzung), Fremdverstehen defines those involved in intercultural understanding as highly complex entities, engaging in an ongoing cross-cultural ‘negotiation of meaning’ (Bedeutungsaushandlung). Such a perspective requires a redefinition of cultural learning. Since understanding cultures is dependent on preconceptions, a shift here is needed toward intercultural understanding. Moreover, learners should no longer be seen as mere ‘receptacles’ to be filled with factual information. Instead, they are invited to become personally involved in the exploration of English-speaking cultures as self-reflective co-constructors of cultural meanings. Crucially, an intercultural experience aims at unfolding several perspectives, asking participants to see the world through the eyes of the other person (the ‘Other’), compare this world view with their own and negotiate the two (Perspektivenwechsel, Perspektivenkoordination), leading to an ongoing comparison of horizons of expectation rather than to a blending of such horizons. Intercultural learning in the EFL classroom Fremdverstehen 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 158 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 158 07.06.2022 15: 40: 34 07.06.2022 15: 40: 34 Unit 7 159 F ROM L ANDESKUNDE TO INTERCULTURAL LEARNING Bredella (2010) and others (e. g., Volkmann, Stierstorfer & Gehring 2002; Hallet 2002; Delanony 2005, 2015; Summer 2019) have stressed the crucial role of literature, but also of films and cultural artefacts in furthering intercultural understanding, as they presuppose active reader participation and an exploratory approach to cultural texts, inviting readers to identify with characters and slip into the role of the culturally Other. Literature invites its readers to see the foreign world through the eyes of the other, to get an ‘inside perspective’ (see ch. 8.2). Participation in the secondary world of fiction can “help readers to develop empathy with and solidarity for the characters portrayed. Thus, such an aesthetic response also has a strong ethical dimension” (Delanoy 2005: 57). Concepts of intercultural competence In foreign language education, researchers have stressed the significance of the communicative act in intercultural exchanges (cf. Byram 1997), as the continuous negotiation of meanings takes place in concrete, symbolically mediated interaction processes. From such a perspective, language and culture are closely interrelated, thus asking for intercultural communicative competence. Accordingly, intercultural communicative competence can be defined as consisting of (Freese 2002: 15, slightly adapted): ▶ Critical awareness and reflexivity: the critical awareness of one’s own cultural pre-conditioning and of the various cultural conditionings of others ▶ Tolerance, openness, respect, and the willingness to accept members of other cultures on their own terms ▶ The readiness to meet with others in the interstices between two cultures that form what Claire Kramsch (1998) and others have described as a third place, ‘a culture of a third kind,’ constituting an intercultural ‘field of interchange.’ ▶ The ability to develop intercultural communicative action competence (Handlungskompetenz), i. e., to engage in communicative acts while being aware of unwritten rules and norms shaping intercultural encounters and using this awareness in a mutually beneficial manner. A model frequently used to describe how culture-bound frames or scripts of perception work is the so-called ‘iceberg model’ (see fig. 7.3). Culture, accordingly, resembles an iceberg, with only a small part of the iceberg, the tip, displaying tangible or visible expressions of culture(s). Below the surface, one finds the underlying attitudes, beliefs, values, norms, and meanings. These shape and form the tangible cultural phenomena like food, clothing, music, and art in the mind of each individual. National cultures ‘produce’ different cultural icebergs, which in turn shape and form the individual’s mind-set (cf. Gibson 2000: 16). It must be stated that such cultural conditioning differs from culture to cul- The role of literature 7.1.3 Intercultural communicative competence Culture as an iceberg 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 159 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 159 07.06.2022 15: 40: 34 07.06.2022 15: 40: 34 160 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING ture and person to person. Overgeneralizations can be just as detrimental to intercultural exchanges as the disregard of individual differences. Basically, the iceberg model of culture is a semiotic one. All cultural phenomena are seen as ‘signs’ which are laden with meaning through their cultures. Here are a few examples: pork is forbidden in most Muslim societies, because it is considered ‘dirty,’ unhealthy and unclean; carp, while appreciated in Germany, is usually not eaten in Anglo-Saxon countries, because it is considered as an inferior ‘pig with fins.’ Eye contact between a male stranger and a female on the streets of India or most parts of Asia is strictly avoided. Why is this so? Because the attitude behind it is that this would be an invitation by the female. If she reciprocated the male gaze, many Asians would tend to consider her a prostitute. This attitude or taboo is rooted in different gender roles and perceptions of masculinity and femininity in Asian societies. Tangible cultural expressions can also be found among subcultures: for instance, baseball caps worn backward (in the USA, but also increasingly in global cultures) imply that the wearer wants to appear ‘different’ and ‘cool.’ Cultural signs can also change meaning and be appropriated by other cultural communities. One such sign is the Marlboro man, who was originally considered a symbol of traditional hypermasculinity and then turned into an icon of the gay community. Another one is the cross, which in secularized societies is turned from an indication of the wearer’s faith to a mere fashion statement. The Dutch researcher Hofstede devised a structure of the lower part of the cultural iceberg by identifying four dimensions of national culture (cf. Harris & Moran 2017: 83; Kölbl et al. 2019: 115). National cultures and, consequently, individuals can be categorized according to the following criteria: ▶ Power distance: defined as the degree to which a society accepts that social power is distributed unequally (e. g., laissez-faire capitalism vs. Chinesestyle socialism) ▶ Uncertainty avoidance: defined as the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertainty or ambiguous situations (e. g., risk-taking vs. riskaverse society) ▶ Individualism vs. collectivism: defined as the social framework and how people are meant to take care of themselves, how individual responsibility for oneself (in the USA higher than in Germany) compares to the responsibility of society to support individuals (in Germany higher than in the USA) Cultural phenomena Dimensions of culture food language music literature dress games customs values religious beliefs rules etiquette norms gender roles attitudes toward social status taboos concepts of time hierarchies nature humans etc. space The iceberg model of culture (Gibson 2000: 16, adapted ) Fig. 7.3 Traffic lights in London Fig. 7.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 160 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 160 07.06.2022 15: 40: 35 07.06.2022 15: 40: 35 Unit 7 161 F ROM L ANDESKUNDE TO INTERCULTURAL LEARNING ▶ Masculinity vs. femininity: this juxtaposition works with (allegedly) male values such as assertiveness, appreciation of money and power vs. (allegedly) female interests such as caring for others, quality of life, etc. Such different cultural dimensions impinge on a wide range of fields: the perception of time, space, hierarchies, gender, work, friendship, spirituality, etc. In the area of intercultural business communication (Interkulturelle Wirtschaftskommunikation) such- - and more complex- - grids have been used to prepare for intercultural exchanges (cf. Straub, Nothnagel & Weidemann 2010: 19). Cultural dimensions as attitudes, norms, and values are reflected in culturally different (verbal) behavior. If different cultural codes ‘collide’ in intercultural exchanges, friction may be the result-- leading to misunderstandings and, possibly, a breakdown of communication. To train for real-life intercultural encounters, the method of working with ‘critical incidents’ has established itself as a most beneficial preparation (Bauer 2018: 89-138; Kölbl et al. 2019: 118; Volkmann 2020). A critical incident becomes more vivid in the EFL classroom through the usage of a short role play, text, movie clip, or other media presenting intercultural misunderstandings. As a first learning step, students can simply describe what went wrong (surface phenomena). Then they can analyze the different cultural beliefs and attitudes and discuss ways of avoiding cultural conflict. Again, a role play or some kind of simulation can follow in which an alternative, better way of approaching the scenario is presented. Such critical incidents can also be presented through films which feature an array of such intercultural misunderstandings: one truly hilarious- - if extremely stereotypical- - example is the movie Outsourced (2006, see fig. 7.5), featuring an American businessman who instructs Indian workers in a call center in how to sound more American on the telephone when selling American products from India (cf. Albers 2012). Ask students to search the Internet for a collection/ list of Do’s and Don’ts for Germany and the UK or the USA: ask them to compile a list of tips and present them in class. Discuss if they are true and what they tell you about the writer’s cultural background. A standard handbook for intercultural competence offers the following ‘case study’ of a critical incident involving a German manager and his Thai secretary: A German manager working in Thailand is unhappy that his secretary arrives at work at least 30 minutes, and sometimes as much as one hour, late for work. He knows that the traffic in Bangkok is bad but this is getting ridiculous-- one morning when she arrives he explodes in front of the others in the busy office, and then takes her aside and tells her that if she can’t get to work on time she may risk losing her job. She hands in her resignation. (Gibson 2000: 43) Critical incidents Outsourced-- movie poster Fig. 7.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 161 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 161 07.06.2022 15: 40: 35 07.06.2022 15: 40: 35 162 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING It seems worthwhile to consider the surface problems of this intercultural conflict first: for unknown reasons, the secretary is late for work. The German manager severely threatens his secretary’s ‘face’ (her image) in front of other employees (through the strict application of Western norms). The Thai secretary resigns. Behind this mini-drama there are, of course, differing cultural norms, which- - in a presentation of this and similar instances- - can be analyzed in terms of different attitudes toward time and punctuality, different sentiments with regard to being exposed in front of one’s peers and, finally, just plain insensitivity on the side of the German manager, who is more achievementthan people-oriented (as they would call it in business circles). Closer to young learners’ real world are activities which aim at teaching learners politeness by means of a gap-filling activity such as this one (Volkmann 2010: 182): Situation: Your friend invites you to her house for the first time. Friend: Why don’t you come in? You: Thanks. (After looking around)-………………. house you have. (Possible answers: What a great/ wonderful/ beautiful) Doubtlessly, such awareness-raising activities can be very advantageous. However, they also carry with them the danger of perpetuating national stereotypes. Such ‘images of the mind’ are “necessary overgeneralizations and oversimplifications that are rigid, resistant to change, undependable in their actual content, produced without logical reasoning” (Lippmann in Hammer 2012: 23). While they may help cognitively to pre-structure any intercultural encounter, stereotypes often mar such exchanges, leading to misunderstandings and the breakdown of communication. Even more detrimental to intercultural understanding are racial stereotypes or prejudices with their negativism and denial of equality, which can seriously prevent interpersonal exchanges. Consider the following intercultural questions. Discuss them with learners, also from another cultural background. In addition, discuss the attitudes behind cultural or communicative practices. In your culture or when in a certain country-… ▶ Is it considered correct to interrupt someone who is speaking and, if so, when is it permissible? ▶ How do you begin a conversation with someone you have never met before? ▶ How long do you maintain eye contact when talking with or listening to someone? ▶ What is the body distance you feel comfortable with when talking to someone you do not know? Using critical incidents for classroom discussion Task for intermediate learners National stereotypes London mural Fig. 7.6 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 162 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 162 07.06.2022 15: 40: 35 07.06.2022 15: 40: 35 Unit 7 163 T OWARD TRANSCULTURAL COMPETENCE Toward transcultural competence Global issues and global education Global issues, global education, and transcultural learning all take two conditions of a globalizing world as their point of departure: (1) all social, cultural, economic, and ecological issues are increasingly interconnected and there is no such thing as an isolated, merely local issue. (2) Globalization and hybridization affect all cultures and cultural phenomena. There are no pure, homogeneous, unchanging elements of culture and this affects the life of all individuals and social groups (cf. Welsch 1999). Global learning takes on a transcultural perspective and aims “to enable learners to effectively acquire a foreign or second language while empowering them with the knowledge, skills and commitment required by world citizens to solve global problems” (Cates 2002: n. p.; cf. The New London Group 2000). Here, local problems, challenges, and solutions are always seen as inextricably intertwined with global issues. The list of these ‘real issues’ seems to be “depressingly long” (Hammer 2012: 62): global warming; acid rain; high population growth; the spread of global diseases; violence against, exploitation, and oppression of women and children in the production of clothing; genocide in Syria and famines in Somalia causing the growing number of refugees and asylum seekers, etc. The subject matter of global issues entails the areas of social and economic development, their interrelated political and cultural aspects, and the interconnectedness of local life worlds and global concerns (cf. Volkmann et al. 2010; Lütge 2015). What could be called ‘global competence’ can be developed by focusing on twelve obviously interrelated and overlapping thematic fields as presented in the following list (cf. Volkmann 2010: 195-96; Hammer 2012: 75): ▶ Demographic aspects: mobility, dissolution of space, spatial ‘shrinking,’ processes of migration, settlement, mass migration, according to countries, cultures, social groups, etc., the politics of migration and immigration ▶ Ethnic aspects: religion, living together in culturally diverse societies, integration and ‘parallel societies’ ▶ Aspects of peace education and non-violence: violence and war, racism, armament, refugees, terrorism ▶ Social aspects: human rights, gender issues, child rights, social commitment (e. g., ATTAC, Amnesty International, Terre des Femmes) ▶ Political aspects and human rights education: human rights, global governance, immigration laws, politics of assimilation, multiculturalism, integration ▶ Ecological aspects and environmental education: environmental pollution, deforestation, animal rights, recycling, natural catastrophes, climate change ▶ Cultural aspects: global pop culture, McDonaldization, globalization and localization (local and global interconnections) ▶ Socio-economic aspects: poverty, unequal distribution of wealth, consumer societies, commercialism, financial systems, market economies, fair trade 7.2 7.2.1 Tolerance, intercultural dialogue and respect for diversity are more essential than ever in a world where peoples are becoming more and more closely interconnected. - Kofi Annan Key global issues 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 163 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 163 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 164 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING ▶ Technical aspects: traffic, mobility, digitalization ▶ Media aspects: media use, streaming, social networks, global communication, smart phones ▶ Health education: drugs, fighting AIDS and other global diseases such as the Corona virus, food (fast food vs. balanced diet) ▶ Language-related aspects: language imperialism (English as ‘killer language’), communication problems, English as a lingua franca, business communication (see ch. 1.1) Teaching goals can be broadly defined according to the Project LINGUAPAX, initiated by UNESCO, which suggests the following guidelines for “teaching foreign languages and literature for peace and international understanding” (Hammer 2012: 63-64): ▶ Be aware of your responsibility to further international understanding through your teaching. ▶ Increase language teaching effectiveness so as to enhance mutual respect, peaceful coexistence, and cooperation among nations. ▶ Exploit extracurricular activities such as pen-pal programs, video exchanges, and overseas excursions to develop international understanding. ▶ Lay the basis for international cooperation through classroom cooperation using language-teaching approaches responsive to students’ interests and needs. As important as it certainly appears for the EFL classroom, the approach of transcultural learning and global education carries a number of problematic aspects: (1) The loss of clearly defined target cultures and key issues connected with theses cultures- - as with Landeskunde- - also carries with it a sense of bewilderment as to what to teach and where to find a focus that is not merely transdisciplinary, across all school subjects, but one that is germane to English as a school subject. (2) Classes might tend merely to scratch the surface of problems when too many topics are highlighted without specific national, regional, or historical foci. (3) English might lose its content as a school subject, becoming a sort of meta-subject in advanced classes without a clear agenda. Such detrimental tendencies can be countered if, first, in English classes, the intercultural perspective remains an integral part of any discussion of global issues, e. g., when the learner culture perspective is compared with those of different cultures. Second, language aspects should not be neglected. Rather, the specific terminology, discourse patterns, and discursive strategies used in the English language can be highlighted when dealing with global issues. Of the global issues discussed above, one pressing concern deserves special attention. It has brought about a specific branch of pedagogy called ecodidactics (cf. Mayer & Wilson 2006) and, more recently, environmental literacy (Küchler 2016). What needs to be considered here is clearly the idea of ‘sus- Problems of transcultural learning and global education in EFL Environmental literacy 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 164 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 164 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 Unit 7 165 T OWARD TRANSCULTURAL COMPETENCE tainability,’ as already defined in a 1987 document by the World Commission on Environment and Development (Hammer 2012: 60), connecting economic with ecological issues: ‘Sustainability’ is the key political goal for the 21 st century. It means that future generations should have the same chance of leading a fulfilled life as we have had. At the same time, the opportunity to live a good life must be more fairly distributed around the world for the people alive today. Sustainable development combines economic progress with social justice and conservation of the natural environment. Such approaches aim at creating ecological knowledge, furthering a deeper and broader understanding of sustaining natural resources and the environment (cf. Mayer & Wilson 2006; Bartosch & Grimm 2015; Ludwig & Deetjen 2021). Thus, individual agents should be empowered to deal with nature and natural resources more carefully and responsibly to detect, assess, and prevent threats and dangers to nature. The ecological approach does not merely aim at a change of mind, but moreover, aims at a change in consumer habits, less materialism and exploitation of natural resources both by social groups as well as individuals. It stresses (1) the net-like interconnectedness of all human and non-human phenomena, (2) and favors approaches in the spirit of wholeness, sustainability, and diversity. (3) It questions the Western creed of technology as the major means of progress, and (4) it stresses the complexity of biosystems and the fragile, problematic position of humans, whose invasion of natural systems causes severe negative repercussions. The following poem by Julia Damassa, entitled “Green” (1989), nicely points at the inconsistencies and ironic contradictions consumers have to live with. Without a clear marker of its specific cultural context, the poem-- through its use of language- - highlights a number of transcultural, global issues (qtd. in Volkmann 2012: 405, cf. Volkmann 2011a, b, 2014): Outside the supermarket sign the petition ‘SAVE OUR EARTH’. Feel a momentary sense of achievement as you turn the ignition. First, try to describe the contradiction presented here and why this is not a single, isolated incident. Then think of how it could be exemplary of similar double-bind situations we all are faced with. Consider possible ways of getting out of this double-bind. Then consider how you would present this poem. How can you get students to write similar poems-- and how can they discuss possible strategies of escaping the double bind? Task for intermediate and advanced learners 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 165 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 165 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 166 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING Assessing and evaluating interand transcultural competence The most frequently referred to model of assessing and evaluating intercultural communicative competence is a model by British scholar Michael Byram (see fig. 7.7, cf. Volkmann 2010: 165; Hammer 2012: 57; Blell & Doff 2014: 84; Rings & Rasinger 2020). According to Byram (1997: 49-55), intercultural communicative competence can be defined in terms of the following objectives: ▶ Knowledge of social groups, their identities and perspectives, and the process of intercultural interaction ▶ Skills to compare, interpret, and relate perspectives from different cultures ▶ The ability to discover and interact with different cultural practices ▶ The attitude of openness and readiness to understand other people ▶ A critical cultural awareness of one’s own culturally inflected values and how they shape intercultural encounters These different savoirs can be acquired by individuals through direct exposure to foreigners or foreign-language media. However, if they are learned and taught within an educational context, they are embedded in a broader framework of educational objectives. The figure below (7.7) features the framework of political education, which depends on a country’s or state’s overall education policy. In German-speaking countries, the combination of intercultural communicative competence and political education would crucially aim at developing the learner’s critical awareness and creating responsible citizens who show tolerance toward those with other political or religious convictions. Taking into consideration what has been outlined above about the objectives of Landeskunde, Cultural Studies, and inter-/ transcultural learning, a definition of teaching/ learning objectives can be itemized as follows (based on Byram’s model): 7.2.2 Savoir être Savoir être Intercultural attitudes Intercultural attitudes Curiosity, openness, readiness to Curiosity, openness, readiness to suspend disbelief about other suspend disbelief about other cultures and belief of one’s own. cultures and belief of one’s own. Savoirs Savoirs Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge of social groups and Knowledge of social groups and their products and processes in their products and processes in one’s own and one’s interlocutor’s one’s own and one’s interlocutor’s country, and of the general country, and of the general processes of societal and individual processes of societal and individual interaction. interaction. Savoir comprendre Savoir comprendre Skills of interpreting and relating Skills of interpreting and relating The ability to interpret a document The ability to interpret a document or event from another culture, to or event from another culture, to explain it and relate it to documents or explain it and relate it to documents or events from one’s own. events from one’s own. Savoir apprendre/ faire Savoir apprendre/ faire Skills of discovery and interaction Skills of discovery and interaction The ability to acquire new knowledge The ability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices and of a culture and cultural practices and the ability to operate knowledge, the ability to operate knowledge, attitudes and skills under the attitudes and skills under the constraints of real-time constraints of real-time communication and interaction. communication and interaction. Savoir s’ Savoir s’engager engager Critical cultural awareness Critical cultural awareness The ability to evaluate, The ability to evaluate, critically and on the basis of critically and on the basis of explicit criteria, perspectives, explicit criteria, perspectives, practices and products in one’s practices and products in one’s own and other cultures and own and other cultures and countries. countries. Intercultural communicative competence (Byram 1997: 49-55, as adapted by Coperías-Aguilar 2007: 64) Fig. 7.7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 166 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 166 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 Unit 7 167 T OWARD TRANSCULTURAL COMPETENCE Knowledge: Students know of ▶ target cultures and their sub-cultures, their local and global importance, see problems, challenges, and opportunities ▶ the historical and social background and possible solutions of cultural phenomena; how they differ from those known to them and how they relate to them Skills: Students can ▶ identify and explain cultural phenomena, critically reflect on them, and apply their skills to similar topics ▶ relate to problems and challenges presented to them cognitively, can tackle them in a creative, cooperative way and weigh possibilities of solving problems or crises; they can weigh issues considering several perspectives, and they can assess culture-specific and transcultural elements Attitudes: Students are ▶ motivated to find out more about the target culture(s) and the issues presented ▶ aware of the problems and chances inherent in the issue at hand ▶ aware of their own and other approaches to defining the cultural phenomenon under discussion and ready to compare them ▶ more open toward the other culture, value fairness, social justice, diversity, complexity, ambiguity, and develop empathy ▶ they are encouraged to act (verbally) according to the principle of ‘think globally, act locally’ As to the issue of testability, it must be stated that knowledge (facts and figures, as in Landeskunde concepts) seems fairly easily testable, even in multiple choice tests. In addition to that, skills such as problem solving can be tested in oral exams or with less patterned forms of testing (essay questions). Attitudes, however, are notoriously difficult to test, for students can easily answer in socially acceptable formulaic utterances while acting in a completely different manner outside the classroom. Intercultural communicative competence in the form of tolerance and the willingness to accept others is certainly a lifelong and interdisciplinary learning challenge where good teaching can serve as an initiation or support. Look again at the cartoon at the beginning of this chapter. Then try to define the teaching and learning objectives according to Byram's model with regard to the dialog presented in the cartoon. What knowledge, skills, and attitudes can students acquire? What educational objective would you aim at? Teaching/ learning objectives Testing intercultural competence 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 167 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 167 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 168 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING Ten principles In the following, ten principles or guidelines for interand transculturally effective teaching and learning are briefly delineated (cf. Nünning & Nünning 2000; Teske 2006; Volkmann 2010; Kölbl et al. 2019: 118-22). They incorporate the changes from Landeskunde to interand transcultural learning, from concepts of ‘culture with a capital C’ to cultures as semiotic constructs, and the role of individual perspectives in intercultural negotiation described above. 1. From knowledge transfer to acquiring cultural competence Acquiring intercultural competence is much more than merely being in command of declarative, comprehensive, and Wikipedia information. However, there seems to be a trend to throw the baby out with the bathwater. It seems dangerous to do without all factual knowledge (e. g., knowing the names of rivers or cities or of famous artists of a target culture) or the knowledge of core ideas and values and solely appreciate procedural knowledge learned for the purpose of using it in communication. Teachers and learners alike need to consider which form of knowledge is required to be learned and taught in culture-oriented classrooms. What are the competences needed in concrete communicative situations and needed for orientation in a complex global environment (Orientierungswissen)? 2. From canonical knowledge to exemplary learning Given the abundance of target cultures, including those where English is used as a lingua franca, and the ever-changing set of topics that seem of relevance for the EFL classroom, any topic and learning arrangement can and must of necessity be exemplary: the classroom must offer case studies. For example, if the focus is on ethnic minorities in the USA, not all ethnic minorities can be dealt with equally, and there has to be a focus on a limited number of ethnic minorities. It certainly is not enough to provide just factual information about the selected example, such as an outline of history and social issues, but to provide lively, real, and authentic stories students can relate to. If this is done in an exemplary manner, issues such as ethnic minorities, migration, and immigration can be broadened to include other global areas and one’s own society. 3. From the outside perspective to a multiperspective approach An essential part of intercultural learning is the ability and willingness to change perspectives and to learn to perceive problems and topics through the eyes of the cultural Other. Two opposite poles need to be avoided: while the egocentric or ethnocentric perspective merely regards one’s own perspective as the true and viable option, a complete adaptation of the foreign perspective might be just as limited. It is not the aim of the EFL classroom to turn learners into perfectly assimilated Anglo-Saxons, but rather to educate reflective agents in cultural 7.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 168 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 168 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 Unit 7 169 T EN PRINCIPLES exchanges. In contrast to the focus on ‘objective’ factual knowledge, approaches are needed in which the interaction between the self and the other is central, where the ongoing construction and negotiation of meaning feature prominently. Crucially, the learner’s own cultural perspective is considered by discussing similarities and differences when it comes to dealing with other cultures. 4. From the concept of a ‘neutral’ learner to a focus on learner identity Intercultural learning tends to conceptualize learners which resemble a gender-, ageand ethnic-neutral person. Teachers need to take into consideration individual learners and learner group identities. Topics as well as approaches need to regard issues of gender, ethnicity, nationality, age, and peer group interests. A classroom of culturally diverse learners and issues is an asset with regard to tackling cultural issues from a variety of perspectives. Consequently, new strategies must be developed through which learners can connect factual information with personal experience, and learn to identify cultural differences, infer and foresee cultural problems, and cope with misunderstandings and communication breakdowns. 5. From culture to cultures One of the main objectives of any intercultural learning is certainly to establish that a homogeneous, fixed, and unchangeable cultural entity is a myth. Culture is constructed, shifting, and subject to forces of change. Learners need to experience the heterogeneity of British and American cultures as well as the other English-speaking nations around the world and their various regional cultures and sub-cultures, with their hybrid and globalizing tendencies. Teachers should present youth culture, popular culture, and everyday culture as well as insights into how cultural or national identities are formed. A beneficial activity could be that of discussing the symbolic value and ideological baggage of diverse ‘cultural icons,’ from geography and architecture (Big Ben, the Golden Gate Bridge, Uluru/ Ayer’s Rock) to individuals (Mahatma Ghandi, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King). 6. Finding the right cultural mix Any presentation of another culture is in danger of transmitting a biased image. For example, when dealing with the USA, Germans tend to focus on gun-happy Americans, the repression of minorities, and gory aspects of the death sentence. Such proclivities are, of course, just as one-sided as praising American democracy and American-style capitalism. Demanding that teachers be neutral in their presentation of another culture is certainly utopian; yet, misrepresentations and presentations that foster one-sided prejudices and negative stereotypes need to be avoided. For instance, teachers could choose topics such as ‘pioneering environmental ideas in the USA’ or how citizens spend free time to solve inner-city problems (see the e-learning project at www.exploration.de/ teach). Bengali sign to the temple Hoolka Dadka Guryaha Deggan (London) Fig. 7.8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 169 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 169 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 07.06.2022 15: 40: 36 170 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING Scenarios should include a number of cultural texts from various perspectives and media. In any case, an ‘at home everything is better’ attitude needs to be avoided. Rather, a certain curiosity might be created with regard to the issue of how other nations or cultures could teach us to find new ways of tackling social, political, or ecological challenges. 7. Toward a holistic approach: integrating culture and language learning The cultural information implicitly provided in textbooks frequently offers a vision of everyday life in assorted target cultures, often still starting with life in Great Britain for beginners. Only rarely do teachers find material to create intercultural awareness. In contrast, factual cultural information is still often reduced to teachable and memorizable chunks, which are mostly taught in an abstract way focusing on cognition (cf. Teske 2006). Even the format given to cultural information is different, as textbooks frequently use boxes to mark off the ‘value added content,’ some of them presenting this information in German. Thus, students have little chance of applying or transferring the information received, or of consolidating and integrating their knowledge through habitual or emotional processes. Additionally, cultural aspects tend to remain isolated, as progression in the teaching of cultural knowledge seems more difficult than defining progression of grammatical knowledge. It is therefore of pivotal importance that teachers find additional material and ways of highlighting the interconnectedness of culture and language in integrative classroom formats. Using critical incidents to create both intercultural and language awareness could be a first, much needed step. The five-pound note introduced in 2016 depicts three ‘iconic’ elements of Britishness: the former Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, the Houses of Parliament, and Big Ben, with its clock’s hands set at 3. At 3 o’clock on 13 May 1940, Churchill addressed the House of Commons in his famous World War II speech: “I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat.” Following the ‘iceberg model’ (see p. 160), research web sources and tackle one of the following tasks: ▶ Which national meanings and values does the five-pound note project? ▶ Why is this five-pound note a controversial material object? Consider that this polymer note replaced the paper ‘fiver’ depicting Elizabeth Fry, a philanthropist and prison reformer. The British ‘fiver’ (detail) Fig. 7.9 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 170 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 170 07.06.2022 15: 40: 37 07.06.2022 15: 40: 37 Unit 7 171 T EN PRINCIPLES 8. Representing cultures via various texts and media Representing a cultural topic merely by using just one short text constructs one-dimensional images in two ways: (1) Every medium creates its own reality. Media specialist Marshall McLuhan famously stated: ‘The medium is the message,’ that is, the medium shapes the reception process to a great degree. (2) Presentation through one text often offers only a limited perspective. Using various media in a ‘textual interplay’ (cf. Hallet 2002), where perspectives contradict and supplement one another, creates a more complex, multidimensional approach. Moreover, it furthers media competence in offering learning chances as to genre and media differences (how each medium constructs or encodes different realities and how they can be decoded and used respectively, see ch. 9.2). A typical sequence on a cultural topic would thus entail various media, an overall structure with regard to how these media are related, and appropriate tasks, relating these media in a meaningful way. Media range from realia (e. g., coins, menus, tickets, food, clothes) to real or virtual contact with native or non-native speakers (e. g., e-mail projects, chats) to verbal, visual, or oral presentations (e. g., films, pictures, speeches, dialogs), from print media to the Internet. As a hybrid medium, the Internet offers access to all the written, visual, and oral media referred to above and to a combination of all. 9. Considering balanced representations Representations should ideally aim at presenting a multi-faceted, sometimes controversial image of a cultural topic that engages students cognitively and emotionally and that they can relate to their own experiences or future plans. ‘Neutral’ representations of another culture are impossible. Multidimensional representations are achieved through various media and by juxtaposing different voices on a topic. Students should be encouraged to reflect critically on different stances and make up their own minds. Ideally, the learning environment is shaped by a spirit of tolerance, empathy, and learning about the other culture without applying judgmental, culture-bound opinions. However, dissident opinions cannot and should not be silenced or hushed over but need to be part of a culture of dialog. 10. Toward student-centeredness New concepts of teaching Cultural Studies or intercultural learning have discarded the idea of the teacher as the knowledgeable expert on English-speaking countries. Given the wide field of global English and global topics, teachers cannot be specialists on all Anglophone cultures (cf. Eisenmann et al. 2010). In fact, it is a challenge to stay informed about more than one or two of the many target cultures, which should be visited regularly. Moreover, students’ expertise regarding other cultures should be integrated actively into classroom activities. It goes without saying that understanding another culture is a life-long process and that teaching methods should thus aim at processand action-orientation. Banglatown, East London Fig. 7.10 From imperialism to Brexit - a polemic Fig. 7.11 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 171 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 171 07.06.2022 15: 40: 37 07.06.2022 15: 40: 37 172 I NTERCULTURAL AND TRANSCULTURAL LEARNING Tasks and task-cycles should also be product-oriented, with students presenting their findings through individually or collaboratively produced posters, written, oral, and visual presentations, Wikis or other digital media. Recommended reading Byram, Michael (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon et al.: Multilingual Matters. Kölbl, Carlos; Andrea Kreuzer & Astrid Utler (2019). Interkulturelles Lernen. In: Detlef Urhahne; Markus Dresel & Frank Fischer, eds. Psychologie für den Lehrberuf. Berlin: Springer, 108-24. Kramsch, Claire (1998). Language and Culture. Oxford et al.: Oxford University Press. Küchler, Uwe (2016): Signs, Images, and Narratives - Climate Change across Languages and Cultures. In: Stephen Siperstein; Shane Hall & Stephanie LeMenager, eds. Teaching Climate Change in the Humanities. London: Routledge, 153-160. Rings, Guido & Sebastian M. Rasinger, eds. (2020): The Cambridge Handbook of Intercultural Communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Volkmann, Laurenz (2010). Fachdidaktik Englisch: Kultur und Sprache. Tuebingen: Narr. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 172 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 172 07.06.2022 15: 40: 37 07.06.2022 15: 40: 37 Unit 8 173 T EN PRINCIPLES Literature matters Contents 8.1 Functions of Literature 175 8.2 Approaches to teaching literature 177 8.3 Literature for all levels 190 Recommended reading 196 Literature can contribute to linguistic, social, and intercultural competences as well as to general education in the sense of personal growth, creativity, and expression. Traditional approaches to teaching literature, including typical comprehension questions posed by teachers, will be scrutinized for underlying assumptions about reading and teaching literature. These will be juxtaposed to modern approaches to literature in the EFL classroom. Suggestions for teaching literary classics and alternative texts will round off this chapter. Literary functions, communication, and competence; approaches - analytical, subjective, contextual and cultural, creative and performative; critical literacy; the ‘didactic text’; criteria of selecting literature for the classroom; task-based phases of teaching literature Discussing the pros and cons of approaches to teaching literature; integrating subjective, analytical, and productive approaches; discussing the model of individual, social, and contextual factors of understanding texts (fig. 8.3) and its consequences for scaffolding Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 173 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 173 07.06.2022 15: 40: 37 07.06.2022 15: 40: 37 174 L ITERATURE MATTERS Reflect on the pleasures of reading: which was your favorite book of fiction and most rewarding reading (or listening) experience as a child and as an adolescent? What is your favorite literary text in English now? Why do you read literature, why not? Consider the images above to come up with statements such as this: ‘To me, reading is like day-dreaming.’ You may also want to draw alternative cartoons of your own. Then consider: what did you like and what did you dislike about dealing with literature at school? 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 174 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 174 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 Unit 8 175 F UNCTIONS OF LITERATURE Functions of literature Personal interest Reading popular literature extensively and for pleasure is often vastly different from reading literary classics intensively for educational purposes. However, both entertainment and education have been part and parcel of reading and teaching literature. Parents-- and primary school teachers-- select picture books that are both entertaining and educational (cf. Wrobel 2019). One such example is Carle’s picture book The Very Hungry Caterpillar (1969), which is attractive to children because of its bright and colorful drawings, its invitation to act (winding the little toy caterpillar through the holes in the pages), its surprising storyline (the change from larva to butterfly), and its teaching of names for food, numbers, and days of the week. Another prominent genre is the fairy tale, which finds a large audience via movie adaptations: melodramatic and funny Disney movies that address family values are certainly popular among the young. However, Disney movies often convey rather conservative opinions on race, class, and gender, which deserve critical analyses, for example through comparison with the parody Shrek. Children and teenagers who appreciate literature often read fiction that serves as a ‘mirror’ of reality, articulating conflicts, thoughts, values, and feelings they can relate to and take as a means of vicarious problem solving and orientation. Realist literature invites armchair travelling to foreign countries and comparing one’s own culture to others. Dystopias, fantasy, and science fiction open doors to alternative worlds, which invite the imaginary participation in exciting adventures beyond the routine of ordinary life. The criticism of escapism is not always justified since these unrealistic worlds can reveal familiar issues in an unfamiliar shape that may motivate readers to think about the real world (e. g., issues with authorities, relationships, ethical choices, racism, or the ecosystemm; cf. Frenzel & Neumann 2017; Ludwig 2018; Ludwig & Maruo-Schröder 2018; Ludwig & Shipley 2021). Harry Potter and Twilight can be read as entertainment, as educational coming-of-age stories, or as comments on British or US-American culture. In other words, many genres offer food for the soul and food for thought. The interest in identification makes for gendered reading: girls tend to read books about human interest, but also adventure stories. In general, boys read considerably less than girls and tend to prefer titles of adventure, science fiction, or crime fiction, characterized by strong male agents and fast-paced action. At school, different interests call for the selection of books that straddle- - or question- - the gendered gap: books selected should offer protagonists of either sex, plots of general interest, male and female characters who may comply with or resist gender boundaries (cf. König 2018; Hermes 2019). 8.1 8.1.1 Edutainment? 