How large is the impact of English on Present-day German? An empirical investigation of the Neologismenwörterbuch online 1 Ulrich Busse The present study builds on a dictionary of neologisms compiled by the Institut für deutsche Sprache (IDS) in Mannheim that covers the period from 1991 to 2020 per decade. It contains about 2,500 new words, phraseologisms, and new meanings. Three decades seem to be a suitable time span for exploring a shortterm diachronic perspective on lexical innovations. The aim of the present study is to interrogate whether English has provided a significantly larger number of borrowings to present-day German than in earlier times (see Busse 2011a) due to its presently unchallenged position as a global language, and whether word-formation processes (Lehnwortbildungen) on a native or mixed basis are a productive source for the formation of new lexical items. To this end, the results from the Neologismenwörterbuch online will be compared to those obtained in previous pertinent studies on dictionaries of anglicisms such as the Anglizismen-Wörterbuch (1993-1995), A Dictionary of European Anglicisms (2001) and the Deutsches Fremdwörterbuch (1913-1988). 1. Introduction The dominant position of English as a donor language to German and very many other languages has been attributed to its status as a global, international, world language and lingua franca. Tom McArthur (2002: 2) uses these labels in order to characterise “English as the universalizing language of the human race”. 1 Revised and enlarged version of a paper given at the April Conference Fifteen Kraków, 20-22 April 2023, Jagiellonian University Kraków. AAA - Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik Agenda: Advancing Anglophone Studies Band 49 · Heft 2 Gunter Narr Verlag Tübingen DOI 10.24053/ AAA-2024-0027 Ulrich Busse 238 Apart from dictionaries of neologisms that register recent changes in the lexicon of German, the presence of ‘new’ words in public discourse has been monitored over the years by the Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache [GfdS] by selecting the Wörter des Jahres [words of the year] since the early 1970s. Based on a large corpus of citations and examples sent in by language users, a jury selects ten words per year that have exerted an impact on public discourse in terms of significance and popularity rather than overall frequency of occurrence (see https: / / gfds.de/ aktionen/ wort-desjahres/ ). 2 A snapshot view of the Wörter des Jahres from 2020 shows that out of the ten most prominent words that linguistically influenced the political, economic or social life in Germany, two words/ phrases are of English origin: Lockdown and Black Lives Matter, and the first element of the compound Gendersternchen is also from English. Pflexit (Pflege + exit as in Brexit), Lockdown-Kinder and Booster are among the top ten from 2021. The list from 2022 does not contain any words from English, and in 2023 KI- Boom [artificial intelligence boom] can be found. In order to underline the important role of English as a global lingua franca and most important donor language for all ‘big languages’ and to acknowledge its positive contribution to the development of the German vocabulary, an independent initiative was founded in 2010 that votes for the Anglicism of the year. 3 leaken (2010) Fake News (2016) Shitstorm (2011) Influencer (2017) Crowdfunding (2012) Gendersternchen (2018) the suffix -gate (2013) … for future (2019) Blackfacing (2014) Lockdown (2020 Refugees Welcome (2015) boostern (2021) Table 1. Anglicisms of the year since 2010 4 . These snapshot views testify to the great presence of Anglicisms in presentday German. In order to put these impressionistic findings into a larger and 2 The text also contains all Wörter des Jahres from 1971 to 2023. 3 “Sprachgemeinschaften haben überall und zu jeder Zeit Wörter aus anderen Sprachen entlehnt. Als globale Verkehrssprache spielt dabei derzeit das Englische für alle großen Sprachen eine wichtige Rolle als Gebersprache. Die unabhängige Initiative „Anglizismus des Jahres” würdigt seit 2010 jährlich den positiven Beitrag des Englischen zur Entwicklung des deutschen Wortschatzes.” (https: / / www.anglizismusdesjahres.de) [“Speech communities have always and everwhere in the world borrowed words from other languages. As a global lingua franca, English currently plays an important role as a donor language for all big languages. The independent initiative “Anglicism of the year” has honoured the positive contribution of English to the development of the German vocabulary since 2010.”] 4 https: / / www.anglizismusdesjahres.de An empirical investigation of the Neologismenwörterbuch online 239 more solid perspective, the present study builds on a project carried out at the Institut für deutsche Sprache (IDS) in Mannheim. A research group there has produced three dictionaries of neologisms. These three volumes document more than 2,500 new words, phraseologisms, and new meanings of well-established words that have become part of the general vocabulary of Standard German from 1991 to 2020. Three decades are a suitable time frame for exploring a short-term diachronic perspective on lexical innovations in order to find out whether English is the most prolific donor language in comparison to other languages and to investigate the correlation between native and foreign elements in word-formation. 