International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 50 Photo: Pixabay.de Carsharing in rural areas Challenges and potentials for managing public transportation at local government level Carsharing, rural areas, local governance, local commitment, sustainable mobility This article illustrates the concept of car sharing in rural areas, in particular the role of the municipalities. The qualitative study describes the state of research followed by the methodical approach and the results of the analysis which are visualized using a logic model. The results show that car sharing has further potential for growth in rural areas. In particular, municipal support, civil engagement and supra-regional subsidies play a key role in increasing the potential of this form of mobility in rural areas. Ann-Kathrin Seemann, Sebastian Knöchel M obility is a basic element of everyday life and a necessary requirement for any economic interaction. In recent times, significant changes in personal, as well as commercial, transport have been witnessed. Alongside the progression of electric mobility and the development of autonomous driving it is especially innovative mobility services and new business models often based on increasing digitalization that show the biggest potential for optimization. In this regard, rural areas are the most challenging due to low population density and the inherent need for covering larger distances between destinations [1]. According to Wagner et al., declining passenger numbers are the main impediment of a cost-effective public transportation system, such that long-term maintenance of appropriate public infrastructure could pose a serious problem in the foreseeable future [2, 3]. Rural regions often provide only limited local public transport and in many cases secondary lines with lighter traffic are facing cancellation for cost-cutting reasons. This makes an obvious need for carsharing activities in rural areas. However, the development of car sharing cannot be triggered by the free-market alone but requires proactive political intervention [4]. In addition to the European Union (EU) and the federal and state governments, it is most notably the municipalities that play a major role in the reshaping of traffic behaviour and local carsharing initiatives. For this reason, Cohen and Kietzmann investigated which forms of collaboration between local authorities and carsharing associations are the most fruitful to advance sustainable mobility [5]. A well-developed carsharing infrastructure clearly makes for a decisive advantage in communal incentive competition. Canzler finds that cities in which SCIENCE & RESEARCH Public Transportation International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 51 Public Transportation SCIENCE & RESEARCH motorised private transport has been repressed are considered more attractive compared with those with higher car traffic [6]. In this view, car sharing represents a vital tool for local governments in competing to attract businesses and private households specifically in rural regions so as to prevent gradual depopulation [7]. Neu and Nikolic find in the theoretically similar constructs of resilience and subsistence a chance for municipalities to compensate infrastructural deficits by civic engagement and thus become overall less dependent on state, federal or EU funds [8]. Following Kopatz, local sustainability projects are exploiting their full potential only if they are systematically supported by the local authorities [9]. For obvious reasons, the local context is highly relevant here, as it strengthens identification possibilities with the agenda. This study focuses on rural areas in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, and includes only municipalities that meet the OECD definition for rural regions [10]. To ensure a representative and reliable result, we conducted 20 semistructured expert interviews with 10 carsharing providers and 10 local authorities about alternative mobility concepts over a period of four months (Sept. - Dec. 2015). Results Rural regions Carsharing providers consider rural areas as difficult business segments compared with urban regions. Both a well-developed infrastructure as well as a notable population density are necessary conditions that need to be met to ensure the long-term economic success of carsharing companies. In rural areas, however, one or both of these criteria are often not satisfied. Facing such conditions, mobility providers run the risk of not being able to maintain the quality they are known for from urban environments. Therefore, companies fear reputational damages that could do permanent harm to their business model. Local mobility services as a chance All interview partners endorse the view that car sharing as a local mobility service could, in fact, help to close existing gaps in the local public transport market. Establishing mobility hubs in specific rural areas, for example, could ensure a seamless transition between public transport and carsharing vehicles and thus make intermodal mobility possible. In the same way, car sharing could also be combined with other mobility services like bus-ondemand or citizen buses to substitute underutilized regular service. A