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 175 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 175 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 176 L ITERATURE MATTERS Institutional interest The Common European Framework of Reference holds it relevant “to develop students’ aesthetic appreciation of literature” (Council of Europe 2001: 144). The CEFR pays lip service to literature as a “major contribution to the European cultural heritage” (ibid.: 56) that transports sociocultural values, beliefs, and attitudes: “Literary studies serve many more educational purposes-- intellectual, moral and emotional, linguistic and cultural- - than the purely aesthetic” (ibid.). The CEFR suggests a few creative tasks: “retelling and rewriting stories, […] writing and speaking imaginative texts (stories, rhymes, etc.) including audio-visual texts, cartoons, picture stories, […] performing scripted or unscripted plays, etc.” (ibid.). However, the CEFR Companion (2020: 58-9) subsumes literature under the category “Reading as a leisure activity” next to non-fictional magazines, blogs, biographies, etc. Consequently, most descriptors are not specific and do not distinguish between reading factual and fictional texts (cf. Osterwalde 2017: 21-31; Fäcke 2019). The key term is ‘understanding’: for example, intermediate learners (B1) can understand texts in everyday language and with a clear linear storyline. If understanding only means answering basic comprehension questions, teaching runs the risk of reducing literature to information. Unfortunately, the German educational standards as well as the examination requirements (Einheitliche Prüfungsanforderungen in der Abiturprüfung, EPA) issued by the Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK) reproduce the marginalization of literature because they focus on testable output in the areas of communicative, intercultural, and methodical competences; in particular, reproducing and understanding content, re-organizing and analyzing texts, and evaluating and producing texts (cf. Kimes-Link 2013: 69-77; Fäcke 2019). Educators and philosophers maintain that reading literature contributes to individual cultivation (in the sense of ästhetische Bildung; cf. Bieri 2012; Spaemann 2012; Bracker 2015; Laner 2018; Anselm 2019; Weskamp 2019). Literature can offer its readers the opportunity to see the world from a different perspective, motivate identification with others while supporting the appreciation of both the self and others. Literature may trigger reflection on the reader’s own emotions, thoughts, and actions. It may provoke thought on language and values, ambiguity and complexity, challenging judgment and cultivating aesthetic taste. Discussion in context provides useful insight into the systematic and historical relationships of social, cultural, and economic phenomena. In addition, teaching literature in English can support the development of vocabulary, reading strategies, critical literacy, media literacy, and intercultural competence (cf. Bredella 2010; Hallet & Surkamp & Krämer 2015; Lütge 2019). Political frameworks, English curricula, Philosophy, Pedagogy, and Literary Studies define literary competence in various interrelated dimensions (cf. 8.1.2 Literature and competences Literature and Bildung 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 176 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 176 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 Unit 8 177 A PPROACHES TO TEACHING LITERATURE Burwitz-Melzer 2007; Lütge 2013; Steininger 2014; Hallet et al. 2015; Diehr & Surkamp 2020; Surkamp & Nünning 2020): 1. Motivation and orientation as the ability to get involved in a text, to find pleasure in reading, to recognize the relevance of literature for life 2. Subjective response to and participation in interpersonal and intercultural perspectives of others (identification or resistance) 3. Cognitive understanding and co-creation of meaning: forming of mental models, filling gaps, forming hypotheses 4. Application and development of linguistic-discursive competence in interaction with literary reading, follow-up communication, and negotiation of meaning 5. Reflection on and critical judgment of moral values and actions in literature and life 6. Cognitive-aesthetic understanding and evaluation of aesthetic structuring, contextual readings, textual impact and functions 7. Methodological competences and creative production through (re-)writing literary texts (media literacy, narrative, performative, and poetic competence) It is noticeable that motivation is considered as something to be acquired rather than given (see ch. 4.6). Motivation needs to be stimulated through appropriate pre-reading activities and an adequate choice of texts, especially, but not exclusively, for reluctant readers (cf. Wrobel 2019). Approaches to teaching literature Teachers need to reflect on the curriculum, learners’ interests, and the functions of literary communication to decide which literature to select, how to teach it, and for which reasons. Literary communication takes place in a sociocultural context marked by media, discourses such as psychology, economics, or politics, non-fictional and fictional genres such as news reports and feature films, and all kinds of practices, such as small talk, eating, producing goods, treating patients, etc. Any contextual aspect can shape literary texts and communication. However, authors of fictional texts do not pursue a practical purpose, such as arranging a meeting for lunch. Real authors write texts, and in turn, texts serve to establish ideas of who and what the author is. Readers actively respond to and co-create texts. Within the literary text, the fictional speaker or anonymous voice communicates with an addressee. Both can be explicit or implicit. The relationship between speaker and listener motivates to some extent what is said (and remains unsaid). The fictional addressee may be a lover, an opponent, or the self in an interior, reflexive dialog of a poem. Literature can cover any topic via human or non-human figures responding to others, events, or circumstances (see fig.-8.1). Genres vary in organizing these elements and relationships. In prototyp- 8.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 177 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 177 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 178 L ITERATURE MATTERS ical poetry, a speaker usually talks in the present, in a comparatively short, condensed, and complex text in verse, marked by the repetition of various aspects. Poetry can raise the awareness of subjectivity and language in analytical and creative tasks. Lyrics in multimodal music videos support multiliteracies (cf. Naylor & Wood 2012; Falkenhagen & Volkmann 2019; Thaler 2019; see ch. 9.2). Drama is a script written for performance, which primarily conveys meaning through verbal and bodily interaction without a mediating narrator. Drama calls for intermedial approaches with film adaptations and performative methods that foster the ‘playful’ understanding of others and practice embodied interaction (cf. Hallet & Surkamp 2015; Eisenmann 2019; Schewe 2019). Narratives of all kinds derive meaning from the narrator’s construction of past events, characters, and actions in certain circumstances, reflected in the interplay of all perspectives. Teaching narratives through subjective, analytical, and creative approaches promotes understanding and producing narratives as core cultural competence. Film adaptations and multimodal narratives such as graphic novels help develop multiliteracies (cf. Elsner et al. 2013; Ludwig & Pointner 2013; da Rocha et al. 2017; Burger 2017; Bland 2018; Jaffe & Hurwich 2018; Eisenmann & Meyer 2018; Behrendt 2019; Surkamp & Nünning 2020; see ch. 9.2). Author Text Reader Narrator/ speaker/ voice Addressee Styles Perspectives Agents Actions Circumstances Literary communication Fig. 8.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 178 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 178 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 Unit 8 179 A PPROACHES TO TEACHING LITERATURE Analytical approaches: nothing but the text The intrinsic analytical approach, which concentrates on the text itself, holds that the literary work is a timeless artefact apart from its author and historical context. The artefact needs to be analyzed in intensive, close readings in order to appreciate its complex artistic form as a perfect mold of the content. For example, a typical task for a Shakespearean sonnet could be the following: ‘Identify the rhyme scheme and the rhetorical features of the poem.’ Simply identifying patterns in a poem is a mechanical and tedious exercise, ‘counting beans’ for the sake of demonstrating basic analytical skills. It is more helpful to start by inviting the learners’ responses to the literary text at hand, eliciting, for example, what they understand, like or dislike, and what they find puzzling (‘perturbation,’ see ch. 3.2.4). After doing that, teachers can proceed to take a closer look at how form shapes meaning to stimulate familiar or new semantic associations-- drawing attention to literary devices, such as metaphor and metonymy, where necessary for ‘deeper’ insight. Since the form-content nexus may yield different meanings to various learners, teachers should refrain from accepting only one interpretation. They should rather make productive use of the opinion gap as a stimulation of authentic communication about the significance of the text to various readers. After analyzing the text, teachers often proceed toward questions about the author’s intention and ‘the message’ of the text. The author’s life and intention are often taken to be the sources of meanings, which can take the form of a positivist search for biographical facts as an ‘explanation’ of the text. Literature, however, should not be understood as a logical consequence of life but an imaginative transformation of experience: literature may function as talking cure, compensation, or escapist fantasy. The question ‘What did the author try to tell us? ’ impels the reader to look ‘behind the text,’ and has been denounced as an intentional fallacy (cf. Meyer 2011: 163). Literature is by no means a personal letter to the reader that directly communicates intentions. Readers who talk about the author’s intention usually speak about the significance of the text to themselves. Teachers use this question to delimit the learners’ subjective understandings and avoid open-ended discussions. Unless authors explicitly commented on their intentions, which they rarely do, readers are left with their own understanding. However, interpretation is not completely arbitrary. Students should be encouraged to develop individual perspectives and to back up their readings with significant evidence from the text. While the question regarding the author’s intention is directed at the ‘origin’ of the text, the question for ‘the message’ aims at the usefulness of the text to the reader. This question implies that a work of literature has a single meaning, like a brief SMS or a tweet. It is true that some fables, fairy tales, and openly political (agitprop) texts sport an explicit message, but this is the exception rather than the rule. In most cases, the question for ‘the message’ asks learners to dig 8.2.1 Questions: content and form Great literature is simply language charged with meaning to the utmost possible degree. - Ezra Pound The pitfall of intention The problem of ‘the message’ 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 179 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 179 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 07.06.2022 15: 40: 43 180 L ITERATURE MATTERS for the ‘essential meaning’ as if for a hidden treasure in the wood of words, or to depend on the teacher since he/ she will provide the ‘right’ answer sooner or later. Teachers who tend to closely control classes often use the ‘author’s intention,’ ‘the form’ of the text, and ‘the message’ to reduce the number of learner interpretations to one only, usually his or her own (or the one proposed in the teacher’s manual; cf. Delanoy 2002: 28; Grimm & Hammer 2015: 324). This strategy of prescribing meaning frustrates learners and violates the processes of aesthetic reading and negotiating meaning (cf. Hesse 2009: 85-86). Fictional literature is usually ambiguous and open to various interpretations that depend upon the readers’ prior knowledge. If one were able to tell what a whole book means in one sentence, why read the book and not the interpretation readily available on the Internet? In other words, if Hamlet only meant ‘You shall not murder’ or ‘You shall not covet your neighbor’s (here: your brother’s) wife,’ why would anyone bother to read or watch the whole play? The tragedy fascinates through its intense drama of inner and outer conflicts, stimulating feelings and thought. Reading works of fiction for a single ‘moral message’ would reduce much of literature to the ten commandments, which many readers know already, and so render reading a waste of time. Discuss which competences the teacher-centered and analytical approach promotes. The analytical approach in its intrinsic variety has its benefits because it raises awareness of forms and functions of language and discourse with respect to shaping or manipulating content, such as imagery, syntactic structures, registers, ideolects, and narrative patterns. It may enhance cognitive competences, aesthetic sensibility, and taste due to more insights into the art of literature. While traditional close readings aim at revealing the aesthetic interplay of form and content, deconstructivist close readings probe texts for contradictions that undermine sense and harmony. Making sense: subjective response and dialog In efferent reading (sinnentnehmendes Lesen) of factual texts, each reader should be able to retrieve the same information. The value of aesthetic reading, Felski contends, lies in its manifold meanings for individual readers and their “vast terrain of practices, expectations, emotions, hopes, dreams, and interpretations” (2008: 8). It is logically and didactically more convincing that readers actively ‘make sense’ of a text rather than ‘find’ meaning in the text, because then every reader would arrive at the same meaning provided that he/ she carefully searched for it (cf. Reichl 2009: 16-17). In the dynamic interaction between reader and text, the text both stimulates and directs the reader’s associations and ideas, which, in turn, infuse the words and socio-cultural Discussion 8.2.2 Individual use of literature Fig. 8.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 180 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 180 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 Unit 8 181 A PPROACHES TO TEACHING LITERATURE schemata with subjective mental images and interpretations (cf. Meyer 2011: 202-03; Rosenblatt & Iser in Naylor & Wood 2012: 16-19). Aesthetic reading brings ‘dead’ words on the page to life in the reader’s imagination if the reader is willing to get involved in the experience of other minds and worlds, which requires playing along the game as if fiction was real. Scholars appropriated the balanced model of a dialog with the text from philosophy (such as hermeneutics) and reader-response theories (Rezeptionsästhetik) for a learner-centered approach to English literature (cf. Bredella & Burwitz-Melzer 2004; Kimes- Link 2013). Cognitive models focus on the reader’s information processing as an interaction between the reader’s top-down knowledge (schemata) and bottom-up information (text). For example, mental models of a fictional character result from the interaction of cultural categories of ‘character’ and textual information that confirms or qualifies these categories (see chs. 3.2.3, 6.1.2; cf. Schneider 2013: 122-25; Strasen 2013: 43-46; Armstrong 2020: 152-85). Discuss which competences approaches to individual reading processes promote and which they neglect. Aesthetic reading means sharing the perspectives of fictional narrators and characters, predicting future developments, and appreciating the artfulness of the text (cf. Armstrong 2020: 54-104). In cognitive terms, the processing of fictional worlds goes along with fiction emotion (e. g., suspense), and the processing of the aesthetic quality with artefact emotion (e. g., the pleasure of realizing how well the text is made; cf. Reichl 2009: 105). The sharing and coordination of diverse perspectives in literature trigger processes of empathy, sympathy, and recognition-- or resistance. This process of adopting and changing perspectives (in terms of overt and covert assumptions) helps to make sense of oneself and others in complex social situations and across cultural boundaries. Therefore, literature, especially about intercultural encounters and misunderstandings in so-called critical incidents, is of particular importance to developing intercultural and transcultural competence (see chs. 7.2.2-7.3, cf. Nünning 2007; Eisenmann 2015: 221-23; Volkmann 2015: 53-61; Lütge & Stein 2017; Freitag-Hild 2019). Bredella pleads to view literary texts as ‘friends’ rather than as objects or even ‘suspects’ (2004: 59), preferring aesthetic appreciation to critical scrutiny. Bredella’s conception of the reader’s fundamental roles could translate into a sequence of subjective response, contextual interpretation, and aesthetic analysis in class (ibid.: 36-42): 1. The involved participant uses his/ her imaginative, emotional, and ethical resources. 2. The detached spectator relates reading to his/ her literary and cultural experience. Cognitive processing Aesthetic reading Minds are like parachutes. They only function when they are open. - Sir Dewar (attributed) Readers’ roles 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 181 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 181 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 182 L ITERATURE MATTERS 3. The literary critic reflects on the aesthetic making of the text as a condition of his/ her response. Individual reading journals or logs (Lesetagebuch) can be used to record subjective responses to literature and serve as a basis for work in the classroom. Learners use a notebook or a mobile device to jot down spontaneous reactions, questions, memorable quotes, predictions, vocabulary in mind maps, add diagrams, sketches, multimodal clippings, and web links (e. g., with regard to background information and film adaptations, complemented by analytical and critical comments, as well as creative responses). The journals can be used for direct comments by peers or the teacher, given there is a trusting relationship, and as a collection of ideas that will be elaborated in a classroom discussion or an essay. The advantage of mobile devices is that learners can easily copy their log, omit certain responses they do not want others to read, and pass it on to others for discussion (cf. Fliethmann 2002: 270-73; Hesse 2009: 102-03). Blogs and learning platforms support both peer feedback and the negotiation of meaning (cf. Klemm & Grimm 2013). In sum, the dialog with the text generates a learner text (subjective response) that ideally leads to an open dialog in class as an authentic follow-up communication to negotiate meaning with others (reflection). Teachers should work with differences between individual readings in order to generate authentic communication and awareness of interpretation as an individual and social process. Context and culture as conditions of meaning Another approach to reading literature primarily searches for meaning in the relationship between text and context, rejecting the idea of the autonomous object (as in intrinsic analysis) or the subjective response (as in the readerresponse approach) as too limited. Context can be understood as the ‘real’ material, mental, and social conditions of the time, or as the ‘intertextual’ network of cultural discourses in which literature is embedded. These concepts tie in with the teaching of intercultural communicative competence (see ch. 7.1.3). The idea of literature as imitation or mimesis of reality does not mean that it is an objective representation or a ‘neutral mirror’ of reality. Firstly, a mirror as such means little without an observer and his or her interpretive gaze. Secondly, the reading of literature for information disrespects the fictional quality of literature and its aesthetic experience (cf. Rosenblatt in Naylor & Wood 2012: 17). Literature is not a mere source of information: it does not claim to represent factual truth like a history book but transforms information and interprets experience. Literature is both ‘referential’ in a non-factual way and self-referential in the sense that it creates a fictional world of its own. A realistic novel invents characters and action but is more context-bound than a work of fan- Reading logs 8.2.3 The strange mirror Literature is news that STAYS news. - Ezra Pound 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 182 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 182 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 Unit 8 183 A PPROACHES TO TEACHING LITERATURE tasy or romance. Literature is a product or reflection of culture and a reflection on culture, drawing on and exposing beliefs, values, attitudes, and forms of verbal and non-verbal behavior. As a reflection of and on culture, literature is free from the pressure of practical decisions and actions. Readers, who in real life would often feel the need to resort to schematic thinking and acting, can imagine alternative perspectives and worlds. Thus, reading literature may give pause to reflect on personal habits and schemata, and help to refine these. Literature puts the whole range of language use on display: characteristics and differences of individuals, generations, gender, ethnicity, class, periods, regions, and nations in speaking, feeling, and thinking; diverse genres, such as diary entries, letters, reports, public speeches, advertisement, or the news; and finally different discourses, such as psychology, education, medicine, or the law. Soaking up and appropriating the potential wealth of language in literature can boost both receptive and productive language skills. In opposition to factual texts about other cultures, the literary reflection of and on English language and Anglophone cultures grants a privileged access to sociocultural communication because it allows the reader to both imaginatively participate in the fictional creation of another world and observe it from a detached point of view. Since literature thrives on change and conflicts of attitudes, beliefs, values, relationships, status, and situations, readers are introduced to the nexus between mental, social, and material culture (cf. Volkmann 2019; Weskamp 2019). Reading literature in the EFL classroom has been considered as a gateway to a third space, where the learner moves to a position between cultures, mediating between ‘us’ and ‘them’ (see above, cf. Kramsch 1998; Matos 2012: 9-20). In other words, the EFL classroom would turn into a contact zone and a hybrid third space between the German context and the cultures experienced through American, British, and postcolonial literatures (cf. Freitag & Gymnich 2007; Eisenmann et al.: 2010; Hammer et. al.: 2012; Matos 2012: 137-48; see ch. 7.1.2). Learners are motivated to take over perspectives from others and look at their own culture with detachment, to appreciate difference through literature rather than blindly following the dominant sociocultural order of othering, i. e. defining others as deviant from the norm (cf. Nünning 2007; Grimm 2009; Freitag-Hild 2010, 2019; Volkmann 2019). Advocates of a critical literacy approach maintain that language is socio-culturally situated and never neutral in a society marked by inequality of the distribution of wealth and power (see ch. 3.2.5, cf. Macaluso & Macaluso 2019). Dominant ideologies, which define the hierarchical order and differences in a culture, are usually below the threshold of conscious perception because they form its basic norms, for example, that white skin is ‘normal’ or that migrants ‘belong’ elsewhere. Reflecting on silent preconceptions is an important part of (critical) intercultural competence. Oppressive ideology is “a falsi- Sociocultural interaction The third space Culture, power, and critical literacy 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 183 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 183 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 184 L ITERATURE MATTERS fying collectively held system of ideas and beliefs that interpret the world-[…] in the interests of those who are in power, covers up contradictions and conflicts in society” (Meyer 2011: 181-82; emphasis deleted). Ideology maintains and legitimizes the status quo. For example, a gendered perspective analyzes how heterosexual norms impose constraints on individuals of any sexual orientation. ‘Race’ is no longer considered to be a scientifically sound concept backed up by biological evidence but defined as a “significant social and cultural construction, which has been used to classify others as subordinate and legitimize social, economic and political practices, such as segregation, exploitation and disenfranchisement” (ibid.: 196; emphasis deleted). In sum, critical approaches have adopted cultural approaches to race, class, and gender in order to uncover the ideological underpinnings of literature (cf. Hammer et al. 2012; Volkmann 2013; Macaluso & Macaluso 2019; Surkamp & Nünning 2020). Critical literacy conceives a resistant reader instead of a ‘neutral’ reader, who is supposed to empathize with others (cf. Delanoy 2002: 58-62). Ideally, critical readings generate emancipatory reflections on the text and the reader’s own positioning in ideologies. However, readers should have the opportunity to explore and discuss their personal understanding of the text before they are encouraged to employ critical concepts, because otherwise their aesthetic response would be narrowed down and the text reduced to an example for ‘wrong’ (or ‘right’) politics (ibid.: 29; Felski 2008: 1-9). Most advocates of critical readings would complement aesthetic and critical approaches, and “combine a willingness to suspect with an eagerness to listen” (Felski 2008: 22). In a postmodern perspective, which is less concerned about ideology, culture is textual and texts are cultural. The concept of culture as text does not ignore that texts have ‘real’ conditions and effects, but argues that these are only understandable in the sense of being culturally significant and readable: for example, satires can be motivated by strong resentment, provoke real laughter, deeply felt anger, legal trouble, or violent acts of revenge, all of which are culturally meaningful and therefore ‘texts’ in a metaphorical sense (see the violent global responses to Salman Rushdie’s novel The Satanic Verses, 1988). People both perceive and ‘read’ pictures, body language, fashion, or the taste of wine (e. g., ‘a flavor of peach and lemon with a smooth texture’). Hallet takes intertextuality as the unifying concept of culture, literature, the individual subject, intersubjective communication, and teaching (2002, 2007). The individual is both an intersection of discourses and an actant who constructs meaning in new texts by selecting and combining discourses (Hallet 2002: 60-61). Learners need the competences of orientation, selection, and (re)construction of meaning in an intertextual, intermedial, and intercultural world (ibid.: 46-48). The teacher should select representative texts (in a wide sense), which circulate collective issues, symbols, or myths (e. g., British insu- Aesthetic and critical reading Culture as text Intertextual processes in culture, teaching, and learning 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 184 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 184 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 Unit 8 185 A PPROACHES TO TEACHING LITERATURE larity, the ‘mother country,’ the Statue of Liberty, multiculturalism). Literature as an inter-discourse forms intertextual nodes around core symbols and negotiates the values and functions of myths (ibid.: 64-65). The combination of selected texts should motivate students to explore the circulation and interplay of meanings, and to create new webs of significance in dialog with texts and each other in the classroom as a hybrid third space (ibid.: 39-45, 69-72). The classroom can be seen as a space of rich intertextual encounters, and students need a good combination of texts and the opportunity to participate as much as possible in the dialogic negotiation of interpretations, which includes the weighing of opposite voices within and between texts and readers. Some textbook units, such as “American Truths” (Ashford et al. 2009: 148-63), already combine a wide range of non-fictional and fictional texts and images, which form a ‘didactic text’ of different perspectives that provoke critical comparisons (cf. Delanoy 2015: 39-42). Intermedial input is the norm in current textbooks, but often, pictures are only used as a stimulus to talk instead of paying close attention to the particular visual quality and experience of pictures before they are read as ‘texts.’ Besides, in any multimodal text, from a picture book to a comic, a graphic novel, or a website, attention should be paid to the look and meaning of pictures themselves, the combination or sequence of pictures, and the interaction between image and text (cf. Rippl 2015; Alfes 2018; Eisenmann & Meyer 2018; Maiwald 2019). In spite of their entertainment, movies can present a big challenge to learners due to their moving image/ text combination (see ch. 9.1). For example, the highly intermedial movie Forrest Gump would complement the unit on “American Truths” mentioned above. This movie shows an amiable, mentally challenged Southerner living the American Dream in connection with iconic American symbols and events. Due to its clever manipulation of historical news footage, the movie offers numerous options to relate its episodes to the treatment of American values and myths in other media. Last, but not least, a comparison with the original novel reveals that the comic and touching combination of the wise fool’s success story and a sentimental plot in the movie only covers half the story, which is completely undermined in the novel as it turns out to be the unreliable narrative of a homeless drifter. The rich input of multiple texts and media will certainly generate communication and is also highly attractive to learners because it is very similar to their private media consumption (see ch. 9.2). However, rich input of media runs the risk of dispersing the learners’ attention because they may be tempted to merely surf on the sea of texts rather than reflecting on critical issues. A critical evaluation, which is not at the center of Hallet’s model, explores, for example, whether the American Dream (1) is hampered by disadvantages regarding race, class, and gender, (2) allows individuals to overcome these barriers, or (3) is used to Rich intermedial input: the ‘didactic text’ Rich input and critical literacy 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 185 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 185 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 186 L ITERATURE MATTERS legitimize discrimination by attributing inequality to individual failure rather than social conditions and power. The subsequent model takes into account individual, social, and contextual factors of understanding texts (see fig. 8.3). Making sense of a literary text at school is a process involving the interaction between reader and text, text and context, among peers, and with the teacher. The aesthetic experience of reading may affect readers in ways they cannot wholly grasp in language because it is a holistic experience inflected by cognition, affect, motivation, and imagination. The text may challenge their schemata and hamper understanding. The subjective responses of learners on an emotional and cognitive level may hardly be related to the answers expected by the teacher. Instead, the subjective response is influenced by the knowledge of literary genres, cultures, life, languages, reading, and foreign language skills, motivation, attitude, expectations, attention, and memory. These factors, in turn, may be inflected by the reader’s race, class, Comprehensive model and practical consequences Prior knowledge, Prior knowledge, schemata, imagination schemata, imagination Objectives Objectives Strategies and Strategies and monitoring monitoring Top-down Top-down concepts concepts Text Text Bottom-up information Bottom-up information Intermedial context Intermedial context Intersubjective Intersubjective negotiation of negotiation of meaning meaning Institution: Institution: curricula, teacher curricula, teacher L1, L2 L1, L2 Reading Reading skills skills Motivation, Motivation, affect, attitude affect, attitude Attention, Attention, memory memory Individual experience Individual experience and understanding and understanding Dynamic model of reading as experience and interactive information processing in combination with the social negotiation of meaning in an institutional framework (developed from a model by Reichl 2009: 214) Fig. 8.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 186 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 186 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 07.06.2022 15: 40: 44 Unit 8 187 A PPROACHES TO TEACHING LITERATURE gender, and generation, and the way these are dealt with in the text. The teacher frames texts through generic and contextual information, asking questions and defining objectives of reading, which ask for specific strategies (e. g., skimming or critical reading) and their monitoring in order to understand particular aspects of the text in question. However, learners respond to the text and to these demands with diverse individual competences and interests, which may interfere with the required purpose, strategy, and concepts (see the double arrows). The objectives will be beyond learners if they cannot employ appropriate reading strategies. In basic terms, learners who do not master scanning will not be able to perform certain tasks in a given time. Talking about the text with the teacher and other learners adds further perspectives. The intersubjective negotiation of meaning ideally expands a learner’s understanding, but may also reveal that his/ her understanding is incompatible with those of other readers. Of course, all of the factors in the diagram (fig. 8.3) also apply to the teacher as an individual reader in a social and institutional context. The teacher should try to strike a balance between educational objectives, the individual ‘realization’ of a text, and the negotiation of meaning among learners even if it is very difficult to maneuver between pursuing a certain goal and promoting an open process (cf. Delanoy 2007: 113; Hermes 2007: 81). ‘Doing’ literature: task-based and creative work Task-based as well as holistic and action-oriented approaches (aufgabenorientierter, handlungsorientierter Unterricht) have gained ground in teaching literature as a result of the turn from textand teacher-centered approaches to learner-centered ones (cf. Fäcke 2019). Delanoy (2007: 115) contends that aesthetic reading is complex and needs to be stimulated by phases of evocation that precede those of interpretation: teachers need to nudge learners (1) to feel like reading, and (2) to get into the text before they are able (3) to live through the text, and (4) to get out of the text in the sense of being able to realize some preliminary meaning of the experience as a whole. Language problems may interfere both with aesthetic pleasure and interpretation as an attempt to come to grips with the reading experience, activate presuppositions, and arrive at a reflected understanding in follow-up communication. Therefore, Delanoy continues, phases of interpretation need to build up gradually from (5) reviewing one’s experience and preliminary grasp (Bestandsaufnahme) to (6) modifying and expanding one’s understanding through the comments of others and refocusing on selected aspects of the text in more depth through the lens of literary and cultural concepts (2007: 116-18). Delanoy’s steps 1 and 2 roughly correspond to pre-reading, 3 and 4 to reading, and 5 and 6 to post-reading in a task-based scenario (see ch. 6.1.2). The following task sequence can be aligned with reading strategies (cf. Küster 2020; Surkamp & Nünning 2020): 8.2.4 Phases of teaching reading Smart reading 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 187 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 187 07.06.2022 15: 40: 45 07.06.2022 15: 40: 45 188 L ITERATURE MATTERS Pre-reading strategies to trigger motivation, activate schemata, and facilitate language input ▶ Activating knowledge about genre, structure, and (inter-)cultural schemata ▶ Predicting the topic and development on the basis of the title, cover picture, blurb, movie trailer Reading strategies to enhance involvement and intermittent reflection ▶ Reflecting on (inter-)cultural schemata and noticing deviations ▶ Visualization of characters, setting, events, and action (imagination and externalization: sketch, diagram, journal, blog) ▶ Filling the gaps and predicting conflicts and solutions ▶ Skimming for global and scanning for detailed understanding (e. g., doing preliminary summaries and close readings) ▶ Inferring word meanings and textual meanings Post-reading strategies to reflect on various meanings ▶ Reviewing the major topic, plot, and development (what) ▶ Analyzing the relationship between narrative voice, perspective, characters as social agents, representatives of opinions and values, the kinds of problems and solutions (how), and visualizing results ▶ Interpreting and evaluating the text concerning its subjective, social, cultural significance, for example, from the position of race, class, and gender (why) The use of tasks and strategies varies with learning objectives, genres, and readers. If learners read a short story or a poem straight through, they may analyze a central image after reading, whereas more proficient readers of a novel may pause to reflect in depth on an image or a moral dilemma while reading, or in a segmented approach, after reading a certain part of the book. The post-reading phase provides space for creative activities, which center on the interests, knowledge, and competences of learners and motivate them to work individually or with others on palpable products. Creative tasks encourage the aesthetic transformation of subjective responses via considerable reflection and problem solving into verbal, visual, and performative expressions. Creative writing is a close relative of aesthetic reading because the ambiguities and gaps of literary texts give rise to the imagination and creation of learner texts. Given some guidance or scaffolding concerning discourse and structure, learners rewrite beginnings and endings, rewrite the story from another character’s perspective, in another setting, or in another genre (e. g., parody), spell out the concealed thoughts and feelings of characters in an interior monolog, a diary, or a personal letter. Learner texts have many functions (cf. Thaler 2011; Surkamp & Nünning 2020): ▶ Motivation through identification, individual expression, and autonomy ▶ Recognition of the perspectives of others, supporting empathy and tolerance ▶ Meaningful communication addressed to peers (and the teacher) ▶ Challenging but playful experiment with language and culture ▶ Object of mutual reflection and trigger of linguistic and cultural awareness ▶ Holistic learning that combines affect, cognitive insight, and imagination Playing with language Pre-reading, reading, and post-reading phases Fig. 8.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 188 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 188 07.06.2022 15: 40: 45 07.06.2022 15: 40: 45 Unit 8 189 A PPROACHES TO TEACHING LITERATURE ▶ Opportunity for both teachers and learners to give feedback ▶ Opportunity for appreciation, assessment, and evaluation according to transparent criteria More or less the same functions apply to visualization and performance (acting out, darstellendes Spiel). Learners can visualize characters, events, actions, settings, or imagery in sketches or collages, build stage settings, create a comic or a short animated movie online (see ch. 9.5; cf. Elsner et al. 2013; Elsner & Ludwig 2014; Surkamp & Nünning 2020; Bündgens-Kosten & Schildhauer 2021). Role-playing assumes the willingness to give voice to and embody characters in experiential and social learning, reading selected scenes in separate roles, trying to express the character’s emotions and relationships, freezeframes, short sketches based on role cards, answering questions as a character in an interview on the hot seat, simulating a TV talk show, psychotherapy, a trial, etc. Peer tutoring, in which learners take on the role of the teacher, involves learners in planning, implementing, and reflecting on both the dialogic reading of literature and the learning process in the classroom (cf. Meyer 2008; Blau 2003: 2-5; Delanoy 2015: 31). The multiple opportunities to learn and the pleasure of creative work for both the teacher and the learners come at a cost: it is quite time-consuming to plan, implement, and reflect on the tasks as well as to assess and evaluate the processes and products. In addition, creative tasks have come under fire because they may give rise to arbitrary, superficial, and subjective responses without reference to the text, without any progress in language or critical reflection on the product and its discursive or ideological problems. However, this critique is rendered void if the creative learner products are, in turn, used as a means of taking a second, analytical and critical look at the ‘original’ (cf. Surkamp 2007: 101-02; Kimes-Link 2013). In order to combine the strengths of the diverse approaches to teaching literature and counter-balance their weaknesses, it is recommendable to combine and alternate phases of (1) subjective response and reflection, (2) aesthetic and cultural (intermedial and critical) analysis, interpretation, and evaluation, as well Performance Discussion Finding the right balance Subjective response and reflection Aesthetic and cultural analysis and interpretation Creative transformation and performance Interaction of complementary approaches to teaching literature Fig. 8.