2. The Neologismenwörterbuch as a database The dictionary Neuer Wortschatz: Neologismen der 90er Jahre im Deutschen (2004) was conceived as an online dictionary and only subsequently turned into a paper dictionary (see Herberg, Kinne & Steffens 2004: IX - XVIII). To date, the neologisms of the 1990s and those of the 2000s (see Steffens and al-Wadi 2013) are available in print. The complete data covering the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s now form part of the Online-Wortschatz-Informationssystem Deutsch - short OWID - of the Leibniz-Institut für deutsche Sprache (IDS) in Mannheim. OWID is a platform for scholarly corpus-based lexicography of German. Apart from dictionaries such as the Neologismenwörterbuch and the Deutsches Fremdwörterbuch, it contains a number of corpora. The database is publicly accessible and free of charge. The great advantage of the online version of the dictionary is that users can run a number of queries on the platform. One can either search the complete lemma list for the three decades - it comprises a total of 2,519 entries - or search each decade individually. This approach reveals that the 1990s were more prolific in producing new lexical items than the other two decades, showing 1,082 entries for the 1990s, 812 for the 2000s, and only 625 for the 2010s. A separate file “Wörter unter Beobachtung” [words under observation] registers about 300 words that have gained some currency during the 2010s, but which are still under inspection as to observe whether they are becoming part of the general language or not. Their use is documented by one or two citations and a preliminary definition. For the future, the IDS plans to document the neologisms of the 2020s and to merge the data with the present database into a new format (see https: / / www.ids-mannheim.de/ lexik/ lsw/ arbeitsbereich-neologismen/ ). Before any kind of empirical analysis can go ahead, one needs to examine how neologisms are defined and categorised. In the introduction to the first paper volume of the dictionary, the compilers define neologisms as follows. In contrast to well established lexical units, neologisms differ in two Ulrich Busse 240 respects: namely that the majority of language users either regards the form and the meaning of a lexical unit as new (new lexemes) or only its meaning(s). The new lexemes are divided into the two subtypes of single words and multi-word units (neo-phraseologisms) see Herberg, Kinne & Steffens (2004: XI)). Table 2 below illustrates the different subtypes of neologism; it shows that the vast majority of neologisms is made up by new single words rather than phraseologisms and new meanings. TYPES NUMBERS New lexemes (total) 2,279 New lexemes (single words) 2,145 New lexemes (phraseologisms) 134 New meanings 201 Table 2. Types of neologism. 2.1. Languages of origin In order to find out which neologisms are formed on a native or a foreign basis, the option “erweiterte Suche” [advanced query] allows for a number of combined searches. The filter “Herkunft (Sprache)” [Origin (language)] has two options: “from English” and “from other foreign language”. Table 3 lists the entries assorted according to language of origin. ENTRIES ORIGIN PERCENT 2,519 Total 100 % 740 English 29.4 % 51 Other foreign languages 2.0 % 791 Foreign words together 31.4 % Table 3. Language of origin. Table 3 shows that borrowings labelled as engl. make up almost 30 % of all entries, leaving a mere 2 % to languages other than English; i.e. all foreign words together amount to slightly less than one third of all entries. Even if it is not mentioned explicitly, this implies that, as a corollary, two thirds of the entries are native words, phrases, or meanings. As far as the 51 words from “other foreign languages” are concerned, they come from a whole range of different languages, including - among others - in loose geographical order: Icelandic Skyr, Swedish Snus ‘Lutschtabak’, Danish Hygge, hyggelig, French Parkour, Scoubidou and Taupe, Spanish Churro, Italian Caffè Latte, Ciabatta, Latte macchiato, and Panino, Arabic Schawarma, Nikab, and Shisha, Russian Nowitschok, Chinese Qigong, Korean Tae-Bo (from Korean tae kwon do + engl. boxing), Japanese Emoji, Karaoke, Manga, Sudoku and Tsunami and Hawaiian Lomi-Lomi ‘Massage’. The An empirical investigation of the Neologismenwörterbuch online 241 examples show that many languages from different corners of the globe provide usually just one or two new lexemes. Italian is prominent in the semantic field of food and drink. In contrast to former times, the classical languages Latin and Greek only play a minor role. Greek Epizentrum is registered with the new meaning ‘centre of an epidemic’, and Latin with prokrastinieren [to procrastinate] and rekuperieren [to recuperate (energy)]. However, next to English there is no other language as a major source of loan words. On closer inspection, Barista can also be considered as an anglicism. In the section “weitere Informationen” [further information] it is mentioned that barista was borrowed first from Italian into English. There, the meaning of ‘barkeeper’ was narrowed down from ital. ‘person that prepares and serves all kinds of drinks’ to engl. ‘person that prepares and serves different coffee-based drinks’. The word Bezness comes from Arabic, but it is based on engl. business. It designates a trick played on tourists in Arabian countries to propose marriage under false pretences. The list also includes two doubtful ‘anglicisms’: ploggen and Plogger. ploggen: ‘während des Joggens Müll aufsammeln’ [to gather garbage while jogging] may have been built as an analogous formation