combination of these custom-tailored transport solutions can, therefore, help to reduce the cost of public transport by a considerable amount as resources are applied more effectively. The consulted experts concur that the goal of expanding the carsharing principle to rural regions is to complement the public transportation system with additional mobility services and thus offer a broad range of highly integrated means of transportation. This in itself contributes to increasing the overall attractiveness of a municipality, but it also helps in reducing the saturation of roads, which implies preventing congestion, improving traffic flow as well as restricting detrimental effects on health and safety. Ultimately, this objective is fully achieved when citizens can reach any point within the region individually without having to rely on their own personal cars. In conjunction with sophisticated IT applications, this can form a highly effective mobility service that again can be integrated into a transregional transportation network. Technological developments aid in further promoting the concept of sharing and to exploit existing potentials. Hereby, the smartphone interconnects the different traffic carriers and acts as a central interface to coordinate the local mobility chain successfully. Local authorities’ support of car sharing The analysis of the interviews revealed that both the implementation and financial support of car sharing in rural regions are strongly politically motivated. Municipalities mostly serve as key drivers for these particular projects. Therefore, it is obvious that local authorities play a major role in the development of carsharing services as they function as an essential decision-making body. If the governing mayor has a positive attitude towards car sharing and recognizes its potential, this will also influence its local development accordingly in so far as the authorities will be able to secure the funds needed to push the implementation forward. This confirms the findings of Hull [11] and Daley et al. [12]. On the other hand, if the mayor is not inclined towards the concept, the interviewed experts see little chance to operate successfully in those specific communities. Furthermore, the experts are unanimous that local partners are urgently needed to put appropriate and people-oriented mobility services into practice. Only intensive co-operation between authorities and local business partners can keep the costs down and assure user-oriented distribution of costs while using the carsharing concept to its full potential. Hence, it is evident that the resulting mobility services are not simply transferable to other areas, but are highly individual instead. As a matter of fact, the interviews yielded a broad variety of possible partners for joint ventures: local firms, municipal partners like municipal utilities (‘Stadtwerke’) and savings banks (‘Sparkassen’), regional public transport enterprises, cultural and sports associations, as well as social institutions and other actors, have come up as integrated partners in actual carsharing programs. This means that employees or members can either use the offered services free of charge or at preferred rates, or they have predetermined time quotas for the use of single vehicles, both of which ensure a minimum utilization rate and can contribute to a reduction of staff motor pools as well. The interviews indicated that persons holding a public office often decided in favour of using the carsharing alternatives for on-duty use rather than insist on the official cars that they were in fact entitled to have in their positions. This can result in a significant cost reduction for public offices. The surveyed carsharing operators point out that the same principle could indeed also be applied to corporate use, such that expenditures on cost-intensive company car fleets could be eliminated completely. Therefore, they not only see great potential for growth in that regard but also suggest that this could enhance the overall attractiveness of a region in terms of locational competition. As a result, more businesses might settle in the area, which again has positive effects for local residents, International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 52 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Public Transportation in that the number of local jobs increases. This is not only favourable from an economic point of view but can also improve the quality of life due to shorter everyday commutes (resulting in increased leisure) and less adverse effects on the environment. Apart from transferring the entire mobility service to external partners, there are also several other forms of organization in which municipalities can play a role. Some authorities, for example, organize car sharing on their own and only rely on a provider’s car fleet. However, the interview partners had divided opinions regarding this approach. They particularly criticized a lack of flexibility on the part of their project partners and tedious maintenance processes of the car pools, which prevented an appropriate and undisturbed operation. They propose that local partners would be desirable as this would not only guarantee more flexibility but also maximize