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 189 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 189 07.06.2022 15: 40: 45 07.06.2022 15: 40: 45 190 L ITERATURE MATTERS as (3) creative transformation and performance (see fig. 8.5; cf. Delanoy 2015: 21-24). The subjective response usually comes first (unless the cultural context is introduced to facilitate comprehension), analysis second, and creative transformation last, but both analysis and creative transformation can lead back to reflect on the subjective response and on each other. Literature for all levels There has been an extensive-- and inconclusive-- debate about the usefulness of a literary canon, whether of traditional or more recent primary texts (cf. Kirchhoff 2019; Macaluso & Macaluso 2019). Instead of adhering to a prescriptive canon, it is more important to follow some basic principles of selecting literary texts. Teachers need to read and appreciate literature themselves, have an overview of relevant texts from different genres with respect to their (inter-)cultural significance and to their appeal to young and adolescent readers. Last, but not least, teachers need to know and combine various approaches to studying and teaching literature. They may consider the following principles when selecting literature for learners (cf. O’Sullivan & Rösler 2019): ▶ Texts should be manageable (length, difficulty of vocabulary, topic, structure: available editions with vocabulary aids and study questions) ▶ Texts should be interesting and engaging ▶ Texts should offer insights into other cultures ▶ Texts should be comparable to learners’ lives and cultures ▶ Text should motivate active and creative work Many teachers search for texts with ready-to-use teaching material. This criterion should not eclipse the principles mentioned above. What is more, available teaching material should not be blindly adopted but adapted to particular learners and objectives. Looking at the following examples, the suggested levels need to be treated with caution if applied to school types and grades as every class and individual are different. For reasons of space, the following suggestions are selective and not necessarily boxed into pre-reading, reading, and post-reading phases. Since analytical tasks are well-known and widely disseminated, the suggestions focus on holistic, action-oriented, and creative tasks, such as rewriting, visual transformation, and performance, because these tasks facilitate involvement, language learning, and understanding art (cf. Grimm & Hammer 2015; Surkamp 2015). Beginners at primary school take pleasure in rhythm, rhyming, harmony, nonsense, physical activity, and singing, which is catered to in Total Physical Response (TPR, see ch. 4.1). Playful repetition in texts and teaching rituals fosters the acquisition of pronunciation, intonation, and vocabulary, while creating a positive attitude toward English (cf. Regitz 2012; Bland 2015). Besides 8.3 Teacher knowledge and criteria of selection We shouldn’t teach great books; we should teach a love of reading. Knowing the contents of a few works of literature is a trivial achievement. Being inclined to go on reading is a great achievement. - B. F. Skinner Beginners: playing with language 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 190 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 190 07.06.2022 15: 40: 45 07.06.2022 15: 40: 45 Unit 8 191 L ITERATURE FOR ALL LEVELS learning nursery rhymes and singing classical children’s songs, teachers can easily build on the popularity of English pop songs among children, who can-- quite often- - sing along and perform some of the choreography. The ‘cool’ teacher becomes a learner, too, and can ask for the most popular English songs in class, and decide with the learners which of these to study upon the basis of appropriate content and language. An up-to-date version of TPR would make children watch a music video on YouTube or Vimeo as a source of learning both the lyrics and some of the moves and let gifted learners help teach these to their peers. For instance, Dumb Ways to Die is a children’s favorite and comes along with a funny animated movie (on YouTube or as an app) as ready-made EFL material (cf. Werth 2017). Vivid story-telling with the help of Big Books (or projected scans) relates to the reading of picture books many children are familiar with and aims at children’s holistic response, lexical, narrative, and visual understanding (cf. Bland 2018). Since the foreign language skills of learners at this level are behind their interpretive skills, pictures help scaffold comprehension (cf. Hempel 2015: 4-5). However, pictures are not self-evident. Therefore the individual pictures, their sequence, and their interaction with the verbal text require close attention. Rise and Shine (Allen et al. 2007) shows the morning routines of various characters on Sesame Street in simple, alliterative language and funny pictures that reveal some cultural differences in architecture, clothes, and food. Using a hand puppet of Elmo as the narrator of his own story may motivate some children to tell him their morning routines before the children draw a cartoon or talk to each other about the similarities and differences of their morning routines (see fig. 8.6). Learners could also pantomime some of their daily activities and let their peers guess what they are doing. The picture book Very Short Scary Tales (Hoberman & Emberley 2011) in the series You Read to Me, I Read to You caters to playfully teaching reading skills to beginners in connection with cultural learning about Halloween (see fig. 8.7). The stories in rhythmic, rhymed lines are divided into couplets alternatingly read by the teacher and the learner, or later two learners. The funny illustrations play with children’s fears and their desire for conquering them. The readings can stimulate learners to perform little sketches or draw and write little booklets about their own monsters (cf. Dunn 2014: 220-25). Search for ‘classical’ fairy tales in English and discuss which of these would be of particular interest to beginners. Intermediate learners will be truly entertained by “A Relationship in 8 Pages” (Hoover 2007), which helps to raise awareness of face-to-face interaction in real life and narrative communication in comics because it highlights the gap between revealed and concealed emotions and thoughts in opposition to expressive body language. In this comic, a shy boy, who has a crush on a girl Holistic story-telling with multimodal texts ‘Monstrous’ readings Intermediate learners: boys and girls Fig. 8.6 Fig. 8.7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 191 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 191 07.06.2022 15: 40: 46 07.06.2022 15: 40: 46 192 L ITERATURE MATTERS in his class, finally manages to ask her out, but their relationship is nipped in the bud by her peers. The panels superbly capture the characters’ inner lives in drawings which highlight their expressive body language in contrast to the characters’ loss for words and the strategic silence of the dominant girls. The following subjective, analytical, intermedial, and creative tasks can promote communicative competence and media literacy (receptive/ productive). Pre-reading: ▶ What’s in a title and in a picture? Discuss differences between male and female peer groups and gender roles in love relationships. Imitate the pose of the boy in the picture and spell out what he feels and is thinking about. Reading/ viewing: ▶ Spell out what the characters feel and think in thought bubbles, observing their body language and their verbal communication. Write neatly and legibly so that your version can be read by others when posted on the walls. (Half of the class gets the comic with erased speech bubbles and fills in the words on the basis of their visual interpretation.) Post-reading: ▶ Compare the gendered interplay of body language, verbal communication, and the inferred inner feelings and thoughts in different versions. Choose the best ideas and collate one story from several versions (in class or as homework). ▶ Discuss how the comic mirrors real-life body language and verbal interaction. Discuss whether you find gender-specific attitudes and patterns of communication in friendships and relationships. ▶ View and listen to Stefanie Scott’s “Girl I Used to Know” (2011) and compare her lyrics and her drawings to the comic. ▶ Complement the work on the comic by reading and subsequently performing Draper’s sketch “Friends and Lovers” (2013), in which a boy ends a relationship with a girl and it turns out that her best girlfriend is his new lover. The educational goals of promoting an awareness of social values, ethics, and the environment are often combined with teaching critical literacy and global issues to upper intermediate learners (see ch. 7.2.1). Volkmann notices the “greening of the EFL classroom” (2012: 397) and the controversy whether ecocritical literature should initiate an open discussion of culture and nature or serve as a tool to raise ecological awareness in a more directive way to change the learners’ attitude and practical behavior. Moderate ecocritics warn that the complexity of environmental global issues as well as basic epistemological and political problems raise questions such as: who can claim to have ‘the truth’ about nature? Who controls which discourses about nature and the environment (politics, Global issues and awareness 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 192 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 192 07.06.2022 15: 40: 46 07.06.2022 15: 40: 46 Unit 8 193 L ITERATURE FOR ALL LEVELS multinational corporations, science, the media)? How could ecological insight translate into social and political action? Ecologically committed pedagogues see the chance to easily connect life, language, and literature through eco-utopian or -dystopian writing. The speculation about the future as a reflective reader of eco-utopian or -dystopian literature and a responsible citizen may result in questions about what the individual can do to make the world a better place (cf. Matz 2015; Frenzel & Neumann 2017; Ludwig & Maruo-Schröder 2018; Wanning 2019; Ludwig & Shipley 2021). David Macaulay’s clever picture book: BAAA (1985) ideally complements textbook sections on environmental issues. The highly entertaining, dystopian, and satiric animal fable shows a country after the rather sudden demise of human beings (about which readers can speculate, and get one version in the course of the book). Surviving sheep leave their pastures and enter urban space, gradually adopt human culture, and re-live modern human history in a fast-forward mode until they ruin the world and disappear from the face of it. In playful, ironic, and highly symbolic drawings with dry comments, Macaulay addresses ethical, social, ecological, and political problems: mass society and identity, greed and consumerism, mobility and congestion, manipulative politics and the media, need and crime, overpopulation, economic boom and bust cycles, and ecological decline. The story makes readers take a fresh look at the world and possible developments through the eyes of ignorant sheep. This satirical dystopia invites numerous analytical and creative tasks: ▶ Consider where people behave more like sheep rather than rational beings. ▶ Complement the panels with snippings from various media and compare the topics with current ecological, social, and political debates. ▶ Discuss whether the fictional version is an appropriate warning, including the question of what people would need to do in order to avoid environmental decline. ▶ Analyze the relationship between the perspective and style of the drawings and the brief narrative comments within and between panels. ▶ Redraw or retell the story to develop alternative turns for each stage of the story (cf. Meyer 2018). The novel The House on Mango Street (1984) by Sandra Cisneros presents coming-of-age in the contact zone between Mexican and American culture from the marginalized perspective of a Chicana girl. The narrator and protagonist, Esperanza, feels bound to her family but suffers from poverty and the male constraints put on women. She is drawn to the American Dream of independence and a home of her own. The novel consists of many short sketches and stories, which are written in the first person in very simple but vivid English and a few understandable Spanish words and phrases. With less advanced classes or under time pressure, teachers can select individual stories with great potential for intercultural learning. The stories easily lend themselves to visualiza- Graphic novel: visual and critical literacy Intercultural communicative competence 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 193 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 193 07.06.2022 15: 40: 47 07.06.2022 15: 40: 47 194 L ITERATURE MATTERS tion (the present home and the desired one, women at windows, girls dressing up), role play, and the creative inversion of scenes from the perspectives of Chicano or ‘Anglo’ boys. The highly problematic gender relationships address topical issues (see #MeToo; cf. Cummins 2019). Search the Internet for prizes for young adult literature, and discuss which of the award-winning texts from last year would be suited for intermediate learners (major booksellers offer the first few pages online as a preview). Advanced learners should be able to cope with-- and enjoy-- literature from young adult fiction to selected classics. The Bronx Masquerade (2002) by Nikki Grimes is a fascinating novel about school, the power of poetry as self-expression, and the American Dream in the culturally diverse US. The short novel presents a series of narrative self-portraits of adolescents of different ethnic backgrounds and the poems they write about their concerns for ‘open mike Friday’ in class. Most of these teenagers are not interested in school, but in their poems they share their problems with looks, bodies, peers, and families, as well as their need for respect, love, and a future. The first-person narratives offer insights into similarities and differences in the impact of race, class, and gender on teenage selves and careers. The intense stories about the gap between personal and social identity as well as reality and dreams call for identification. The poems raise awareness of the significance of language and can inspire creative expression. The book lends itself to numerous receptive and productive, analytical and creative activities, which can be implemented in a sequence or offered for choice: ▶ Compare and discuss multimodal music videos about the American Dream and race, class, and gender, such as Madonna’s “American Life” (2003), Rihanna’s “American Oxygen” (2015), or Ariana Grande’s “7 Rings” (2019). ▶ Pick your favorite character and interpret his/ her choice of a voice (how) and a self-image in relationship to the images others have of them (what): how does the story help you to understand the poem and the poem to understand the story? ▶ Discuss one of the poems “I, Too, Sing America” (1925) and “Theme for English B” (1949) by the African American poet Langston Hughes. Compare one of his poems to one of your choice from the novel. Can you understand differences in voice, mood, topic, or language in relation to the sociocultural context? Do research on segregation and Harlem in the 1920s and on ethnic issues in the Bronx in recent years. ▶ Girls watch Kiri Davis’ A Girl Like Me (2012) and discuss its racial and gendered significance concerning a black girl from the novel; boys watch Byron Hurt’s “Barak & Curtis: Manhood, Power & Respect” (2008) and its signif- Advanced: intercultural poetry slam Poetry Slam Fig. 8.8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 194 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 194 07.06.2022 15: 40: 47 07.06.2022 15: 40: 47 Unit 8 195 L ITERATURE FOR ALL LEVELS icance concerning a black boy from the novel. A girl and a boy each compare and discuss the impact of gender and ethnicity on identity. ▶ Take a selfie and write a short poem about a topic that concerns you. Organize open-mike meetings in class or a poetry slam in school. Vikas Swarup’s fast-paced novel Q&A and its adaptation Slumdog Millionaire (2008) appeal to boys and girls because of the suspenseful and sensational but also tragicomic and sentimental plot. The Indian underdog Ram Mohammed Thomas struggles for survival, but ultimately manages to win the heart of a beautiful girl and the show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire. The multifaceted novel and movie provoke controversial discussions of inter-, trans-, and intracultural similarities and differences (see ch. 7.1.3-7.2.2), Indians and international tourists, Hindus and Muslims, class and gender, crime and justice, as well as reality and the media. The international show offers an excellent stimulus for pre-reading discussions of the media in Germany as a point of comparison to media in India. The episodic structure of the novel and the movie facilitates the selection of relevant chapters for discussion. Last, but not least, the novel relates to the topical issues of global capital and the asymmetric distribution of wealth and opportunity. Many learners appreciate dealing with Shakespeare as a cultural icon, but they often struggle with his language (cf. Petersohn & Volkmann 2019). Suggestions of teaching Shakespeare often propose reading the original before its modern adaptations in various media, but starting with an adaptation can be more motivating. Hamlet can be attractive to adolescents due to its young and idealistic protagonist with high principles, who is troubled by the corruption he senses around him. Facing uncertainty and complexity, he feels the urge to arrive at a decision and to act upon it. He feels he can no longer trust anybody, not even himself at times, and worries about his future, but finally decides to stand up and fight. The play is rather long, but starting with discussing the highly symbolic Manga adaptation and a few selected scenes of the original, producing an animated movie online (cf. Sexton & Pantoja 2008; Grimm 2014), or working with the significantly shortened, animated Hamlet (1992) is closer to learners’ capacity and interests, and addresses visual as well as media literacy. In the animated Hamlet, a narrator introduces the play and gives spectators orientation. The highly expressive audiovisual quality of the movie draws the spectator into the plot. For example, the symbolic use of little light and a lot of darkness symbolizes that Hamlet is in a dark mood and left in the dark about the secrets and machinations of his uncle. The characters are drawn in a highly suggestive style, and their superb voices express a large range of emotions from sadness and despair to joy and desire. The claustrophobic architecture with its long, dark halls and winding staircases adds to the oppressive atmosphere. The ‘camera work,’ or rather, the chosen perspectives, which repeatedly Intercultural competence & critical literacy To read, or not to read, that is the question … 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 195 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 195 07.06.2022 15: 40: 47 07.06.2022 15: 40: 47 196 L ITERATURE MATTERS move in circles, make the spectator share Hamlet’s confusion. Drawing attention to the impressive use of light, color, voice, sound, and architecture supports the understanding of the characters and the action. Selected key scenes can be compared to the passages from the original. Current parodies are fun and prove the play’s popularity (cf. Grimm 2014: 197). Inform yourself about mandatory texts in the curriculum of your state, and compare these to the literary texts which you have read so far and find suitable for use in the EFL classroom. Check which of your favorite movies are book adaptions and discuss which of these would be attractive to students. What would be your teaching goals and preferred activities with the texts and movies of your choice? Recommended reading Bland, Janice, ed. (2018). Using Literature in English Language Education: Challenging Reading for 8-18 Year Olds. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Eisenmann, Maria & Michael Meyer, eds. (2018). Teaching Multimodality and Multiliteracies. Special issue of Anglistik 29.1. Hallet, Wolfgang; Carola Surkamp & Ulrich Krämer, eds. (2015). Literaturkompetenzen Englisch. Modellierung-- Curriculum-- Unterrichtsvorschläge. Seelze: Klett Kallmeyer. Küster, Lutz; Christiane Lütge & Katharina Wieland, eds. (2015). Literarisch-ästhetisches Lernen im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Theorie- - Empirie- - Unterrichtsperspektiven. Frankfurt et al.: Lang. Ludwig, Christian & Frank Erik Pointner, eds. (2013). Teaching Comics in the Foreign Language Classroom. Trier: WVT. Lütge, Christiane, ed. (2019). Grundthemen der Literaturwissenschaft: Literaturdidaktik. Berlin et al.: de Gruyter. Summer, Theresa, ed. (2019). Culture and Literature in EFL Education: Relating Theory to Practice. Berlin: Lang. Surkamp, Carola & Ansgar Nünning (2020). Englische Literatur unterrichten. 5 th ed. Seelze- Velber: Klett-Kallmeyer. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 196 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 196 07.06.2022 15: 40: 47 07.06.2022 15: 40: 47 Unit 9 197 L ITERATURE FOR ALL LEVELS Media Contents 9.1 Media 198 9.2 Media competence 202 9.3 Media and methods 209 9.4 Media in the classroom: examples 215 Recommended reading 217 For a start, this chapter focuses on the importance of media and media competence in life and education. A more specific definition of media in communicative contexts prepares for a deeper understanding of media potential and practices. The ever-expanding media repertoire available for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) moves from the blackboard to digital information and communications technology (ICT). Selected examples of utilizing media in EFL will round off this chapter. Definitions of media, mode, genre, discourse; media competence or literacy; empowerment spiral, 4K-model, digital competence areas, critical media literacy questions; framing; visual literacy, film literacy, multimodality, and multiliteracies Digital media tools and methods: Learning Management Systems, blended learning, flipped classroom; discussing challenges and potential of digital competences and implementing digital technologies; discussing examples Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 197 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 197 07.06.2022 15: 40: 47 07.06.2022 15: 40: 47 198 M EDIA Have a look at the cartoon and discuss the following questions: (1) What experiences (good and bad) have you had with the use of media in school and in the EFL classroom in particular? (2) How can media (‘old’ and ‘new’) be utilized in the EFL classroom? (3) What is your opinion regarding current trends involving the ‘digitalization’ of schools (e. g., using learning platforms such as Moodle, laptop classes, blended and mobile learning, digital textbooks)? Media We are immersed in media from the cradle to the grave-- and beyond. Before we are born, medical reports and hypersonic photos document our growth. Fetuses seem to respond to speech and music. Babies are smothered with kisses, words, picture books, and songs. Small children start playing with smartphones, which will hardly leave their hands and become an ever more important part of their lives when growing up: media and digitalization shape socialization for good and bad. Most users are interested in information, communication, and entertainment. Technological media such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, computers, and television sets preoccupy and flood adolescents and adults with a never-ending stream of media content at home or work. Users massively contribute content, constructing identities and participating in social, cultural, political, and economic exchanges (cf. Tulodziecki 2019: 17-28; Weinert 2019: 17-54; Feierabend et al., JIM-Studie 2020: 6-16, 26-59; Hurrelmann 2021). After death, burials come with obituaries, prayers, songs, an epitaph, and anecdotes the bereaved share among each other. Information of all sorts about the living and the dead rests in the archives of governments and global tech companies or circulates on the internet among relatives and friends 9.1 Banksy: Smartphones everywhere Fig. 9.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 198 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 198 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 Unit 9 199 M EDIA in biographies, photographs, or videos. Communication through media creates meaning: life without media is not only impossible but meaningless. Analog modes and media, such as speech in face-to-face interaction or verbal texts in print magazines, are not dead. Digital media have adapted and outgrown them, but both reflect on each other: journal articles discuss computer games and algorithms; novels adapt digital forms of communication; websites imitate book design. Media practices construct, reproduce, and reflect on cultures-- generating, circulating, and negotiating ideas. Because technologically-based media practices are intertwined with embodied lives everywhere, it stands to reason that (digital) media literacy has become a paramount educational objective in general and language teaching in particular (cf. Couldry & Hepp 2018: 15-32; Küster 2019; Weinert 2019: 79-97; Tulodziecki 2019: 22-24). ‘Media’ is a buzzword in everyday life and a contested term in academia. There are as many definitions of media as theories, from Communication Studies to Cultural Studies, Linguistics, Media Studies, Pedagogy, Philosophy, Semiotics, and beyond. The Latin origin of ‘medium’ signifies ‘in the middle,’ ‘mediating between,’ and ‘a means to achieve an end’ (cf. SOED). The plural ‘media’ needs to be distinguished from ‘the media,’ in short for ‘the mass media’ such as newspapers and television. A bottom-up, pragmatic perspective defines ‘medium’ as a tool that helps to represent and change reality through coordinating communication and action among individuals (cf. Sandbothe 2020: 83-84). The metaphor of medium as a tool is intriguing but limited because a medium is more than a hammer to drive meaning home. A top-down, structural definition conceives media as “those sociotechnical systems and cultural practices of the dissemination and storage of information which serve for the design of communication and interaction” (Banse & Metzner-Szigeth 2012: 235; our emphasis). Here, media are sociocultural means to ‘design’ communication. ‘Design’ includes intention, planning, and performance (cf. SOED) and is associated with the construction and appearance of artifacts. ‘Design’ includes the use of all kinds of ‘signs’ in various media and artifacts, whether a magazine, a dollar bill, or a church. Many scholars add ‘perception’ to dimensions of media as technology, tool, and system: ▶ media technology and material (printing press and book, projector and video, computer and pixels on screen-…), ▶ semiotic media tools (speech, image, numbers-…), ▶ media perception (visual, auditory / aural, audiovisual-…), and ▶ media as sociocultural systems of communication (transmission of information in news, email interaction, TV show, etc; cf. Voigts-Virchow 2005: 16-25; Schaumburg & Prasse 2018: 17-24; Tulodziecki 2019: 29-38). For example, a printed text in a newspaper represents reality in numeral, verbal, and visual signs for information. In the following, a few working defini- 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 199 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 199 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 200 M EDIA tions of ‘medium’ precede the sketch of a more nuanced understanding of media technology, tools, communication, media competence, and the role of media in English classes. Communication cannot do without media, but media are not enough to understand communication. On a surface level, we consume and produce texts in an extensive sense, organizing signs for communication. Texts come in all shapes and sizes: a joke, a selfie, a diagram, or an online post. Interaction, such as small talk, an online conversation, or a FAQ thread, also constitutes texts with more or less definite boundaries. An English textbook contains dialogs, stories, lyrics, explanations, drawings, photographs, etc.: this textbook is a medium in the conventional sense, a product of the printing press, produced with semiotic media of language, images, and numbers for educational purposes. The definition of material media that ‘carry’ semiotic media marks the difference between the book and language, but not dialog and lyrics. A random order of signs is crucial for passwords (a0’9* 0y) but not helpful for communication. Genres and discourses offer patterns for organizing signs and roles for users. Genres help to form meaningful texts but are more than text types. Genre is a sociocultural convention, internalized as a cognitive pattern, and a performative, “relatively stable communicative strategy both for achieving some relevant social purposes and for allowing its practitioners to display that they are attempting to achieve those purposes.” (Bateman 2016: 60-1, our emphasis; cf. Hallet 2016: 40-50). Genres frame texts through formal markers and social roles of their users, e.g., types of phrases that signify the beginning and ending of a text or the types of roles and utterances in an interview (cf. Kress 2010: 113, 152; Bateman 2016: 60-1; Bezemer & Kress 2016: 16-18). For example, the transmission of information in a weather report is related to but differs from small talk about feeling under the weather for social purposes. While everybody is free to talk about their subjective perspectives, the weather expert is an authority in the discourse of meteorology. In its basic definition, communicative competence includes discourse competence to construct cohesive and coherent texts, drawing on genres (ch. 4.3.1). From a more comprehensive and critical point of view, discourse competence implies more than designing appropriate texts: knowledge and power, which is highly relevant in education. To put it simply, discourse regulates what someone can say about a specific topic in which ways and by whom within the framework of institutionalized knowledge production (cf. Foucault 1979; Kress 2010: 110; Feder 2014; Lynch 2014). A speaker demonstrates expertise through mastering domain-specific knowledge and know-how, marked by technical terms and certain types of arguments related to practices. Discursive expertise legitimizes authority and power, a connection that holds true at work and school: Chemistry, for example, is a scientific discourse as a discipline that regulates domainspecific thinking and problem solving. Researchers, teachers, and learners are Texts in media Genre and communication Discourse: communication and knowledge 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 200 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 200 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 Unit 9 201 M EDIA supposed to master this discourse at different levels to claim authority and status: peer-reviews evaluate scientists’ expertise, student teachers need to take exams at university, learners need to pass tests at school. Media such as a photograph, a book, or a tablet screen form the material basis of semiotic tools or “modes: socially shaped, culturally available material resources” (Bezemer & Kress 2016: 6; emphasis added) that provide forms for non-material meanings (ibid.: 12-16). The idea of a horse (signified) can only be communicated through a signifier in a particular mode such as the printed or spoken word, an image in a drawing or a photograph. Speech, print, image, and number count among the basic modes. (Others define language and image as media. The term ‘modes’ makes a difference between, for example, the material medium of a book and the visual or verbal signs ‘engraved’ in it). Modes have elements that are resources for meaning-making, such as vocabulary and grammar in verbal or shape and composition in visual modes. Modes need material media: an image appears on paper, canvas, or a computer screen. Letters formed of dots or pixels in visual print and the vocal sounds of audible speech are the material bases of language. If you wonder whether light waves of pixels and sound waves of speech are material, remember that laser cuts steel and the sound pressure of music can massage your body. The selection and combination of modes in media depend upon the purpose in context: for example, a painting of a woman on a sofa calls for deliberate aesthetic appreciation in an art gallery; a reproduction of this painting may serve to indicate its owner’s taste and cultural capital; the painting may be re-designed as the scene of a fashion photograph to advertise a dress. Material media allow for the different realization of modes: static or dynamic modes (photograph or film), twoor three-dimensional (page or performance), transient or permanent (speech versus print; cf. Bateman et al. 2017: 103-04). Most communication is multimodal. In face-to-face interaction or audiovisual recordings, speech transports meaning through language and sound (pace, pitch, tone-…) in combination with facial expression, gesture, and posture. This is why video and film are ideal materials to promote intercultural communicative competence. Whether in print or digital edition, newspapers employ at least the modes layout, font, images, print, numbers, and infographics. The combination of modes contributes more to meaning than individual choices within modes (Jewitt et al. 2016: 24-25). For example, the advertisement of a house for sale may come with a short verbal description, selected photographs, a floor plan with the exact size of the rooms, or the link to a virtual video tour, depending on what the seller wants to show (or hide). The topic ‘home’ invites multimodal communication in English: the show-and-tell task ‘My room’ in grade 4 or 5 could ask each learner to choose two media and then present their room to their peers (multimodal interaction-- visual, speech, gesture): a sketch, a floor plan with furniture, photographs, or a video. Visual media complement speech in presentations and support language learning before and after pres- Media, modes, and meaning Multimodal communication 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 201 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 201 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 202 M EDIA entations. Learners reflect on what these media and modes can do and what not, the affordances and constraints of the chosen media and modes. Practice in English and reflection (at least partly in German at this level) promotes media competence. In sum, media and modes shape the micro-level, genre the meso-level, and discourse the macro-level of a text for specific communicative purposes of social agents or actors (soziale Akteure) in the context of sociocultural conventions and institutions (cf. Hallet 2016: 21-35). Media competence Media competence and media literacy are contested terms (cf. Schaumburg & Prasse 2018: 104-14 for an accessible overview of German models; Stix & Jolls 2020 for an international comparison). The US Center for Media Literacy captures the aim of media education, better: learner-centered media literacy learning, in the empowerment spiral (see fig. 9.2; cf. Stix & Jolls 2020: 22; https: / / www.medialit.org/ new-you): Everybody needs to become aware of the potential of media to analyze these, critically reflect on their usage, and act upon one’s insight as a prosumer to participate in media communication responsibly. These four components are interrelated and mutually enhance each other. They also structure the steps of media education from raising awareness to analyzing media, reflecting on and creating media content of one’s own. In a nutshell, it means asking five simple questions that may generate complex answers: ▶ Who created this message? ▶ Which format and techniques attract my attention? ▶ What values, lifestyles, and points of view are represented in-- or omitted from-- this message? ▶ Why is this message being sent? ▶ How might others interpret this message differently? These pragmatic questions are valuable because they raise awareness of two important features often neglected: (1) communication through the omission or repression of aspects or perspectives may question credibility and trust; (2) alternative interpretations take into account the agency and heterogeneity of 9.2 The media literacy empowerment spiral (with kind permission of the Center for Media Literacy) Fig. 9.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 202 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 202 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 Unit 9 203 M EDIA COMPETENCE users, a consideration that may make authors carefully review their communication strategies before going public. That said, the traditional concepts of ‘author’ and ‘message’ narrow down the meaning of texts to individual intention rather than their potential significance and ideological load in sociocultural frameworks that also deserve critical reflection (cf. Gerlach 2020). According to German Pedagogical Psychology, competence encompasses the cognitive knowledge and know-how to solve problems in various situations and the attitude, motivation, and will to do so in socially responsible ways (cf. Weinert 2014: 27-28). Today, the key competences of the German 4K-model-- communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity-- require the use of digital media (cf. Brägger et al. 2021: 40-44; Brägger & Rolff 2021: 954). While all of these competences serve problem solving in general, they are also needed to solve problems of communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity. The 4K-model informs the German strategy for ‘digital competence’ education. Digital competence belongs to comprehensive media competence because digital media integrate previous media. Media competence and media literacy will be used interchangeably according to pedagogical discourse. Some media scholars argue that ‘literacy’ looks back at reading and writing rather than forward towards multimodal design, in which images take a prominent role. In 2012, the Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK) issued the short declaration Medienbildung in der Schule, which features media competence as equal in importance to reading, writing, and arithmetic (cf. 2012: 9). The document highlights the importance of media in developing world views, attitudes, moral values, aesthetic taste and judgment, identity formation, and socialization. Since media competence is crucial for participation in all ways of life, the declaration calls for media education. This paper outlines the basic requirements of school and teacher development but does not define media or media competence. The Bildungsstandards für die fortgeführte Fremdsprache (Kultusministerkonferenz 2014: 20-21) specify that text and media competences include understanding the conventional, rhetorical, generic, cultural, and historical features of literary and non-literary texts. Learners should be able to produce factual and creative texts and critically reflect their text and media use. These documents and The European Digital Competence Framework for Citizens (Dig- Comp, Ferrari 2013) inform the KMK strategy paper Bildung in der digitalen Welt (2016) with a steep agenda: beginning in primary school, learners should learn with and about digital media responsibly and productively. The KMK strategy paper (2016: 16-19, adapted) defines six areas of digital competences, adding the vital area of analyzing and reflecting on digital developments to the EU DigComp framework: ▶ Information: students can define research questions and employ search strategies to retrieve information from relevant sources. They can analyze, Political framework Learners 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 203 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 203 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 204 M EDIA interpret, and critically evaluate information and sources. They can structure, store, and retrieve information. ▶ Communication and cooperation: students can communicate and collaborate appropriately and flexibly through digital apps or channels. They respect netiquette and cultural differences. They participate proactively and responsibly in society via digital technology. ▶ Production and presentation: students can plan, create, and publish content through using digital tools, integrating and re-designing content within legal regulations of copyright and personality rights. ▶ Protection and safety: students act responsibly and protect their privacy. They can detect potential risks, such as tracking and surveillance, false identities or identity theft, phishing, and the addictive use of social media. (Remember: potential employers check the digital profiles of applicants.) ▶ Problem-solving and agency: students know how digital media and algorithms work, solve technical problems, use and adapt digital tools for learning and working. ▶ Analysis and reflection: students understand, analyze, and evaluate the construction, circulation, and influence of digital media and content. They reflect on the opportunities and risks of digital technology concerning their own usage and that of others in culture, society, politics, and the economy. Discuss how to address the following topics at which school levels: controlled versus addictive digital media usage; critical judgment versus confirmation bias (only accepting information that confirms one’s own beliefs and values); empowerment (#MeToo, #BlackLivesMatter) versus hate speech and victim-blaming; influencers as role models versus manipulators (product placement); the access to global information versus filter bubbles (social media groups), or the promise of digital business models versus potentially monopolizing tech giants. Information is a vague term. The unlimited amount of information through digital media meets with a very limited capacity to check evidence through experience. Besides, disinformation campaigns, ‘fake news’, voice cloning, and stunning ‘deep fakes’, videos where someone ‘evidently’ says or does something, make it even more difficult to assess the authenticity or probability of information (cf. Schaumburg & Prasse 2018: 138-43). The basic concept of information used above neglects affect and aesthetics, primarily via visual and audiovisual design. Aesthetic sensibility and response are part and parcel of media competence. Aesthetic response is as important as critical judgment, reflecting on the aesthetic shaping of ideological content (cf. Gerlach 2020). In sum, digital information competence cannot do without ‘old’ literacies: the close analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of verbal, visual, and multimodal texts in the framework of sociocultural genres and domain-specific discourses. What Discussion of digital competences 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 204 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 204 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 Unit 9 205 M EDIA COMPETENCE is more, the question is how digital competence contributes to the general aims of education, identity formation, autonomy, and emancipation (cf. H. Meyer 2021: 213-15). Teachers need to master the competence areas outlined above. The KMK strategy paper and the European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators (DigCompEdu, Redecker 2017) suggest that pre-service and in-service teachers need to develop (digital) media competence in collaboration with peers, teacher trainers, and media experts. They should use digital technologies to communicate with colleagues, learners, parents, and external authorities. Teachers need to select, modify, create, and share digital resources. Pedagogical considerations should guide the integration of technology. Teaching and learning with digital resources should motivate individualized and autonomous as well as collaborative learning. Teachers should build on learners’ media experience to include, engage, and empower them. Feedback and assessment should employ digital media and cover digital media literacy (cf. KMK 2016: 10-20; Carrier & Nye 2017; Redecker 2017; Brägger & Rolff 2021: 954-58; Lütge et al. 2021a, 2021b). Teachers need to be able and willing to take advantage of media technology and content beyond the blackboard and textbook. However, their decision to develop digital expertise depends upon their expectations of return upon investment in terms of effort, time, and outcome (cf. Schaumburg & Prasse 2018: 227-41). Unfortunately, the KMK and the EU frameworks neglect content. In line with the comprehensive media communication concept outlined above, the TPACK-model (see ch. 2.1.4) illustrates that digital competence and pedagogical competence need to tie in with subject-specific expertise (cf. Schaumburg & Prasse 2018: 241-46; Schmid & Petko 2021). These educational ambitions require investment: the development of technology and apps, research into educational and teaching potential and implementation, access to digital technology, teacher training and time to revise curricula, create educational media, implement innovative approaches to teaching and learning, and collaborate in school development (cf. KMK 2016: 25-44; Brägger & Rolff 2021: 958-67). In other words: digitalization is under construction. It is of great importance to pay attention to the framing of any kind of text. In a very general sense, framing refers to the positioning of a text in terms of sociocultural context, discourse, genre, other texts and media, situation and purpose ‘around’ the text, and at textual beginnings and endings (cf. Wolf & Bernhard 2006; Meyer 2015). Reviews, recommendations, or controversial discussions draw readers’ attention to texts and trigger expectations. In the case of books, the authors, titles of texts, cover picture, table of contents, and summary or blurb on the back cover provide multimodal orientation. Information about the book in the media, on the cover, and at the beginning of texts tell readers who the speaker / writer / performer is and who the addressee, what the topic, discourse, and genre are, when, where, and why the text was produced, and how Teachers School development: under construction Back to basics: framing texts 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 205 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 205 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 206 M EDIA it is organized, employing media-specific modalities. Framing serves readers as a guideline to select, understand, analyze, interpret, and evaluate texts, writers to produce texts. Teachers need to ‘didactically frame’ texts for the classroom, reflecting on how to introduce and conclude working on texts: which contextual framing would raise learners’ interest and help them get into the text? Which tasks would motivate learners to apply and develop their media competences? How would teachers and learners arrive at a good conclusion to achieve learning objectives? The ‘new media’ drive image-centric communication. Technology and social media have made sharing high-quality images easy, and “each visual snippet comes as an index of who the sender is socio-culturally and media-aesthetically” (Stöckl 2020: 189). Teaching English has ‘naturally’ focused on verbal competences, but recent textbooks contain an ever-growing number of images. Textbooks mainly use images for illustration, stimulating utterances or discussions, representing Anglophone cultures, visualizing grammar, and providing orientation through icons, but do not teach visual literacy (cf. Hallet 2015: 26-31). Images are taken for granted. Visual literacy begins with affect and awareness. Viewing and understanding pictures could be captured as an interactive process between bottom-up experience and top-down conceptualization (see chs. 3.2.3; 8.2.3, fig. 8.3). The split-second recognition of pictures is guided by context, genre, content, and visual elements that form the resources for the design (Moebius 2009: 316-19; Hallet 2015: 41-50; Meyer 2015: 365): ▶ Genre and motif in sociocultural context ▶ Point of view / perspective, angle, distance ▶ Position and size of the subject in the setting (foreground, background, center, periphery) ▶ Composition (line, shape, color, texture, rhythm, contrast, salience) ▶ Size and format (landscape or portrait) ▶ Frame and caption Images need a material medium and are embedded in multimodal and sociocultural contexts, which mutually shape each other’s meaning potential, such as paintings in art galleries, photographs in newspapers, music in videos, and film (cf. Duncum 2010: 10; Thaler 2018; Falkenhagen & Volkmann 2019; Stöckl 2020). Besides, images are re-designed in different media. Dealing with images in class should promote visual literacy in the areas of subjective experience, aesthetic appreciation, analysis, production, and the (inter-)cultural and critical reflection on the functions of visual media (cf. Meyer 2013: 160-62; Hecke & Surkamp 2015b: 12-19). As delineated above, multiliteracies (Multiliteralität) include media literacy, visual literacy, and digital competence. Multimodality dominates reality both in face-to-face and digital communication. Multimodal communication calls for a pedagogy of multiliteracies “to account for the context of our culturally and The visual turn and visual literacy Multimodality and multiliteracies 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 206 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 206 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 Unit 9 207 M EDIA COMPETENCE linguistically diverse and increasingly globalized societies, for the multifarious cultures that interrelate and the plurality of texts that circulate” (Cazden et al. 1996: 61; cf. The New London Group 2000; Blell & Kupetz 2005: 13-15; Eisenmann & Meyer 2018). English classes need to deal with at least one culture and linguistic variety beyond the UK and the USA. Besides, globalization, intercultural relations, human rights, and environmental sustainability affect everyone in a world at risk (cf. Beck 2013; Summer 2021). Beyond the confines of textbooks, the worldwide web disseminates a continuously growing amount of authentic and educational material in English on any conceivable topic. How do multiliteracies and media competence work? It begins with an awareness of the complexity of (multimodal) communication. Communication generates texts that draw on discourses (in a broad sense), media, genres, and modes (cf. Hallet 2016: 18-27; Stöckl 2016: 23-30). The following questions help to understand, analyze, reflect, and produce multimodal texts. Ultimately, all questions and aspects of media technology, content, and communication are connected (cf. Stöckl 2020: 189): ▶ What is the speaker’s, writer’s, or performer’s sociocultural position relative to the potential addressees marked in the text or context? Are ethnicity, class, gender, age, ability, etc., relevant, explicit, or implicit markers of positions and communication? ▶ What are the speaker’s / writer’s / performer’s positions within, between, or against discourses? Are they recognized or controversial experts or more or less empowered laypersons? Do they assume authority and invite trust or not? Are they materially or ideologically involved in or detached from the issue at hand? Which voices and perspectives are in focus, neglected, silenced, or rejected? Which discourses are selected and combined? For example, migration can have ecological, economic, social, and political causes. Framing migration as a natural disaster in metaphors from ecological discourses, such as ‘the big wave’ or ‘the flood of migrants,’ suggests that the country must be protected against them, ignoring causes and human rights. ▶ Which media, genres, and modes are selected or combined to design a text for a potential purpose? How is the text framed and structured? For example, a text may tell a story for aesthetic pleasure or reflection, offer arguments for debate, or persuade the recipient of an idea. ▶ What is my aesthetic, ideological, and practical response to this text? Do I appreciate or dislike the text’s appeal to my senses (plain text foregrounding knowledge or ‘eye candy’-…) and feelings (joy, disgust-…)? Does the text endorse or question my values or ideas? How do or may others respond to this text? The following diagram (see fig. 9.3) draws on Social Semiotics and comprehensive approaches to multimodality, genre, and discourse in re-designing Cazden et al.’s static multiliteracies model (cf. Cazden et al. 1996: 83; Bezemer & Kress 2016; Hallet 2016; Klug & Stöckl 2016; Bateman et al. 2017): Multiliteracies: central questions 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 207 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 207 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 07.06.2022 15: 40: 54 208 M EDIA How does this model differ from linear or cyclical models of media communication? (cf. Voigts-Virchow 2005: 26-47; Arnold 2018: 267-69). This model combines both dimensions: the social agents or actors are not positioned outside but are embodied and embedded in discourses and practices, which they use in conjunction with genres, modes, and media to construct identities and sociocultural reality. The participants are not only active authors and passive readers because all social agents shape the meaning-making process based on their interest through re-designing texts in this multi-level framework. Linear models display arrows that visualize the direction of communicative purpose as transmitting information from sender to receiver (cf. Ströhl 2014: 79-83). The double arrows in this model signify that (re-)designing texts is an action, which, in turn, positions the social agent in discursive, sociocultural contexts. The broken line of the arrows visualizes that social agents certainly have intentions. However, they may express less than what they wanted to say or say a lot more than they meant to say. The discrepancy between intention and utterance can be due to the influence of the subconscious, the situation, or simply the lack of domain-specific or communicative, sociocultural competences (see ch. 4.3.1). In turn, interest, position, competence, and context shape interpretation and response on the receiving end. Why do the three selected modes for embodied face-to-face interaction overlap? The modes of speech, embodied and gestural signs, and space modify Discourses & practices Genres Modes Text design in medium Social agent Sociocultural context & material environment Social agent l Multimodal communication Fig. 9.