to the anglicism joggen (see also Plogging and Jogging). Can also be interpreted as a loan word (see Swedish plogga, formed from plocka ‘sammeln’ [to gather] and jogga ‘joggen’ [to jog]. Apart from looking for the etymological origin of borrowings, one can also search for different types of borrowing by entering “Herkunft (Typ)” [Origin (type)]. On opening the search window Origin (type), the following categories become available: Loan word*, loan meaning*, loan translation*, partial loan translation, loan rendition, pseudo anglicism and translation of a loan word. 5 The asterisk behind the first three categories indicates three further search options for fine-tuning the results: 1. alle: all members of the respective category are listed 2. “echte” …: only those cases are shown that are considered as certain 3. als … interpretierbar: features those cases which can be considered as German formations, or, which, alternatively, can also be interpreted as putative loans 5 The categories and the terminology follow the model that was established by Werner Betz and which still seems to be prevalent in German linguistics. For a recent description and illustration of the model and its terminology see Munske (2020: 2-16). Ulrich Busse 242 This differentiation has a bearing on the interpretation of the results; i.e. if all items (including the possible cases) are regarded as borrowings, this will increase the number of borrowings. If, on the other hand, the putative cases are regarded as German formations (Lehnwortbildungen), this will reduce the amount of borrowings. In the following sections all of these different categories will be investigated one by one by combining the above search options with a search for “Origin (language)”, in order to separate the English items from those of other foreign languages. 2.2. Loan words For the category loan word this procedure yields the following results: Out of the total of 792 entries thus marked, there are 709 definite cases and 83 possible ones. As far as loan words from English are concerned, they comprise a total of 752 cases, i.e. 669 definite loan words, and 81 loan words that can be considered as borrowings or as cases of loan word formation in German with English-based word material. This pertains in particular to compounds and derivatives. Their treatment and the ambivalent status of certain cases can be illustrated by the entries Chat and Internet and their compounds and derivatives. 1. Chat: loan word from engl. chat 2. Chatbox: loan word from engl. chatbox 3. Chatforum: German compound Chat + Forum, can also be interpreted as a loan word (see engl. chat forum) 4. Chatgroup: loan word from engl. chatgroup 5. Chatline: loan word from engl. chatline 6. Chatraum: translation of German Chatroom 7. Chatroom: loan word from engl. chatroom 8. chatten: loan word from engl. to chat 9. Chatter: German derivative chatten + -er, can also be interpreted as a loan word (see engl. chatter) While the base Chat and its compounds Chatbox, -group, -line, -room and the verb chatten are labelled as loan words, Chatraum is regarded as a translation of German Chatroom. The compound Chatforum, and the derivative Chatter could be either native German formations or wholesale copies of English models. Internet is another instructive example. It is labelled as engl. The compounds -banking, -café, -magazin, -shopping, -surfen and -user are labelled “can also be interpreted as a loan word”, while the compounds -adresse, aktivist, -handel, -literatur, -mobbing, -portal and -seite do not carry a label and are thus regarded as German compositions. An empirical investigation of the Neologismenwörterbuch online 243 The examples of Chat and Internet show that compounds and derivatives are principally subdivided into borrowings (loan word), and doubtful cases that can be regarded as either German formations, or, alternatively, be interpreted as loan words. Chatraum illustrates the relatively rare case of translating the German word Chatroom, borrowed from engl. Chatroom; see also Section 2.6). 2.3. Loan meanings 80 entries are marked as loan meanings. Only one of them does not originate from English. Despite its English form, Loverboy ‘Zuhälter’ [pimp] is from Dutch. This leaves 79 items from English (42 definite cases, and 37 possible ones). According to the conception of the dictionary, this category includes new meanings of already existing lexical units provided that they have produced new sememes with specific semantic features, preferred collocational partners, changes in valency, style or register and not just new usages of well-established words; see Herberg, Kinne & Steffens (2004: XV). The following examples may illustrate this practice. Adresse in the sense of ‘Anschrift’ [postal address] is an old borrowing, but as a short form for E-Mail-Adresse or Internetadresse it is new. The same goes for Tunnel. As a railway term it is an old Anglicism, but ‘widening of the ear lobe’ and ‘the ring in it’ are considered as new senses (with an ‘engl.’ pronunciation). The same procedure is also applied to more recent borrowings such as Update. In the sense of ‘new(er) version of computer software’ it is treated as a loan word, borrowed in the 1990s. The more recent senses of ‘a newer version of something’ and ‘an update of information’ are treated as new meanings that came up during the 2000s. When new senses are registered, attention is paid to their putative origin. Thus, consider the two meanings recorded for Skater: 1. ‘Person using inline skates’ is marked as a loan meaning (definite). 