local added value. However, the interview results show that smaller companies often struggle with the high investment and maintenance costs of a fleet. Some municipalities, therefore, decided to set up their own carsharing programs, for which they co-ordinate the sharing, provide the car fleet and are responsible for maintenance and repairs. Conclusion The results indicate that the carsharing principle offers great potential for growth not only in urban but also in rural areas. However, successful implementation requires that local authorities and local communities act in concert. In addition, supra-regional subsidies are needed in most cases given the capital-intense nature of such projects. Civic engagement primarily comes from a distinctive desire for environmentally friendly and citizen-centred mobility services to close existing gaps in public transport. On the other hand, the development of car sharing in rural areas is also politically motivated as it offers cost-saving potentials in terms of public spending and improves the overall attractiveness of the region. In particular, the analysis of the interviews has shown that governing mayors play a key role in the initiation of carsharing projects because their attitude towards the carsharing idea is a crucial factor. Moreover, it is evident that the success of a project is dependent on the intended type of use (private, public, corporate or a combination) because cost-effective operation is only possible for a certain threshold level of utilization. In practice, this means that an in-depth assessment of potential demand is required to find the best-fitting form of organization. That is, local companies must be included both for their demand and participation possibilities to recognize and exploit regional potentials individually. To win local communities over, it is recommended that carsharing providers raise awareness about the advantages of car sharing, especially in the context of electric mobility. Finally, it is important to clarify the mobility behaviour of the locals so as to break that mental barrier of habit and convince them that they are actually not dependent on a car of their own. In figure 1, the results of this study are diagrammed in a result-oriented logic model. All municipal stakeholders (that is, citizens, local companies, local authorities as well as federal or state governments) are involved in a carsharing project. All actors provide their own inputs and thus do their part in the development process of the project. The resulting activities can be considered as individual components for the further planning process and its Output Environmentally friendly and citizen-centered mobility service, oriented at individual needs of a community Dispersed population, high investment costs, customer preferences Input Individual (civic) ressources: • Time • Mobility needs • Utilization & payment • Civic engagement Ressources of local partners • Mobility needs of employees and members • Capital investments • Company mobility management Communal ressources: • Capital • Workforce • Municipal promotion of economic development • Inter- & intracommunal cooperation Federal and state ressources: • Capital (subsidies, institutional funds) • General public transport financing • Initiation of tender procedure • General public service Activities Close existing gaps in public transport market Interpretation of local potentials Transparent acquisition of local mobility needs Initiation of the project (by governing mayor) Public participation Civic engagement Inclusion of local partners Selecting the best fitting form of organization Local planning platform Municipal support Educational campaign Intermediate Outcome Reduction of costs Development of battery charging infrastructure for electric cars Less traffic & congestion Lower number of (privately owned) cars Providing general public service Final Outcome Development of public transport infrastructure & digitalization Local and individual transportation concept Area-wide car sharing infrastructure Threedimensional sustainability Increased local added value General change in mobility behaviour Decreased need for multiple cars per family Public sector marketing & overall attractiveness of a municipality Restraints Figure 1: Results of this study diagrammed in a result-oriented logic model International Transportation (69) 1 | 2017 53 Public Transportation SCIENCE & RESEARCH implementation. Aside from these activities, there were also restraints identified. Circumstances like particularly high investment costs and geographical factors among others represent major challenges for the establishment of sustainable carsharing systems in rural areas. If interference with those factors can be minimized, the resulting output is an environmentally friendly and citizen-centred mobility service that is oriented at individual needs of a particular community. This output again implies intermediate and final outcomes. Intermediate outcomes thereby denote shortand medium-term effects of the carsharing launch that is, for example, the reduction of privately owned cars and better allocation of resources. Final outcomes, on the other hand, describe the ultimate goals and long-term consequences of car