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 208 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 208 07.06.2022 15: 40: 55 07.06.2022 15: 40: 55 Unit 9 209 M EDIA AND METHODS each other. ‘Inappropriate’ positioning, e.g., in the back rather than the front of the audience, a hurried or inaudible delivery, and grotesque gestures may undermine a speaker’s authority and purpose. Concerning pedagogical consequences, the social semiotic model ties in perfectly with the concept of learners as social agents, language as interaction, learning through communication, and education for participation defined in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (see ch. 1.2), the German Bildungsstandards, and media education (see above). Of course, teachers are in a position of authority through discursive expertise and institutional power, but learners decide about learning as transformation based on their interest and interpretation. Teachers no longer focus on transmitting information but function as guides and designers of a rich learning scenario that serves as a prompt for learner engagement. Ideally, multimodality would receive more attention in interaction, the educational material and process, and forms of assessment (Bezemer & Kress 2016). Media and methods Pedagogy (in the sense of Pädagogik and Didaktik) should determine the choice and implementation of media-- under the conditions that schools supply media technology and support, and that teachers are able and willing to pursue learning objectives through the most appropriate media. Media should not be used for their own sake, to pass the time or keep learners quiet. Besides general pedagogical aims and specific curricular objectives, assessing learners’ knowledge and needs forms the basis of determining the aims, methods, and media to engage with a particular content (see fig. 2.6 TPACK, chs. 10 & 11). Teachers should ask the following questions: ▶ Which methods and media may promote the desirable learning process and outcome? Do they stimulate emotional, social, or cognitive competences, self-efficacy, and autonomy? ▶ What are the particular benefits and challenges of media content, technology, and communication? Do they motivate learners to participate? Do the tasks and media allow for differentiation to meet heterogeneous learners’ needs? Do they improve communication and collaboration? ▶ Do methods and media invite reflections on (digital) media in context and media literacy? (cf. Schaumburg & Prasse 2018: 174-94; Tulodziecki et al. 2019: 39-42, 124-28; H. Meyer 2021: 221-233; see ch. 11.2). Welcoming the ‘new’ media does not make the ‘old’ ones obsolete: ▶ “[F]undamental continuities and interdependencies between new media and ‘old’ media (such as television)-[…] exist at the level of form and content, as well as in terms of economics” (Buckingham 2008: 14). 9.3 Pedagogic functions of media: where there is a goal, there is a way Old versus new media? 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 209 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 209 07.06.2022 15: 40: 55 07.06.2022 15: 40: 55 210 M EDIA ▶ “[T]he advent of a new technology may change the functions or uses of old technologies, but it rarely completely displaces them” (ibid.). ▶ “[I]t is not media but the uses made of them that can be characterized as traditional or modern” (Evans 2017: 217). ▶ “[L]earning is influenced more by the content and instructional strategy in a medium than by the type of medium” (Clark 1994: 21). Classroom communication is intermedial and multimodal: verbal, visual, and gestural face-to-face interaction combines with blackboard and textbook. Already in the 17th century, Comenius (see ch. 1.1) published his illustrated language textbook Orbis sensualium pictus (Visible World in Pictures, see fig. 9.4) with this familiar scenario. Current research endorses the positive effect of double or dual coding of visual and verbal information that Comenius anticipated. It applies the principle to multimodal learning material (cf. Muňos & Roche 2019: 19-29). The low-tech blackboard hardly ever breaks down or starts updates at the very beginning of the lesson. It is reliable, inexpensive, and easy to use for recording and modeling verbal and visual information in the lesson process, but of limited space and flexibility. Information often needs to be erased during and after lessons (cf. Jung 2015). Modern whiteboards can display previously prepared material in many modes and from many sources, the digitalized textbook, the internet, or material produced by teachers and learners. Whiteboards allow the multimodal recording of the process and learning products, which can be saved and distributed to learners for follow-up activities. The multimodal textbook conveys structured and synthesized knowledge concerning the progression of language acquisition. Despite the shortcomings discussed in other chapters of this book (see chs. 4.5, 5.2.1, 7.3, 11.1.2), the textbook provides a central source of reliable, reviewed, and verified information on language and culture, facilitating continuous teaching and learning. Nowadays, the textbooks come in digital versions and with an increasing ‘multimedia’ package of offline or online material and tasks that increasingly can diagnose learning processes and adapt the support to individual needs (cf. Kurtz 2019; Funk & Kuhn 2020). Visual material in the shape of sketches, photographs, diagrams, and posters is usually embedded in a verbal context or uses verbal and visual modes in conjunction, thus presenting a multimodal text. Textbook photographs often represent cultural icons talked about in the verbal text. Drawings illustrate Oldies but goodies? Blackboard and textbook go digital Visual material: You can see a lot by just looking - Yogi Berra (attributed) Comenius’ Orbis sensualium pictus: “Schola. Die Schul.” Fig. 9.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 210 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 210 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 Unit 9 211 M EDIA AND METHODS vocabulary and characters of textbook dialogs. Images may further aesthetic, conceptual, and procedural knowledge. Multimodal images may appeal to all of these in combination. For example, a colored ecological flow chart visualizes and explains the water cycle and saving water. A historical timeline on slavery combines dates, names, events, legal documents, and photographs offered in a fold-out leaflet or brochure of a museum or the hypertext of a website. Images invite subjective and creative responses, stimulate verbal discussions, serve for analysis, interpretation, and critical reflection of their aesthetic, social, and cultural potential-- and shortcomings in omissions of perspectives and content. Websites and portals stream videos and films on any conceivable subject from around the world. Apps promise easy viewing and producing content: anybody can be a spectator and director of moving images. Prohibiting smartphones in class due to distraction has a point but foregoes their enormous learning potential. Film literacy comprises aesthetic experience, response and appreciation, the intercultural understanding of multimodal communication, literary or narrative analysis, analysis of sociocultural content and cinematography, the critical judgment or evaluation of aesthetic, social, cultural, economic, or political quality, and the creation of videos. Video and film offer insight into sociocultural reality and film as a multimodal artifact. Feature films offer ‘authentic input’ but are not to be mixed up with reality. Ideological, economic, sociocultural discourse and practices, generic conventions, multimodality, and purposes shape film content (cf. Thaler 2014: 33-50; Viebrock 2016: 12-19; Donaghi 2019: 5-8). Multimodal interaction on video and film can be watched, analyzed, evaluated, re-enacted, or parodied in class, whether a state of the nation address, a quarrel, or an influencer’s presentation (Dubrac 2019). Numerous comedies and satires present distorting exaggerations and clichés that are good for a laugh and deconstructing stereotypes rather than naïve emulation. Documentaries reveal much insight into socio-political, historical, economic, or ecological processes (cf. Rödel 2017). However, the making of documentaries raises the question of which purpose the selection and combination of topics, genres, and modes fulfill. How does a documentary use camera perspectives, scenes, and editing to frame descriptions, stories, explanations, interviews, and discussions? If there is no time for series or full-length feature films, short films are ideal media, whether factual or fictional, realistic or animated (cf. Thaler 2017). For example, a comparison of various American, British, and, let us say, South African TV news available on the internet would reveal overlaps and shifts in language, agenda, the selection of visual camera perspectives, and ideological points of view. A cross-media comparison of texts on TV and in newspapers generates insight into trans-medial genres (story, report, opinion), the affordance of each medium and its modes, and different perspectives. Media literacy questions apply to the news and documentaries as to any other medium, genre, and text, whether consumed or produced. In class, the straight-through approach shows the movie as a whole before discussion, Moving images: from spectator to director No smartphones in class? Fig. 9.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 211 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 211 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 212 M EDIA the segmented approach divides it into a few parts that are discussed right after viewing, and the sandwich approach only selects salient scenes for discussion (cf. Thaler 2014: 128-50; Viebrock 2016: 25-6). The creative production of videos requires collecting ideas for a story, writing a script, designing a storyboard, rehearsing and shooting the scenes, sound and music design, and editing the footage (cf. Vinogradova 2014; Donaghi 2019: 8-12; the app Storyboard That). Digital media teaching and learning can be challenging (cf. Peachey 2017). There is no denying that teachers who use digital technological media require more equipment, time, technical support, training, and advanced Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (see fig. 2.6 TPACK). Some teachers report problems with digital media (cf. Schaumburg & Prasse 2018: 211-20): it was more challenging to organize teaching and learning processes; several factors diminished deep learning because learners are tempted to download, cutand-paste material from the web; they communicated less among themselves; their literacy and numeracy decreased; social media or games tempted learners not to cope with the task at hand. However, daydreaming and chatting (face-toface) have always been learners’ favorite pastimes in class, and the question is whether empirical research confirms subjective assumptions. Empirical studies yield mixed results. Some document small or no effects on learning in various competence areas, others a slight rise in motivation, cognitive and media competences, self-organization, and collaboration (cf. ibid.; Tulodziecki et al. 2019: 145-47). The mixed results of empirical studies reveal more about the current implementation than the potential of digital media (H. Meyer 2021: 229). Problems need to be tackled to maximize the potential of digital media for learning. Digital communication detracts from the embodied presence of communication but enables more flexibility (cf. Arnold et al. 2018: 261). Teaching media literacy should enhance a careful and critical use of any source, offline or online. There can be no question of neglecting the classical 3Rs (reading, writing, arithmetic) in digital teaching because these are fundamental to digital literacy. A few precepts may reduce the temptation to do anything else with the smartphone or tablet but work at the task at hand: involve learners in the selection of topics and tasks; specify and support the process and product of the task; demand the exploration, interpretation, and critical evaluation of sources rather than the retrieval of information; make learners create and share (digital) learner products and respond to those of others. Besides, preparing tasks and material of various levels allows for differentiation and individualization that may help solve the problem of meeting the needs of diverse and heterogeneous classes (cf. Eisenmann 2019: 16, 114-42; Vogt 2019). Ideally, digital media can improve learning in many ways: “Meaningful implementations of technology can allow diverse learners to access curriculum in multimodal ways, hone their knowledge with analytic tools, collaborate better with students and mentors inside and outside the classroom, and present their understanding in multiple ways to diverse audiences” (Zinger et al. 2017: 588; emphasis added). Digital media: challenges and effects Solving problems to maximize digital potential 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 212 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 212 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 Unit 9 213 M EDIA AND METHODS Teachers need to avoid using digital media as they did textbooks and copymachines, which seems to have dominated teaching English in the second decade of the 21st century (cf. Heinz 2021). Puentedura’s SAMR-model distinguishes four stages of teaching with digital media (cf. Tulodziecki et al. 2019: 96-7; Mustroph 2021): substitution simply uses digital technology to present or disseminate analog media. Offering a text or worksheet as files for download saves a little time and effort but does not change teaching or learning (cf. Heinz 2021). Augmentation adds quality to analog media, such as listening to the pronunciation of a word in a digital dictionary. Modification transforms learning, such as adaptive tutorial systems that give learners individualized feedback and scaffolding. Redefinition leads to new forms of teaching and learning but is time-consuming, especially in the beginning. Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) or Mobile-Enhanced Language Learning (MELL) should foster individual and autonomous learning as well as more communication, scaffolding, and collaboration among learners and learners and teachers inside and outside the classroom (cf. Falk 2019: 173-78; Heinz 2021). For example, learners can design, rehearse, and record explanatory videos in English with their smartphones, review and revise content and performance with peers guided by the teacher if necessary, and post the video on the school’s website or YouTube. Learning Management Systems (LMS) are one-stop shops that fulfill four or five basic needs: ▶ Organization and distribution of roles, rights, and groups of participants for personalized learning ▶ Content-management: storing and disseminating multimodal content and links to online content ▶ Web-based learning: organization of learning processes, diversified tasks, presentation of learner products ▶ Communication and collaboration between teacher and learner, and among learners via asynchronous tools, such as pin-walls, messengeror email-services, and synchronous tools such as wikis, chats, or video-conferencing ▶ Assessment and evaluation via tools for formative feedback to teachers and learners, self-assessment, peer-assessment, and summative examinations (only on platforms developed for educational use) Schools often have the choice between Learning Management Systems from commercial companies adapted for teaching (Google Classroom, Microsoft Teams-…), pedagogical learning platforms (NERDL, IQES Lernkompass-…), open-source platforms (Moodle, Ilias-…), or school clouds supplied by German states (mebis in Bavaria, itslearning in Bremen-…; cf. Roche 2019: 227-94; Brägger & Koch 2021). Learning Management Systems offer tools to serve fundamental functions. Additional apps cater to specific needs, for example: teachers or learners can SAMR-model Online classroom Digital tools 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 213 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 213 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 214 M EDIA design quizzes in Quizlet and Kahoot! ; MyWordBook offers basic vocab in multimodal ways and exercises; the tutorial system Grammarly detects problems of vocab, style, and grammar in texts and suggests appropriate alternatives; learners can re-design comics with Canva and create multimodal, digital portfolios or ebooks with the Book Creator; with Camtasia and Screencast- O-Matic, anyone can easily produce screencasts for vivid presentations with audio-comments, which allow others to slow down, speed up, stop, and rewind the screencast according to their individual needs; teachers and learners only need their smartphones and mysimpleshow or Adobe Spark to create explanatory videos; Glitch empowers learners to (re-)design a website on the basis of a blank page or existing websites, for example, comics, using drawings, photographs, or other comics (comicseite.glitch.me). The functions of apps need to be checked against costs and data protection (like YouTube or TikTok). The development of innovative digital software and devices promises more motivating and activating language learning through games, augmented reality, and virtual reality (cf. Vinogradova 2014; Reitz et al. 2016; Eisenmann 2019; Jones 2018; Bündgens-Kosten & Schildhauer 2021; Hirsch & Muuß-Merholz 2021; Lütge et al. 2021a; Pölert 2021). A tool without content is like a hammer without nails. The internet supplies users with authentic material of any kind and Open Educational Resources (OER), free material for teaching, learning, and research. Check out these recommended websites for valuable apps and material: ▶ Pictures, visuals, cartoons, comics: commons.wikimedia.org, pixabay. com, search.getty.edu, openclipart.org, www.copyrightfreephotos.com, www.gocomics.com ▶ Audio and video files: learnenglish.britishcouncil.org, www.history. com, www.pbs.org, www.open.edu, www.teachertube.com, www.youtube.com/ education, www.englishlistening.com, ed.ted.com, explore. org; https: / / experiments.withgoogle.com ▶ Games: learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/ en/ games, gamestolearnenglish. com, www.teachingenglish.org.uk/ language-assistant/ games ▶ Apps: learningapps.org ▶ Comenius, Erasmus+, eTwinning: www.kmk-pad.org/ programme/ alleprogramme.html, www.epals.com ▶ Portals: www.zum.de, www.lehrer-online.de, www.teachingenglish. org.uk, www.educatorstechnology.com, sester-online.de, www.bildungsserver.de Digital media create more options for teaching and learning. Blended learning combines the advantages of face-to-face interaction in class and flexible digital learning. The length of these phases varies according to aims, tasks, and Digital media and methods 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 214 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 214 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 Unit 9 215 M EDIA IN THE CLASSROOM : EXAMPLES learner levels. Teachers need to coordinate the phases of teacher-guided and self-directed phases of learning so that they nicely add up to each other. Theories of learning, learning objectives and learner needs, technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge feed into the choice and implementation of methods and media (cf. Arnold et al. 2018: 291-303; Schaumburg & Prasse 2018: 198-203; Tulodziecki et al. 2019: 97-110). A form of blended learning that is pretty easy to handle but requires much preparation is the flipped classroom. The flipped classroom inverts the traditional teacher-centered transmission of knowledge in class and individual work at home. Learners get input through video or screencast lectures for self-study. In class, the teacher guides the problemsolving of individuals or groups. Thus, learners have more time for interaction in class, and the teacher has more time for monitoring, scaffolding, and formative assessment. It is more challenging for learners to work on open online tasks rather than watching online lectures. The description of tasks for online phases needs to be very specific to avoid uncertainty. Still, scaffolding is needed to support learners during self-study periods to organize their learning processes and master subject-specific issues. More open learning scenarios, such as exploratory or project-based learning through digital media, change the roles of teachers and learners (cf. Arnold et al. 2018: 296-304; Muňos & Todorova 2019; Tulodziecki et al. 2019: 110-31). Ideally, teachers take the roles of guides and coaches. Learners assume more responsibility for individual and cooperative learning with peers in class and external partners, such as experts or classes in other countries. Media in the classroom: examples Writing and illustrating a picture book appeals to beginners’ aesthetic, cognitive, linguistic, and creative interests in a playful way (cf. Stafford 2011: 48-49, adapted in the following). Mungo and the Dinosaur Island! (2008) serves as a model for re-designing and reflecting on multimodal learner products. The learners may use pencil and paper or a digital tool such as Canva or Book Creator. (1 Pre-task) The teacher (T) shows and reads out the picture book to the students (S). T draws attention to what S see and what they hear (or read), and how to make sense of images and words combined. (2 Task) T asks S to think about one of their favorite picture books and imagine entering its pages. T tells S that they can write and illustrate a twoor five-page picture book showing what happened when they jumped into their favorite picture book. S think about what would happen, draw pictures and write verbal texts. (3 Post-task) S read out and show their offline or online ‘picturebooks’ to their peers. T guides a discussion of what the most exciting stories are-- and for which reasons (affect, idea, visual and verbal design-…). 9.4 Beginners 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 215 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 215 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 07.06.2022 15: 40: 56 216 M EDIA Film literacy includes visual and narrative literacy, understanding how moving images tell a story. The following task serves as a creative introduction to the more comprehensive acquisition of film literacy. S need smartphones and laptops. (1 Pre-task) S get a brief overview of mise-en-scène and camera work to construct images and stories (e.g., settings, composition, lighting, focus, distance, perspective, angles). (2 Task) S form groups of three and invent a story that they can tell in two or three photographs without words. Groups shoot pictures on the school grounds in twenty minutes. In class, one S from each group shows the sequence to S from other groups, who verbalize the visual story. They discuss how the images suggest a story through visual resources and chronological sequencing. (3 Post-task) S vote for the best story. T guides the discussion about adequate visual resources and story-telling. The visual stories are spelled out and saved online. Multimodal communication requires developing multiliteracies. The following project about the American Dream and its discontent makes students apply multimodal analysis in intermedial and sociocultural contexts. (1 Pre-task) T asks S for critical features of the American Dream and the US self-image, as expressed in cultural artifacts. (2 Task) S collect representative documents and images on American culture and identity online: inaugural speeches, the “Star-Spangled Banner,” photographs of the Stars and Stripes, the Statue of Liberty with its emblematic verses, Norman Rockwell’s Freedom from Want (1943), Astor Statue of Liberty Chocolates (see fig. 9.6), and American food ads. In groups, S identify and list core concepts of the US and images. In light of these artifacts, S use multimodal and intermedial analysis to understand how the poster of Great Nations Eat (see fig. 9.7) responds to 2-3 representative US artifacts in visual and verbal modes (The small print at the bottom of the poster reads: “1 IN 6 AMERI- CANS STRUGGLES WITH HUNGER. UNITE AND FIGHT TO END HUN- GER IN AMERICA AT GREATNATIONSEAT.ORG”). S should also consult the organization’s website. (3 Post-task) T guides the discussion of results. In a follow-up task, groups of S use Book Creator to design chapters of an ebook about the topic with the collected artifacts and findings. The book may serve as learning material for other S. Intermediate learners Advanced leaners Astor Statue of Liberty Chocolates Fig. 9.6 Public poster of Great Nations Eat (https: / / greatnationseat.org/ ) Fig. 9.7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 216 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 216 07.06.2022 15: 40: 57 07.06.2022 15: 40: 57 Unit 9 217 M EDIA IN THE CLASSROOM : EXAMPLES Recommended reading Arnold, Patricia, Lars Kilian, Anne Maria Thillosen & Gerhard M. Zimmer (2018). Handbuch E-Learning. Lehren und Lernen mit digitalen Medien. 5th ed. Bielefeld: Bertelsmann. Brägger, Gerold & Hans-Günter Rolff, eds. (2021). Handbuch Lernen mit digitalen Medien. Weinheim: Beltz. Hallet, Wolfgang (2016). Genres im fremdsprachlichen und bilingualen Unterricht. Formen und Muster der sprachlichen Interaktion. Seelze: Klett Kallmeyer. Hecke, Carola & Carola Surkamp, eds. (2015). Bilder im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Neue Ansätze, Kompetenzen und Methoden. Tuebingen: Narr Francke Attempto. Lütge, Christiane Thorsten Merse, eds. (2021). Digital Teaching and Learning: Perspectives for English Language Education. Tuebingen: Narr Francke Attempto. Roche, Jörg, ed. (2019). Medienwissenschaft und Mediendidaktik. Tuebingen: Narr Francke Attempto. Schaumburg, Heike & Doreen Prasse (2018). Medien und Schule. Stuttgart: UTB Klinkhardt. Thaler, Engelbert, ed. (2017). Short Films in Language Teaching. Tuebingen: Narr Francke Attempto. Tulodziecki, Gerhard, Bardo Herzig & Silke Grafe (2019). Medienbildung in Schule und Unterricht. Grundlagen und Beispiele. 2 nd , rev. ed. Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. Viebrock, Britta, ed. (2016). Feature Films in English Language Teaching. Tuebingen: Narr Francke Attempto. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 217 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 217 07.06.2022 15: 40: 57 07.06.2022 15: 40: 57 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 218 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 218 07.06.2022 15: 40: 57 07.06.2022 15: 40: 57 Unit 10 219 M EDIA IN THE CLASSROOM : EXAMPLES Lesson planning and classroom management Contents 10.1 Lesson frameworks 220 10.2 Using the textbook and other material 225 10.3 Planning a lesson 227 10.4 The lesson in progress 235 Recommended reading 242 All lessons are about learning. Good lessons can create what is called a rewarding ‘learning experience.’ Can such a positive and hopefully lasting experience be pre-planned? Do certain elements or characteristics guarantee a good and effective English as a Foreign Language (EFL) lesson? Some seem to be quite obvious, as good lessons are supposed to have a certain structure, composition, and aim. While textbooks can offer guidelines, teachers should use them wisely and in combination with other material. Other elements of good lessons need to be practiced time and again by teachers, such as classroom interaction. This chapter provides a survey of how to plan effective lessons, suggesting that teachers work flexibly with lesson plans. Lesson framework with core pedagogic-didactic triangle; education and training; textbooks and media package; models for planning and structuring a lesson, typical lesson plans; assessing and evaluating lessons; classroom management: teacher talk and student talk, classroom interaction, good questions Discussing pros and cons of textbooks and their media packages, alternative materials, IRE, and preventing disruption Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 219 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 219 07.06.2022 15: 40: 57 07.06.2022 15: 40: 57 220 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Look at the cartoon. Does a good lesson need exact pre-planning? What do teachers need to consider when planning a lesson? What would be a general structure of a good lesson? Lesson frameworks Think about the metaphors for a lesson (see fig. 10.1) and discuss which of them seem closest to your vision of an ideal lesson. Then compare these metaphors with the concepts presented below. 10.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 220 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 220 07.06.2022 15: 41: 04 07.06.2022 15: 41: 04 Unit 10 221 L ESSON FRAMEWORKS As the metaphors above indicate, there is never only one possible concept of a lesson. Rather, depending on one’s preferences and expectations, an EFL lesson may have elements of ▶ a transfer, passing on knowledge ▶ an interaction, where some social interaction with lasting impressions or effects occurs ▶ a goal-oriented effort, where an effort takes place and something lasting is achieved ▶ a satisfying, enjoyable experience, where pleasure and fun are created ▶ a role-based and ritualized construct, where all participants must act according to their pre-determined roles and the whole event is somehow structured ▶ a series of free choices, where participants can pick and choose as far as the structure or progression of the event is concerned (cf. Ur 1996: 214). John Lennon once quipped about life: “Life is what happens to you while you’re busy making other plans.” This can also be applied to lessons: lessons happen while teachers are using plans. Even meticulously pre-planned lessons can turn out to be an utter disappointment and failure. Consequently, good lessons ‘happen’ on the basis of a sound balance of pre-planning and improvisation, of a pre-given structure and impromptu modifications. Before directing attention to individual EFL lessons, one should take a sensible step back and look at the larger picture of what constitutes the broader and very intricate framework of a single lesson (see fig. 10.2). Below is a visualization of the major spatial, temporal, personal, and socio-political factors forming and shaping each lesson. At the center there is the so-called pedagogic-didactic triangle of teacher-students-topic (cf. Thaler 2012: 13-18; Volkmann 2012: 480-81; Helmke 2017; for a critique see Jank & Meyer 2002: 55): Functions of a lesson External factors Climbing a mountain Enjoying a multi-course dinner Consulting a doctor A rock concert Surfing on the Internet A feature film (comedy, thriller drama) A guided tour of an exhibition Metaphors for a lesson (based on Ur 1996: 213) Fig. 10.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 221 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 221 07.06.2022 15: 41: 05 07.06.2022 15: 41: 05 222 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Regarding planning, conceptualizing, and implementing EFL lessons, these interrelated factors can be further described as follows, beginning with the more concrete elements and extending to the broader framework: Spatio-temporal and material frame: EFL lessons usually take place in a highly regulated spatio-temporal framework. Short time slots are allotted for a couple of days a week in an artificial classroom environment. English lessons are squeezed in between other subject lessons. They are often hampered by non-communicative seating arrangements and a lack of opportunities to include a variety of media or to reach out beyond the classroom. Additionally, teaching and learning English depends on factors such as the dynamics of the classroom, the personalities involved, the availability of resources as well as the expectations and motivations of learners (cf. Islam & Mares 2013: 88). The learning environment and its agents: teachers and students are part of a socio-cultural network of teaching and learning, which is subject to the forces of a competitive society as well as to individual and social needs and demands (cf. Finkbeiner 2017: 26). The goal of acquiring practical language skills is embedded in the overall educational objective of providing opportunities for personal growth and equipping students for life in a society where they are both cooperative and competitive social agents. The school administration (principal), the representatives of EFL teachers at a school (Englischfachschaft), colleagues, mentors, parents, as well as politicians influence individual teaching decisions. A school with a focus on the natural sciences adheres to a different educational agenda than one focusing on foreign languages. Some schools may have a long tradition of English drama groups performing a whole play every year; other Topic Students Teachers European and world political / educational frames Federal states / regional influences; national curricula / standards The learning evironment and its agents Spatial-temporal-material frame Factors forming and shaping lessons Fig. 10.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 222 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 222 07.06.2022 15: 41: 05 07.06.2022 15: 41: 05 Unit 10 223 L ESSON FRAMEWORKS schools may have a well-established yearly exchange with a native-speaker school. As Thaler points out, individual teachers can make a difference and start effective initiatives: “If, as a teacher, I start a school exchange with Scotland or found a drama group or get a monthly movie night going, I can enlarge opportunities of young people of my circle of influence to get in touch with the foreign language and culture.” (2012: 18, our trans.). Regional curricula: in Germany, education policy (Bildungspolitik)-- including school forms, resource allocation, exam frameworks, the order of foreign languages to be taught, and the approval of textbooks-- is determined by each federal state. The principle of federalism has created a diversity of school and learning traditions, with the sixteen federal states competing among each other for the most effective and successful education system. The drive toward standardization and compatibility has been reflected in the implementation of standardized state exams and national standards of education (Bildungsstandards). For English teachers of any given federal state, the curriculum (Lehrplan, Bildungsplan, Rahmenplan) is the standard document of reference (cf. www.bildungsserver.de). Curricula leave enough space for individual lesson planning, providing guidelines for competence development, grammatical and communicative sequencing as well as topics and themes to be dealt with. While some state curricula have always been quite open with regard to issues and texts to be dealt with for advanced learners, others, such as those of Baden-Wuerttemberg or North Rhine-Westphalia, tend to prescribe certain topics and even texts for grades 11 or 12-- e. g., the ‘asterisked topics’ (Sternchenthemen) of Baden- Wuerttemberg. For example, for many years Shakespeare’s Macbeth was a mandatory text for advanced students in a number of federal states. Recently, state curricula have been thoroughly revised or are still undergoing revision. Some of them now resemble a rather general framework requiring of schools and teachers to conceptualize their own schooland subject-specific curricula (schulinterne Lehr- und Lernplanung). Since textbooks need the approval of the federal states, all textbooks by major publishers, such as Klett, Cornelsen, or Diesterweg, reflect the regional curricula. A textbook often serves as a ‘secret curriculum’ (geheimer Lehrplan), making curricula appear rather superfluous for everyday teaching practice. Yet, a comparison of curricula and textbooks can show clearly that teachers do not need to follow textbooks obediently, but should rather use the curriculum as their guideline for planning lessons (see ch. 11.1.1). National curricula and standards: although the federal education system in Germany does not allow for much centralized influence, the introduction and implementation of national standards of education have marked a gradual shift from a seemingly incompatible and incommensurable field of education to a more comparable education system. In the wake of the ‘PISA shock’ of 2000, the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany (Kultusministerkonfer- Federalism vs. standardization National guidelines 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 223 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 223 07.06.2022 15: 41: 05 07.06.2022 15: 41: 05 224 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT enz, KMK) decreed in 2003 and 2004 that all federal states are to implement Bildungsstandards für den Primarbereich, für den Hauptschulabschluss bzw. den Mittleren Schulabschluss. More drives toward a more unified, comparable, and testable system have followed (e. g., Zentralabitur, länderübergreifendes Abitur). All standardization aims to improve the quality of teaching and learning, mainly by shifting the focus from inputtoward output-orientation. As some critics state, this has meant a shift from a focus on (meaningful) content to one of measurable output in terms of FL skills (see ch. 1.2.2). International educational frames: concepts of global education and transcultural competence as well as concepts of inclusion (see chs. 6, 8) constitute a wide socio-cultural, ecological, and value-oriented framework for institutionalized FL learning. Key issues such as global governance, peace keeping, international understanding (Völkerverständigung), and sustainable development (nachhaltige Entwicklung) are reflected in documents such as the 1995 OECD-manifestos The Curriculum Redefined: Schooling for the 21 st Century and Environmental Learning for the 21 st Century. For FL learning, the seminal document is the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), which was initially designed to further FL learning and plurilingualism (every European citizen should learn two or more foreign languages) by describing competence levels and by making output comparable. While it originally aimed at fostering curriculum and syllabus development along the lines of outputand competence-orientation (see ch. 11.1), the overall pragmatic and ‘communication-before-content’ approach of the CEFR has had far-reaching repercussions ‘down’ the levels of national, regional, and local FL teaching and learning (cf. Hallet & Müller-Hartmann 2006; Decke-Cornill & Küster 2014: 143-61). The various influences of the above-mentioned forces can confuse and sometimes frustrate teachers, who will have to find individual solutions to dilemmas such as the following: ▶ As an avid fan of Shakespeare, can a teacher still use a complete play, maybe even a complex one like Hamlet with advanced classes? Most regional curricula no longer explicitly refer to Shakespeare or suggest a different author of a non-British area. ▶ Given the fact that textbooks apparently seem to spoon-feed students all the input they need, do teachers still need to consult the curriculum or use teaching material other than the textbook? ▶ Given the dominant standardization and output-orientation, how do teachers deal with physically or mentally challenged students in inclusive classes who will not achieve the same level of proficiency? ▶ How do teachers foster life-long and autonomous learning, as propagated by all the political documents on FL teaching, if they are pressed to ‘teach International guidelines Dilemmas Teachers open the door. You enter by yourself. - Chinese proverb 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 224 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 224 07.06.2022 15: 41: 05 07.06.2022 15: 41: 05 Unit 10 225 U SING THE TEXTBOOK AND OTHER MATERIAL to the test’? Due to the infamous ‘backwash effect’ created by output-orientation, only what is tested or testable will be taught and learned. According to a model provided by Thaler (2012: 24), teachers need to find a sound balance between the current focus on testable, optimizable language training (Ausbildung) and the overarching objectives of education (Bildung) (see fig. 10.3; see chs. 1.2, 3.1, 8.1.2): English language education Education (Bildung) Language training (Ausbildung) ▶ Character formation ▶ Critical & reflective competences ▶ Inter- & transcultural competences ▶ Literary & aesthetic competences ▶ Language awareness ▶ Comprehensibility ▶ Fluency ▶ Accuracy ▶ Knowledge: language and culture(s) ▶ Skills: actionand situation-oriented, transferable ▶ Attitudes: openness and willingness to engage further with foreign language(s) and culture(s) Using the textbook and other material As will be discussed in chapter 11, teachers may be tempted to rely solely on the textbook by the publisher used at their schools. However, adaptations, additional sources as well as authentic and up-to-date material are just as important in the classroom because of the following questions, which teachers should think about before planning a lesson. In other words, do the textbook and/ or the materials meet the following criteria, and if not, what other materials should be used (Islam & Mares 2013: 88-89, adapted)? ▶ Methods: are the activities and exercises too mechanical, too inauthentic, too vague in meaning, too simple or too complicated, or too difficult to access or engage in? Do they create a dependency on teacher guidance or provide opportunities for learner autonomy? ▶ Language and content: is the emphasis on grammar too monotonous, too difficult, or too simple? Is new vocabulary presented in context and in a memorizable manner? ▶ Appeal to learners: do the materials cater to different learning styles/ learner types? ▶ Balance of skills and competences: which ones should be taught in this lesson? Are the materials appropriate for this lesson or is there, for example, too much emphasis on writing? ▶ Progression and grading: does the order of language items fit the curriculum and is it in accordance with the Processability Hierarchy (see ch. 5.1.2)? Education (Bildung) - training (Ausbildung) 10.2 Criteria for material use English language education Fig. 10.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 225 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 225 07.06.2022 15: 41: 05 07.06.2022 15: 41: 05 226 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Does the staging need to be steeper or shallower? Do the activities provide challenging input (also encouraging higher-level cognitive skills)? ▶ Cultural content: are the cultural references appropriate and fair to the target culture(s)? Can additional and up-to-date cultural content be added? ▶ Visuals: are the textbook or the materials used in the lesson of high quality regarding layout and visuals (e. g., is the layout or visual material functional or decorative, too much or too little)? The authenticity of language, cultural representations, and media is often the crucial criterion for choosing material in the EFL classroom (cf. Gilmore 2019). Textbooks, especially for beginners, often include scripted texts and altered images specifically produced for language learners. To maximize the value of a textbook, teachers can use the media package (Lehrwerk) that is provided by all publishers and includes supplementary tailor-made material. In addition, teachers can find numerous materials of similar content for EFL purposes on the Internet, both by individual co-teachers and by commercial or non-commercial organizations. The media package, which is available with the textbook, can be used selectively and together with additional material, as suggested in figure-10.4. Any material can be adapted to learners’ needs by reducing, adding, omitting, modifying, and supplementing (see ch. 11.2). This is, of course, done to make it more suitable for a particular group of learners. However, on principle, such changes should only be made if deemed absolutely necessary and rather in the language acquisition phase-- adaptations can deskill learners, create a lack of motivation, or lead to ‘reality shock’ when learners are exposed to authentic language use. Media package Other material Supplement ▶ Students’ book as key medium (also called textbook, course book, Lehrbuch, Schülerbuch) ▶ Workbook for students ▶ Audio file(s) (online/ offline) / CDs ▶ Online / offline material (CD) for grammar and vocabulary training, intercultural learning, games ▶ Online / offline videos and pictures ▶ (Virtual) vocabulary indexes, grammar aids, self-instructed learning ▶ (Virtual) tasks and self-evaluation tests (also only for teachers) ▶ Teacher’s manual ▶ Additional material for teachers only (tests) ▶ Material for group work ▶ Virtual platform for teachers and students ▶ Realia: real objects, especially for (inter-)cultural learning and vocabulary work (from coins to tram tickets to larger objects) ▶ Texts: newspapers, journals, cartoons, comics, literature (including ‘graded readers’) ▶ Visual material: signs, pictures, maps ▶ Audio files: speeches, conversations, announcements at airports, radio plays, audiobooks ▶ Multimedia: movies, games, the Internet, mobile devices Media package (Lehrwerk) Materials for classroom use Supplementing the media package with other material Fig. 10.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 226 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 226 07.06.2022 15: 41: 06 07.06.2022 15: 41: 06 Unit 10 227 P LANNING A LESSON In general, the material used in class should meet the following two objectives: (1) It should be personalized and individualized so as to fit the preferences and needs of teachers and learners. (2) It should be localized and modernized so as not to appear as a one-size-fits-all solution to language learning, which would lessen motivation (cf. Islam & Mares 2013: 89). Consult the homepages of textbook publishers (e. g., www.klett.de, www. cornelsen.de, www.diesterweg.de). Look for supplementary material to the EFL textbooks offered by theses publishers. Consider the following questions: (1) Is the material provided appealing and comprehensive? (2) How much is free of charge? (3) How is it related to the textbook? (4) How motivating and useful do you consider the material? For both novice teachers and experienced teachers, the ‘lure’ of the teacher’s manual (Lehrerhandreichung) as a step-by-step method guide to planning a lesson should not be underestimated. While for young teachers such manuals offer a conceptually sound introduction to planning each individual lesson on the basis of the textbook and the material provided by the publishing house, experienced teachers may simply appreciate the time-saving amenities of such a guide. However, manuals accompanying the students’ textbooks pose the serious danger of deskilling teachers by leaving little room for own thoughts and creativity. They could create dependency on the seemingly facile task of following phase-by-phase instructions (see ch. 11.1.2). Planning a lesson Discuss the statement below and rephrase it so that it reflects your own attitudes: “Good teachers plan their classes minutely so that everything they do is prearranged. Once they are in the classroom, they follow their plan without deviation, always watching out for irrelevances which the students may bring up and which would disrupt the plan.” (Task in Harmer 2007: 138) Advance reflection The choice of the teaching method is only one element within a sequence of interrelated curriculum development activities. With the preponderance of method guides available for teachers there is a tendency to foreground methods and activities (e. g., a task-based WebQuest or the Presentation-Practice- Production pattern, PPP). Instead, the question of which method to use should take the mid-position in a sequentialized reflection process (see fig. 10.5, based on Richards & Rodgers 2014: 373; cf. Hattie 2012: 41-43): The teacher’s manual: pros & cons 10.3 Those who fail to plan, plan to fail. Needs and goals before methods 10.3.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 227 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 227 07.06.2022 15: 41: 06 07.06.2022 15: 41: 06 228 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT At first, teachers need to find out what learners already know and can do. What they are able and willing to do is fundamental to achieve and assess progress. In the next step, teachers define the learning objectives (Lernziele). It may be necessary to set short-term goals before learners achieve long-term curricular goals, especially at the beginning of a school year. In general, overall objectives (Groblernziele) and specific objectives (Feinlernziele) specify the competences aimed at, which could be of general educational value or specific value for the EFL classroom. Then the methods and the material should be defined with regard to the learning objectives and the needs of students: which method(s) do I use to develop the defined objectives, goals, and competences of this specific learner group and its individual members? Adjustments need to be made while teaching. In a post-teaching phase, lessons can be evaluated by teachers themselves, colleagues (peer evaluation), and students. Richards and Rodgers (1986: 156) provide a typical example to illustrate the need to put the issue of which method(s) to use into the framework displayed above: Choice of teaching approach or method, materials, and learning activities is usually made within the context of language program design and development. When the director of a language school or institution announces to the staff that an incoming client group will consist of forty-five Japanese businessmen requiring a six-week intensive course in spoken English, the teachers will not leap to their feet and exclaim ‘Let’s use Silent Way! ’ or ‘Let’s use Total Physical Response! ’ Questions of immediate concern will focus on who the learners are, what their current level of language proficiency is, what sort of communicative needs they have, the circumstances in which they will be using English in the future, and so on. Answers to such questions must be made before program objectives can be established and before choice of syllabus, method, or teaching materials can be made. Such information provides the basis for language curriculum devel- General and specific learning objectives Assessing learners’ needs Assessing learners’ needs Specifying learning objectives and competences Specifying learning objectives and competences Designing the teaching program, sequence(s), lesson(s) Designing the teaching program, sequence(s), lesson(s) including methods & materials including methods & materials Teaching the lesson(s) Teaching the lesson(s) Evaluation (during and post) Evaluation (during and post) The reflection process Fig. 10.