2. Synonym for ‘Inlineskate’ is labelled as a pseudo anglicism. In addition, Tape in the sense of 1. ‘Klebeband’ [adhesive tape] is marked as a loan meaning (definite). Tape in the sense of 2. ‘Verband’ [bandage] is labelled as a pseudo anglicism; see also Section 2.8. 2.4. Loan translations This category contains 94 items, out of which 43 are considered as certain cases, and 51 as cases that can possibly be interpreted as loan translations. The overwhelming majority of them has an engl. model, excepting the following four: Ulrich Busse 244 1. Ehe für alle: (possibly after French marriage pour tous) 2. Flugscham: (possibly after Swedish Flygskam) 3. Liebesschloss: (possibly after Italian lucchetto d’amore) 4. Waldbaden: (after Japanese Shinrin yoku) This leaves 90 cases from English (41 definite cases, and 49 possible ones). In terms of word-formation, the category comprises acronyms, compounds, derivatives and phraseologisms. For example: 1. ADHS: ‘Aufmerksamkeits-Hyperaktivitätssyndrom’; loan translation of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 2. am Ende des Tages: ‘letzten Endes, im Endergebnis’ [finally, what it comes down to]; loan translation of engl. at the end of the day 3. bei jemandem sein: ‘jemandes Meinung ausdrücklich teilen’ [to share somebody’s opinion explicitly]; can also be interpreted as a loan translation (see engl. to be with somebody) 4. ein Elefant im Zimmer: ‘Problem, das unübersehbar ist, aber permanent ignoriert wird’ [a problem or question that everybody knows about but does not mention because it is easier not to discuss it); loan translation of engl. an elephant in the (living) room 5. entfreunden: ‘eine Freundschaft innerhalb eines sozialen Netzwerkes beenden’ [to remove (a person) from a list of friends or contacts on a social networking website] is either an analogical formation to befreunden or can also be interpreted as a loan translation (see engl. to unfriend). 2.4.1. Loan translations of phraseologisms Section 2.4 mentions a number of translated phraseologisms. The data in Table 2 shows that out of the 2,279 new lexemes there are 134 phraseologisms. Further investigation reveals that 29 of these have an engl. origin. There are ten loan translations, eleven possible loan translations, and eight translations. The following examples illustrate the different categories: 1. alternativer Fakt: loan translation of engl. alternative fact 2. arabischer Frühling: possible loan translation of engl. arab spring, or analogical formation to Prager Frühling, 1968 3. globales Dorf: translation of German Global Village The category translation, as in (3) above, indicates that the German translation and the engl. term were borrowed and that both of them are listed as separate entries in the data base. Since this pertains to only eight cases, An empirical investigation of the Neologismenwörterbuch online 245 in which both terms co-exist, while 21 phraseologisms are definite or possible loan translations, this result differs markedly from the “simple” lexemes. This result ties in with the detailed case study of Sabine Fiedler (2014: 152). In her corpus of 70 neo phraseologisms she found 20.3 % in their original engl. form; a small group of hybrid formations amounting to 9.5 %, while the vast majority are loan translations (70.2 %), and only very few cases feature the engl. original and the German translation as in out of the blue / aus dem Blauen heraus. 2.5. Partial loan translations The search for Teillehnübersetzungen [partial loan translations] yielded twelve hits altogether. Excepting Pezziball, which partially translates Italian palla (Original pezzi ® ), this leaves eleven tokens of English origin. This category does not operate with possibility markers. Within the entry structure, the section weitere Informationen [further information] explains which parts of the compounds are translated (highlighted by italics in Table 4 below). ENTRY ENGL. MODEL abspacen to space out Craftbier craft beer Ig-Nobelpreis Ig[nobel] nobel prize Low-Carb-Diät low carb[ohydrate] diet On-off-Beziehung on-off relationship Pop-up-Buch pop-up book Pop-up-Fenster pop-up window Push-up-BH push-up bra spotted Seite spotted page to-do-Liste to-do-list Walk-in-Dusche walk-in shower Table 4. Partial loan translations. 2.6. Translation of a loan word This category contains 48 items. All of them are translations of anglicisms. What they all have in common is that their engl. models were also borrowed and form separate entries in the database. For example, Pay-TV was borrowed from engl. The loan word coexists with three different translations; i.e. Bezahl-TV, Bezahlfernsehen, and Zahlfernsehen. Selected examples: Ulrich Busse 246 1. Autoteilen: Translation of Carsharing 2. Bezahl-TV, Bezahlfernsehen, Zahlfernsehen: Translations of Pay-TV 3. Soziales Netzwerk: Translation of Social Network 4. Veggietag: Translation of Veggieday 5. Wolke: Translation of Cloud 6. zwitschern: Translation of twittern 2.7. Loan renditions The nine loan renditions retrieved by the query “Herkunft (Typ) + Lehnübertragung” are all treated primarily as German compositions, or, alternatively, as possibly being related to English models [… can possibly be related to engl. …]. Alleinstellungsmerkmal possibly after engl. unique selling proposition CO2-Fußabdruck possibly after engl. carbon footprint digital entgiften possibly after engl. digital detox Ego-Shooter 1. ‘Computerspiel’; possibly after engl. firstperson shooter 2. ‘Computerspieler’; pseudo anglicism Gettofaust possibly after engl. fist bump Ramschniveau possibly after engl. junk bond rating, -status Raubverlag possibly after engl. predatory publisher schönes Leben noch possibly after engl. have a nice life Spenderkind 1.’Kind durch Samenspende’; possiby after engl. donor conceived person 2. ‘Kind, das Organe spendet’ (without engl. influence) Table 5. Loan renditions. 