sharing, namely the altered mobility behaviour or positive public sector marketing. Provided it is feasible to include all actors and their individual resources, the concept of car sharing holds a lot of potential for rural regions and can bring several positive synergetic and secondary effects. ■ REFERENCES [1] Küpper, P. (2011): Auf dem Weg zu einem Grundangebot von Mobilität in ländlichen Räumen: Probleme, Ursachen und Handlungsoptionen. In: Arbeitsberichte der ARL: Aufsätze, 152-168. [2] Wagner, A., Hollbach-Grömig, B., & Langel, N. (2012): Demografischer Wandel -Herausforderungen und Handlungsempfehlungen für Umwelt-und Naturschutz. In: Literaturstudie zur Aktualisierung und Verifizierung des vorliegenden Erkenntnisstandes und Aufbereitung für die Ressortaufgaben (Teil 1). Dessau-Roßlau: Umweltbundesamt. [3] Bertelsmann Stiftung (2015): Demographischer Wandel verstärkt Unterschiede zwischen Stadt und Land. Gütersloh. [4] Lindloff, K., Pieper, N., Bandelow, N. C., & Woisetschläger, D. M. (2014): Drivers of carsharing diffusion in Germany: an actor-centred approach. In: International Journal of Automotive Technology and Management 21, 14(3-4), 217-245. [5] Cohen, B., & Kietzmann, J. (2014): Ride on! Mobility business models for the sharing economy. In: Organization & Environment, 27 (3), 279-296. [6] Canzler, W. (2014): Der Öffentliche Verkehr im postfossilen Zeitalter: Sechs Thesen. In: Öffentliche Mobilität. Wiesbaden: Springer, 229-240. [7] Sauer, M., & Glass, T. (2015): Steigerung der Attraktivität des öffentlichen Verkehrs durch Ergänzung um stationsbasiertes e-Carsharing in ländlich geprägten Gemeinden. In: Nahverkehrstage 2015: Nahverkehr und Freizeit: Neue Kunden durch innovative Konzepte gewinnen, 25, 101-114. [8] Neu, C., & Nikolic, L. (2015): Versorgung im ländlichen Raum der Zukunft: Chancen und Herausforderungen. In: Gerontologie und ländlicher Raum. Wiesbaden: Springer, 185-206. [9] Kopatz, M. (2015): Wirtschaftsförderung 4.0: kooperative Wirtschaftsformen in Kommunen. In: Politische Ökologie (142), 104-110. [10] OECD (2007): OECD-Prüfbericht zur Politik für ländliche Räume. Deutschland: OECD. [11] Hull, A. (2009): Implementing innovatory transport measures: What local authorities in the UK say about their problems and requirements. In: European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 3(9), 202-218. [12] Daley, D. M., Sharp, E. B., & Bae, J. (2013): Understanding city engagement in communityfocused sustainability initiatives. In: Cityscape, 143-161. Ann-Kathrin Seemann, JProf. Dr. Junior Professor, Public and Non-Profit Management, Transport/ Logistic and Public Real Estate, Albert- Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg (DE) ann-kathrin.seemann@vwl.uni-freiburg.de Sebastian Knöchel, M.A. Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter Public and Non-Profit Management, Transport/ Logistic and Public Real Estate, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg (DE) sebastian.knoechel@vwl.uni-freiburg.de Seal of approval for scientific contributions Peer reviews - a transparent quality assurance instrument for authors and readers P eer review processes are recognized worldwide as quality assurance tools. They represent a method to constructively and critically handle research findings, scientific analysis, and technical developments in a specific area. As well, they help to ensure that scientific contributions submitted to our journal meet our high publication standards. The publisher and editorial staff therefore invite researchers and developers in the transportation industry, scientists, engineers, and students to submit appropriate manuscripts for publication in the science section with an accompanying statement to the editorial staff. A manuscript must be an original, primary contribution, which means that it has not been previously published in the current form and composition. After a manuscript passes the initial formal editorial assessment, it is forwarded to two, or, in special circumstances, more experts (referees) in the relevant area or discipline, who then evaluate the manuscript using a standardized review process. The key steps of the peer review process are as follows: • Manuscripts that satisfy initial acceptance criteria are sent by the editorial staff to scholars or experts in the relevant discipline or area for evaluation. The authors’ identities remain anonymous throughout the entire review process. • Using a standardized evaluation form, the reviewers conduct their evaluations and then provide the editors, in writing, with their comments as well as a recommendation concerning whether the manuscript should be published in its original form, if any revisions must be made, or if the manuscript cannot be accepted for publication. • The reviewers’ evaluations are not forwarded directly to the authors. Thus, the reviewers’ identities remain unknown to the authors (double-blind review). Interested authors will find the guidelines for authors, information about related formalities, and the form for submitting a contribution at www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de/ autoren-service KONTAKT Eberhard Buhl, M.A. Managing Editor Internationales Verkehrswesen / International Transportation eberhard.buhl@trialog.de