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 228 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 228 07.06.2022 15: 41: 06 07.06.2022 15: 41: 06 Unit 10 229 P LANNING A LESSON opment. Curriculum development requires analysis, development of goals and objectives, selection of teaching and learning activities, and evaluation of the outcomes of the language program. Since individual school teachers have only some say in the development of EFL curricula, it is crucial to pay particular attention to the first stages of lesson preparation: the analysis of the learners’ needs and their levels of proficiency followed by the question of what competences or learning objectives should be reached at the end of this lesson as well as at the end of a teaching program (a sequence, a unit, a school year). Essentially, as Magnan states, the focus must be on the learners: “Who are our learners? What are they learning? What do they wish to learn? Where and how are they learning? What is our role in the learning process? ” (qtd. in Weskamp 2007: 153). Structuring a lesson “[A] lesson plan is not fixed in stone” (Harmer 2007: 157). Lesson planning is quite an art: every lesson has a number of components or phases. The art of lesson planning consists of combining these components and adapting them flexibly while teaching. As to working with components of a lesson plan, it is advisable to follow these guidelines: ▶ Take notes with the overall structure to class. It seems advisable to note time slots in advance. Planning should include shortening phases and/ or prolonging phases and/ or adding an extra phase (such as a useful, short ‘Let’s look at the new vocabulary again’ phase). Such notes should not be exposed overtly to students. ▶ It is of great importance to think in advance of what one wants to achieve with the planned activities. What can go wrong? Can a switch to another activity or another method or another medium be done easily? Time management is of utmost importance. Usually, activities take longer than planned (especially when planned by novice teachers). ▶ Novice teachers are advised to write down key questions and instructions and think about possible student answers. ▶ A good lesson has a certain composition with- - especially for beginners- - ritualized, though not monotonous, components. It should have a positive, focused beginning and end on a positive note (e. g., with a ritual at the beginning such as singing an English song) and a ‘pulling together’ of the class (the class focuses on the fact that their English lesson starts at a certain time and that their English learning ends at a certain time). ▶ A good lesson should be clearly structured with smooth transitions. Teachers consider how activities fit together (usually oral activities should come before written activities). Thought should be given to transition activities such as ‘rounding off ’ one phase by simultaneously tying over to the next, Focus on learners 10.3.2 Combining components of a lesson plan 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 229 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 229 07.06.2022 15: 41: 07 07.06.2022 15: 41: 07 230 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT especially if the topics or activities differ (such as moving from writing activities to interactive activities). ▶ There is a variation of tempo, active and quiet activities; harder tasks are ‘couched’ in easier ones. ▶ Students leave the lesson with a sense of achievement, which could be experienced especially if at the end of the lesson there is a recapitulation or a phase where students notice that something new has been learned, something they can use in real life. Goals have been achieved, which creates a “self-energizing effect if they are appropriately challenging for the student” (Hattie 2009: 164). ▶ Lessons should neither be predictable nor always the same: “the need for variety in classroom activities and teacher behaviour [is] an antidote to student (and teacher) boredom” (Harmer 2007: 163). Keeping the students and their needs in mind, teachers should plan the lesson with regard to the following principles (see ch. 4.7): ▶ Using different methods: choosing methods best suited for students gaining the defined competences and reaching the pre-set learning goals ▶ Using different social forms: a variety of forms which depend on the skills to be furthered (including a variety of open forms) ▶ Considering individual learners: catering to different learner types and heterogeneous groups through different types of tasks, material, etc. ▶ Scaffolding: anticipating where students will need extra help, more input, more explanations ▶ Material and media: chosen according to the learning objectives, competences, and activities in focus, and with the aim of motivating students ▶ Outputand competence-orientation: keeping the question in mind what students will actually have learned after a class. This includes testing as part of a lesson sequence, but also phases of summarizing and assessing what has been learned (consolidating knowledge, Ergebnissicherung). Since a lesson is part of a teaching sequence (Unterrichtseinheit), it has to be considered how it fits into the overall composition of such a sequence stretching, for example, over a week or a month. Just as a lesson needs some kind of inner coherence, a lesson sequence should have a coherent pattern with overall objectives. Ideally, a sequence has threads running through it which are based on a topic or topics and covers various skills; it follows a certain logic and offers a range of various activities (Harmer 2007: 162.). For example, if a teaching sequence is built ‘around’ a short story, teachers must plan how to stretch the structure of (1) pre-encounter (pre-reading), (2) encounter (reading), and (3) post-encounter (post-reading) not just over one lesson, but over a stretch of several lessons, keeping their students engaged in various activities (e. g., from intensive reading to responding to the text to using the text as a trigger for discussion and creative activities). Principles of lesson planning Integrating single lessons Pre - during - post 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 230 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 230 07.06.2022 15: 41: 07 07.06.2022 15: 41: 07 Unit 10 231 P LANNING A LESSON Models for lesson planning Pre-, while- (during), post-activities: the above-mentioned phases of (1) preencounter, (2) encounter, and (3) post-encounter have become well-established phases of dealing with texts of all sorts (see ch. 4.3.2). Similar descriptions of four or five phases which can be found in the literature must actually be seen as variations of this pattern, modifying one phase or the other. For example, Weskamp (2001: 124) suggests a four-part TQLR-method for listening activities: Tune in (activate pre-knowledge)-- Question (speculate about what will be listened to)-- Listen (actively, comparing with expectations)-- Review (reflecting on what has been listened to). Obviously, the phases of Tune in and Question could be subsumed under the heading ‘pre-listening.’ Presentation-Practice-Production ( PPP ): the much-used PPP method is sometimes modified, as in the Ziegésar-model (Acquisition-based Model) on introducing new grammar items (see ch. 5.2.2.3). Basically, the PPP model can unfold over several lessons, particularly with complex grammatical phenomena. The Presentation Phase tends to be teacher-centered, with the teacher presenting the context and situation for the new item to be learned (e. g., grammar, vocabulary). Meaning and form of the new item are ‘demonstrated’ by means of meaningful, student-oriented scenarios (e. g., with the help of recordings, images, texts). The ensuing Practice Phase follows a pattern from more rigid and simple responses (students merely respond to cues or present short answers) to more complex ones, generally from oral to written activities. Ideally, there is a smooth transition from practicing a new item to integrating it into the learners’ language competence, with the use of the new language item becoming increasingly ‘habitualized.’ This Production Phase should be seen as a long continuum which would include implicit revisions (immanente Wiederholungen) to ascertain that the new item has really been fully integrated. The acquisition of a new item usually takes much longer than this approach suggests and “far more experience of the item in communication is necessary for any lasting learning to take place” (Tomlinson 2013: xii). The PPP model is usually seen as being very effective for teaching simple language structures at lower levels (Harmer 2007: 50); it is very systematic and takes into consideration the learners’ step-by-step acquisition of the new item. Controversial issues related to the PPP-method in EFL classroom instruction remain with regard to when or whether to make grammar rules explicit and whether or not to use mother-tongue expressions when doing so (see ch. 5.2.1). Also, the PPP method tends to be teacher-centered and could bore or deskill more advanced learners. Engage-Study-Activate ( ESA ): Harmer suggests an alternative to the PPP model. It follows a straight line: first, the teacher gets the students’ attention (Engage), then the students become active and do something (Study), and lastly, they try to apply their newly learned skills (Activate). Harmer (2007: 51-57, 10.3.3 PPP ESA 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 231 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 231 07.06.2022 15: 41: 07 07.06.2022 15: 41: 07 232 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT adapted) uses the following illustrative example for teaching the grammatical items ‘can’ and ‘can’t’: 1. Engage: students and teacher look at a picture or video of modern avatars. They say what the avatars are doing. They say why they like or don’t like avatars. 2. Study: the teacher shows students (the picture of) a particular avatar. Students are introduced to ‘can’ and ‘can’t’ (how they are pronounced and constructed) and say things like ‘It can do maths’ and ‘It can’t play the piano.’ The teacher tries to make sure the sentences are pronounced correctly and that the students use accurate grammar. 3. Activate: students work in groups and design their own avatar. They make a presentation to the class saying what their avatar can and can’t do. Not unlike other ‘phase models,’ the ESA-structure tends to work well at lower levels for vocabulary and grammar acquisition. However, as Harmer concedes, it does not take into account the students’ own learning styles and may not be appropriate for learning complex issues. Here, teachers should plan a “mixture of procedures and mini-procedures” (ibid.). Harmer’s model integrates a certain focus on activities and tasks rather than on form, which in essence can be defined as the core principle of the more student-centered task-based approach (TBLT; cf. Ellis 2019, see ch. 4.3.2). General structure of a lesson plan As to lesson plans for the EFL classroom, an overall structure could follow the principles of good teaching as outlined by H. Meyer (2006, 2019; see ch. 2.1.3). In the following, a lesson plan consisting of general components is presented. This plan was developed in international EFL circles in the 1970s and has been modified over the decades (see fig. 10.6). The following table outlines this general lesson plan in the first three columns. The fourth includes references concerning German EFL practices. In the fifth column, remarks can be added as to how the consecutive phases could be modified or specified (lesson plan based on Farrell 2002: 33; the German terminology follows Benecke 2007: 36-37). Look at the following lesson plan. (1) Where would you find the phases of the PPP and ESA models? (2) Consider a typical EFL lesson for beginners, introducing new vocabulary, or for advanced learners, tackling a cultural issue. How would you modify the plan below? 10.3.4 General lesson plan 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 232 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 232 07.06.2022 15: 41: 07 07.06.2022 15: 41: 07 Unit 10 233 P LANNING A LESSON Lesson phase Role of teacher Role of students German EFL practice Modifications needed 1. Perspective (opening) Asks what students have learned in previous lesson; previews new lesson Tell what they’ve learned previously; respond to preview Wiederholung; Sicherung des Erlernten: Konsolidierung des Kenntnisstandes; Anknüpfung an die vergangene Stunde (Kontrolle der Hausaufgabe) 2. Stimulation Prepares students for new activity; presents attention grabber Relate activity to their lives; respond to attention grabber Motivationsphase; (Vorbereitung der) erste(n) Begegnung mit neuem Item, Text, Inhalt 3. Instruction / participation Presents activity; checks for understanding; encourages involvement Do activity; show understanding; interact with others Präsentation des Neuen / Einführung im Anwendungskontext; Aneignung (sukzessive Vertiefung); Interaktion; Anwendung 4. Closure Asks what students have learned; previews future lesson Tell what they have learned; give input on future lessons Lernerfolgskontrolle; Evaluation; Feedback; Hausaufgabe 5. Follow-up Presents other activities to reinforce some concepts; presents opportunities for interaction Do new activities; interact with others In most German models this is not included; instead there is the option of a transition to the next lesson Again, it must be stated that teachers can and must use variations of this general model. For instance, timing, social forms of activity, and media can be included in additional columns in such plans. It has been stressed that, as time passes and both teachers and students gain competence, learners “can gradually take on a larger role in choosing the content and even in the structure of the lessons themselves” (Shrum & Glisan in Farrell 2002: 34). Just how important is it to follow a pre-arranged lesson plan? One needs to take into account whether the chosen methods and process lead to the objectives or need to be modified. Of course, being flexible is of great importance when the lesson is in progress. Variations General lesson plan Fig. 10.6 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 233 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 233 07.06.2022 15: 41: 07 07.06.2022 15: 41: 07 234 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Consider the following scenario and discuss how teachers should respond to it: “[T]he teacher has planned that the students should prepare a dialogue and then act it out, after which there is a reading test and some exercises for them to get through. The teacher has allowed twenty minutes for dialogue preparation and acting out. But when the students start working on the activity, it is obvious they need more time. The teacher then discovers that they would like to spend at least half the lesson on just the acting-out phase which they find helpful and enjoyable. At that moment, he or she has to decide whether to abandon the original plan and go along with the students’ wishes or whether it is better to press ahead regardless.” (Harmer 2007: 5) Assessing and evaluating lessons Lesson plans and subsequent lessons should always be assessed and evaluated in some form. Teachers can reflect on their teaching while in class, after class, together with their students or in peer-evaluation scenarios, asking their peers to sit in and give feedback later. Teachers are also evaluated throughout most of their career by the school administration and the Ministry of Education, which includes regular visitations (Unterrichtsbesuche). In Germany, every federal state has a list of how teachers should be evaluated, and, surprisingly, the actual teaching practices (meaning good teaching skills) are only a small part of it, with administrative and organizational skills being featured most. What constitutes ‘good teaching’ is defined by Horster (2004), for example, through his list of 78 criteria, which has been topped by lists of more than 100 criteria that have been introduced by some federal states! A short list of criteria of a good and effective lesson could look like the following (cf. Hattie 2009: 244; Helmke 2017: 178-79; Müller-Hartmann & Schocker 2018, see chs. 2, 4): ▶ Were the learners attentive and active? All the time? Did the teacher make a (successful) effort to engage all students? If not, what was the reason for their inactivity? What about discipline? ▶ Did the teacher respond to students individually? Did the learners seem to enjoy the lesson; were they challenged, motivated? Did they experience a sense of achievement? ▶ What did the students actually learn? Can ‘output’ or ‘outcome’ be clearly assessed? ▶ Was there a phase of consolidating knowledge? ▶ Was English used communicatively throughout? ▶ What tasks were most successful? Least successful? Why? ▶ Did the lesson follow a certain trajectory? Was it finished on time? 10.3.5 Evaluating good teaching Criteria 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 234 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 234 07.06.2022 15: 41: 08 07.06.2022 15: 41: 08 Unit 10 235 T HE LESSON IN PROGRESS ▶ What changes (if any) will have to be made in the future in one’s teaching and why? Put the criteria in an order of priority. Put the most important first, the least important last. The lesson in progress Teacher talk and student talk It is one of the truisms of foreign language teaching that student motivation, learning, and at best, proficiency depend to a great degree on how teachers interact with their students (cf. Hattie 2009; Thomson 2022). A first aspect of this truism is that there is great room for improvement, given the artificial timeand space-restricted scenario of institutionalized learning. It is a second aspect of this truism that (verbal) exchanges in class need to be more authentic and truer to real-life communicative situations. Just how can this be achieved? Of course, teachers can follow the guidelines sketched out below. Yet, as always, the proof is in the pudding: what is the use of planning to use certain meaningful principles to have more real-life classroom communication if teachers do not put them into practice? It is certainly worth monitoring oneself as a teacher or having oneself monitored by one’s peers (cf. Helmke & Leske 2013) with regard to one’s communicative style and idiosyncrasies (such as the typical overuse of ‘fillers’ like ‘err,’ ‘you know,’ ‘well’). It seems helpful to first look at the characteristics of verbal interaction as it usually takes place in everyday talk and then contrast them with classroom habits. Here are some of the basic characteristics of ordinary communication (cf. Maybin 2002: 5-12). ▶ While people use the structural resources of English to express ideas, they are also simultaneously using language to express and pursue relationships. ▶ What is said draws meaning from a vast amount that is left unsaid because of the way language is embedded in social activities and relationships; a lot of things are implied or are taken for granted in a certain social context. ▶ Talk is used to bind people together and to enable them to negotiate shared understandings about the world. ▶ Talk is dialogic. In other words, people constantly refer implicitly to what previous speakers have said, anticipate what they might say next, and assume a large amount of shared experience. ▶ Especially small talk aims to establish an interactional framework for encounters between people. This happens through face-work; for example, through showing that one appreciates the persona and status of the other person (positive face-work: using laudatory remarks; negative face-work: avoiding threats and impositions). 10.4 10.4.1 Classroom communication and interaction Elements of authentic communication 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 235 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 235 07.06.2022 15: 41: 08 07.06.2022 15: 41: 08 236 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ▶ Conversations are frequently highly repetitive, marked by turn-taking and rituals such as greetings; they are also marked by hesitant, ambiguous utterances, half-finished sentences, and interruptions. ▶ Intonation and body language significantly convey and inflect meaning. Compare each characteristic of verbal interaction in everyday conversation with how language is used in the classroom. Why is communication in the classroom different? Could it use the characteristics above as a benchmark? There are numerous studies on how classroom interaction appears deficient and artificial when compared with the characteristics of everyday talk. Hüllen explains how this depends to a large degree on the communicative framework established at schools: The partners in the conversation are usually a teacher and a whole class; the role of the teacher dominates the role of the learners for reasons of the teacher’s professionalism, his/ her age and advanced knowledge; beginning and end of a conversation are defined by the lesson plan; the proxemics between communication partners are pre-given through certain conventions, such as the seating arrangement, etc. (1987: 195, our trans.) Summing up research (cf. Lindner 2011; Müller-Hartmann & Schocker 2018 for a useful survey), the following deficiencies of classroom interaction can be singled out: ▶ A strong asymmetry between communication partners ▶ A preoccupation with linguistic correctness ▶ Generally not enough student talk time (STT), especially when it comes to long utterances ▶ Too much teacher talk time (TTT); teachers especially do not wait long enough for students’ answers and ask too many ‘teacher questions’ ▶ The artificial, monotonous, and asymmetrical pattern of Instruction by teacher-- Response by student-- Evaluation by teacher (IRE) Optimizing classroom interaction How then can a change for better, more meaningful, student-centered and closer to real-life conversation be practiced in class? How do teachers involve the students? Legutke (2007, 2009; cf. Decke-Cornill & Küster 2014: 123-24) suggests the following guidelines for creating what he calls “the classroom as a place of learning” (Lernwelt Klassenzimmer) or as “a place of action” (Handlungsraum Klassenzimmer): Inauthentic classroom communication 10.4.2 The classroom as a place of communication and action 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 236 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 236 07.06.2022 15: 41: 09 07.06.2022 15: 41: 09 Unit 10 237 T HE LESSON IN PROGRESS ▶ Authentic texts and situations take away the artificiality of progression patterns and the reductive approach of grammatical spoon-feeding; interaction with native speakers in the social media, for example, creates a more realto-life situation in the classroom. ▶ Classes need to be more task-oriented with clear goals of what students need to achieve. ▶ Students increasingly produce their own utterances and texts in an interactive process involving active student participation. ▶ Students use a great variety and number of learning resources apart from the textbook; they themselves integrate these resources into class. ▶ Evaluation and feedback are more student-centered, with students regularly taking stock of how they learn, what they learn, and what progress they are making. ▶ Teaching is cooperative and participatory, with students habitually taking on the role of teachers themselves (students teach students). In addition to creating this student-centered, cooperative atmosphere in the classroom, teachers need to optimize interaction through considering the following aspects (cf. Buchanan & Timmis 2019: 322-25): ▶ Their physical presence in class and rapport with students ▶ Seating arrangement and student groupings ▶ Being mindful of the problems of ‘teacherese’ and teacher talk ▶ Dealing with uncooperative students Physical presence in class: the way in which teachers use their physical presence and their voice in class is one of the most crucial skills of teachers (cf. Harmer 2007: 15). Physical presence and behavior is closely related to representing authority and establishing good rapport with students: the way they dress, the way they use gestures, expressions, mime, and the way they move in the classroom and interact with students. Teachers should pay attention to (1) proximity and closeness: how close teachers should be physically to their students, how they should make contact, and how close this contact should be is a complicated issue teachers need to be aware of and consider carefully (especially with regard to age, gender, ethnicity); (2) appropriacy: do teachers want to appear more formal or informal (e. g., through the way they dress, speak, or sit)? Teachers need to consider what effects their physical behavior may have on their students; (3) movement: this involves the question of where teachers position themselves. Do they move around the classroom or do they prefer to stay in one place? “A person teaching and a person learning,” he said, “should have the same end in view: the improvement of the latter.” - Seneca Optimizing teaching skills 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 237 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 237 07.06.2022 15: 41: 09 07.06.2022 15: 41: 09 238 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT When regarding the teacher’s physical presence in class, one would also need to consider how this affects different learner groups- - with regard to age, gender, ethnicity, cultural background, group set-up, etc. How, for example, would a teacher’s physical presence and interaction with students differ when (1) she or he is teaching grammar in grade 6 or (2) Shakespeare in grade 12? As to the very instrument of interaction, the teacher’s voice, attention needs to be paid to audibility, variety, and taking care of ‘vocal hygiene.’ This entails controlling one’s volume to be audible even to students in the back of the classroom without shouting, varying the quality of one’s voice depending on the type of lesson and the type of activity, practicing to breathe and speak from the diaphragm (‘projecting’) in order not to strain the larynx (cf. Harmer 2007: 36). Seating arrangement and student groupings: the frequently used seating arrangement of orderly rows with students sitting at desks behind each other and the teacher standing or sitting in front of them appears as absolutely counter-productive to any close-to-life interaction. Just consider: do interactants in a conversation ever have to turn their heads around to talk to each other, then swivel their heads back to talk to the person who initiated the exchange? It is therefore of paramount importance that seating arrangements are changed, if necessary, to a more communicatively conducive arrangement: alternative arrangements include, for example, (1) students sitting in a large circle along the walls of the classroom, (2) seating arrangements resembling a horseshoe shape with students almost sitting around the teacher, or (3) arranging separate tables as work stations in different parts of the room (cf. ibid.: 41). Obviously, the preferred seating arrangement depends on the different student groupings from whole class discussion to group work and pair work - a useful survey is provided in Wiechmann (2015) and in Hallet et al. (2020). Knowing the problems of teacherese and teacher talk: the term ‘teacherese’ denotes a type of speaking which uses language appropriate for the target learner group, with just a little bit of challenge so learners feel encouraged to make an effort to deduce the meaning of unknown words or grammatical items (comprehensible input). In other words, teachers use different language patterns in beginner and more advanced classes; and they are used to speaking clearly, with repetitions, and the use of set phrases such as ‘Open your books at- / to page-x’ (not *‘on page x’) and ‘Let’s look at the examples on pages 7 and 8’ (not *‘page 7 and 8’). Such teacherese is in danger of deskilling students, not preparing them for authentic language, and it can be simply boring. Another must is that teachers become aware of the restrictions of the usual pattern of much of classroom talk, which follows a certain sequence consisting of three acts (see fig. 10.7): “an act initiated by the teacher (usually a question), a response act by one of the students (usually the answer to a question), IRE pattern 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 238 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 238 07.06.2022 15: 41: 09 07.06.2022 15: 41: 09 Unit 10 239 T HE LESSON IN PROGRESS and an act of evaluation by the teacher (on the quality of the response, very often focussing on the form and not on the meaning of a message)” (Müller- Hartmann & Schocker-v. Ditfurth 2014: 29). A typical example of this IREpattern is the following exchange (cf. Decke-Cornill & Küster 2014: 116 for a more elaborate example): T: What is the capital of Great Britain? S: London. T: Very good. Variations here would include exchanges like the following: ▶ If student A fails to respond immediately, another student is asked until the right answer is elicited, possibly with a little help by the teacher (e. g., ‘It is by the river Thames,’ ‘It starts with an L’). ▶ If student A fails to give the correct answer, another student is asked, with the teacher signaling verbally or non-verbally that student A answered incorrectly. ▶ Often there is a chain of such ‘teacher questions.’ Müller-Hartmann and Schocker-v. Ditfurth (2014: 29) describe the detrimental effects of the IRE pattern if it is established and maintained in the classroom: This interactive pattern both impedes the quality of language input (which language acquisition research has identified to be one factor to contribute to successful language acquisition) and restricts learners’ opportunities for language production and conversational interaction which again play an important part for second language acquisition. Teacher asks Teacher reacts Student answers Waiting time I Waiting time II average: 1-2 sec average: 0.5-2 sec The IRE pattern (cf. Lindner 2011: 40, based on Rowe 1986) Fig. 10.7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 239 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 239 07.06.2022 15: 41: 10 07.06.2022 15: 41: 10 240 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Look at figure 10.7, and consider the following statistics (Lindner 2011: 49): ▶ A teacher asks a question every 37 seconds. ▶ A class of students asks the teacher 2.2 questions a lesson. ▶ A student asks a question every 3 days. ▶ A teacher asks more than 800 questions in the course of three days. Suggest ways to improve communication in EFL classes. There are two ways of tackling the problem of IRE monotony: (1) Generally, teachers should make a deliberate effort to speak less, wait longer for answers, and avoid sessions where their voice drones on and on and the students have little student talk time. Students need the practice, not the teacher: if students are not allowed to speak, they do not learn to speak (cf. Harmer 2007: 4; Thaler 2012: 42). (2) Teachers should become more aware of which questions to ask and which impulses to give. For example, teachers could use verbal stimuli instead of questions: an utterance like ‘I have heard that some students did some extra research on the topic’ can be seen as a teacher’s impulse, a request for more information within a certain (classroom) situation. Apart from substituting questions by pictorial or verbal stimuli and from having students ask questions or avoiding too many teacher questions, teachers can make an effort to vary their question types. Here are some guidelines for ‘good teacher questions’ (based on Lindner 2011): ▶ Prepare short, unambiguous, and simply structured questions that can be understood right away. ▶ Raise demanding, meaningful, and open questions with a clear topic which is didactically justified. Avoid suggestive and pseudo-questions (questions which elicit responses already known by the teacher or where a certain correct answer is expected). ▶ Use learner-centered questions which include everyone and lead to student collaboration to prepare answers. ▶ Employ questions to gain students’ cooperation and to emphasize important learning goals or organizational aspects. ▶ Use alternatives to questions such as verbal and non-verbal stimuli. ▶ Allow enough time to prepare the answers and do not repeat students’ answers (Lehrerecho). If students fail to answer, do not give the answer yourself; instead, give small hints. In spite of aiming at overall more student talk time, teacher talk should not be seen as inherently detrimental to good communication and good learning (cf. Hattie 2009: 22: “what teachers do matters”). Good teacher talk time can have its benefits if teachers, in the appropriate phases of a lesson, provide well-tuned Tackling the IRE problem Good teacher questions Clear instructions matter! 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 240 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 240 07.06.2022 15: 41: 10 07.06.2022 15: 41: 10 Unit 10 241 T HE LESSON IN PROGRESS input in a relaxed and unthreatening manner: for example, telling a story which includes new vocabulary and using mime and gestures to make it more understandable, summing up a discussion or several answers to a problem. Teachers should give clear and unambiguous instructions, especially when they are formulated in the foreign language (cf. Hattie 2009: 125-26 on the importance of ‘teacher clarity’). A number of set phrases need to be clarified from the onset: “The best activity in the world is a waste of time if the students don’t understand what it is they are supposed to do.” (Harmer 2007: 37). Instructions should follow these guidelines (ibid.): ▶ Convey only important information and clear instructions. ▶ Consider what students need to know to tackle and complete an activity successfully. ▶ Clearly communicate the steps of an activity. ▶ Provide a time frame. ▶ Check whether students understood the instructions, for example by asking students to explain the activity again after the teacher has given the instruction. Dealing with uncooperative students: another important aspect of classroom management is dealing with the behavior of uncooperative students. It is important for teachers to have at their fingertips a number of responses to problematic behavior of individual students, mainly for distractive or disruptive behavior (e. g., constant chattering in class), for students who do not take part in assigned activities or bluntly refuse to engage in classroom activities, and for rude und undisciplined behavior (e. g., foul remarks, not doing one’s homework; cf. Lewis 2002: 42-43). How to best manage a particular type of behavior depends on a number of factors, including overall effective classroom management (cf. ibid.; Thomson 2022). Problematic behavior can be avoided or- - better- - nipped in the bud right away (‘prevention is the best medicine’): ▶ Teachers convey the impression that they are on top of the teaching scenario and group dynamics. They appear ‘to have eyes in the back of their heads’ (or at least are capable of peripheral vision), and their instructions are precise, assertive, and brief. ▶ Teachers are able to ‘multitask’: they can do several tasks simultaneously in class (e. g., speaking while writing on the board while checking if student X is paying attention). Teachers maintain eye contact while continuing to speak. ▶ The session proceeds fluently and smoothly and at an appropriate pace so that students do not get bored or lose touch with what is being taught or learned. ▶ The whole class stays involved, with the teacher giving every student the Dealing with disruptions 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 241 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 241 07.06.2022 15: 41: 10 07.06.2022 15: 41: 10 242 L ESSON PLANNING AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT impression that he or she is taking part. Teachers talk with students about problematic behavior after class. In doing so, teachers avoid threats and do not take problems personally. If a student exhibits disruptive behavior it is worth considering whether this was a single occurrence, whether this is specific to more students, and whether this is noticed by other teachers as well: “teachers should not have to suffer on their own! They should talk to colleagues and, if possible, get a friend to come and observe the class to see if they notice things that the teacher himself or herself is not aware of.” (Harmer 2007: 182) Finally, here is a list of ten Do’s and Don’ts for teachers and the way they should perform in class. It is based on suggestions originally devised for Berlitz schools (cf. Richards & Rodgers 2014: 12): 1. Avoid translating where you can demonstrate. 2. Avoid explaining where you can act. 3. Avoid making a speech when you can ask questions. 4. Avoid speaking too much when you can make your students speak. 5. Avoid using your textbook solely when you can use other sources or react to your students’ responses. 6. Avoid jumping around and appearing unstructured; follow your plan but leave space for improvisation. 7. Avoid going too fast or too slow; keep the pace of your students. 8. Avoid speaking too slowly or too quickly; speak normally and naturally. 9. Avoid gearing your lessons toward just a few students; try to include as many as possible. 10.Try not to be impatient; ‘take it easy.’ Recommended reading Ellis, Rod (2019). Towards a Modular Language Curriculum for Using Tasks. In: Language Teaching Research 23.4, 454-75. Hallet, Wolfgang; Frank G. Königs & Hélène Martinez, eds. (2020). Handbuch Methoden im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Hannover: Kallmeyer / Klett. Harmer, Jeremy (2007). How to Teach English: An Introduction to the Practice of English Language Teaching. 2 nd ed. Harlow: Longman. Helmke, Andreas (2017). Unterrichtsqualität und Lehrerprofessionalität: Diagnose, Evaluation und Verbesserung des Unterrichts. 7 th ed. Seelze-Velber: Klett/ Kallmeyer. Müller-Hartmann, Andreas & Marita Schocker (2018). Classroom Management: Lernprozesse organisieren und begleiten, Lernbeziehungen gestalten. In: Der fremdsprachliche Unterricht Englisch 154, 2-7. Prusse-Hess, Barbara & Michael Prusse, eds. (2018). Wirksamer Englischunterricht. Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verlag Hohengehren. Ten rules for classroom performance 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 242 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 242 07.06.2022 15: 41: 11 07.06.2022 15: 41: 11 Unit 11 243 T HE LESSON IN PROGRESS Materials design Contents 11.1 Curricula and textbooks 244 11.2 Designing effective materials 248 11.3 Digitally designed materials 255 Recommended reading 259 In light of the pragmatic approach to language teaching and learning adopted in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) as well as the introduction of educational standards in Germany, new curricula with a focus on communicative competences have been implemented. While the new generation of textbooks mirror this change, they “remain […] fundamentally language learning oriented, i. e., based on the view that the kind of authenticity most required for foreign language learning should relate first and foremost to the learner as a current interim acquirer rather than as a potential future user of the language” (Waters 2011: 315). This chapter focuses on strategies of curriculum and syllabus design as necessary background information for materials designers as well as on essential features of self-designed materials and tasks. It also provides examples of digitally designed materials. Functions of textbooks; principles of designing and evaluating materials for specific tasks such as lesson worksheets; digitally designed materials Forward, central, and backward curriculum and syllabus design; discussing new digitally designed materials Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 243 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 243 07.06.2022 15: 41: 11 07.06.2022 15: 41: 11 244 M ATERIALS DESIGN Have a look at the cartoon. Reflect on the status as well as the advantages and disadvantages (for teachers, students, lessons) of using the textbook, comparing this to the use of self-designed materials. Curricula and textbooks Curriculum design Before any materials and task designing begins, teachers need to be well informed of the educational and instructional framework they are working with. They need to follow the educational standards, the subject-specific curriculum, and the in-school syllabus (schulinterner Lehr-/ Lernplan) outlined by the representatives of Englisch as a Foreign Language teachers (Englischfachschaft). Furthermore, they need to assess the textbook and the needs of their students (see chs. 1.2, 10.1, 10.3.1). Richards (2013) has introduced three different approaches to curriculum and syllabus design (forward, central, backward). These approaches differ fundamentally in their emphasis on compulsory content (input), methodological considerations (process), and learning objectives (outcome). Forward design adheres to the principle of linearity. The content, defined by the curriculum, forms the starting point of any teaching considerations. Since 11.1 11.1.1 Forward design: input first 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 244 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 244 07.06.2022 15: 41: 18 07.06.2022 15: 41: 18 Unit 11 245 C URRICULA AND TEXTBOOKS forward design does not enlighten teachers as to the methods they should employ, this decision is left to the individual teacher. Forward design was popular with the Audiolingual and Audiovisual Methods, since the process of learning could be more or less neglected in the hope that the input provided would-- via drill exercises-- result directly in an output of correct language patterns (see chs. 3.2.1, 4.2.3). Central design is, first and foremost, interested in methodological considerations and the facilitation of learner-centered processes involving problem-solving activities that require students to investigate, come to decisions, and engage in critical thinking. Content and materials are chosen on the basis of how they can contribute to this constructivist approach to learning. Central design pays less attention to curriculum specifications of compulsory input and predetermined learning outcomes. It is central to communicative approaches to teaching and learning a foreign language (FL) such as Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT; see chs. 4.3.2, 5.2.2.2, 10.3.3). Backward design is prominent in the CEFR. It departs from a detailed outline of desired learning outcomes, delineated in the form of ‘can do’-descriptors (see chs. 1.2.1, 6.1.1). Methods and content are selected on the basis of how well they cater to reaching the desired learning outcomes. Competence-based Instruction (CpBI) is a methodological approach that adheres to the principles of backward design. An overview of the three approaches and their implications regarding syllabus design, methodological decisions, as well as the role of teachers and learners in the learning process are summarized in figure 11.1: Forward design Central design Backward design Syllabus ▶ Language-centered ▶ Content divided into its key elements ▶ Sequenced from simple to complex ▶ Pre-determined prior to a course ▶ Activity-based ▶ Content negotiated with learners ▶ Sequence may be determined by the learners ▶ Evolves during course ▶ Reflects the process of learning ▶ Ends-means approach ▶ Objectivesor competence-based ▶ Sequenced from partskills to whole ▶ Pre-determined prior to course Methodology ▶ Transmissive and teacher-directed ▶ Practice and control of elements ▶ Imitation of language models ▶ Explicit presentation of rules ▶ Emphasis on accuracy ▶ Learner-centered ▶ Experiential learning ▶ Active engagement in communication and the negotiation of meaning ▶ Meaning prioritized over accuracy ▶ Practice of part-skills ▶ Practice of real-life situations ▶ Emphasis on appropriacy Central design: process first Backward design: output first Characteristics of forward, central, and backward design (Richards 2013: 30, adapted) Fig. 11.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 245 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 245 07.06.2022 15: 41: 18 07.06.2022 15: 41: 18 246 M ATERIALS DESIGN Role of teacher ▶ Instructor, model of language performance, explainer ▶ Transmitter of knowledge ▶ Reinforcer of correct language ▶ Facilitator of learning process ▶ Negotiator of content and process ▶ Encourager of learner self-expression and autonomy ▶ Organizer and planner of learning experiences ▶ Model of language performance Role of learner ▶ Accurate mastery of language forms ▶ Application of learned material to new contexts ▶ Understanding of language rules ▶ Negotiator of learning content and modes of learning ▶ Development of learning strategies ▶ Responsibility for learning ▶ Awareness and mastery of situationally appropriate language usage ▶ Development of fluency Many teachers have settled on forward design because the competence-based output defined in the CEFR seems too opaque to help with the day-to-day decisions of what and how to teach. The German EFL curricula mirror the backward design of the CEFR with pages full of descriptions of language achievements along the line of the CEFR competence levels. However, these curricula usually do not promote methodological suggestions for long-term achievements in FL acquisition. As a result, central design tends to be neglected due to the amount of time that would need to be spent on carefully planning learning processes and then choosing learner-centered content as well as designing appropriate learning materials. While one could go on criticizing the obsession with output and testing (see chs. 1.2.2, 8.1.2, 12.1), it might be more fruitful to point to the advantages such circumstances bring with them. In other words, the power of the curriculum ends when it comes to individual approaches to FL teaching and learning. Teachers can unfold their full potential as educators and can make their own informed decisions about the learning processes they want to employ to stimulate excellent learning outcomes and the positive development of each individual learner. Therefore, central design should not be rejected as utopian, but rather inform every teacher’s reflections on current educational standards, curricula, and textbooks. Study the EFL curriculum in the area you are studying or teaching in. Which design elements can you identify in the curriculum? With fellow students or colleagues, discuss how well the curriculum supports the planning of lessons. Dilemma Variety is the spice of life. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 246 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 246 07.06.2022 15: 41: 18 07.06.2022 15: 41: 18 Unit 11 247 C URRICULA AND TEXTBOOKS The textbook: friend or foe? The textbook and the wide range of supplementary materials offered by publishers present a resource of materials, content, teaching ideas, learning support, and reference (cf. Cunningsworth 1995: 7, see ch. 10.2). While textbooks “continue to constitute the guiding principle of many foreign language courses throughout the world” (Sercu 2017: 626), the quantity of the use of textbooks by teachers depends on a variety of factors: their academic background and educational principles, their teaching experience as well as their personal commitment as reflective practitioners and life-long learners (see chs. 2.1.1, 12.3.3.). One can usually observe three different types of teachers (see fig. 11.2; cf. Nold 2007: 128; Sercu 2017: 627): Most teachers (type 1) certainly do not use textbooks uncritically, but try to add their own materials whenever it seems apt for reasons of topicality, authenticity, motivation, etc. These teachers may also choose to modify textbook content and tasks (cf. Saraceni 2013: 50-59; Tomlinson 2013c: 141-53). However, there is also a large number of teachers (type 2) that use the textbook almost exclusively- - not only because they do not want to invest time in materials design, but probably also because the alluring ‘all-inclusiveness’ of the textbook presents the safest choice to them. Often deemed the classroom’s ‘secret syllabus,’ the textbook directly follows and implements educational standards as well as the grammatical and lexical progression proposed in curricula (cf. Volkmann 2010: 236). A minority of teachers (type 3) invests a large amount of time in designing their own teaching and learning materials. To them, the textbook serves “only as a resource for developing their own innovative plans” (Sercu 2017: 627). While this chapter is exclusively dedicated to materials design, it nevertheless promotes a middle ground between using the textbook and designing 11.1.2 Status of the textbook Feasibility Type 3: Type 3: believes strongly in authenticity, believes strongly in authenticity, learner-centeredness, and differentiation and learner-centeredness, and differentiation and arne arne thus allots a lot of time to designing his/ her own thus allots a lot of time to designing his/ her own thus allo thus allo materials materials materials materials Type 2: Type 2: works exclusively with the textbook and works exclusively with the textbook and ks e ks e follows its linguistic and contextual progression follows its linguistic and contextual progression guis guis without further reflection without further reflection ref ref Type 1: Type 1: likes the systematic approach offered by likes the systematic approach offered by ma ma the textbook, but also adapts or replaces the textbook, but also adapts or replaces dap dap textbook content with his/ her own material textbook content with his/ her own material textbook content with his/ he textbook content with his/ he Teacher types with regard to textbook use Fig. 11.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 247 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 247 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 248 M ATERIALS DESIGN one’s own materials. This decision is based on three reasons: (1) teacher type 2 will soon realize that a ‘page-turning approach’ with the textbook as the only source of materials will make his/ her lessons unbearably monotonous. It will also deskill him/ her gradually (cf. Masuhara 2013: 245-49). (2) Teacher type 3 should be honored, but will probably soon reach a limit when his/ her investment in self-designing materials will run into conflict with his/ her personal resources. (3) Textbooks have changed considerably and offer peer-reviewed, high-quality, and multimodal educational materials (cf. Volkmann 2010: 238; Tomlinson 2013a: 10-11). The moderate and well-reflected use of textbooks can be seen in a positive light, especially with regard to the following reasons (cf. Richards 2007: 254-55; Sercu 2017: 721): ▶ Systematization and structure of material: for students and teachers alike ▶ Standardization: of instruction and testability ▶ Quality: textbooks are tried and tested in advance and produced by publishing houses adhering to high standards of production ▶ Multimodality: textbooks integrate and interlink a wide range of learning resources (e. g., workbooks, CD-ROMs, Internet resources) ▶ Efficiency: textbooks pre-structure lessons and save teachers’ time ▶ Support: especially for inexperienced teachers However, criticism has been raised against textbooks (see chs. 4.5., 5.2.1, 7.3, 10.2): (1) inauthentic language in texts and dialogues, etc.; (2) distorted and stereotypical content, an idealized view of the world, lack of controversial issues, lack of multiple perspectives; (3) neglect of students’ needs and interests, lack of creativity; (4) the danger of teachers becoming deskilled by having teaching styles imposed upon them; and (5) the substantial amount of money needed for supplementary materials (cf. Richards 2007: 255-56; Volkmann 2010: 235-37; Tomlinson 2013a: 11-12; Sercu 2017: 721). Study a current EFL textbook. Which of the aforementioned advantages and disadvantages do you find in the textbook? How would you counteract the disadvantages? Designing effective materials For reasons of topicality, authenticity, motivation, differentiation, and variation, it is of great importance that teachers choose to add their own materials to complement the use of the textbook. Richards (2007: 252-53) foregrounds the following advantages of self-designed materials: ▶ They can have a positive effect on learner motivation. There is a huge supply of interesting materials for language learning in the media and on the Inter- Pros Cons 11.2 If you want a thing done well, do it yourself. - Napoleon Bonaparte (attributed) 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 248 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 248 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 Unit 11 249 D ESIGNING EFFECTIVE MATERIALS net (cf. Bär 2019). These often relate more closely to the needs and interests of learners. ▶ They can provide authentic cultural information about the target culture. Materials can be selected to illustrate many aspects of the target culture, including culturally based practices and beliefs and both linguistic and nonlinguistic behavior (cf. Pulverness & Tomlinson 2013). ▶ They can provide exposure to real language rather than the artificial texts found in textbooks, which have been specially written to illustrate particular grammatical rules or discourse types (cf. Hill & Tomlinson 2013; Stranks 2013; Gilmore 2019; Graves & Garton 2019). ▶ They can support a more creative approach to teaching. Teachers can develop their full potential as teachers by designing materials that better match their teaching styles and the learning styles of their students (cf. Tomlinson 2013d; Tomlinson & Masuhara 2013; Klewitz 2017). While these advantages are indeed rather convincing, one should not forget about possible disadvantages of self-designed materials. These drawbacks include questions of inferior quality, copyright infringement, linguistic difficulty or mistakes, lack of structure, limited time, and the financial burden for teachers who choose to design and copy a large amount of specially designed materials for use in their classrooms. Schools and teachers should be aware of these downsides and-- whenever possible-- counteract them by, for example, forming and training materials design teams, asking colleagues for evaluations of materials, sharing and collecting materials on databases, and making use of materials distributed online on quality websites for teachers (e. g., www.lehreronline.de, www.teachingenglish.org.uk). Materials and tasks The table below presents a checklist for individual teachers or a group of colleagues who want to design and evaluate their own materials (see fig. 11.3; cf. Tomlinson 2013: 8-23; Tomlinson 2013b: 28-43; Klewitz 2017: 22): Check For example Rank Contextualization ▶ Curriculum objectives ▶ Prior knowledge and learning experience of students ▶ Topics and themes meaningful and relevant for learners Stimulation of interaction ▶ Real-life topics ▶ Sufficient scope of challenges ▶ Language progress Cons 11.2.1 Evaluation of materials Materials design checklist (based on Howard & Major 2005: 104-07) Fig. 11.3 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 249 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 249 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 250 M ATERIALS DESIGN Facilitation of learner autonomy ▶ Learning strategies essential for lifelong learning ▶ Language learning opportunities outside the classroom Focus on form and function ▶ Closer look at how language works from a linguistic point of view Integrated language use ▶ Integration of all language skills ▶ Coverage of extra-linguistic factors (e. g., non-verbal aspects) Authenticity ▶ Wide range of texts and media representing a variety of English(es) in use ▶ Tasks appropriate for facilitating authentic language use Appropriate instructions ▶ Complexity of instructions appropriate for target learners (e. g., age, grade, level of language proficiency) Progression ▶ Coherent materials which are interlinked, have clear underlying learning objectives, and facilitate language acquisition Visual appeal ▶ Appropriate density of text ▶ Type size ▶ Spacing ▶ Layout ▶ Durability ▶ Copiability Flexibility ▶ Teaching approach ▶ Methodology ▶ Language level ▶ Logistics ▶ Technology ▶ Evaluation ▶ Outcomes With fellow students or colleagues, discuss which of the above guidelines are more/ less important. If possible, try to agree on a ranking. Tasks lie at the heart of FL learning materials for the communicative classroom. Therefore, sketching out and sequencing tasks should be considered of great importance. Consideration should be given to (1) the complexity of the tasks (the number and level of cognitive processes they require), (2) matching the complexity of tasks with learner proficiency (grading), and (3) the sequence in which tasks are delivered (cf. García Mayo 2007; Robinson 2007, 2011). General guidelines are provided by the Kultusministerkonferenz (see fig. 11.4) in the form of a graded list of language performance requirements (Anforderungsbereiche) and associated task verbs (Operatoren): Tasks 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 250 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 250 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 Unit 11 251 D ESIGNING EFFECTIVE MATERIALS Language performance requirements I Operatoren Definition Example Summarize Give a concise account of the main points Summarize the information given in the text about the hazards of cloning. Present (Re-)structure and write down Present the situation of the characters. Language performance requirements II Operatoren Definition Example Characterize Describe the character of someone or something Characterize the heroine. Contrast Emphasize the differences between two or more things Contrast the author’s idea of human aggression with the theories of aggression you have read about. Language performance requirements III Operatoren Definition Example Discuss Investigate or examine by argument, give reasons for and against Discuss the implications of globalization as presented in the text. Justify Show adequate grounds for decisions You are the principal of a school. Justify your decision to forbid smoking on the school premises. While the complete list issued by the KMK certainly helps with the evaluation of task complexity, grading tasks should also be informed by the following factors (cf. Nunan 2000: 102-03; Graves & Garton 2019: 423): ▶ Confidence: Does the learner have the necessary level of confidence to carry out the task? ▶ Motivation: How motivating is the task? ▶ Prior learning experience: Does the learner have the necessary learning skills to carry out the task? ▶ Learning pace: Can the learner handle the materials? ▶ Observed ability in language skills: What overall level of performance can reasonably be expected on the basis of the learner’s skills? ▶ Cultural knowledge/ awareness: Does the learner master the cultural or topical knowledge assumed by the task? ▶ Linguistic competence: Does the learner master the linguistic competence assumed by the task? These guiding questions do not explicitly address the issue of heterogeneity. If teachers want to provide comprehensible input for all learners in any given class, they first need to diagnose the different learner types and competence levels. If the outcome of this diagnosis shows that there is indeed a great variety, then teachers might want to consider creating two or three different ver- Learner factors Differentiated materials Language performance requirements (Kultusministerkonferenz 2012: 1-2, adapted extracts; mind the false friend: Operatoren are task verbs in English) Fig. 11.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 251 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 251 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 252 M ATERIALS DESIGN sions of the original materials with different requirements (see chs. 2.1.3, 6.2., 6.3, 10.3.2; cf. Eisenmann 2018: 56-73). If teachers have kept all of the above in mind and have drafted their materials, they should take a step back and review them (and/ or have colleagues look at them). In addition, if teachers have designed a set of consecutive materials for a multi-lesson teaching sequence, they should go over this set of materials again and check for coherence and continuity. Have a look at two or three pages from a current textbook. Evaluate the complexity of the tasks, whether they are graded, and whether the task sequence seems coherent. Basic tips for designing worksheets Teachers need to have a clear view of the learner group (e. g., concerning age, ability, motivation) and the purpose(s) of the worksheet. Is it meant to be (1) a source of information (e. g., a fact sheet), (2) an illustration (e. g., a cartoon), (3) a sheet accompanying different phases of a lesson and to be filled with learning content during the lesson (e. g., a grid accompanying presentations or supporting learning at different work stations), (4) an exercise sheet, or (5) a test? In the following, basic tips for designing worksheets are briefly delineated and illustrated (see fig. 11.5; cf. Neumann 2012; Egle 2013; Klewitz 2017). Header, footer For teachers and learners to be able to keep track of their worksheets, the header should contain the following information: subject, grade, topic, date, and a blank space for the learners’ names. The space in the footer can be used for page numbers and a short code that helps the teacher to find his/ her materials in files. Margins Worksheets - unless digital - are to be filed in a folder. Therefore, the left margin should be 3 to 4 centimeters in width. If students are required to write down notes, comments, or annotations, the right margin should leave enough space for them to do so (3 centimeters in width). Line spacing Depending on the purpose of the worksheet, teachers need to adjust the space between text lines accordingly. For a fact sheet, a single-spaced line pitch would do. However, if students are required to skim or scan a text for information and highlight or underline it in the text, a one-and-a-half times or double-space line pitch is recommended. 11.2.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 252 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 252 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 Unit 11 253 D ESIGNING EFFECTIVE MATERIALS Font, font size Considering the enormous amount of fonts one can choose from in text processing programs, there is a danger of getting carried away, using too many fonts on a single worksheet or choosing awkward font types. As a rule of thumb, no more than two or three font types should be used. In view of perception psychology findings, serif font types (e. g., Times New Roman, Century Schoolbook) should be favored over sans-serif typefaces (e. g., Arial, Verdana). A 12pt font size is sufficient for a continuous text. Headlines should be 14pt. Highlighting To draw attention to specific parts of or words in a text, teachers may use bold or italic print or they may choose to underline certain passages. However, it is not advisable to clutter worksheets with highlighting features. Layout Worksheets need to have a clear structure. Therefore, paying attention to the layout is very important. Teachers should use spacing, headings and subheadings, consecutive numbering, paragraphs and text columns as well as frames to structure their worksheets. Generally, full justification is recommended for continuous text (use automatic hyphenation to avoid large gaps in the text). Ragged left or centered alignment can be used for poems, in the task section, or for annotations. Of course, pictures, graphs, and charts also help to ‘break up the gray.’ Annotations A list of annotations for providing background information or definitions of difficult vocabulary items may help students to work more efficiently with the worksheet. However, teachers should avoid handing everything to students on a silver platter or overloading worksheets with annotations. Visuals Sometimes, visuals (e. g., pictures, cartoons, illustrations, graphs) can say more than words. Of course, teachers have to comply with the copyright law when reproducing pictures on their worksheets. Pictures must not be reproduced without permission from the author. Exceptions apply to pictures whose copyright has expired and to royalty-free pictures provided by image databases such as Pixelio (www.pixelio.de), Wikimedia Commons (commons.wikimedia.org), or TiBS (www.bilder.tibs.at). In any case, the sources of visual materials should be mentioned on the worksheet. Sources Teachers should lead by example. Therefore, all sources used to compile a worksheet should be cited at the bottom of the worksheet. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 253 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 253 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 07.06.2022 15: 41: 19 254 M ATERIALS DESIGN Copies or electronic files Since it is difficult to provide students with color copies of worksheets regularly, teachers should design their materials in black and white or grayscale unless important information is lost. If color is essential for fulfilling tasks, it is preferable to work with digital files and devices. English, grade 11, Biodiversity, May 24, 2021 Conservation of Biodiversity 1. Definition Biodiversity conservation is the protection, preservation, and management of ecosystems and natural habitats to achieve sustainable benefits for present and future 5 generations. 2. Implementation Biodiversity conservation aims at ensuring that ecosystems are healthy and functional. The three main objectives of biodiversity 10 conservation are: to protect and preserve species diversity; to ensure sustainable management of species and ecosystems; 15 to support the restoration of ecological processes and life support systems Two methods are employed to conserve biodiversity: in-situ conservation and ex- 20 situ conservation. 3. In-situ conservation In-situ conservation means preserving and protecting species in their natural habitat. It involves managing biodiversity. In-situ 25 conservation ensures the protection of a larger number of populations. It is an economic and convenient method of conservation, and it does not require species to adjust to a new habitat. 30 Methods of in-situ conservation include biosphere reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, etc. 4. Ex-situ conservation Ex-situ conservation means conservation 35 outside the natural habitat. The entire endangered species is taken from its natural habitat. Breeding and maintaining these species take place in artificial ecosystems. These ecosystems include 40 zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, etc. In these conservation sites, the living environments are altered to minimize survival struggles like scarcity of food, water, or space. 45 In ex-situ conservation, humans control essential life sustaining conditions (climate, food availability, veterinary care). The species are protected from poaching 1 . Artificial breeding creates more offspring. 50 These measures may lead to the species being reintroduced to the wild. Tasks 1. Which type of conservation do you consider more important? Give reasons for your choice. 2. Find concrete examples for in-situ and ex-situ conservation. 3. Present and discuss your findings in class. Sources Text: https: / / www.vedantu.com/ biology/ conservation-of-biodiversity (adapted) (5/ 5/ 21) Illustration: https: / / commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/ File: Elements-of-biodiversity.png (5/ 5/ 21) 1 to poach: to catch and kill animals illegally Sample worksheet Fig. 11.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 254 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 254 07.06.2022 15: 41: 20 07.06.2022 15: 41: 20 Unit 11 255 D IGITALLY DESIGNED MATERIALS Digitally designed materials Technological advances have helped to make the design of educational materials more effective and less time-consuming. In addition to functions provided by text processing programs, digital technologies and applications may also help to make materials more appealing or to design and work on motivating tasks online (cf. Tomlinson 2013; Grimm & Hammer 2014a, 2014b; Strasser 2014; Pachler et al 2014: 140-43, 149-60; Klewitz 2017; Eisenmann 2018: 108-13; Gilmore 2019): Web 2.0 allows many more people to be creative with digital technologies.-[…] This puts the possibilities of the adaptation and creation of a broad range of language-learning materials directly into the hands of the teacher, but also into the hands of the learners.- […] Teachers like to be able to adapt materials- […], as do learners. Teachers need to do this to meet localised learning needs. Materials do need mediation and with Web 2.0 this is increasingly possible. (Motteram 2011: 304) The following pages present a few examples of digitally designed materials. For reasons of limited space, these cannot cover the full range of potential uses for beginners as well as for intermediate and advanced learners. Readers can get a more complete picture by visiting the websites mentioned below. Additionally, Strasser’s Mind the App! 2.0. Inspiring Internet Tools and Activities to Engage Your Students (2018) provides a useful introduction to the digital tools introduced below and many more such as Kahoot and Mentimeter. Padlet or Popplet Padlet or Popplet (www.padlet.com, www.popplet.com) are online mind-mapping and presentation tools that can be used in many ways: to collect thoughts, explore ideas, collaborate, and present. They can help with materials design in a variety of ways: on the simplest level, teachers may use them as an easy tool to create pre-structured mind maps that students work with on print handouts. On a medium level, teachers set a task, create a Padlet or Popplet for it and have students work on the task online-- either individually or collaboratively, in and out of class. Teachers may also opt for using the tool to create instant digital mind maps from student input on any given topic (e. g., in connection with an initial brainstorming of ideas), which they can then save and use as a basis for discussion. On the most advanced level, teachers and students can use a Padlet or Popplet, such as the one in figure 11.6, with the integrated presentation mode. These tools also offer add-ons, such as uploading visual as well as audio and video files (clarifications concerning copyright infringement are recommended). For unlimited use of both tools a monthly fee is charged. Potential uses include: 11.3 Digital technology Organizing and presenting ideas 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 255 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 255 07.06.2022 15: 41: 20 07.06.2022 15: 41: 20 256 M ATERIALS DESIGN ▶ Beginners: family tree, structuring vocabulary, picture dictionaries, minipresentations on a variety of beginners’ topics (hobbies, food, pets) ▶ Intermediate learners: timelines, galleries, mapping out the structure of an essay ▶ Advanced learners: multimedia presentations on more elaborate topics (e. g., global warming, population growth), visualizing character constellations in a literary work Tagxedo/ AnswerGarden Both tools (www.tagxedo.com, www.answergarden.ch) can be used to create word clouds. The word clouds come in different shapes and with a visually appealing choice of themes, colors, and fonts. Once created, they can be saved as high-resolution images. What is particularly interesting about them is that they enlarge words that appear more frequently in the source text that is pasted or typed into the text box. This function makes them optimal tools for the analysis and discussion of literary and non-literary texts (e. g., register, repetition, rhyme). On a more basic level, they can be used to provide vocabulary or keywords as a basis for further activities. As with Padlet or Popplet, such a tool also lends itself perfectly for collecting and instantly visualizing student ideas on any given topic in the form of a word cloud-- again, ideas mentioned more often are given greater prominence. For example, a brainstorming on learners’ perceptions of US-American culture might result in a word cloud as in figure 11.7. Potential uses include: Word clouds with style Sample Padlet Fig. 11.6 The Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement Research origins of and responses to the Civil Rights Movement. Martin Luther King - Speech “I Have a Dream” BLM Movement Racial Segregation Center for Civil and Human Rights Atlanta 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 256 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 256 07.06.2022 15: 41: 20 07.06.2022 15: 41: 20 Unit 11 257 D IGITALLY DESIGNED MATERIALS ▶ Beginners: guessing a topic, categorizing vocabulary, finding simple collocations, gap-fill exercises, creating invitation cards ▶ Intermediate learners: guessing (e. g., a topic, famous person, historical event), summarizing a presentation, checking one’s own essays (e. g., register, repetitions), creating book covers ▶ Advanced learners: turning a logo into a word cloud, creating a portrait of a famous person, keeping track of current events Glogster Glogster helps to create interactive posters (glog: short for graphic blog). For example, the header could simply consist of the task to create an interactive poster on ‘Your favorite movie’ with a structure and some keywords or guidelines (see fig. 11.8). The products can be archived and shared. Possible uses include: ▶ Beginners: vocabulary posters (e. g., days of the week, the weather, the alphabet), classroom phrases, presenting different meanings of a word, festivities, basic facts about a region or a country Interactive working space Sample word cloud Fig. 11.7 Sample glog Fig. 11.8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 257 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 257 07.06.2022 15: 41: 21 07.06.2022 15: 41: 21 258 M ATERIALS DESIGN ▶ Intermediate learners: grammar posters, favorite singer or band, biographies, book reports ▶ Advanced learners: literary genres, politics, history, current events LearningApps LearningApps (learningapps.org) is an online materials pool that “supports learning and teaching processes with small interactive modules. Those modules can be used directly in learning materials, but also for self studying [sic]. The aim is to collect reusable building blocks and make them available to everyone.” (learningapps.org/ about.php) While teachers are free to use the activities created and shared by other teachers, LearningApps also helps teachers to efficiently create their own materials. LearningApps offers teachers a rich pool of educational materials that come in a wide range of activity formats (e. g., word grid, quiz, crossword, millionaire game; see fig. 11.9). The activities are especially useful for beginners and intermediate learners. Advanced learners could create their own little app (e. g., a quiz for their classmates). Internet sources like eflideas.com provide more suggestions. In conclusion, whether for print or digitally designed learning materials, teachers should try to follow the guidelines of materials and task design presented in this chapter. If they use materials created by others, the same applies, especially with regard to a critical evaluation of these materials. It is also recommended to carefully archive and label self-designed materials. Teachers will find that wellstructured archiving in filing folders and data files will pay off in the long run-- it simply helps to save time and easily access and adapt materials. Try out the tools introduced above and create a mind map or an interactive poster about materials design as introduced in this chapter. Small interactive teaching modules Materials archive Activity formats on LearningApps Fig. 11.9 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 258 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 258 07.06.2022 15: 41: 21 07.06.2022 15: 41: 21 Unit 11 259 D IGITALLY DESIGNED MATERIALS Recommended reading García Mayo, María del Pilar, ed. (2007). Investigating Tasks in Formal Language Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Gilmore, Alex (2019). Materials and Authenticity in Language Teaching. In: Steve Walsh & Steve Mann, eds. The Routledge Handbook of English Language Teacher Education. London et al.: Routledge, 299-318. Mishan, Freda (2005). Designing Authenticity into Language Learning Materials. Bristol: Intellect. Motteram, Gary (2013). Developing Language-Learning Materials with Technology. In: Brian Tomlinson, ed. Materials Development in Language Teaching. 2 nd ed. Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press, 303-27. Tomlinson, Brian, ed. (2013). Developing Materials for Language Teaching. 2 nd ed. London et al.: Bloomsbury. Tomlinson, Brian, ed. (2013). Materials Development in Language Teaching. 2 nd ed. Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 259 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 259 07.06.2022 15: 41: 21 07.06.2022 15: 41: 21 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 260 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 260 07.06.2022 15: 41: 21 07.06.2022 15: 41: 21 Unit 12 261 D IGITALLY DESIGNED MATERIALS Assessment and evaluation Contents 12.1 Achievement as social parameter 263 12.2 Functions of assessment and evaluation 266 12.3 Assessment and testing 267 12.4 What are we testing and how? 274 12.5 Grading 282 12.6 Correcting mistakes 285 12.7 Practical examples 287 Recommended reading 289 This chapter discusses the diagnostic, informational, social, and educational functions of testing achievement against the background of the current standardization and output-orientation paradigm. It surveys criteria for testing related to teaching goals, test and task types, as well as grading schemes. It makes suggestions for alternative testing formats and effective testing. Grading skills can be tested with authentic examples provided at the end of the chapter. Competitive and pedagogical principles; forms and functions of referencing; validity, reliability, objectivity; subjective factors; the testing dilemma; guidelines for fair testing; phases and objectives of testing, test and task types (closed to open); grading scales; correcting mistakes Discussing testing dilemmas; problems of testing skills and competences in separate or integrated ways; alternative forms of assessment Abstract Basic Advanced 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 261 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 261 07.06.2022 15: 41: 21 07.06.2022 15: 41: 21 262 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION The cartoon suggests several functions of evaluation. Write down possible functions and compare them with those discussed in this chapter. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 262 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 262 07.06.2022 15: 41: 29 07.06.2022 15: 41: 29 Unit 12 263 A CHIEVEMENT AS SOCIAL PARAMETER Achievement as social parameter Testing, assessment, and evaluation (Leistungsüberprüfung, Leistungsmessung, Leistungsbeurteilung) are terms which are frequently used interchangeably and with reference to each other (cf. Finkbeiner 2017: 386). On a general level, they comprise “a judgment of the quality, worth, importance, or value of something and someone” (ibid.: 387). With regard to education and school this entails “the process of finding out who the students are, what their abilities are, what they need to know, and how they perceive the learning will affect them” (Peñaflorida 2002: 346). In the EFL classroom, teachers assess their learners’ skills and competences with regard to language and communication, but also in the fields of culture, literature, and the media. In this chapter, for reasons of clarity, the term ‘assessment’ is used in the sense of providing information about how learning and teaching processes can be diagnosed and improved (process orientation); ‘evaluation’ measures what has been learned and how this can be graded (product orientation; cf. Angelo & Cross 1993: 427). Against the background of the current outputand competence paradigm (see ch. 1.2), there has been an unbelievable increase in the development of high-stakes testing and assessment modelling as well as in the creation of test and assessment centers around the world. This goes hand in hand with a growing job market for a rather new profession of so-called testing and assessment experts. The focus of standardization in classrooms across the globe can be seen as an effect caused through insights we seem to have gained from results of studies such as TIMMS, PISA, PIRLS and DESI-[…]. (Finkbeiner 2017: 385) The underlying belief is that educational standards ensure quality and innovation on all levels of competition: from the international and national level to that of federal states, and to the interpersonal level of single students. However, such prioritizing of output and assessment is in danger of creating lopsided beliefs-- that students will be better performers if only their output is measured regularly. Schneider uses the following comparison to point toward the downsides of the current ‘standardization and evaluation mania’: To use an example from industry, it is not just the control at the end of the conveyor belt that enhances the quality of the product, but the quality of the production process at the preceding work stations-- and, of course, the quality of the material used. End control can always only result in a quality judgment, but it cannot generate quality itself. (2010: 79-80, our trans.) The booming test industry and the persistent focus on testing in the EFL classroom as a result of the shift toward competence, output, and standardization frequently aims at testing what can be tested. Skills and competences are tested without questioning or at least discussing or considering some of the most 12.1 The difference between school and life? In school, you’re taught a lesson and then given a test. In life, you’re given a test that teaches you a lesson. - Tom Bodett Standardization & ‘testmania’ Fallacy 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 263 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 263 07.06.2022 15: 41: 29 07.06.2022 15: 41: 29 264 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION pressing social issues involved in practices of assessing and evaluating achievement. Testing, assessment, and evaluation are clearly related to concepts of the performance principle (Leistungsprinzip), which in its social and economic sense is inherently based on competition. Etymologically, performance and achievement are related to ‘following,’ ‘persevering,’ ‘fulfilling expectations,’ and ‘putting something into practice.’ In the 18 th century, Benjamin Franklin formulated-- and lived up to-- the quintessence of maximizing individual performance in a mobile capitalist society: ‘time is money.’ In the 19 th century, new criteria, such as ‘efficiency,’ ‘effectiveness,’ ‘high-performance,’ and ‘performance-capability’ (Leistungsfähigkeit) were introduced to measure an individual’s performance. Consequently, being able to perform or to achieve was defined as being able to live up to what is expected by one’s peers, by one’s superiors, or by society concerning a certain skill or set of skills (cf. Schneider 2010: 96-97). Certainly, the performance principle and its impact on the modern world and modern states can and should not be called into question here. As a foundational principle of modern societies, it is supposed to serve three basic social functions (cf. ibid.: 98): ▶ It ensures distribution: performance and achievement are coupled with a reward (primarily with monetary gain and a higher social status). ▶ It fosters the productivity and prosperity of societies. ▶ It regulates the distribution and allocation of professional and social positions according to the principle of competition (Konkurrenzprinzip). However, there are differing and partly contradictory concepts of what achievement and performance are. The economic, competition-oriented, and non-cooperative performance principle is different from the pedagogical performance concept (pädagogischer Leistungsbegriff). Discuss the following critique expressed by pedagogues (our trans.). In reality, coveted positions in our society are not at all solely bequeathed according to the performance an individual exhibits. Instead, the performance principle is only one among the principles of distribution of life chances [such as being liked or having the right social connections]. (Jürgens 2000: 16) The principle of performance as give and take and its direct linkage with competition-driven relations between individuals is negative; it hampers and obstructs solidarity. Indeed, it supports processes of social fragmentation and the destruction of solidarity (Ent-solidarisierung). (ibid.: 18) The performance society equals stress, rivalry, and the struggle for self-identity. (ibid.) Performance & competition Competitive vs. pedagogical principles 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 264 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 264 07.06.2022 15: 41: 29 07.06.2022 15: 41: 29 Unit 12 265 A CHIEVEMENT AS SOCIAL PARAMETER Until now, assessment has mostly served to allot students their place in the academic hierarchy of their class. This process has resulted in numerous disadvantages. According to estimates, about one fourth to one third of all students perceive school as a constant source of failure and frustration. (Rampillon 1999: 34, slightly adapted) Pedagogues such as Jürgens (2017) or Bohl (2009) have criticized current practices of assessment as socially corrosive processes of “competition, product-orientation, and social screening (Auslese)” (Jürgens 2000: 18, our trans.; Tillmann & Vollstädt 2000; cf. Schneider 2010: 96-100; Winter 2010; Harsch 2017). Instead, they argue in favor of a less competitive and more integrative and socially oriented pedagogical concept: “At the center of a pedagogical concept of performance and assessment is the right of the student for individual care and support, being considered as a whole person and with regard to his or her learning as part of a group or community.” (Jürgens & Sacher 2008: 28, our trans.) The basic parameters of this concept encompass the following five principles (cf. Jürgens 2017; also cf. Schneider 2010: 98-99; Harsch 2017): ▶ Achievement and assessment are “constructs” (Bohl 2009: 6) and as such need to be related to cultural norms and standards. They need to be subject to rational reflection about testing as such, especially with regard to the general educational goals of schools (Allgemeinbildung). Performance can also be assessed by individual learners. ▶ Performance is subject to the influences both of nature (genes) and nurture (environment): performance can be the result of life-long learning, but can also be impeded by circumstances. ▶ Performance is both product and process-oriented: although product-oriented performance is more easily testable, the assessment of performance should entail process-oriented forms. ▶ Performance can be the result of both individual and cooperative achievement: the competitive principle, stressing individualism and self-reliance, should be complemented by elements of cooperative learning and by fostering social competences. ▶ Performance should be interpreted in a more holistic manner, leaving space for creativity, personal growth, emancipation, critical and reflective thinking as well as aesthetic-literary competences. In practice, this means developing an assessment culture which encourages students “to become more autonomous learners and take on more responsibility for their own learning processes” (Rampillon 1999: 34, our trans.), teaching them learning strategies which, in turn, should be reflected in the test formats implemented by teachers. The current standardization and output paradigm is in danger of fostering Pedagogical performance concepts ‘Testable’ skills 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 265 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 265 07.06.2022 15: 41: 29 07.06.2022 15: 41: 29 266 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION the ills of ‘teaching to the test’ and the ‘backwash effect’ of bolstering up ‘testable skills.’ Teaching and testing happens at the expense of less ‘optimizable’ competences such as literary, aesthetic, and social ones. Adhering merely to competitive concepts of performance appears to reinforce the counter-productive and detrimental effects of assessment: “assessment seems to ‘drive’ teaching by forcing teachers to teach what is going to be assessed” (Cameron in Müller- Hartmann & Schocker-von Ditfurth 2014: 144). Instead, a more pedagogically informed concept of assessment would, in a nutshell, aim at an “[a]ssessment [that] places the needs of the students at the center of the teacher’s planning” (Peñaflorida 2002: 346). Functions of assessment and evaluation Assessment, as described so far, involves coming to and formulating an evaluation and analysis of a student (e. g., his/ her writing skills) on the basis of a norm of reference set by the teacher. Teachers need to consider and reflect on the various functions of testing (cf. Harsch 2017; Jürgens 2017): ▶ Diagnosis has primarily bureaucratic functions when “teachers provide information on the attainment standards achieved by individual students as these are specified in a particular curriculum, so that students may be screened and placed” (Müller-Hartmann & Schocker-von Ditfurth 2014: 145). In a more positive vein, diagnosis can be defined as detecting a student’s strengths (which should be furthered) and weaknesses (which call for support and help) with regard to, for example, understanding a literary text. ▶ Information: diagnosis provides information. Diagnosis can be the basis for informing the student or parents and for suggesting as well as supporting development. Based on the information gleaned, teachers can monitor student progress with regard to the learning goals set by the curriculum, the achievement and proficiency of individuals and groups. Feedback about strengths and weaknesses of individual students as well as groups can then be provided to learners, parents, and colleagues teaching the same student(s). ▶ Differentiation and selection: assessment is used for differentiation, ranking and rating, for placement, report cards, and for allocating special training. Finally, certificates of education are based on test results, which in turn allow access to institutions of further, tertiary education-- school, after all, allocates chances for future professional careers; it is a “Lebens-Chancen-Verteilungsinstanz” (Thaler 2012: 298). ▶ Education: it may be counterproductive to mention only the negative aspects of grading-- its ‘extrinsic’ function as an instrument to discipline learners (‘Disziplinierungsinstrument’). Crucially, regular and systematic testing, if 12.2 Functions: diagnosis, information, selection, education 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 266 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 266 07.06.2022 15: 41: 29 07.06.2022 15: 41: 29 Unit 12 267 A SSESSMENT AND TESTING transparent and related to feasible teaching objectives, can foster learner motivation and lead to a sense of achievement. Finally, students have a right to experience different kinds of assessment and evaluation at school as a necessary preparation for a competitive society. Reflect on memorable tests of your school career. Which of the four functions mentioned above did they serve? What will be the functions of the tests you will have to pass yet? Assessment and testing Parameters and criteria There are three reference frames which can determine parameters for testing: norm referencing, group referencing, and individual referencing (cf. Jürgens & Sacher 2008: 72-73): ▶ Norm referencing or criterion referencing (sachliche/ kriteriale Bezugsnorm): the teacher sets a test and pre-designs an answer key, a model solution (Erwartungshorizont), and a rating scale (Bewertungsmaßstab, including a checklist) before the test is administered. Grading and assessment are done with reference to pre-set norms. Rating scales and grading parameters are set before the test is given. ▶ Group referencing (soziale Bezugsnorm): individual achievement is assessed with regard to a social group norm (e. g., a learner group or a class). Traditionally, grades are distributed according to how the overall distribution corresponds to the ‘bell curve’ (Gaußsche Normalverteilung, see fig. 12.1). The rating scales and grading parameters are set after the test is finished. 12.3 12.3.1 Referencing 0.1% 0.1% 34% 34% 55 100 70 115 85 130 145 2% 2% 14% 14% High performers (16%) Average performers Poor performers (16%) 68% 95% The bell curve (example) Fig. 12.1 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 267 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 267 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 268 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION ▶ Individual referencing or self-referencing (individuelle Bezugsnorm): the individual learner’s progress is assessed with a focus on how the level of competence in the field tested corresponds to previous test results of the learner. Individual feedback is provided. The three forms of referencing have their respective merits and downsides. Consider the following assessment problems: 1. Why do some class tests have (overall) extremely bad results, and others extremely good results? 2. Why does an average student get better grades in one class than in another? 3. Why do some students feel that they can never get a good grade in a particular class? 