2.8. Pseudo anglicisms The search for pseudo anglicisms yielded 74 hits. The entries explain how these entities are called in English. Examples in selection: 1. Beamer is a pseudo anglicism. The corresponding term in English is (data/ computer/ video) projector. 2. Homeoffice is a pseudo anglicism. Homeoffice has a more specific meaning than engl. home office ‘häusliche Büroeinrichtung’. The proper name Home Office [Innenministerium] designates the An empirical investigation of the Neologismenwörterbuch online 247 department of the British government that is concerned with home affairs. 3. Mobbing is a pseudo anglicism. Mobbing has a more specific meaning than engl. mobbing, the continuous form of to mob ‘über jemanden herfallen’. The English term that corresponds to the German meaning of Mobbing is bullying (at work). 4. Public Viewing is a pseudo anglicism. In English, public viewing means ‘öffentliche Aufbahrung eines Leichnams bei einer Trauerfeier’. English terms corresponding to the German meaning are public screening and public broadcast. Out of the 74 tokens, thirteen entries are provided with two different labels: ENTRY SENSE CATE- GORY SENSE CATE- GORY Bowl ‘Schüssel’ LW ‘Gericht’ PA Call-in ‘Sendeform’ LW ‘Sendung’ PA Egoshooter ‘Computerspiel’, ‘Genre’ LÜ ‘Computerspieler’ PA Factoryoutlet ‘Geschäft’ LW ‘Einkaufszentrum’ PA flashen ‘wie der Blitz kommen’ LW ‘begeistern’ PA (engl. to mesmerize) Inlineskater ‘Inlineskate’ PA ‘Inlineskateläufer’ poss. LW Onliner ‘Person’ LW ‘Dienst’ PA Outlet ‘Geschäft’ LW ‘Einkaufszentrum’ PA Pad 1 ‘Wattepad’, ‘ Polster’ [Pad 1 ] LW ‘Mauspad’ PA Pad 2 ‘Kaffepad’ PA Skater Inlineskate PA ‘Inlineskateläufer’ NM of Skater Slackline ‘Sportgerät’ LW ‘Sportart’ PA Speeddating ‘Veranstaltung zur Partnersuche’ LW ‘Veranstaltung meist zur Berufsorientierung’ PA Tape ‘Klebeband’ LW ‘Verband’ PA Legend: LÜ = Loan translation, LW = loan word, NM = new meaning, PA = pseudo anglicism, poss.[ibly] Table 6. Pseudo anglicisms. Ulrich Busse 248 These cases illustrate that, once borrowed, loan words develop specific new senses that do not correspond to English models. The semantic relationship between the loan word and its new sense(s) is often driven by semantic processes of metonymy (person - thing) as in (Inline)skate or (concrete - abstract) as in Slackline, or semantic narrowing/ broadening as in (Factory)outlet. A closer view at the two entries for Pad illustrates how semantic and morphological processes interact. Pad 1 : 1. ‘Wattepad’: mid-1990s; loan word; shortening of Wattepad 2. ‘Polster’: mid-1990s; loan word; semantic broadening 3. ‘Mauspad’: mid-1990s; pseudo anglicism [engl. mouse pad, mouse mat] Pad 2 : ‘Kaffeepad’: mid-2000s; pseudo anglicism [engl. coffee pod, coffee bag, coffee satchet] Cross references offer the additional information that the newer sense of ‘Kaffeepad’ stands in metaphorical relation to the older senses of Pad 1 . However, a look at the entries for Mousepad and Mauspad, both attested since the mid 1990s, shows that probably the loan word Mousepad was borrowed first, then partly translated as Mauspad and in turn shortened to Pad 1 . There are further examples of this type in the set of pseudo anglicisms. Apart from the shortening of Mauspad to Pad, the following examples were retrieved manually. They show that in the process of borrowing, English words are shortened or that already existing German loan words are curtailed. 6 For example: 1. Basecap : shortening of engl. baseball cap 2. Daily: shortening of the German bases Daily Soap / Daily Talk 3. FOC: shortening of German Factoryoutletcenter 4. Late Night: shortening of the German base Late-Night-Show (loan word) 5. Low Carb: shortening of the German base Low-Carb-Diät (partial translation of engl. low-carb(ohydrate) diet) 6. Stand-up-Paddling: shortening of engl. standup paddleboarding 2.9. Confixes Apart from the categories of new lexemes (single words and phraseologisms) and new meanings, the database includes a small set of 19 entries of bound morphemes. They precede the list of alphabetical entries and are marked by an asterisk. Among them are the anglicisms Cyber-, cyber-, 6 For a book length treatment of pseudo anglicisms in European languages see Furiassi and Gottlieb (2015). An empirical investigation of the Neologismenwörterbuch online 249 -flüsterer (as in Pferdeflüsterer, after engl. horse whisperer), -holic, -junkie, and -tainment. They form the first or second part of compounds and derivatives and are labelled as confixes. 3. Summary and conclusion Following these detailed analyses, it is now time to pull the different strands together again. Table 7 shows the aggregate values for the different categories of borrowings. 7 CATEGORY all engl. other Loan words (all) 792 752 29.8 % 40 Loan word (definite) 709 669 26.6 % 40 Loan word (possible) 83 81 3.2 % 2 Loan meanings (all) 80 79 3.2 % 1 Loan meanings (definite) 43 42 1.7 % 1 Loan meanings (possible) 37 37 1.5 % - Loan translations (all) 94 90 3.6 % 4 Loan translations (definite) 43 41 1.7 % 2 Loan translations (possible) 51 49 1.9 % 2 Partial loan translation 12 11 0.4 % 1 Translation of a loan word 48 48 1.9 % - Loan renditions 9 9 0.4 % - Pseudo Anglicisms 74 74 2.9 % - Table 7. Types of borrowings. An examination of the figures for loan words from English and those from other languages in Table 7 above clearly reveals that English is indeed the single most important donor language in comparison to other languages. Out of the 792 entries marked as loan words, 752 (94.9 %) are engl. and only 40 (5.1 %) from languages other than English. The overall result changes only marginally if only those tokens are counted that are considered as definite loan words: engl. 669 (94.4 %) vs. 38 others (5.6 %). One aim of the present study is to show whether English has provided a significantly larger number of borrowings in comparison to earlier times. Even though it is problematic to compare data across different dictionaries due to imbalances, different criteria of selection, etc., the Deutsches Fremdwörterbuch (1986) can serve as a reference work for the time of up to the 1980s. 7 All percentages are in relation to the total number of entries, i.e. 2,519 (= 1000 %). Ulrich Busse 250 Based on the data from Alan Kirkness et al., Peter von Polenz (1999: 393-294) has shown that English has become the major donor language in the 20 th century. The hatched columns for English in Graph 1 below indicate a steady and sharply rising number of borrowings from English, reaching a peak of 90 % in 1980, and leaving just 10 % for French and Latin together. On the other hand, the percentage of Lehnwortbildungen [the broken line in the graph], i.e. loan words becoming productive in word-formation, almost provides a mirror image to this development. 8 Graph 1. Percentages of first attestations by the Deutsches Fremdwörterbuch (von Polenz 1999: 393). In comparison to earlier times, Latin and French do not really play any important role in the Neologismenwörterbuch. Definite borrowings from English amount to 95 %, surpassing the 90 % registered for the 1980s in the Deutsches Fremdwörterbuch. 8 Chapter 6.10. Lehndeutsch, Lehnwortbildung, Angloamerikanismen in von Polenz (1999: 391-408) provides a detailed account of these developments. An empirical investigation of the Neologismenwörterbuch online 251 The dominant role of English as a donor language can be attributed to the several roles and functions it performs as a world language. In present times, English is regarded not as one, but as the one and only world language. With regard to language hierarchies, David Graddol (1997: 12-13, Figure 8) visualized the hierarchies of languages as a trapeze with the languages English and French on top. Abram de Swaan’s (2001) system of world languages is represented as a pyramid with English as the sole hypercentral language at the apex. 9 In light of this, Christian Mair (2023: 74) laconically concludes: “Nüchtern und sachlich betrachtet ist die rasante Zunahme von Anglizismen im heutigen Deutsch ein weiterer Beleg für die globale Unausweichlichkeit des Englischen.” [In a sober and matter-of-fact view, the rapid growth of anglicisms in present-day German is yet another proof for the global unavoidability of English]. When the results for the different categories of borrowings are compared to previous studies based on dictionaries of anglicisms (see Busse 2009, 2011a, 2011b, 2011c), it becomes evident that there is only a difference in degree but not in kind in comparison to the Anglizismen-Wörterbuch (1993-1995) and the Dictionary of European Anglicisms (2001) that document anglicisms up to the early and mid 1990s in Germany and Europe. For the Anglizismen-Wörterbuch, vol.1 (A-E) Alan Kirkness and Melanie Woolford (2002: 218) found that approximately 79 % of the entries are definite borrowings, whereas around 19.5 % are German formations with engl. word material. In their opinion, this shows two things at the same time: the high productivity of elements of English origin and, simultaneously, the strength of engl. influence on present-day German. By comparison, Manfred Görlach (2003: 166-167) is rather cautious in interpreting the results for calquing [“inneres Lehngut”] in the Dictionary of European Anglicisms, since they were not collected systematically and probably tell more about data collecting and collaborators’ reactions than about linguistic reality. In any case, out of the four categories, loan translations make up 59.3 %, loan renditions 26.7 %, loan creations 6.5 % and loan meanings 7.5 %. The figures for calques are much lower than those for loan words. Since the compilers of the Neologismenwörterbuch divide the categories of loan words, loan meanings and loan translations into three subclasses (all - definite - possible), it is advisable to pay attention to these distinctions for the interpretation of the results. Hence, when all engl. loan words are counted, they amount to approximately 30 %. If only the definite cases are counted, the percentage of loan words drops to around 27 %. The remaining 3 % - the possible cases - could also be regarded as results of German word-formation. 