4. If a student makes progress in a dictation test and has ‘only’ 35 mistakes instead of his usual 45-50, should she/ he still get a ‘no pass/ fail’ (grade 6) or possibly- - according to the concept of individual referencing- - a better grade? How can this be justified vis-à-vis his or her classmates? As the examples above indicate, norm referencing appears to be fair and just, as an overall good or bad performance of a class does not have to be bent toward ‘bell curve’ results. However, a certain degree of flexibility must be allowed for as the teacher may not have formulated clear instructions or used tasks whose problems only become apparent retrospectively (e. g., a certain text passage was too obscure for all the students). Group referencing can be unjust and create problematic forms of competition (cases 2 and 3): “To get good marks, you need to be better than the others. If all are good, all performances are measured with reference to a higher average, which in turn means that marking gets stricter.” (Jürgens & Sacher 2008: 72, our trans.). While individual referencing may be the “only genuinely pedagogical reference norm” (ibid.: 73, our trans.), it can create problematic asymmetries and imbalances as well if students are left with the impression that some students need to do less to get the same grades. Individual referencing cannot be used for fail/ pass decisions but rather for verbal or written feedback. In practice, norm referencing needs to allow some space for integrating group referencing, according to the pädagogischer Handlungsspielraum, for example, if the teacher notices that a question may have been misleading or a task proved to be easier or more difficult than expected. As to criteria for testing, there are the ‘big three’-- validity, reliability, and objectivity- - next to ‘subjective factors’ which need to be considered when designing and grading tests (cf. Thaler 2008; Schneider 2010: 109, 161-66; Assessment challenges Integrating forms of referencing The ‘big three’: validity, reliability, objectivity 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 268 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 268 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 Unit 12 269 A SSESSMENT AND TESTING Finkbeiner 2017: 391-92; for subjective factors cf. Jürgens & Sacher 2008: 54-71). Any test design should respect validity, reliability, and objectivity. ▶ Validity (Gültigkeit/ Validität): does the test measure what it is supposed to measure? “An instrument is deemed to be trustworthy if it has credibility (i. e., truth-value) and auditability (i. e., consistency). In other words, does it measure what it is supposed to measure and would the instrument give the same results if replicated? ” (Huerta-Macías 2002: 340) A salient problem, for example, is that reading comprehension tests are often not just designed to test reading skills but also text composition when students are required to write a response to the text (cf. Finkbeiner 2017: 391). Listening comprehension tests, to use another example, do not just test listening skills, but often also oral or writing skills. ▶ Reliability (Zuverlässigkeit/ Reliabilität): is the test consistent in its measurement? This means that two teachers should come to the same assessment of a student performance independent of the learning context. However, teachers tend to have different priorities: for example, even if a performance is graded on the basis of an error index (Fehlerindex), two teachers might still grade the student performance differently due to their different assessment of mistakes. Closed test formats (see below) tend to produce more reliable results than open tasks (see fig. 12.8). Clear criteria should be set in advance and both criteria and raters should be monitored periodically to ensure consistent manners of testing (cf. Huerta-Macías 2002: 340). ▶ Objectivity (Objektivität): is the test unbiased? This seems to be the most important and strictest criterion as it suggests that assessment should be independent of subjective factors. Objectivity and reliability seem to be obtainable if several independent or different tests yield the same result (cf. Finkbeiner 2017: 391). Macht surmises that objective tasks can be graded according to the criteria of ‘right’ or ‘wrong,’ meaning the end result provides “a numerically clear evaluation of the student performance which is tested” (2007: 373, our trans.). Strictly speaking, only the following test types would fit into this rubric: ▶ True/ false tasks: e. g., about orthography, grammatical items ▶ Multiple-choice tasks: typically with four options, of which only one is completely right, others are used as distractors; they can test knowledge and skills of different complexities ▶ Matching tasks: items or utterances from two groups, presented in tables, need to be matched ▶ Construction tasks: language segments need to be put together, as with a jumbled sentence task ▶ Completion tasks: a word is left out in an utterance and the word to be filled in is clearly marked as correct, as in cloze-tests (words have been removed from a text and need to be replaced) 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 269 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 269 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 270 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION As understandable as the goal of having valid, reliable, and objective forms of testing in foreign language education may appear, there are a number of pedagogical caveats. Especially, the idea of language proficiency as the sum of skills which can be tested in isolation of each other has been seriously questioned under the new paradigm of communicative competence. Since the yardstick of communicative competence is the ‘real world out there,’ discuss which competences cannot be tested with regard to validity, reliability, and objectivity. Also, what other factors might come into play when teachers grade student performances? Subjective factors Apart from issues of validity, reliability, and objectivity, a number of more ‘subjective factors,’ all related to the ‘human factor,’ come into play when it comes to testing foreign language skills (cf. Jürgens & Sacher 2008: 61-62; Finkbeiner 2017: 391). Language skills are, after all, interpersonal skills; language teaching and learning do not take place in a laboratory. As will become obvious, these factors are more distinctly felt when it comes to testing aural-oral skills and when complex and open forms of tests are used (e. g., essays, creative writing). ▶ Feasibility: in testing, time is of crucial importance. Teachers only have a limited amount of time to assess both written and oral tests. Consequently, there are limits to the type and amount of categories and criteria they can handle simultaneously. ▶ The interrelation of teaching and test results: are good test results a product of good teaching? Conversely, are bad test results an outcome of poor teaching? The tendency among students to blame teachers for bad results corresponds to a tendency among teachers to attribute good results to their own teaching performance and bad results to ‘lazy’ or ‘stupid’ students. ▶ Personality and culture of students: teachers should become more aware of ethical issues of testing because “[v]ariations in cultural, ethnic and national characteristics within and among individual students affect classroom dynamics” (Finkbeiner 2017: 392) and the culture-specific ways tests are designed. The issue of equity (Gleichbehandlung, Fairness) in evaluating learners from diverse linguistic, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds should inform designing tests. Standardized tests such as the Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency often rely on processes of “norming on a population unlike the one being tested and [may include] cultural and language biases” (Huerta- Macías 2002: 338). ▶ The influence of prior knowledge and additional knowledge on the teacher: all teaching and testing is influenced by what teachers know about their stu- 12.3.2 To err is human! 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 270 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 270 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 Unit 12 271 A SSESSMENT AND TESTING dents and how stereotypes or prejudices influence them (cf. Hattie 2009: 124-25). They may be influenced in their judgment by factors such as (1) the student being the child of a colleague, (2) the student being from a certain social background (e. g., poor vs. influential family, ethnic minority background), (3) gender, (4) the school history of a student (e. g., students who had to repeat a grade level), (5) personal sentiments, simply influenced by a student’s friendliness or unfriendliness, (6) other psychological effects such as the effect of the learner’s name, the halo-effect (e. g., a student who is good orally is seen as being good in written tests, a student who is attractive is considered to be a better performer), a teacher’s personal tendency and conviction to be generally more lenient (Milde-Effekt), more strict (Strenge-Effekt), or to avoid grades indicating extremely good or bad student performances (Tendenz zur Mitte), (7) the form of answers (e. g., bad handwriting). ▶ Test formats and testing situation: poor performances in tests can also derive from a lack of test-taking skills. For example, a student may lack knowledge and practice concerning the format and language of a test rather than knowledge and skills in the field to be tested. Therefore, a seemingly ‘objective’ test, such as a multiple-choice test, needs to be practiced in class so that students can develop specific test-taking skills. In addition, the testing situation itself often produces anxieties within students up to the point that they feel unable to think clearly. Teachers need to help students to cope with difficulties preparing for a test and taking the test (e. g., time management during a written test, coping with stress and exam anxiety). ▶ Effects of grading: this includes deficiencies concerning how tasks are set, how tests are composed, how they are put into practice, how they are corrected (including grading repetitive mistakes or marking correct English expressions as wrong, simple scaling or calculating of mistakes, mistakes arising from correction fatigue, etc.); series effects (Reihenfolgeeffekt) such as assessing all tests with reference to the first or the best test answer(s). ▶ Extenuating circumstances: personal problems or illness at the time of the test can hamper the performance of students; problems may affect the way teachers set, do, correct, and grade tests. Taking all these problematic factors into consideration, it may come as no surprise that studies perennially come up with alarming findings concerning the subjectivity of assessing and grading in tests. One such survey was conducted by Arendt (2006): twenty-six teachers from twenty-two different schools were asked to assess the speaking skills of students taking an English exam. The students’ oral exams had been recorded on video, showing two students taking a joint exam consisting of two parts. First, they had to reproduce the information given in a short text; then they were asked to have a conversation about Subjectivity: examining the examiners 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 271 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 271 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 272 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION the topics mentioned in the text. When the teachers were asked to grade the video-taped performance, this resulted in an astonishing range of grades given for the same performance. As Arendt sums up, the majority of teachers, almost 70 %, more or less lacked the appropriate objectivity in their assessment. The most striking example of misjudgment became apparent with the case of ‘Dan,’ one of the students on tape, who was a native speaker and whose performance included all the important information and showed hardly any grammar or vocabulary mistakes. While his high level of proficiency and thorough reproduction of the information in the text would raise expectations that he should get a top grade (e. g., grade 1 in accordance with the German 1 to 6-scale), only two teachers decided that his performance was indeed ‘excellent.’ Most other teachers graded it as ‘good’ to ‘mediocre,’ with one teacher even giving a ‘not pass’ assessment. What, then, is the bottom line in all these difficulties of fair and correct assessing? All in all, while “[t]here are still many educators who take test results at face value” (Finkbeiner 2017: 398), it seems of paramount importance to consider the practical dilemma teachers are faced with (Haß et al. 2017: 344): the individual teacher ▶ defines what will be tested, graded, and assessed, as well as how this is done (Lernziele, Lernzielkontrolle) ▶ administers the test ▶ assesses the test results ▶ adjusts the test results according to his/ her criteria ▶ assesses the overall and the individual outcome of the test The student performance partly relates to what and how the teacher teaches. The lesson to be learned from the above must surely be what Jürgens and Sacher put as a leading question: “Who really wants to claim that they can assess correctly and without a mistake? ” (2008: 61, our trans.) Toward a fair assessment culture The following guidelines of good and successful testing can alleviate some of the problems outlined above (cf. Jürgens & Sacher 2008: 84-85; Schneider 2010: 109-10): ▶ Becoming systematic: teachers need to be aware of testing as a complex process. They need to prepare students for test formats and let them know in advance what will be tested and how this will be tested. Furthermore, systematic testing involves the following processes: (1) finding an adequate test format, considering skills, competences, and how they can be assessed best according to the criteria of validity, reliability, and objectivity; (2) organizing the test, including giving clear instructions; (3) grading and returning The testing dilemma 12.3.3 Guidelines 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 272 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 272 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 Unit 12 273 A SSESSMENT AND TESTING the test within a short period after the test; (4) discussing the test, providing answer keys, model solutions; (5) discussing good answers; and (6) helping students correct incorrect or bad answers in effective ways. ▶ Developing self-reflexivity: in testing, teachers again should follow the ideal of the ‘reflective practitioner’ (see ch. 2.1.1). They need to be and stay aware of how the factors outlined above influence their judgment and remain open to revising their pre-conceived notions about the elements involved in testing (e. g., concerning the ‘halo-effect’). Teachers should stay lifelong learners themselves with the aim of optimizing their assessment and evaluation skills. ▶ Nonjudgmental observation first: it is one of the déformations professionnelle of educators to always be in the ‘judgmental mode.’ However, teachers need to be and stay aware of the difference between objective observation and the evaluation of performance. A prolonged period of systematic observation should precede assessment and evaluation. In plain English, one should not jump to conclusions but allow for multiple perspectives and a variety of practicing and testing scenarios before coming to a judgment about a student’s skills and competences. ▶ Focusing on elements of performance before overall impression: rather than relying on the overall impression of a student’s competence, individual aspects of performance should be considered first to come to a more nuanced test result. ▶ Avoiding stereotyping: teachers should make an effort to become aware of and eclipse prior knowledge such as that from a student’s report card or staff-room talk about a student. ▶ ‘Blind assessment’: written assessments should be ‘blind,’ thus avoiding subjective corrections resulting from having a student’s name at the back of one’s mind. Parts of a test should be graded and corrected separately; credits should be added up in the end to come to a more objective result. ▶ Asking for assistance: in problematic cases, if, for instance, a student’s future school career depends on one test, colleagues should be asked for assistance (e. g., for additional or comparative grading). All in all, the more assessors involved, the better-- especially with oral exams, students can participate in the assessment process according to pre-set criteria. ▶ Presenting more than just a grade: a written class exam with red ink all over the student’s writing, correction marks in the margins, a few caustic remarks, and just a grade at the end- - this prevalent format of grading appears as emblematic of concepts expressing authority and control. Instead, assessing is to be regarded as a ‘service to the learner’ (a Dienstleistung) (cf. Schneider 2010: 110). It should go without saying that exam papers should be annotated with short remarks in the margins on what could be improved (Verbalurteile, e. g., short references to typical mistakes and howlers). Good passages should not remain without laudatory remarks, 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 273 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 273 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 07.06.2022 15: 41: 30 274 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION indicating how the process of language production is appreciated. By the same token, grades should always come with remarks on language, content, and style. In doing so, teachers should avoid cynical comments and instead encourage students to improve their performance the next time. In oral evaluations, it seems recommendable to follow the ‘British model’: feedback should start with positive remarks (‘Your performance was remarkable-…’) and go on to more critical comments (‘but,-…’). The sandwich feedback technique offers an alternative: critical comments as constructive feedback are ‘sandwiched’ between nice remarks or words of appraisal as distinctly positive feedback (see fig. 12.2): What are we testing and how? The process of testing The process of testing consists of five steps (see fig. 12.3): when preparing the test, the teacher identifies the learning goals to be taught during a certain sequence. The course is taught in accordance with these goals. There is time for individual assistance and revisions if needed. Students become familiar with test formats and test content. The teacher pre-plans time and setting of the actual testing scenario (design, then administration/ Durchführung). After the assessment phase, there is a follow-up phase (Nachbereitung, debriefing, feedback): after discussing the test results with the students, the teacher may use the assessment results to revise goals or teaching methods. 12.4 12.4.1 Phases of testing Your argument is impressive! Your argument is impressive! Correct forms will make your texts more convincing. Correct forms will make your texts more convincing. However, you should watch your grammar. However, you should watch your grammar. You often use adjectives instead of adverbs. You often use adjectives instead of adverbs. The sandwich feedback technique Fig. 12.2 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 274 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 274 07.06.2022 15: 41: 31 07.06.2022 15: 41: 31 Unit 12 275 W HAT ARE WE TESTING AND HOW ? Teaching objectives Before setting a test design, teachers should consider what is to be tested. What are the teaching goals or competences that form the basis of the test design and the assessment? Objectives are located on three interrelated levels (see fig. 12.4): (1) the level of general educational objectives or interdisciplinary goals and competences (allgemeine Bildungsziele, fächerübergreifende Bildungsziele/ Kompetenzen), (2) the macro-level of communicative competences, and (3) the micro-level of skills. As to the issue of testability, it seems obvious that the more specific such a test objective is defined, the easier and more efficient it can be tested. It goes without saying that general educational goals are subject to long and complex learning processes, while, for instance, testing whether a student has command of ten irregular verb forms presents a facile test challenge. 12.4.2 Teaching objectives on three levels Pr Preepa parrat atiioonn Design Design AAddministration ministration AAsssseessssmmeenntt Foll Folloow-u w-upp The process of testing Fig. 12.3 SSkills kills CCompete ompetennce cess GGeener neraall educational educational obj objeecti ctivves es Teaching objectives on three interrelated levels Fig. 12.4 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 275 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 275 07.06.2022 15: 41: 31 07.06.2022 15: 41: 31 276 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION Level 1: general educational objectives. According to a well-established classification by Weinert (2014), a number of subject-specific as well as interdisciplinary teaching goals can be defined (cf. Jürgens & Sacher 2008: 8): ▶ Acquiring procedural knowledge and skills, which can be applied in real-life situations in a flexible manner ▶ Acquiring key qualifications for flexible responses in unplanned scenarios, including concrete and abstract skills ▶ Acquiring the competence to learn how to learn: reflecting on one’s learning process and learning strategies, and how to improve them ▶ Acquiring social competences: including empathy, responsibility, and ‘conflict management skills’ ▶ Acquiring value orientation: encompassing social, democratic, and personal values These general educational goals are, of course, broad enough to include competences currently under debate, such as media competence or intercultural competence (see chs. 7, 9). General educational objectives tie in with the macroand micro-level competences and skills, as evident in the following questions: How are the following test or activity formats related to general educational goals: ▶ Pattern drills: what kind of student personality is fostered if a teacher prefers pattern drills? ▶ Interpreting Shakespearean sonnets: what educational goals are implied if a teacher enjoys the interpretation of ‘great works of art’? ▶ Writing your CV and preparing for a job interview: what general educational goals are implied if a teacher focusses on career-oriented skills? Level 2: the macro-level of communicative competences. It can be defined in a more abstract manner according to the four key elements of communicative competence (see chs. 1, 3, 5): it comprises the ability of individuals to interact appropriately in different situations, using (1) grammatical competence (e. g., knowledge of lexical items and rules of phonology), (2) sociolinguistic competence (e. g., politeness strategies and intercultural sensitivity), (3) strategic competence (e. g., to compensate for breakdowns in communication), and (4) discourse competence (e. g., cohesion in form and coherence in meaning). Level 3: the micro-level of skills. In the context of assessing skills in the EFL classroom, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) lists and elaborates the five basic skills of listening, reading, speaking, writing, and mediation (Council of Europe 2001: 43-100, see ch. 6.1). The five skills can be further categorized in terms of sub-skills. For example, speaking General objectives Competences Skills and sub-skills 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 276 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 276 07.06.2022 15: 41: 32 07.06.2022 15: 41: 32 Unit 12 277 W HAT ARE WE TESTING AND HOW ? skills can be defined according to the twelve categories explained in the CEFR (ibid.: 193, see fig. 12.5): It is very unlikely-- and would indeed be a superhuman skill-- that teachers are able to consider all aspects at the same time without major gaps or deficiencies in their assessment. According to the CEFR, four to five criteria seem to be feasible in practical testing, while seven must be regarded as the cognitive upper level where the human brain starts to make mistakes (cf. ibid.: 193). For testing oral skills, to use one model, the list of criteria defined for the Preliminary English Test (PET) could provide a guideline, which differentiates four categories defined by three aspects each. Teachers should use these key words to assess the single categories and only then arrive at an overall evaluation as a sum of the grades given in every category (cf. Zydatiß 2006: 10, an elaborate list of test criteria is offered in Eisenmann & Summer 2017: 424): ▶ Grammar and vocabulary: range, accuracy, appropriacy ▶ Discourse management: relevance, coherence, extent ▶ Pronunciation: stress and rhythm, intonation, individual sounds ▶ Interactive communication: initiating and responding, hesitation, turn-taking Feasibility Oral skills Tur Turnn-taking strategies -taking strategies Co-operating strategies Co-operating strategies Asking for clarification Asking for clarification Fluency Fluency Flexibility Flexibility Coherence Coherence Thematic development Thematic development Precision Precision Sociolinguistic competence Sociolinguistic competence General range General range Vocabulary range Vocabulary range Grammatical accuracy Grammatical accuracy Vocabulary control Vocabulary control Phonological control Phonological control Speaking Speaking The sub-skills of speaking Fig. 12.5 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 277 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 277 07.06.2022 15: 41: 32 07.06.2022 15: 41: 32 278 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION An evaluation sheet, also called ‘impression grading scheme’ (cf. Haß et al. 2017: 353), for oral performance could resemble the one in fig. 12.6: Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grammar & vocabulary Discourse management Pronunciation Interactive communication Similarly, writing skills can be broken down into adequate production skills such as using appropriate vocabulary, style, register, grammar, idiomatic expressions, collocations (production), and spelling skills (for other criteria cf. Eisenmann 2008; Kieweg 2010; Schneider 2010: 125-26). An evaluation sheet could resemble the table in fig. 12.7: here, the criteria need to be assessed, for example, with an emphasis on production and task achievement (cf. Haß et al. 2017: 353): Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Production Task achievement Accuracy Range & complexity Orthographical control For the purpose of setting written tests (Klassenarbeiten, Klausuren), Weskamp (2001: 174, with additions) suggests the following concept: ▶ Determining the purpose of the test: placement, feedback, achievement, proficiency, or diagnosis ▶ Defining the type of learner(s) to be tested (age, social background, proficiency level(s)) ▶ Defining the types of skills or competences to be tested as well as the general educational goals ▶ Which language functions are to be tested (e. g., expressing pleasure, expressing dislike, advising someone)? ▶ Which text types are included in or elicited by the test type? Teachers need to consider length, difficulty, and genre/ media type of the sources used. ▶ Which type or combination of tasks are to be used (closed, semi-open, open tasks-- see fig. 12.8)? ▶ Taking care of correct and understandable instructions and possible (vocabulary) aids and explanations Writing skills Preparing and designing tests Evaluation sheet for assessing oral performance Fig. 12.6 Evaluation sheet for assessing writing performance Fig. 12.7 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 278 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 278 07.06.2022 15: 41: 32 07.06.2022 15: 41: 32 Unit 12 279 W HAT ARE WE TESTING AND HOW ? ▶ Considering how the single parts of a test are evaluated and how the overall grade is to be computed ▶ Considering how errors and mistakes will be evaluated and how form and content will be regarded respectively Typology of tests and tasks In general, there has been a shift from discrete point testing (DPT, e. g., multiple choice test), which was popular in the 1960s, to open and communicative testing. DPT focused on discrete, isolated items and thus resulted in insufficient knowledge and feedback about a learner’s ‘real’ communicative competence. Semi-open or open formats were frequently used in the 1970s, assessing one or more proficiency levels (e. g., guided interviews). Open or communicative forms of testing came into focus in the 1980s, with an emphasis on “communicative, integrated ‘real life’ tasks” (Müller-Hartmann & Schocker-von Ditfurth 2014: 147). Having defined competences to be tested, teachers are advised to consider if and how the three types defined and illustrated in fig. 12.8 should be used individually or in combination (cf. Macht 2007: 374, 376; Eisenmann 2008): Task type Definition Examples Closed tasks Tasks with little room for individual solutions or reactions ▶ Multiple-choice ▶ Matching/ sequencing ▶ Crossword/ true-false statements ▶ Fill-in (simple)/ cloze Semi-open tasks Tasks with some or more room for individual solutions or reactions ▶ Gap-filling (more elaborate, several options)/ guided dialog ▶ Summing up texts ▶ Writing according to certain formats (e. g., description of pictures) ▶ Mediation Open tasks Tasks with much room for individual solutions or reactions, simulation of real communication ▶ Comment, essay, statement, explanation, description, response to text, creative writing ▶ Oral presentation, role play, debate ▶ Project work Advantages and disadvantages of test types containing certain tasks are presented here: 12.4.3 Tests & tasks: closed - semiclosed - open Task types Fig. 12.8 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 279 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 279 07.06.2022 15: 41: 32 07.06.2022 15: 41: 32 280 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION Test types Advantages Disadvantages Discrete point testing (e. g., multiple choice questions) ▶ Setting, correcting, and marking are simple ▶ Validity and reliability ▶ Effective and objective information on skill(s) tested ▶ Isolated skills ▶ No or little context ▶ Relevance with regard to communicative competence problematic Integrative / pragmatic testing (e. g., text composition) ▶ Testing several skills and competences ▶ Detailed feedback regarding learner’s individual skills and competences ▶ More time-consuming ▶ More difficult to assess (validity? reliability? ) ▶ Real-world relevance? Communicative testing (e. g., real-world tasks) ▶ Imitates real communicative situations ▶ Complex tasks and performance (receptive, productive, creative, interactive, etc.) ▶ Time-consuming ▶ More subjective factors come into play (objectivity? ) To specify this typology of tasks, the list of task types for oral tests (see fig. 12.10) can show both how students can practice speaking and how their speaking skills can be examined (Eisenmann & Summer 2017: 425-26). They involve transactional speech (without interaction), interactional speech, and a mixture of both (see ch. 6.1.3): Presentation Students prepare a speech on a selected topic, followed by questioning or critique. Free discussion Students exchange opinions while following rules. Mini-debate Students conduct a topic-based conversation while adopting conflicting views according to a specific role and proposing them in a group. Role play Students conduct a ‘closed’ or ‘open’ interaction - with or without a structured de-briefing component. Improvisation Students perform something (e. g., a sketch or role play) without any preparation. Interview Students conduct interviews either with experts (e. g., other teachers) or with their classmates. Expert groups Students form small groups. Each group collects information about a specific topic. They then split up and form new groups (now being ‘experts’) in class and inform their group about their specific topic. Illustrated talks Students prepare and present posters, illustrations, or leaflets. Storytelling Students choose a story or invent one, then tell it as enthusiastically as possible. Formal speeches Students practice rhetoric, intonation, visual contact, etc. Describing pictures Students interpret visual elements. They may speculate about the atmosphere, what happened before/ after, etc. Closing information gaps Students have to find information on their own to solve a problem. Interpreting Students mediate a conversation into the target language or vice versa. Oral tasks/ tests Advantages and disadvantages of task types Fig. 12.9 Task types for oral tests Fig. 12.10 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 280 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 280 07.06.2022 15: 41: 33 07.06.2022 15: 41: 33 Unit 12 281 W HAT ARE WE TESTING AND HOW ? Consider the advantages and disadvantages of the following task types. Example 1: closed task (Kieweg 1999: 18) [Tick the right answer] Frank: Do you know Mrs Miller? -- Peter: Of course, I do. ▶ We know each other for almost two years. ▶ We’re knowing each other for almost two years. ▶ We’ve been knowing each other for almost two years. ▶ We’ve known each other for almost two years. Here, the teaching goal is receptive grammar knowledge, specifically the correct use of the present perfect. Example 2: semi-open task (TMBWK 2010: 2, adapted) [Response to a text] Do the following tasks, using your own words as far as appropriate. ▶ Write a text in which you contrast the decline and fall of traditional bookshops with the new trends and their advantages in the publishing, printing, and selling of books. ▶ Analyze the author’s view about recent developments in the book industry and the language he employs. ▶ “If you are a lover of well-stocked bookshops, then you should enjoy them while you can.” Discuss the pros and cons of traditional bookshops. Write at least 350 words and count your words. Here, the tasks set are a guided response to a text, where the restriction of “at least 350 words” provides a clear limitation of a ‘semi-open’ task. Example 3: open tasks ▶ Write an essay on ‘Beauty.’ ▶ Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper, responding to an article on the death penalty. ▶ Critically discuss the elements of the American Dream (e. g., with reference to the tragedy Death of a Salesman). ▶ Conduct an interview at an international company, asking international employees about their jobs. Present your findings in class. Examples 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 281 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 281 07.06.2022 15: 41: 33 07.06.2022 15: 41: 33 282 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION Grading Grading scales The error index (grading according to mistakes, cf. Macht 2007: 375) is still frequently used to assess foreign language skills. Written mistakes are counted-- as half or full mistakes- - and set into relation to the amount of words used. The calculated coefficient is then set in relation to a point or marking scale (cf. Haß et al. 2017: 352). As objective as this procedure appears, it is marred by two serious downsides : (1) different assessors weigh mistakes differently, and (2) if communicative competence is the aim of foreign language learning (see ch. 4.3.1), the number of mistakes cannot be the (sole) yardstick to be used for assessment. Since the principle of communicative competence is often associated with the idea that fluency should be favored over accuracy and meaning over form, other factors need to be considered. Assessors, especially of tests for advanced learners, tend to assess according to the criteria of language, content, and style/ expression(s). The categories are weighted against each other, for instance language counting as 50 %, content as 40 %, and style as 10 %. Then marks are given according to scales, where there are three options: linear, nonlinear, and partially linear scales (cf. Jürgens & Sacher 2008: 74-76). Here are examples of such scales (see fig. 12.12): Scales Grades - points Linear scale 1: 35-30, 2: 29-24, 3: 23-18, 4: 17-12 (lowest competence level, ‘just passed’), 5: 11-6, 6: 5-0 Non-linear scale the distribution appears random and therefore unjust: 1: 35-34, 2: 33-28, 3: 27-20, 4: 19-12 (‘just passed’), 5: 11-4, 6: 3-0 Partially linear scale ‘bell curve,’ frequently applied, distributing the levels below and above the lowest competence level evenly. 1: 48-43, 2: 42-37, 3: 36-31, 4: 30-25 (‘just passed’), 5: 24-0 Below are two typical grading grids (see figs. 12.13 and 12.14) for the German A-level / high school diploma exam (TMBWK 2010: 2-4, adapted): Qualität von Informationsgewinnung und -verarbeitung 10 BE aufgabengemäß, inhaltlich richtig, vollständig, präzis 10 BE aufgabengemäß, inhaltlich richtig, nahezu vollständig, weitestgehend genau 9-8 BE aufgabengemäß, im Wesentlichen inhaltlich richtig, im Wesentlichen vollständig 7-6 BE im Wesentlichen aufgabengemäß, inhaltlich teilweise lückenhaft bzw. fehlerhaft 5-4 BE in Ansätzen aufgabengemäß, inhaltlich unvollständig 3-2 BE kaum noch oder nicht aufgabengemäß, inhaltlich bruchstückhaft bzw. falsch 1-0 BE 12.5 12.5.1 Error index Spot the mistake! ? Fig. 12.11 Grading scales Fig. 12.12 Assessing content (BE: Bewertungseinheit) Fig. 12.13 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 282 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 282 07.06.2022 15: 41: 33 07.06.2022 15: 41: 33 Unit 12 283 G RADING Qualität von Informationstransfer 6 BE aufgabengemäß, textsortengerecht, differenziert, prägnant, überzeugend, ggf. kreativ 6 BE aufgabengemäß, textsortengerecht, differenziert 5-4 BE in Ansätzen aufgabengemäß, in Ansätzen differenziert 3-2 BE kaum noch oder nicht aufgabengemäß, nicht differenziert 1-0 BE Qualität der Darstellung 3 BE intentionsgerechte, logische, übersichtliche, im Schriftbild saubere Darstellung 3 BE im Wesentlichen intentionsgerechte, logische, übersichtliche sowie im Schriftbild weitgehend klare und saubere Darstellung 2 BE kaum noch intentionsgerechte, logische, übersichtliche Darstellung sowie Mängel in der Klarheit und Sauberkeit des Schriftbilds 1 BE nicht intentionsgerechte, unlogische und unübersichtliche Darstellung sowie erhebliche Mängel im Schriftbild 0 BE Verständlichkeit und sprachliche Korrektheit 12 BE nahezu korrekter Sprachgebrauch 12-11 BE überwiegend geringfügige Normverstöße, die die Verständlichkeit nicht beeinträchtigen 10-9 BE überwiegend geringfügige Normverstöße, die die Verständlichkeit nicht wesentlich beeinträchtigen 8-7 BE Häufung geringfügiger Normverstöße, die die Verständlichkeit durch ihre Vielzahl insgesamt beeinträchtigen, und/ oder grobe Normverstöße, die die Verständlichkeit beeinträchtigen 6-5 BE überwiegend grobe Normverstöße, die die Verständlichkeit stark einschränken 4-2 BE gravierende Normverstöße, die die Verständlichkeit verhindern 1-0 BE Ausdrucksvermögen 9 BE Variabilität des sprachlichen Ausdrucks, oberstufengemäßer Wortschatz, Komplexität und Variabilität des Satzbaus bzw. treffende Wortgruppen/ Stichworte, textsortengerecht 9-8 BE Bemühen um Variabilität des sprachlichen Ausdrucks, oberstufengemäßer Wortschatz, weitestgehend klarer Satzbau bzw. meist treffende Wortgruppen/ Stichworte, textsortengerecht 7-6 BE wenig Variabilität des sprachlichen Ausdrucks, begrenzter Wortschatz, Ungeschicklichkeiten im Satzbau bzw. in der Formulierung von Wortgruppen/ Stichworten, im Wesentlichen textsortengerecht 5-4 BE Stark eingeschränkter sprachlicher Ausdruck, sehr begrenzter Wortschatz, auffällige Verstöße gegen den Satzbau bzw. gravierende Unsicherheiten bei der Formulierung von Wortgruppen/ Stichworten, in Ansätzen textsortengerecht 3-2 BE gravierende sprachlich-stilistische Mängel, unzureichender Wortschatz, grobe Fehler im Satzbau bzw. bei der Formulierung von Wortgruppen/ Stichworten 1-0 BE Discuss which criteria should be considered as having more importance, which less (BE = credits / points). Assessing language Fig. 12.14 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 283 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 283 07.06.2022 15: 41: 33 07.06.2022 15: 41: 33 284 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION Alternative assessment formats With the goal of intercultural communicative competence (see ch. 7.1.3) and the need to facilitate more learner and teacher awareness of language learning as a lifelong process, new and alternative testing procedures have been promoted. A number of alternative formats of testing have come into focus. Focus on interaction and real-life tasks: there is an increasing demand to capture cultural and social as well as communicative dimensions of exchanges (cf. Müller-Hartmann & Schocker-von Ditfurth 2014: 150). A typical test for a task-based approach could be the following: You are in a terrible motel in Miami, waiting for your friend from Great Britain, scheduled to arrive in three days. Write a long text message to your friend about the accommodation and entertainment. Suggest that they change to a different place and/ or hotel. The teaching of interactional skills would be one step in the direction of testing interactive skills. Another would be the evaluation of cooperation in group work or when displaying media skills (e. g., PowerPoint presentations, if followed by a question and answer session). Less developed yet and problematic to categorize would be the testing of intercultural competence (cf. Byram 1997, see ch. 7.2.2) Selfand peer-assessment: these “nontraditional or alternative forms of classroom-based writing” (Peñaflorida 2002: 347, cf. Jürgens 2005) include the assessment of learning logs, dialog journals as well as portfolios. They present an overview of the performance of a learner over a longer period of time (such as the European Language Portfolio). A portfolio can be a traditional folder in which the students file their work or a notebook with special sections with parts for work in progress or final drafts. If students are allowed to participate actively in the selection and discussion of their work or have fellow students peer-review their work, they may “gain a true sense of ownership, which results in personal satisfaction and feelings of self-worth” (Peñaflorida 2002: 334). Students should be helped with the definition of evaluation criteria, which could include a focus on content, language, presentation, creativity, involvement, pace of work, amount of work produced, difficulties and coping strategies, flexibility and range, communication, size, etc. (cf. Bebermeier 1999: 51). All in all, assessment procedures need to incorporate a greater focus on learning as a process, allowing for reflections both of teachers and learners on individual progress and agency. Teachers should always appreciate what is good and how it can be improved further, and assist students in increasing their own effectiveness in avoiding mistakes. 12.5.2 Alternative testing formats Portfolio 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 284 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 284 07.06.2022 15: 41: 34 07.06.2022 15: 41: 34 Unit 12 285 C ORRECTING MISTAKES Correcting mistakes What we call mistakes are deviations from language norms. As errors, they mean a gap in the learner’s knowledge, as mistakes an (occasional) lapse in performance. Errors are part of the learning process, part of the developing Interlanguage of a learner and can provide information about a learner’s progress or level of proficiency (see chs. 3.2.3, 5.1.2). They can have different causes, such as interference, overgeneralization, or simplification. Errors can be seen as hypothesis-building and experimenting with language. Errors are unavoidable. Researchers in the field of error analysis have stressed the importance of the following issues (Kleppin 2009): ▶ Teachers need to be sensitive to how and when errors and mistakes need to be corrected so as not to discourage or hamper language use. ▶ Teachers need to set their priorities when it comes to correcting errors and mistakes: high priority should be given to those that interfere with comprehension (e. g., problematic intonation, pronunciation) and to those that were practiced frequently. High priority should also be given to intercultural mistakes (e. g., lack of politeness, offensive language). Low priority should be given to slips or rare constructions. ▶ In pre-writing activities, teachers can sensitize students to the fact that certain text types create certain grammatical challenges (e. g., a narrative in the past usually does not use the present perfect, unless there is a direct link to the present). ▶ Teachers can practice editing techniques with their students, with learners getting used to reviewing, revising, and editing their texts and being alert to typical mistakes. ▶ Learners could be asked to regularly peer-review their texts, discussing typical mistakes or the reasons for them. ▶ Both teachers and students keep track of typical mistakes of individual students. With the help of the teacher, students could keep notes of grammatical, lexical, or stylistic ‘challenges.’ Reflect on and discuss the following statement: “A paper which is excessively marked and scribbled over by the teacher is no longer the student’s property. It becomes the teacher’s.” (Peñaflorida 2002: 345) As to the correction of oral mistakes, clearly, there must be a difference between presentation and practice phases as well as the production and communication phase. In the presentation and practice phases, students learn, for example, how a new word is pronounced or spelled; and if there is no correction, mistakes can fossilize. Students need to use the new items correctly. In the production phase, or in the ‘free conversation’ or communicative phase, the focus 12.6 Errors and mistakes as ‘learning chances’ Mistakes are the portals of discovery. - James Joyce Error or mistake? Fig. 12.15 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 285 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 285 07.06.2022 15: 41: 34 07.06.2022 15: 41: 34 286 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION should, of course, be on content and meaning, not on form and accuracy. Mistakes should only be corrected if they lead to semantic or intercultural misunderstandings. Teachers have the following choices: ▶ Explicit corrections should be avoided. Especially, repetition of an error should generally be avoided-- this could create the opposite effect: the mind tends to memorize exactly what it should not memorize. ▶ Recasts, if necessary, can be used to elicit correct English if the meaning was unclear or an utterance interculturally problematic (e. g., rude). ▶ A clarification request can be used, where the teacher signals that an utterance could not be understood, possibly for acoustic reasons (this can be done verbally and nonverbally). ▶ Elicitation can be used, a technique where teachers-- not unlike the famous Greek philosopher Socrates- - clarify meaning through further meaningful questions. ▶ Teachers can, at the end of a session, discuss linguistic difficulties which occurred during the lesson and help students to avoid certain mistakes in the future. This can be done without reference to individual learners. Teachers should try to discontinue the following (mal-)practices and use alternatives (based on Peñaflorida 2002: 344-45, 352; Jürgens & Sacher 2008: 70): ▶ Assessment, evaluation, and grading are imprecise and unsystematic or not transparent to students. ▶ Teachers give no written feedback; their feedback is only negative, not really constructive, not encouraging, or confusing. Teachers should avoid comments like ‘improve,’ ‘vague,’ ‘obscure,’ ‘too broad,’ or just ‘specify.’ Instead, they should provide helpful comments closely related to the task and the student utterance. ▶ Teachers take too much time to grade and hand back tests or assignments. Instead, teacher feedback should be as soon as possible. ▶ “Teacher corrects all errors, ‘bleeds’ students’ papers to death, figuratively and literally. Red penciling all over the paper reveals that form, rather than substance, is given more attention. By concentrating on form, students tend to turn in papers which are almost flawless in grammar but lacking in substance.” (Peñaflorida 2002: 345) Instead, teachers and students shouldn’t ‘sweat the small stuff,’ but rather focus on real howlers and how to avoid them. ▶ To end on a positive note, errors and mistakes are ‘learning chances.’ Students should learn to detect their own mistakes and become aware of the complexity of language themselves. Ways of correcting oral mistakes 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 286 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 286 07.06.2022 15: 41: 34 07.06.2022 15: 41: 34 Unit 12 287 P RACTICAL EXAMPLES Practical examples Example 1: Student from grade 7 The following test consists of three parts and can be considered ‘very traditional’ (see fig. 12.16). Define the three parts: are they closed, semi-closed, or open? What is being tested and how is the overall grade computed? How could test design and grading be improved? 12.7 Sample test 1 Fig. 12.16 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 287 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 287 07.06.2022 15: 41: 35 07.06.2022 15: 41: 35 288 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION Example 2: Student from grade 7 The following test is a response to a literary text (see fig. 12.17). Consider the grading and how it could be done differently. Which grade would you have given, considering content, language, and form? What kinds of comments would have been more helpful than just the question mark in the margin and the wriggle under words? Example 3: Student from grade 10 The following shows a grade 10 student’s answer in a test (see fig. 12.18). The task was to write a personal letter of application for a job as an assistant receptionist at a hotel in London (ca. 70 to 90 words). The answer was based on a short information sheet detailing how the applicant is suited for the job. In this case, assess the teacher’s grading. How do you consider the mistakes in the answer (graded and not graded)? How would your grading differ if the CV had been practised extensively before the test? Sample test 2 Fig. 12.17 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 288 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 288 07.06.2022 15: 41: 36 07.06.2022 15: 41: 36 Unit 12 289 P RACTICAL EXAMPLES Recommended reading Eisenmann, Maria (2008). Formen mündlicher Leistungsmessung im Fach Englisch. In: Praxis Fremdsprachenunterricht 5.4, 26-30. Hallet, Wolfgang; Frank G. Königs & Hélène Martinez, eds. (2020). Handbuch Methoden im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Hannover: Kallmeyer / Klett. Harsch, Claudia (2017): Noten und Kompetenzorientierung-- wie geht das zusammen? In: Die Neueren Sprachen Jahrbuch 5.6, 11-22. Huerta-Macías, Ana (2002). Alternative Assessment: Responses to Commonly Asked Questions. In: Jack C. Richards & Willy A. Renandya, eds. Methodology in Language Teach- Sample test 3 Fig. 12.18 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 289 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 289 07.06.2022 15: 41: 37 07.06.2022 15: 41: 37 290 A SSESSMENT AND EVALUATION ing: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press, 338-43. Jürgens, Eiko (2000). Brauchen wir ein pädagogisches Leistungsverständnis? In: Silvia-Iris Beutel & Witlof Vollstädt, eds. Leistung ermitteln und bewerten. Hamburg: Bergmann und Helbig, 15-25. Thaler, Engelbert (2008). Klassenarbeiten- - eine Prozessperspektive. In: Praxis Fremdsprachenunterricht 5.4, 6-10. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 290 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 290 07.06.2022 15: 41: 37 07.06.2022 15: 41: 37 291 References References References unit 1 Bach, Gerhard & Stephan Breidbach (2013). Fremdsprachenkompetenz in der mehrsprachigen Wissensgesellschaft. In: Gerhard Bach & Johannes-P. Timm, eds. Englischunterricht: Grundlagen und Methoden einer handlungsorientierten Unterrichtspraxis. Tuebingen: Francke, 280-303. Bausch, Karl-Richard; Herbert Christ; Frank G. Königs & Hans-Jürgen Krumm, eds. (2003). Der Gemeinsame europäische Referenzrahmen für Sprachen in der Diskussion. Tuebingen: Narr. Brutt-Griffler, Janina (2008). ‘Who Do You Think You Are, Where Do You Think You Are? ’: Language Policy and the Political Economy of English in South Africa. In: Claus Gnutzmann & Frauke Intemann, eds. The Globalisation of English and the English Language Classroom. 2 nd ed. Tuebingen: Narr, 27-40. Bryman, Alan (2004). The Disneyization of Society. London et al.: SAGE. Burwitz-Melzer, Eva (2019). Plurilinguale und plurikulturelle Kompetenz im CEFR Companion. In: Christiane Fäcke & Franz-J. Meißner, eds. Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik. Tuebingen: Narr, 112-17. Byram, Michael (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon et al.: Multilingual Matters. Christ, Herbert (2010). Geschichte der Fremdsprachendidaktik. In: Wolfgang Hallet & Frank G. Königs, eds. Handbuch Fremdsprachendidaktik. Seelze-Velber: Klett/ Kallmeyer, 17-22. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Council of Europe (2011). European Language Portfolio. http: / / www.coe.int/ t/ dg4/ education/ elp/ elp-reg/ Registered_ELP_EN.asp (15 August 2014). Council of Europe (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. https: / / rm.coe.int/ common-europeanframework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/ 16809ea0d4 (26 June 2021). Decke-Cornill, Helene & Lutz Küster (2014). Fremdsprachendidaktik: Eine Einführung. 2 nd ed. Tuebingen: Narr. Der Deutsche Anglistenverband e. V. & die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Amerikastudien e. V. (2012). Inhaltliche Anforderungen für Fachwissenschaft und Fachdidaktik in der Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung, Studienfach Englisch. Trier: WVT. 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Sankt Augustin: Academia. Jürgens, Eiko & Werner Sacher (2008). Leistungserziehung und pädagogische Diagnostik in der Schule: Grundlagen und Anregungen für die Praxis. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Jürgens, Eiko (2017). Pädagogische Diagnostik und Leistungsbeurteilung im Spiegel pädagogischer Menschenbildannahmen. In: Jutta Standop; Ernst Daniel Röhrig & Raimund Winkels, eds. Menschenbilder in Schule und Unterricht. Weinheim et al.: Beltz Juventa, 300-15. Kieweg, Werner (1999). Klassenarbeiten: Überprüfung der grammatikalischen Kompetenz und Performanz. In: Der Fremdsprachliche Unterricht Englisch 33.37, 18-25. Kieweg, Werner (2010). Kompetenzen diagnostizieren. In: Der Fremdsprachliche Unterricht Englisch 44.105, 16-22. Kleppin, Karin (2009). ‘Fehler’ und ‘Fehlerkorrektur.’ In: Praxis Fremdsprachenunterricht 6.1, 60-61. Macht, Konrad (2007). Aufgaben als Bewertungsinstrumente. In Johannes-P. Timm, ed. Englisch lernen und lehren: Didaktik des Englischunterrichts. Berlin: Cornelsen, 366-77. Müller-Hartmann, Andreas & Marita Schocker-von Ditfurth (2014). Introduction to English Language Teaching. 8 th ed. Stuttgart et al.: Klett. Peñaflorida, Andrea H. (2002). Nontraditional Forms of Assessment and Response to Student Writing: A Step toward Learner Autonomy. In: Jack C. Richards & Willy A. Renandya, eds. Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press, 344-53. Rampillon, Ute (1999). Englisch lernen neu denken- - und neu bewerten. In: Der fremdsprachliche Unterricht Englisch 33.37, 26, 35-39. Schneider, Franz J. (2010). Interne Evaluation im Englischunterricht: Unterrichtsbegleitende Diagnoseverfahren zur schulischen Qualitätsentwicklung. Berlin et al.: LIT. Thaler, Engelbert (2008). Klassenarbeiten- - eine Prozessperspektive. In: Praxis Fremdsprachenunterricht 5.4, 6-10. Thaler, Engelbert (2012). Englisch unterrichten: Grundlagen-- Kompetenzen-- Methoden. Berlin: Cornelsen. Thüringer Ministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kultur (2010). Abiturprüfung 2010: Leistungsfach Englisch (Haupttermin)-- Teil B. Erfurt: TMBWK, 1-9. Tillmann, Klaus-Jürgen & Witlof Vollstädt (2000). Funktionen der Leistungsbewertung: Eine Bestandsaufnahme. In: Silvia-Iris Beutel & Witlof Vollstädt, eds. Leistung ermitteln und bewerten. Hamburg: Bergmann und Helbig, 27-37. Weinert, Franz E. (2014). Vergleichende Leistungsmessung in Schulen-- eine umstrittene Selbstverständlichkeit. In: Franz E. Weinert, ed. Leistungsmessungen in Schulen. 3 rd ed. Weinheim et al.: Beltz, 17-31. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 333 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 333 07.06.2022 15: 41: 40 07.06.2022 15: 41: 40 334 R EFERENCES Weskamp, Ralf (2001). Fachdidaktik: Grundlagen & Konzepte. Berlin: Cornelsen. Weskamp, Ralf (2003). Fremdsprachenunterricht entwickeln. Grundschule- - Sekundarstufe I-- Gymnasiale Oberstufe. Hanover: Schroedel-Diesterweg-Klinkhardt. Winter, Felix (2012). Leistungsbewertung: Eine neue Lernkultur braucht einen anderen Umgang mit den Schülerleistungen. 5 th ed. Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Hohengehren. Zydatiß, Wolfgang (2006). Mündliche Prüfungen in Englisch Klasse 10: Sachgerecht gestalten und ‘gerecht’ bewerten (Teil 1). Praxis Fremdsprachenunterricht 3.4, 9-13. 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 334 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 334 07.06.2022 15: 41: 40 07.06.2022 15: 41: 40 335 Index Index Index A ability 9, 20, 54, 72, 73, 75, 83, 143, 177, 207, 276. See aptitude accommodation 45, 46 accuracy 31, 43, 55, 62, 63, 65, 69, 77, 80, 90, 97 achievement 12, 47, 73, 74, 77, 82, 83, 84, 86, 132, 145, 147, 230, 234, 264, 265, 266, 267, 278 acquisition 107, 109, 112, 190. See second language acquisition (LA2, SLA) Acquisition-based Model 231 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis 44, 45 action research 33, 34, 35 activity 8, 60, 69, 86, 99, 101, 108, 109, 111, 119, 120, 121, 123, 125, 126, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 148, 188, 194, 196, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 232, 234, 241, 258, 276, 285 advanced learner 71, 223, 232, 256, 257, 258 aesthetic-literary competence 265 aesthetic(s) 159, 176, 177, 180, 181, 182, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 204, 207, 211 response 42, 55, 186, 190, 204, 207, 236 affect 82, 83, 84, 204, 206. See emotion Affective Filter Hypothesis 44, 80 agency 54, 55, 70, 202, 204, 284 aims 12, 205, 209. See goals Aktionsforschung 34 Allgemeine Didaktik 38 analysis of literature, media 179, 180, 181, 189, 190, 204, 211 appropriate 66, 67, 117, 134, 276 aptitude 82, 83, 84 assessment 33, 72, 78, 108, 129, 189, 213, 215, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 272, 273, 274, 275, 277, 282, 284. See test, testing assessment, evaluation, and grading 271, 286 assimilation 45, 46 atmosphere 21, 23, 44, 73, 80, 84, 86, 132, 142, 237 attitude 9, 20, 79, 167, 203, 227. See motivation Audiolingual and Audiovisual Methods 43, 63, 65, 97, 245 authentic, authenticity 6, 16, 41, 56, 66, 67, 76, 78, 80, 122, 125, 130, 137, 179, 182, 211, 214, 225, 226, 235, 237, 249, 250. See real life communication, interaction 8, 42, 50, 66, 67, 68, 69, 102, 131, 133, 136, 142, 183, 186, 201, 209, 211, 235 autonomous 118, 130, 138, 142, 147, 148, 213, 224, 265 aware 159, 167, 202, 238, 240, 272, 273 awareness 7, 9, 12, 29, 31, 66, 72, 76, 79, 87, 118, 134, 135, 142, 148, 159, 162, 168, 180, 182, 188, 192, 194, 206, 207 critical 159, 181, 184, 185, 203 cultural 21, 62, 77, 188 ecological 163, 165, 192, 193, 224 intercultural 9, 31, 134, 135, 154, 157, 162, 164, 166, 177, 181, 184, 211 language 47, 50, 53, 81, 122, 225, 250 metacognitive 9 metalinguistic 50 B backward design 245, 246 basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) 76 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 335 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 335 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 336 I NDEX Behaviorism 3, 42, 43, 63. See methods and approaches Big-5 model of personality traits 20, 140 Bildung 13, 39, 176, 225. See education Bildungsstandard 11, 13, 223, 224. See standard bilingual 75, 76, 77 blackboard 210 blended learning 197, 214, 215 blogs 182 body language 135, 191, 192, 236. See communication bottom-up and top-down processes 45, 123, 126, 181 C ‘can do’-descriptors 9, 117, 119, 245 ‘can do’-standards 12 chunks 63, 97 clarification request 49 classroom interaction 55, 236 clarity 22, 23, 24, 70, 73, 87, 148, 237, 240, 241 initiation-response-evaluation (IRE) 68, 236, 240 instruction 61, 62, 236, 240, 241, 250, 278 student talk time (STT) 236, 240. See time teacherese 54, 238 teacher talk time (TTT) 236, 240. See time classroom management 241, 242 class (socio-economic) 4, 6, 7, 20, 74, 154, 157, 183, 184, 186, 194, 207 close reading 179, 180 co-constructing knowledge 53, 54, 158 cognition 29, 82, 83 cognition/ motivation 82, 83, 84 cognitive 46, 47, 49, 57, 69, 77, 118, 181. See schema cognitive ability 20 cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) 76 Cognitive Acceleration Method 47 cognitive approach 49, 50 cognitive competence 9, 180 cognitive cooperation 46 cognitive development 46, 77 cognitive learning 39 Cognitive Linguistics 53, 76 Cognitive or Constructivist Approaches 45 cognitive pattern 200 cognitive processing 46, 47, 50, 53, 73, 77, 94 Cognitive Psychology 50, 63, 82 cognitive schema 45 cognitive skills 98, 226 Cognitive, Social, or Radical Constructivist Approaches 42 cognitive strategy 24, 139 cognitive understanding 177 collaborate 204, 212 collaboration 8, 70, 203, 209, 213, 240. See cooperation collaborative 24, 33, 55, 69, 70, 72, 74 Collaborative Method 72, 73, 74. See methods Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) 8, 10, 12, 13, 107, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 124, 128, 224, 245, 276, 277 common reference levels 10 communication 78, 119, 177, 178, 182, 203, 204, 208 non-verbal 125, 135 communication/ communicative language competences/ skills 8, 9, 55, 62, 119, 130, 135, 270 communication strategy 120 communicative approach 97, 245 communicative competence 66, 270 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) 55, 65, 66, 67, 68, 88, 90 communicative situation 109, 168 communicative, sociocultural competence 208 communicative strategy 200 communicative testing 280 competence 8, 9, 11, 71, 148, 176, 181, 184, 200, 203, 204, 205, 211, 225, 228, 229, 230, 263, 266, 268, 275. See skill communicative 66, 80, 90, 97, 108, 166, 200, 275, 276, 282 environmental 164 intercultural 9 literary 62, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 186, 196, 211 media competence/ literacy 9, 76, 142, 171, 176, 177, 192, 195, 197, 199, 202, 203, 206, 207, 209, 212, 276 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 336 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 336 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 337 Index methodological 245 pedagogical 30, 205, 209, 265 Competence-based Instruction (CpBI)/ Teaching 86, 245 competence level 224, 251 competence-orientation 141, 224, 230 competences of reflective teachers 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 competition 72, 145, 263, 264, 265, 268 competitive 73, 74, 222, 265, 267 comprehensible input and/ or output 44, 45, 55, 73, 76, 79, 238, 251 Comprehensible Input Hypothesis 44 consolidating knowledge 230, 234 constructivist 49, 51, 53, 56, 57 Constructivist Approaches 51, 245 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) 77, 78, 79 contextual interpretation 181 Contrastive Hypothesis 42, 43 conversation strategy 153 cooperate 27, 131, 142 cooperation 46, 72, 87, 204, 284 cooperative 27, 72, 74, 75, 76, 167, 215, 222, 237, 265 Cooperative LT & Participatory LT 88 correct, correction 91, 273, 285, 286 creative Interlanguage 79 creative production 212 creative transformation 190 critical, critical reflection/ thinking 27, 31, 73, 157, 167, 177, 184, 202, 203, 204, 211, 245, 265 critical discourse analysis 74 critical incidents 161, 162, 170, 181. See intercultural learning critical literacy 74, 176, 183, 184, 192, 195 Critical Pedagogy 74 critical period 43, 78 cultural 131, 134, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 162, 167, 169, 170, 171, 176, 182, 183, 184, 189, 190, 191, 226, 232, 249 competence 178 differences 81, 82 diversity 13, 21 norms 75, 162, 267, 268 Cultural Studies 156, 157, 166, 171. See intercultural learning culture 4, 7, 53, 131, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 167, 169, 171, 183, 184, 186, 192, 193, 199, 226, 249, 270 curriculum 12, 15, 21, 30, 31, 61, 68, 76, 79, 80, 97, 141, 176, 196, 212, 223, 224, 225, 244, 246, 247, 249, 266 curriculum and syllabus design (forward, central, backward) 224, 228 D descriptor 10, 13, 176 DESI 11, 12, 263 design 199, 206, 208, 214, 216 development 20, 28, 46 developmental 20, 95 developmental path 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 Developmental Psychology 39, 45 diagnose 81, 86, 141, 251, 263 diagnosis 23, 251, 266, 278 diagnostic 95 dialog, dialogic 24, 64, 65, 67, 103, 171, 181, 182, 185, 234, 235 didactic text 185 differentiate, differentiation 13, 23, 33, 68, 71, 95, 117, 118, 143, 148, 209, 212, 266. See learner digital competence, digital literacy 203, 204, 205, 206, 212 digital, digitalization 198, 204, 205, 211, 213, 214, 255, 256, 258 disability 32, 144, 145 discourse 131, 183, 184, 200, 202, 205, 207, 208 discourse competence 66, 276 discrete point testing (DPT) 279, 280 diverse 169, 212, 270 diversity 134, 141, 144, 163, 167. See differentiation E early language learning 78 ecocritical 192 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 337 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 337 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 338 I NDEX economic participation 4, 8 education 8, 20, 31, 32, 33, 38, 39, 46, 55, 117, 175, 205, 209, 223, 224, 225, 228, 263, 265, 266, 275. See teacher educational 82, 158, 175, 176, 222, 276 educational goal, objective 146, 154, 158, 166, 192, 275, 276, 278 educational standard 15, 23, 244, 247, 263 Educational Studies 38, 39, 54, 86 elicitation 49, 286. See feedback emancipation 54, 157, 265. See empowerment emotion 44, 83, 181. See affect empirical 34, 39, 43, 44, 47, 50, 55, 74, 78, 82, 86, 92, 147, 212. See research empower 34, 118, 157, 163, 165 empowerment 4, 54, 74, 157, 202, 204 engage, engagement 209, 232, 234 English Global English 171 killer language 4 lingua franca 2, 3, 6, 153, 157, 164 linguistic imperialism 4 World English 5 entertainment. See media, medium error 43, 49, 63, 72, 80, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 129, 279, 285, 286. See Interlanguage (IL) error correction 42, 97 errors and mistakes 285, 286 ethnic 157, 168, 194, 270. See race ethnicity 20, 24, 28, 54, 67, 75, 140, 145, 154, 169, 183, 195, 207, 237, 238. See race ethnocentric 168. See race evaluate, evaluation as learner competence 71, 76, 87, 121, 124, 148, 166, 176, 177, 185, 188, 204, 206, 211, 212, 213 as teacher competence of material, tasks 249, 250, 251, 258, 279 evaluative problem-solving language use 13 of learners, achievement 55, 72, 84, 101, 102, 166, 189, 226, 233, 236, 237, 239, 263, 264, 266, 267, 269, 270, 273, 274, 277, 278, 279 of teachers, teaching 24, 35, 86, 228, 234 existential competence 9 explanation techniques 108 F face-work 131, 235 feedback 24, 42, 50, 54, 64, 74, 86, 87, 100, 189, 205, 213, 234, 237, 266, 268, 274, 278, 286. See classroom interaction clarification request 91, 286 corrective 55, 96 dynamic 49 explicit 98, 104 implicit 49 metalinguistic 100 recast 95, 100 film. See media, medium first language acquisition (LA1) 41, 78 flipped classroom 215 fluency 43, 66, 69, 77, 117, 282 fluency before accuracy 132 form 47, 48, 90, 91, 92, 104, 112, 179, 279 focus on form 50, 56, 70, 77, 98, 99, 100, 101, 282 focus on formS 99 form and meaning 44, 49, 50, 52, 72, 97, 101, 180, 231, 279 proactive focus on form 72 reactive focus on form 72 fossilization of errors (stabilization of Interlanguage) 42, 72, 96, 285 frame 205, 206, 207 G gender 20, 24, 28, 54, 67, 74, 75, 140, 145, 157, 160, 169, 175, 183, 184, 185, 187, 192, 194, 195, 207, 237, 238 genre 128, 129, 130, 171, 177, 183, 186, 190, 200, 202, 205, 207, 208, 211, 278 global 163, 164, 167, 168, 192, 195, 204, 224 goal 23, 79, 101, 117, 138, 145, 148, 164, 196, 228, 229, 230, 237, 274, 275, 276. See standard 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 338 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 338 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 339 Index grade, grading 31, 225, 251, 263, 266, 267, 268, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 277, 278, 279, 282, 287, 288 grammar 90, 92, 93, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 104, 109, 129, 214, 225, 250 Acquisition-based Method (ABM) 102, 103 Input Enhancement 100, 101 Processability Hierarchy 49, 81, 92, 93, 94, 95, 225 progression 16, 56, 65, 68, 80, 97, 98, 118, 119, 120, 170, 210, 225, 247 Teachability Hypothesis 49, 92 Grammar-Translation Method 3, 61, 62, 97 grammatical 95, 97, 100, 102, 103, 104, 117, 131, 231, 247, 276 H halo-effect 271, 273 heterogeneity 81, 86, 95, 141, 143, 148, 169, 202, 251. See differentiation heterogeneous 21, 31, 73, 74, 95, 117, 143, 209, 212, 230 hidden curriculum 29 holistic 3, 76, 186, 187, 188, 265 hypothesis-building 285 I iceberg model of culture 160 Identity Hypothesis 44 ideological 157, 169, 184, 203, 204, 207 ideology 4, 54, 183, 184 image 206, 211, 216 imitate 3, 43 imitation 42, 43, 63, 65 immersion 77 in. See Empirical evidence inclusion 31, 81, 117, 118, 141, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 224 inclusive 144, 146, 147, 148, 224 incubation period 56 individual 8, 21, 23, 28, 39, 45, 46, 51, 52, 53, 56, 70, 74, 81, 82, 83, 87, 93, 95, 118, 119, 134, 142, 145, 160, 176, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 193, 213, 215, 234, 264, 265, 267, 268. See differentiation individual differences myth 83 information 13, 186, 203, 204, 263 information and communication technology (ICT) 24, 25 input 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 55, 56, 64, 65, 68, 72, 79, 87, 96, 98, 100, 101, 102, 106, 124, 125, 185, 188, 211, 215, 224, 226, 245 Input Hypothesis 55 instructional against natural setting 41 instructivist 55, 56, 61 intake 55, 56 integrate 145, 250 integrating skills and competences 75, 76, 87, 90, 99, 100, 108, 117, 121, 170, 231, 250 integration and inclusion 145, 146 intention 47, 48, 50, 54, 66, 67, 92, 131, 179, 180, 208. See classroom interaction interact 66, 235, 276 interaction 51, 54, 72, 74, 101, 118, 119, 132, 237, 238 Interactionist Approach to Constructivist Pedagogy 52 Interactionist Hypothesis 55 interactive 71, 128, 130, 131, 186, 237, 277 intercultural and language awareness 170 intercultural awareness 80, 170 intercultural communication 91, 153 intercultural communicative competence 8, 80, 131, 159, 166, 167, 182, 193, 201, 284. See intercultural learning intercultural competence 133, 134, 157, 161, 168, 176, 195, 276. See intercultural learning intercultural learning 156, 157, 158, 159, 169, 171, 192 assessing 166, 230 critical incidents 75 cultural norms 66, 74, 134, 158 Fremdverstehen 158 iceberg model 160 language and culture 153, 154 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 153 stereotypes 7, 155, 162, 169, 211, 271 third space 183 interface position 98 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 339 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 339 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 340 I NDEX interfere 64, 76 interference 43, 49, 94, 106, 134, 285 Interlanguage (IL) 49, 65, 69, 91, 94, 95, 96, 98, 100, 285 intermediate learner 63, 69, 256, 257, 258 inter-/ transcultural learning 166 intervention 24, 46, 47 involve learners 71, 132, 148, 189, 236 involvement 53, 83. See participation IRE pattern 238, 239 K know-how 9, 134, 200, 203 knowledge 9, 25, 26, 28, 50, 98, 134, 167, 200, 203, 212, 276, 285. See competence declarative knowledge 9 episodic knowledge 9 procedural knowledge 9, 33, 50, 168, 276 subjective theories 9 L language acquisition 41, 42, 44, 47, 48, 75, 96. See second language acquisition (LA2, SLA) language acquisition and learning 40, 41, 118 Language Acquisition Device (LAD) 43 language acquisition theory 45 language as (inter-)action 8 language awareness 69, 78, 80. See awareness language performance requirements 250, 251 language processing 91, 98 language proficiency 10, 270 learner 194, 209, 216, 222, 229, 234, 252, 257 advanced 194, 282 autonomy 53, 55, 76, 87, 147, 188, 225, 250 beginner 44, 60, 64, 65, 71, 80, 107, 158, 190, 191, 215, 232, 256, 257, 258 identity 4, 7, 34, 54, 83, 148, 154, 157, 169, 208 interest 67, 68, 86, 148 intermediate 162, 176, 191, 192, 216 learner style 140, 142, 148. See learner strategy learner type 117, 138, 140, 141, 142, 225, 230, 251. See learner strategy needs 44, 54, 67, 78, 86, 131, 142, 148, 209, 212, 228, 229 VAK learner types 140 learner as a social agent 8 learner-centered, holistic, and action-based methods 53 learner-oriented Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) 44 learner strategy 9, 76, 80 learning 20, 39, 42, 43, 47, 48, 51, 53, 54, 69, 81, 82, 86, 109, 112, 168 LearningApps 111 learning log 284 Learning Management System (LMS) 213 learning objective 166, 167, 228. See goal learning platform 182 learning process 45, 50, 148, 209, 213, 229, 265, 276, 285 learning strategy 79, 109, 112, 113, 117, 118, 138, 139, 250, 265, 276 learning style 140, 141, 142, 225, 249 learning technique 112. See learner strategy Lehrwerk 226 Lernziel 228 lesson 30, 220, 221, 222, 229, 230, 233, 234 advance reflection 227 assessment and evaluation 273, 282, 283, 284 components of a lesson plan 229 concept 184, 265 instruction 23, 148 planning 30, 220, 221, 223, 227, 229, 232, 233, 246 lexical 97, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 111, 112, 113, 247. See vocabulary linear progression 61 linguistic 30, 43, 86, 134 linguistic competence 9 linguistic-discursive competence 177 Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis 123 Linguistics 39, 40, 41, 47 Linguistic Threshold Hypothesis 123 listening 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 231, 269. See skill literacy 33, 164, 204. See competence 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 340 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 340 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 341 Index Literary Studies 39 literature 29, 159, 174, 175, 176, 177, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185, 190, 192, 194 approaches, reading analytical 179, 180, 193 contextual 83, 186 creative 13, 130, 176, 177, 188, 189, 190, 193, 211, 216, 249 experience 186 intermedial 184, 185, 210, 216 interpretation 180, 181, 182, 187, 189, 211 intertextual 184, 185 learner-centered approach 181 model 133 post-reading 123, 188, 192 pre-reading 123, 188, 192 reading strategy 123, 187 subjective response 177, 181, 182, 186, 188, 189, 190 M macro-function of language 13 material(s) 78, 104, 122, 130, 148, 200, 201, 214, 224, 225, 226, 227, 230, 244, 247, 248, 249, 252, 255, 258 meaning 47, 48, 67, 77, 104, 112, 130, 158, 179. See form meaningful 53, 66, 68, 101, 130, 249. See classroom interaction meaningful communication 23, 106, 108, 130, 188 measure 264, 269 media, medium 171, 195, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 213, 214, 215, 230, 248, 278. See literature audiovisual 125, 201 digital media 199, 203, 204, 205, 212, 213, 214, 215. See digital, digitalization film 125, 161, 185, 195, 196, 201, 211, 216 internet 210, 211, 214, 226, 248 media competence. See competence media education 202, 209 picture 206, 214 visual literacy 197, 206 whiteboard 26, 210 Media Studies 39 mediation 13, 117, 133, 134 mental schema 120 message 90 message before accuracy 76, 282 metacognitive 19, 47, 50, 68, 87, 120, 139 metalinguistic 49, 79 method 23, 60, 61, 80, 86, 87, 209, 225, 227, 228, 230, 233, 245 methodological competences 177 methods and approaches 61 approach 42, 56, 60, 143, 180 Audiolingual, Audiovisual Method 64, 65, 87 Bilingual Teaching 75, 76, 78 Cognitive Approaches 66, 69 cognitivism 45 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) 7, 65, 66 constructivism 51, 55 Constructivist Approaches 66 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) 75 deductive 96, 97, 142. See grammar Direct Method 7, 62, 63, 87, 97 Direct or Natural Method 3, 6 Engage-Study-Activate (ESA) 231, 232 Grammar-Translation Method 6, 87 Holistic and Action-based Language Teaching 69 holistic approach 170 immersion 3, 7, 16, 75, 79 inductive 63, 96, 97, 142. See grammar instructivism 55 Interactionist Approaches 55, 57, 69 learner-centered 187, 240, 245 Nativist Approach, Nativism 42, 43 Natural Approach 44 Participatory or Critical Method 74 postmethod principle 84 Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) 231 Radical Constructivism 51 Sociocultural Approaches 45, 66, 69 Total Physical Response (TPR) 61, 190, 191 microteaching 24 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 341 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 341 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 342 I NDEX minority 157, 168, 169 mistake 64, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 112, 129, 269, 271, 272, 273, 279, 282, 285, 286, 288. See Interlanguage (IL) mixed-ability class 31, 32, 117, 141, 143, 147. See inclusion Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) 213 Mobile-Enhanced Language Learning (MELL) 213 mode 130, 199, 201, 202, 207, 208, 211, 216 monitor 8, 65, 69, 70, 92, 119, 121, 131, 132, 187, 215, 235, 266 Monitor Hypothesis 44 motherese 54 motivate 183, 185, 188, 191, 195, 209, 214, 227, 230, 234 motivation 20, 24, 28, 44, 55, 75, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 86, 111, 125, 130, 140, 142, 167, 177, 188, 203, 212, 227, 235, 248, 267 movie. See media, medium: film multiliteracy 33, 178, 206, 207, 216. See competence Multiliteralität 206 multimedia 210 multimodal 178, 185, 194, 201, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 248. See communication multiperspective approach to intercultural learning 168 N national culture 157 national educational standard 11 national standard 223 nativist 43, 44, 45 Natural Order Hypothesis 44 natural vs. instructional setting 41 negotiation of meaning (Bedeutungsaushandung) 53, 55, 56, 67, 69, 70, 73, 108, 158, 169, 182, 186, 187 Neuropsychology 48 non-interface position 50 non-verbal communication 134, 135. See communication notice 49, 50, 51, 98, 99, 100 notice the gap 55, 100 notions and functions 67 O objectivity 268, 269, 272 open and communicative testing 279 oral production 119, 120 oral skill 130, 133, 277. See speak, speech outcome 34, 69, 209, 245 output 11, 13, 69, 72, 98, 101, 224, 234, 245, 263 output standards 13 output-orientation 224, 225, 230 P paradigmatic relation 105 parsing 92 participate 185, 202, 204 participation 8, 74, 144, 147, 148, 175, 177, 203, 209, 237, 284 Participatory Method 72. See method pattern 47, 48, 62, 64, 65, 126 pattern drill 43, 65, 97 pedagogical performance concept 264, 265 pedagogical principle 86 Pedagogical Psychology 39, 203 pedagogue 264, 265 pedagogy 21, 30, 145, 147, 164. See Bildung Pedagogy 9, 38, 176, 209. See Bildung pedagogic-didactic triangle 221 peer evaluation, peer review 234, 284, 285 peer feedback 182 peer tutoring 148 perform 242, 264 performance 7, 9, 34, 84, 104, 128, 251, 264, 265, 266, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 284, 285. See achievement personal characteristics of teachers 22 perturbation 51, 52, 56, 179 Philosophy 176, 181 physical presence 237, 238 PISA 8, 122, 223, 263 PISA shock 117 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 342 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 342 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 343 Index plurilingualism 5, 78, 134, 224 plurilingual learning 76 politeness 75, 91, 131, 134, 135, 153, 162 portfolio 12, 34, 81, 214, 284 postmethod 86. See method poverty of the stimulus 43 practical theory 34 practice 3, 42, 64, 65, 68, 73, 87, 108, 125, 136, 199, 231, 240 Pragmatic Linguistics 66 primary school (Fremdsprachenfrühbeginn) 77, 78, 79, 80, 81 problem solving 9, 13, 34, 54, 70, 71, 72, 73, 167, 175, 188, 203, 204, 245 procedure (Vorgehen, Verlauf) 50, 60, 61 process 124, 206, 245, 263, 274 learning 284 testing 81, 108, 274, 275 processability 49, 80, 92, 96, 97. See grammar Processability Hierarchy. See grammar processand product-orientation 137 production 68, 87, 91, 92, 94, 103, 118, 119, 121, 177, 192, 194, 204, 206, 212, 227, 231, 239 productive skill (speaking, writing) 117, 128, 183. See skill proficiency 12, 13, 77, 123, 235, 266, 272, 278 proficiency level 119, 279 project-based learning 215 pronunciation 277 psycholinguistic 73, 80, 91, 104 Psychology 9, 38, 40, 47, 83 Cognitive Psychology 82 Educational Psychology 82 Social Psychology 82 purpose 31, 67, 126, 127, 148, 200, 201, 202, 205, 207, 252, 278. See intention R race 7, 74, 75, 184, 185, 186, 194. See ethnicity raise awareness 74, 76, 202 rating scale 267 reader 123, 177, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184 reader-response theories 181 reading 122, 123, 124, 130, 174, 175, 176, 180, 181, 182, 184, 186, 187, 188, 191, 192, 203, 212, 269. See skill real-life 72, 125, 127, 130, 136, 161, 191, 192, 235, 279. See task real-life conversation 236 real-life interaction 15 real-life situation 8, 16, 127, 133, 276 real-life task 8 real-life topic 249 real world 69, 71, 130, 270 recast 49, 55, 91, 286. See feedback receptive skill 117, 122. See listening, reading, skill reciprocal teaching 74 reflect 19, 21, 33, 55, 61, 70, 77, 79, 83, 84, 87, 96, 154, 171, 174, 183, 190, 202, 204, 244, 267, 276, 285 reflection 19, 28, 30, 34, 39, 52, 53, 69, 74, 129, 176, 177, 182, 184, 188, 189, 202, 204, 227, 228, 265, 284 reflective practice 19, 27, 34 repair 121, 131, 132 repeat 42, 48, 64, 102, 109 repetition 190, 238 repetitive 112, 236 research 94, 98, 147, 236, 239. See empirical responsibility 12, 20, 24, 35, 53, 55, 70, 82, 87, 106, 146, 165, 166, 215, 265 responsible 193, 202, 203, 204 Rezeptionsästhetik 181 rich input 79, 96, 102, 185 role 55, 87, 181, 200, 213, 233, 246 role play 67, 189 S sage on the stage 61 SAMR-model 213 scaffold 191 scaffolding 50, 54, 70, 71, 76, 143, 188, 213, 215, 230 schema 45, 46, 51, 63, 120, 122, 123, 126, 131, 181, 183, 186, 188. See cognitive 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 343 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 343 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 344 I NDEX school level primary 79, 80, 81, 190 secondary 79, 80, 81 Schulpädagogik 38 second language acquisition (LA2, SLA) 41, 42, 49, 53, 54, 78, 91, 92 secret curriculum 223 secret syllabus 247 self-efficacy 20, 29, 79, 84 self-evaluation 121, 148 self-monitoring 92, 121 self-reflection 20, 27, 158 self-reflexivity 273 self-repairing 92 semi-open task 281 semiotic 160, 199, 200, 201 sequence 55, 61, 64, 68, 99, 171, 181, 187, 230, 238, 252. See lesson silent period 44 simplified, comprehensible input 42, 67 situated communication 47, 52 situated dialog 65 skill 9, 117, 119, 123, 134, 135, 167, 179, 191, 225, 230, 269, 275, 276. See competence SLA research 97, 98 smartphone 211 social 8, 46, 47, 52, 53, 72, 186, 189, 200, 204, 206, 235, 264, 265, 267 context 31, 45, 47, 66, 82, 84, 177, 182, 194, 206, 207, 216, 235 interaction 45, 46, 47, 52, 53, 67, 68, 180, 249 socialization 46, 198 socio-cognitive 48 socio-economic 21 social/ affective strategy 139 social agent 8, 53, 69, 119, 202, 208, 209, 222 social and emotional competence 20 Social Approaches 53 social competence 265, 276 Social Constructivist model of learning 52 social interaction 46, 51, 53, 54, 55, 73 socially appropriate 66 social media 237 Social or Interactionist Constructivism 52 Social Psychology, as well as Socioand Psycholinguistics 72 Social Semiotics 207, 209 social situation 31, 34, 45 social skill 73, 74 socio-cognitive mechanism 47 sociocultural 9, 53, 55, 57, 67, 71, 75, 84, 176, 177, 183, 194, 199, 202, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 211, 216, 222, 224 Sociocultural Approaches 54, 66 socio-emotive competence 27. See competence sociolinguistic 54, 55, 65, 66, 73, 131. See Linguistics sociolinguistic competence 66, 276 Sociolinguistic, Sociocultural, and Interactionist Approaches 53 Sociology 38 speak 106, 130, 132, 133, 280. See skill speaking 271, 277 speech 91, 92, 104, 131, 133, 201 standard 12, 13, 15, 223, 266. See Bildungsstandard Standard American English (SAE or GA) 5 Standard British English (BE, RP) 5 standardization 13, 118, 141, 223, 224, 248, 263 standardization and competence testing 118 standardization and output paradigm 265 stereotyping 7, 273 stimulus response reinforcement 64 story-telling 191, 216 strategic competence 66, 276 strategy 8, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 126, 128, 131, 138, 139, 140, 142, 176, 187, 188 ‘strong’ version of CLT 67, 68 Structural Linguistics 64 structured input activities 50 student 130, 233. See learner student-centered 33, 171, 232, 236, 237. See method student-oriented 66, 148, 231 subjective 186, 190, 211, 273 subjective responses to literature 182 subjectivity 271 support 24, 87, 132, 147, 148, 215, 248, 265. See scaffolding 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 344 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 344 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 07.06.2022 15: 41: 41 345 Index syllabus 30, 99, 244, 245 syllabus design 244 symbolic representation 46 syntagmatic relation 105 systemisch-konstruktive Pädagogik 52 T taboo 155, 160 talent 83 task 8, 52, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 76, 77, 80, 86, 87, 101, 102, 120, 122, 125, 136, 143, 148, 187, 188, 193, 212, 213, 215, 216, 227, 232, 234, 250, 252, 278 interaction in tasks 284 open task 279, 281 post-task 102, 216 pre-task 215, 216 process 44, 45, 69, 101, 128, 130 task cycle 102 tiered task 143 task as a work plan 69, 70 task-based 8, 187, 232, 284 Task-Based Language Teaching or Learning (TBLT or TBLL) 68, 69, 71, 72, 88, 101, 232, 245 Teachability Hypothesis 49 teacher 15, 56, 82, 133, 180, 205, 209, 212, 213, 215, 224, 233, 235, 237, 238, 241, 242. See teaching competence 8, 15, 87, 118, 119, 131, 134 impact of teachers and their teaching on student achievement 24 personality 35, 134, 140, 270, 276 professional development 19, 33 reflective practitioner 273 role 76, 133, 215 stage of teacher education 14 standard of teacher education 13 teacher development 33 teacher education 14, 15, 18 teacher professional development 33, 34 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) 25, 26, 205, 212 teacher-centered 65, 231 teacher talk 237, 238 teaching 35, 86, 124, 164, 213, 270. See method technique (Inszenierungstechnik) 60, 61, 123, 127 technological media 198 technology 199, 209, 255 test, testing 11, 12, 13, 65, 74, 87, 113, 125, 167, 225, 230, 248, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 287, 288, 289. See assessment alternative formats 284 backwash 13 backwash effect 113, 225, 266 design 275, 287 error index 269, 282 format 265, 269, 271, 272, 274 grading scales linear scale 282 non-linear scale 282 partially linear scale 282 listening 122 objectives 8, 158, 166, 187, 222, 267, 273, 275, 276, 282 oral performance 278 reading 122 subjective factors 270 task type 279, 280, 281. See task teaching to the test 13, 266 test type 269, 279, 280 writing skills 130, 278. See writing text 180, 181, 200, 202, 205, 206, 207, 208, 211, 223, 226, 231. See literature textbook 3, 68, 69, 70, 78, 80, 81, 97, 98, 107, 112, 141, 200, 206, 207, 210, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 244, 247, 248, 252 time 30, 42, 56, 65, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 83, 109, 112, 189, 193, 213, 215, 222, 229, 234, 240, 241, 246, 247, 248, 255, 270, 271, 274, 284, 286 teacher talk time (TTT) 133 time on task 22, 83, 87 tolerance 158, 159, 163, 166, 167, 171, 188 top-down assimilation 45 top-down knowledge 181 top-down process 123 Total Physical Response (TPR) 61, 81 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 345 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 345 07.06.2022 15: 41: 42 07.06.2022 15: 41: 42 346 I NDEX transactional 13, 128, 130, 280 transcultural 163, 165, 167, 181 transcultural competence 224 transcultural learning 163, 164. See intercultural learning transformation 20, 35. See learning transition 28, 78, 79, 80, 81 trial and error 51, 52, 67 U Universal Grammar 43 V validity 268, 269 validity, reliability, and objectivity 269, 270, 272 value orientation 276 variational mistake 95, 96 VERA 12 viability 49, 51, 53, 56, 67 video 211, 212, 213, 214, 215. See media visual and critical literacy 193 visual media 206 vocabulary 61, 63, 90, 92, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 117, 127, 225, 232. See learning strategy false friend 110 lexical competence 104, 105 mental lexicon 104, 105, 106, 108, 113 Subset Hypothesis 106 W weak version of CLT 67 website 249 worksheet 252, 253, 254 writing 128, 129, 130, 188, 203, 212, 269, 278, 285 Y young learner 61. See learner: beginner Z zone of proximal development 54 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 346 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 346 07.06.2022 15: 41: 42 07.06.2022 15: 41: 42 347 Acknowledgments Acknowledgments The cartoons at the beginning of each unit were designed by Frollein Motte, 2014. If not otherwise indicated, the copyright of the figures lies with the authors. The complete titles of the sources can be found in the references to the units unless given below. All of the websites were checked on 15 March 2022. Fig. 1.1, William Hogarth: Scholars at a Lecture (1736), National Portrait Gallery D21372, https: / / upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/ commons/ 2/ 29/ Scholars_at_a_Lecture_by_William_ Hogarth.jpg Fig. 1.2, Johan-Amos Comenius (1592-1670), https: / / commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/ Category: Comenius_ in_art? uselang=de#/ media/ File: Comenius-2.jpg Fig. 1.3, John Locke’s Kit-cat portrait by Godfrey Kneller, National Portrait Gallery, London, https: / / commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/ Category: John_Locke_in_art? uselang=de#/ media/ File: John_ Locke's_Kit-cat_portrait_by_Godfrey_Kneller,_National_Portrait_Gallery,_London.JPG Fig.1.4, Wilhelm Viëtor (1850-1918), https: / / de.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Wilhelm_Vi%C3%ABtor#/ media/ Datei: Wilhelm_Vietor.jpg Fig. 1.5, CEFR (2020: 175) common reference levels - global scale, https: / / rm.coe.int/ commoneuropeanframework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/ 16809ea0d4 (26 June 2021). Fig. 1.6, KMK competence framework (Kultusministerkonferenz 2012: 12) Fig. 2.1, Wilhelm Busch: Lehrer Lämpel (aus Max und Moritz), https: / / commons.wikimedia.org/ w/ index.php? curid=816179 Fig. 2.2, The reflective practice model of professional development, Wallace 1991: 94 Fig. 2.5, Principles of good teaching practice, adapted from Meyer, Hilbert (2006) Fig. 2.6, The TPACK framework and its knowledge components, Koehler, Matthew J., & Mishra, Punya (2009). “What Is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge? ” Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education 9.1, S. 63. Available online http: / / tpack.org; Reproduced by permission of the publisher, © 2012 by tpack.org Fig. 2.7, Paradigm shift, incl. picture on the left from Onderwijsgek@nl.wikipedia, https: / / en.m.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ File: Empty_classroom.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0 nl, on the right from Metropolitan School, https: / / commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/ File: Unterricht.jpg, CC BY-SA 3 Fig. 2.8, Phases of action research (Burns 2017, adapted; cf. Kemmis & McTaggart 1988) Fig. 3.2, Second language acquisition: natural vs. instructional setting, adapted from Lightbown & Spada 2006: 110 - 12 Fig. 3.12, Bettina Winkler, Teaching and learning as mountaineering Fig. 4.1, Photo by geralt on Pixabay Fig. 4.2, Model of communicative competence, based on Canale & Swain 1980, Canale 2013 Fig. 4.3, Photo by Karla Hernandez on Unsplash Fig. 4.4, Methodology and principles of the task as work plan, adapted from Ellis 2012: 200 - 02; Keller 2013: 77; Skehan 2018: 32; an alternative to ‘task cycle’ is ‘main task’) Fig. 4.6, Photo by Peggy_Marco on Pixabay Fig. 4.8, Individual learner differences, adapted from Dörnyei & Skehan 2003: 619; Dörnyei 2010: 249; Schlak 2010: 258; Ellis 2012: 308 - 16 Fig. 4.9, Dynamic system of motivation (adapted from Dörnyei & Skehan 2003: 619; Dörnyei 2012: 429 - 30; Riemer 2013: 71; Czizér 2017: 420 - 21) Fig. 4.10, Photo by geralt on Pixabay 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 347 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 347 07.06.2022 15: 41: 42 07.06.2022 15: 41: 42 348 A CKNOWLEDGMENTS Fig. 4.11, Table of basic methods (adapted from Larson-Freeman & Anderson 2011: 222 - 23). Fig. 5.1, Psycholinguistic model of speech production, Levelt 1994: 91 Fig. 5.2, Processability hierarchy for English as L2 from beginners (1) at the bottom to advanced (6) at the top (Pienemann in Keßler & Plesser 2011: 86 - 87, adapted) Fig. 5.3, Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press. From Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers: How Languages Are Learned by Patsy M. Lightbown & Nina Spada, 4th Edition 2031, p. 16. © Oxford University Press 2013 Fig. 5.5, Input Enhancement techniques (based on Keßler & Plesser 2011: 153, adapted) Fig. 5.6, Proactive FonF focusing on past -ed (Keßler & Plesser 2011: 150, adapted) Fig. 5.7, Example of TBLT (Rodríguez-Bonces & Rodríguez-Bonces 2010: 172 - 74, adapted) Fig. 5.8, Example of ABM (Ziegésar & Ziegésar 2007: 292 - 98, adapted) Fig. 5.9, Lexical competence (Nation 1990: 31, adapted) Fig. 5.10, Explanation techniques (Quetz 2007: 277, adapted) Fig. 5.11, Word fork (Hutz 2017: 115) Fig. 5.12, Word ladder (Hutz 2017: 112) Fig. 5.13, Tonks, Robert (2012). Denglisch in Pool Position: English makes German Werbung funny! 2. Borsdorf: Winterwork, S. 2, www.robert-tonks.de Fig. 6.3, Pre-activity phase strategies, based on O’Malley & Chamot 1996: 44 - 46 Fig. 6.6, Improving reading skills, based on Weskamp 2001: 133 - 34; Grabe 2011: 455 - 56 Fig. 6.8, Improving listening skills, based on Weskamp 2001: 124; Field 2002: 242 - 45; Vandergrift & Groh 2011: 402 - 05 Fig. 6.9, Language section of a local German newspaper Fig. 6.14, Exclusion, segregation, integration, inclusion. Historische Schritte auf dem Weg zur Inklusion auf gesellschaftlicher Ebene. Von Robert Aehnelt - Eigenes Werk, CC BY-SA 3.0, https: / / com mons.wikimedia.org/ w/ index.php? curid=26858944 Fig. 6.15, Differences between integration and inclusion (based on Damm & Legenhausen 2013; Eisenmann 2019: 206-15) Fig. 7.3, The iceberg model of culture (Gibson 2000: 16, adapted ) Fig. 7.5, Outsourced - movie poster; http: / / www.impawards.com/ 2007/ outsourced_ver4_xlg.html Fig. 7.7, Intercultural communicative competence (Byram 1997: 49 - 55, as adapted by Coperías- Aguilar 2007: 64) Fig. 7.11, Occupy Democrats meme: https: / / twitter.com/ petterij/ status/ 747686174655922177 Fig. 8.2, Individual use of literature, designed by Frollein Motte, 2014 Fig. 8.3, Dynamic model of reading as experience and interactive information processing in combination with the social negotiation of meaning in an institutional framework (developed from a model by Reichl 2009: 214) Fig. 8.8, Photo by No-longer-here on Pixabay Fig. 9.1, Banksy: Smartphones everywhere Fig 9.2, The media literacy empowerment spiral (with kind permission of the Center for Media Literacy) Fig. 9.4, Extract from Comenius’ Orbis sensualium pictus, https: / / commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/ Category: Orbis_pictus? uselang=de#/ media/ File: Orbis-pictus-024.jpg Fig. 9.6, Astor Statue of Liberty Chocolates Fig. 9.7, Public poster of Great Nations Eat (https: / / greatnationseat. org/ ) Fig. 10.1, Metaphors for a lesson, based on Ur 1996: 213 Fig. 10.5, The reflection process, based on Richards& Rodgers 1986: 159 Fig. 10.7, The IRE pattern adapted from Lindner 2011: 40, based on Rowe 1986 Fig. 11.1, Characteristics of forward, central, and backward design (Richards 2013: 30, adapted) Fig. 11.3, Materials design checklist, based on Howard & Major 2005: 104 - 07 Fig. 11.4, Language performance requirements, based on Kultusministerkonferenz 2012: 1 - 2 Fig 11.6, Sample padlet based on https: / / pixabay.com/ de/ illustrations/ blacklivesmatter-rassismusprotest-5278646/ , https: / / pixabay.com/ de/ photos/ diskriminierung-rassismus-farbige-60512/ , photograph by L. Volkmann (Atlanta), https: / / www.youtube.com/ watch? v=smEqnnklfYs 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 348 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 348 07.06.2022 15: 41: 42 07.06.2022 15: 41: 42 349 Acknowledgments Fig. 11.8, Sample glog; http: / / graceigr8.edu.glogster.com/ into-the-wildimagery-themes-and-sym bols/ Fig. 11.9, Activity formats on LearningApps; http: / / learningapps.org/ index.php? sorting= relevance Fig. 12.1, The bell curve (example); https: / / compforce.typepad.com/ .a/ 6a00d83451df4569e201a 3fce9ba57970b-pi 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 349 18393_Meyer_SL6b.indd 349 07.06.2022 15: 41: 42 07.06.2022 15: 41: 42 BUCHTIPP Christian Mair English Linguistics An Introduction 4., aktualisierte und überarbeitete Auflage 2022, 282 Seiten €[D] 21,99 ISBN 978-3-8233-8448-9 eISBN 978-3-8233-9448-8 „English Linguistics“ is a compact and easy-to-use introduction to English linguistics which is tailored to the needs of students of English at German, Austrian and Swiss universities, contains graded exercises to motivate students to carry out independent research, and bridges the gap between linguistics and the literary and cultural-studies components of the typical BA in English Studies. Bachelor-wissen „English Linguistics“ goes beyond the usual introduction in offering accompanying web resources which provide additional material and multi-media illustration. The new edition includes current theoretical approaches in the fields of sociolinguistics and World Englishes. Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG \ Dischingerweg 5 \ 72070 Tübingen \ Germany Tel. +49 (0)7071 97 97 0 \ Fax +49 (0)7071 97 97 11 \ info@narr.de \ www.narr.de ISBN 978-3-8233-8393-2 www.narr.de This foundational coursebook offers an accessible and up-to-date introduction to all relevant areas of Teaching English. Conceptual definitions and practical examples guide understanding and reflecting basic and advanced concepts. The fully revised second edition responds to new developments in language education: (1) Recent policies from the Kultusministerkonferenz and updates of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages with its Companion Volume (2020) pay more attention to language awareness, mediation, and media literacy. (2) New empirical research explores the aims, methods, and impact of professional teacher education, Task-Based Language Teaching, and Content-and-Language-Integrated Learning. (3) The dramatic need for online teaching has met with refined concepts of multimodal media competence and cutting-edge tools for the digital classroom. This essential introduction and the PowerPoint presentations online facilitate multimodal teaching and learning.