9 For a short summary and explanation of this model see Mair (2023: 16-27), or, in greater detail, Mair (2019). Ulrich Busse 252 In comparison to importations; i.e. loan words, all the different processes of (partial) substitution (i.e. loan translations (all), partial loan translation, translation of a loan word and loan renditions) only play a marginal role with together 6.3 %. Unsurprisingly, because, methodologically, it is much more difficult to ascertain engl. origin for substitutions than for importations, the discrepancy between the definite and the possible loan meanings and loan translations is much higher than for loan words - amounting to about 50 % in both categories. The second research question concerning the productivity of anglicisms in terms of word-formation can be answered as follows: When the anglicisms are assorted according to parts of speech (see Table 8 below), a familiar pattern from many previous studies on anglicisms becomes apparent, namely that the vast majority is made up by nouns, with verbs, adjectives, etc. following far behind. Nouns 659 89 % Verbs 59 8 % Adjectives 12 1.6% Adverbs 5 0.7% Interjections 2 0.3% Particles ø not a part of speech 3 0.4% 740 100% Table 8. Anglicisms sorted according to parts of speech. The combined search, consisting of: language of origin engl. + Wortbildungsproduktivität [productivity to form new lexemes] provides the following results: Out of the 740 entries marked as engl., 520 enter in word-formation processes as they either form the first or the second part of compositions. 106 serve as bases for derivatives; eight anglicisms form clippings and 24 verbal anglicisms are combined with prefixes. All processes taken together amount to 668 anglicisms. This shows that anglicisms are very productive in forming complex new words. The many facts and figures presented clearly show two things: 1) The long-standing process of borrowing words from English continues and figures are still rising, and will probably do so as long as the role of English as the only remaining world language is not challenged by competitors. 2) Anglicisms are not isolated alien elements in the German lexicon. Quite the contrary, they are productive elements in the formation of complex new lexemes. An empirical investigation of the Neologismenwörterbuch online 253 4. Outlook Nowadays, English functions as the single most important donor language of loan words to other languages, and also as a global lingua franca. More and more languages come into contact with English through these means. This gives rise to the questions in which way and to what extent languages have been influenced by English and how they have reacted to this. For many European languages there exists a large body of studies dealing with the influence of English on a particular language. The research on anglicisms and English influence on other languages is a rapidly growing field of study. The first volume of the AWb (1993: 105*- 193*) contains a comprehensive bibliography for German. Görlach (2002) with his Annotated Bibliography of European Anglicisms extends the scope to sixteen European languages. The bibliography compiled (and regularly updated) by Henrik Gottlieb currently lists more than 5,000 publications on English influence on languages worldwide. (See GLAD publications, bibliography) So far, anglicism research has concentrated mostly on the following topics: 1. corpus-related analysis often based on a certain run of issues of particular newspapers or journals; 2. the compilation of items current in special vocabularies (pop music, the drug scene, sports, advertising, etc.); 3. the stylistic analysis of items taken from studies of types (1) and (2); 4. the compilation of dictionaries of anglicisms; 5. the analysis of anglicisms contained in dictionaries; 6. historical studies documenting the growth of English influence on a particular language (or selected areas of its vocabulary); 7. socio-linguistic investigations exploring the correlations between social variables and the number of loan words known and used, correctness, attitudes, etc. (See Busse & Görlach 2002: 32 f.) As far as anglicism research in Germany is concerned, Onysko (2019) provides a survey of its history and current state. In addition to this, the other papers collected in the volume English in the German-speaking countries (Hickey 2019) address more facets of English impact on German. In 2016, a group of scholars embarked on the project of building a database of anglicisms that are currently used in non-Anglophone speech communities across the world. The ultimate target, expressed in the acronym GLAD [Global Anglicism Database], is to go beyond existing comparative dictionaries and to incorporate as many languages as possible, in order to monitor and register the “linguistic and cultural Anglicization involving the widest possible range of speech communities in Europe and Ulrich Busse 254 beyond” (banner on the GLAD homepage). The major objective of the project is to produce a database of anglicisms. It is still work in progress. The Global Anglicism Database is hosted by the instituut voor de nederlandse taal [Dutch Language Institute of the Netherlands]. It is accessible via the following link ( https: / / glad.ivdnt.org/ lexit2/ ? db=publicglad&lang=en ). At present, it features 17 languages. For the principles of its compilation see Gottlieb et al. (2018). Work on the database has shown that a systematic account of calques on a supra-national scale is still wanting. Many studies pass them by for methodological reasons. The present study also shows that in many cases a shadow of doubt remains whether a particular item is a hidden loan or an independent native formation. Nonetheless, work on the GLAD database has shown that there are many more hidden loans (calques) than previously registered e.g. in the AWb and in OWID, and that, in addition, there are many similarities between European languages. This observation has resulted in a new project under the direction of Alicja Witalisz from Kraków, which currently includes the languages Danish, German, Polish, Spanish and French. So far, the compilation of possible entries in the lemma list has progressed to letter -M-. The detailed data from the Neologismenwörterbuch forms one part of the lexical input to this project. 5. References 1. Corpus Neologismenwörterbuch online. https: / / www.owid.de/ docs/ neo/ start.jsp [July 2024]. 1.1 Dictionaries Carstensen, Broder & Ulrich Busse (1993-1995). Anglizismen-Wörterbuch: Der Einfluß des Englischen auf den Deutschen Wortschatz nach 1945. Berlin: de Gruyter, 3 vols. Deutsches Fremdwörterbuch (1986). Band 7. Lieferung 2/ 3. Alphabetisches Register, Rückläufiges Register, Chronologisches Register, Herkunftsregister. Ed. by Kirkness, Alan with Andreas Huber, Hans Kubitscha & Uwe Sommer. Berlin: de Gruyter. Görlach, Manfred (Ed.) (2001). A Dictionary of European Anglicisms: A Usage Dictionary of Anglicisms in Sixteen European Countries. Oxford: Oxford UP. Herberg, Dieter, Michael Kinne, Doris Steffens, with Elke Tellenbach and Doris al- Wadi (2004). Neuer Wortschatz: Neologismen der 90er Jahre im Deutschen. Schriften des Instituts für Deutsche Sprache. Vol. 11. Berlin: de Gruyter. Steffens, Doris & Doris al-Wadi (2013). Neuer Wortschatz: Neologismen im Deutschen 2001-2010. 2 vols. Mannheim: Institut für Deutsche Sprache. An empirical investigation of the Neologismenwörterbuch online 255 2. Secondary sources Busse, Ulrich (2009). Welche Rolle spielen Anglizismen in europäischen Sprachen? Muttersprache 119 (2): 137-150. Busse, Ulrich (2011a). Anglizismen - Versuch einer Bestandsaufnahme. Aptum. Zeitschrift für Sprachkritik und Sprachkultur 7 (2): 98-120. Busse, Ulrich (2011b). Anglizismen in Europa in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. In: Ines Busch-Lauer & Sabine Fiedler (Eds.). Sprachraum Europa - Alles English oder …? . Berlin: Frank & Timme. 15-33. Busse, Ulrich (2011c). Anglizismen europäisch und historisch: Ein Vergleich der historischen und soziokulturellen Faktoren im anglo-europäischen Sprachkontakt. In: Claudia Schlaak & Lena Busse (Eds.). Sprachkontakte, Sprachvariation und Sprachwandel. Festschrift für Thomas Stehl zum 60. Geburtstag. Tübingen: Narr. 287-309. Busse, Ulrich & Manfred Görlach (2002). German. In: Manfred Görlach (Ed.). English in Europe. Oxford: Oxford UP. 13-36. De Swaan, Abram (2001). Words of the World: The Global Language System. Cambridge: Polity Press. Fiedler, Sabine (2014). Gläserne Decke und Elefant im Raum: Phraseologische Anglizismen im Deutschen. Berlin: Logos. Furiassi, Christiano & Hendrik Gottlieb (Eds.) (2015). Pseudo-English: Studies on False Anglicisms in Europe. Berlin: de Gruyter. Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache [GfdS] (n.d.). Wort des Jahres. [online] https: / / gfds.de/ aktionen/ wort-des-jahres/ [July 2024]. GLAD - List of publications on Anglicisms in the world’s languages (n.d.). https: / / www.nhh.no/ globalassets/ centres/ glad/ glad_bibliography_fall_2023. pdf. [August 2024]. GLAD database (n.d.) https: / / glad.ivdnt.org/ lexit2/ ? db=publicglad&lang=en [August 2024]. Görlach, Manfred (2002). An Annotated Bibliography of European Anglicisms. Oxford: Oxford UP. Görlach, Manfred (2003). English Words Abroad. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Gottlieb, Henrik et al. (2018). Introducing and developing GLAD - The Global Anglicism Database Network. The ESSE Messenger (27) 2: 4-19. Graddol, David (1997). The Future of English? A guide to forecasting the popularity of the English language in the 21 st century. London: British Council. https: / / www.teachingenglish.org.uk/ sites/ teacheng/ files/ pub_learning-elt-future.pdf. Hickey, Raymond (Ed.) (2019). English in the German-Speaking World. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Institut für Deutsche Sprache [IDS] (n.d.) Arbeitsbereich Neologismen. [online] https: / / www.ids-mannheim.de/ lexik/ lsw/ arbeitsbereich-neologismen/ [July 2024] Kirkness, Alan & Melanie Woolford (2002). Zur Herkunft der Anglizismen im Deutschen: Beobachtungen und Vorschläge anhand des Anglizismen-Wörterbuchs. In: Rudolf Hoberg (Ed.). Deutsch - Englisch - Europäisch: Impulse für eine neue Sprachpolitik. Thema Deutsch. Band 3. Mannheim: Dudenverlag. 199-219. Mair, Christian (2019). English in the German-speaking world: An inevitable presence. In: Raymond Hickey (Ed.). English in the German-Speaking World. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 13-30. Ulrich Busse 256 Mair, Christian (2023). Global English für eine Welt mit vielen Sprachen. Stuttgart: Kröner. McArthur, Tom (2002). Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford: Oxford UP. Munske, Horst Haider (2020). Englisches im Deutschen. In: Barbara Kaltz, Gerhard Meiser & Horst Haider Munske (Eds.). Englisch in Europäischen Sprachen. Erlangen: FAU UP. 1-33. https: / / doi.org/ 10.25593/ 978-3-96147-319-9. Onysko, Alexander (2019). Processes of language contact in English influence on German. In: Raymond Hickey (Ed.). English in the German-Speaking World. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 185-207. Polenz, Peter von (1999). Deutsche Sprachgeschichte vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. Band III. 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Berlin: de Gruyter. Stefanowitsch, Anatol (n.d.). Anglizismus des Jahres. [online] https: / / www.anglizismusdesjahres.de [July 2024]. Ulrich Busse Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg