articles will therefore continue to focus on in the future on specific occasions. 2 The forerunners of the Italian autostrade Everywhere in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century, existing roads and road structures were not able to withstand the demands of ever-increasing motorization. In Italy, calls for the modernization of existing roads and for so-called car-only roads, means roads that were to be reserved exclusively for automobiles, can be traced back to 1906, when the engineer GIUSEP- PE SPERA propagated the construction of such a project between Rome and Naples in a study. 1 Introduction One of Italy‘s proud inventions the autostrade have been one hundred years old on September 21, 2024. This magazine is once again taking this event as an opportunity to look back on the formative developments in motorization, roads and transport that began over a hundred years ago and to place them in an overall engineering-historical context with regard to freeways, among other things. Two points in time mark the beginning of the development of the freeways (including their predecessors): ƒ from 1902, the desire for an automobile racetrack (i.e. the Berlin Avus) ƒ around 1920 the desire for more carfriendly roads (including „car-only roads“) The first launch in 1902, which led to the completion and operation of the „Automobil-, Verkehrs- und Uebungsstrasse“ (Avus) in Berlin in 1921, among other things, has already been reported on extensively in issue IV/ 2021 of this magazine. As with all technical innovations that shaped people‘s lifestyles and made everyday life easier, a trip to other countries was often enough for people to return home with ideas for remedying deficiencies in the road system. The second starting point, from around 1920, produced interesting developments and projects in several countries at short intervals, which the „A hundred years ago“ series of In a similar context, towards the end of the First World War, the Milanese engineer EMILIO BELLONI proposed the construction of a „direct, permanent road“ between Milan and Venice, reserved for motor vehicles and subject to tolls (Figure 1), having previously at least attracted attention with a similar project between Paris and Moscow. In the prosperous, up-and-coming Milan of the 1920s, which was conveniently located for trade in all directions, the project to the port of Venice met with approval. Even though the straight route chosen at the time, away from the major cities of Bergamo, Brescia and Verona, was a disadvantage, BELLONI obtained the approval of a commission made up of politicians, economic A hundred years ago: Were the autostrade to the Upper Italian lakes the first freeways? This article follows on from the publication by Wolfgang F. Jaeger „A hundred years ago: Was the Avus the first autobahn? “ from issue IV/ 2021 of this magazine. „Pensare all‘Europa e tracciare su di essa una rete organica, razionale di comunicazioni autostradali che, seguendo le linee di maggior traffico, la dotasse di un sistema circolatorio pari ai bisogni dell‘epoca.“ „To think of Europe means to cover it with an organic and meaningful network of car roads (autostrade), which, following the course of the largest traffic, form a closed traffic system that meets the requirements of time.“ PIERO PURICELLI (September 1934) Wolfgang F. Jaeger Figure 1: The “direct, permanent road” from Milan to Venice designed by the Milanese engineer EMILIO BELLONI and reserved for motor vehicles (status: spring 1922) [GABRIEL 2010, p. 68]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 31 History  FORUM to Lago di Varese, Lago di Como and Lago Maggiore. VANDONE assumed that even if tolls were compulsory, the heavy automobile traffic in the direction of the northern Italian lakes would switch to these special roads and „the idea of the automobile-only road would spread quickly“ [VANDONE 1921, pp. 288-295]. It is safe to say that the positive public response to the BELLONI project and the support from the TCI spurred the engineer PURICELLI to publish a study „with the functionaries and the President of the Milan Chamber of Commerce, Senator ANGE- LO SALMOIRAGHI. In November 1921, this commission gave a vaguely positive verdict on BELLONI‘s project, stating that the road „deserved to be accepted by the public authorities directly concerned and implemented without delay“ [Camera di commercio 1921, p. 14]. 3 Italian automobile clubs, PURICELLI and Milanese officials only take about a year from the idea to the start of construction In 1919/ 20, PIERO PURICELLI‘s road construction company had already drawn up an automobile-only road project [THORZ 1925, p. 977/ 978], which was significantly shorter than BELLONI‘s, as it was intended to connect Milan with the prosperous region on the northern Italian lakes. This project is said to have been supported by the Touring Club of Italy (TCI) as early as 1920 [HORS- TER 1925, p. 40]. On the occasion of a lecture at the Italian Road Congress in Brescia in September 1921, ITALO VANDONE (head of the Technical Office of the Province of Milan, director of the Experimental Road Institute and editor of the magazine „Le Strade“) then officially mentioned that the engineer PURICELLI had presented the TCI with a concrete project for an 84 km long automobile-only road network leading from Milan help of a few friends“ [PURICELLI 1925, p. 13], which PURICELLI called „Road network for motor vehicles from Milan to Varese and to the lakes Maggiore and Como“ in March 1922 (Figure 2) [PURICELLI 1922]. In his study, he criticized the fact that the railroad network in northern Italy was still far too coarse meshed for freight transport and that the existing roads leading to the railroad centers were also too poorly maintained. In comparison to the existing network, PU- RICELLI visionarily named four distinguishing features of the new roads he planned: a) his roads would pass close to city centers to ensure higher speeds with maximum traffic safety, b) his roads are shorter than the existing provincial roads, c) his roads would generally avoid intersections with railroad lines and would not have at-grade level crossings with railways, d) his roads would have as few bends as possible adapted to the topography and would have maximum radii. On March 11, 1922, a committee appointed by the TCI met for the first time, which included numerous founders of the Milan Rotary Club (LUIGI VITTORIO BERTAREL- LI, PIERO PURICELLI, SILVIO CRESPI, PIE- RO PIRELLI, etc.).), which was divided into several sub-commissions and which, rejecting the word „Autovie“ (car ways), which had been in use since 1906, proposed the name „autostrade“ (car roads) for the new special motor vehicle roads. This name was then retained in Italy from the mid-1950s for the second generation of this type of road, which was developed with a focus on freeways. As PURICELLI was well connected as the head of his family-owned (road) construction company and also had a modern public relations policy at the time, his project Figure 2: The network of car roads originally planned by PURICELLI before MUSSOLINI came to power: The southern bypasses of Somma Lombardo and Gallarate as well as the long straight from Varese to Olgiate were later given a different alignment (as of spring 1922) [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER] Figure 3: The envisaged autostrada route network in northern Italy in the version of the concession contract: The “constriction” of the town of Gallarate provoked considerable criticism (as of December 1922) [VANDONE 1923, p. 163]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 32 FORUM  History quickly gained nationwide recognition. The naming „autostrade“ and from the summer of 1922 at the latest the political advocacy of the responsible Minister for Public Works in Rome, LUIGI ROSSI, showed how the Milan committee and the TCI were increasingly moving away from the pure planning level and consistently pushing for the realization of their vision. 4 MUSSOLINI and the lake autostrade (autostrade dei Laghi) In September 1922, the newspaper „Il Popolo d‘Italia“ (The People of Italy), founded and headed by the Fascist party leader BENITO MUSSOLINI, published an approving report on PURICELLI‘s autostrade, one month before the end of Italy‘s last democratic government and thus before MUSSOLINI‘s „March on Rome“ in October 1922. On November 13, 1922 the new Italian Prime Minister MUS- SOLINI received Mr. PIERO PURICELLI and Mr. ARTURO MERCANTI (Director of the Milan Automobile Club), whom he had known personally for some time, and assured them, in view of the economic and social advantages (e.g. combating unemployment), he assured them of the legally possible, formal recognition of the public benefit and asked them to „open the work themselves with the ‚first pickaxe blow‘ on January 1, 1923“ and to complete it obviously with a view to the construction of the Monza race track - „within a year“ [Società 1923, p. 18]. Just five days later, on November 18, 1922, the „Società anonima Autostrade“ (Autostrade Ltd.) was founded with a symbolic initial capital of 20,000 lire, half of which was contributed by the TCI and half by the Milan Automobile Club. The TCI President LU- IGI VITTORIO BERTARELLI subsequently took over the honorary chairmanship of Autostrade Ltd.. SILVIO CRESPI became President of Autostrade, PIERO PURICEL- LI Managing Director, and PIERO PIRELLI and ARTURO MERCANTI were among the members of the Board of Directors. Although all government consultations were conducted „with the greatest haste“, the concession was not finally approved by ministerial decree until December 17, 1922. For Autostrade Ltd., the public benefit established by the state meant that necessary expropriations of land were legitimized and a repayable annual state financial contribution was available in addition to the share capital. The Supreme Council for Public Works in Rome (Consiglio Superiore dei Lavori Pubblici) finally approved the further modified project on February 27, 1923 (Figure 3), so that the way was finally clear politically for the Duce to publicly celebrate the start of work. On March 26, 1923 around three months later than originally planned - MUSSOLINI traveled to Lainate (north of Figure 5: MUSSOLINI on 26 March 1923 during his famous speech at the symbolic start of construction in Lainate, in which he proclaimed that he wanted to honor work no less than the capital invested [PURICELLI 1925, p. 9]. Figure 6: The memorial stone erected at the site of the symbolic start of construction of the autostrade for King VICTOR EMANUEL III and MUSSOLINI at the Lainate at-grade junction [PURICELLI 1925, p. 4]. Figure 4: Group photo with MUSSOLINI on the occasion of the “first pickaxe blow” for the autostrade near Lainate on March 26, 1923: PIERO PURICELLI‘s son, Franco, was allowed to hold the Duce‘s symbolic working tool in his hands [S.p.A. 1984, p. 35]. Milan) to ceremoniously start the construction work on the autostrade with the first pickaxe blow (Figure 4). The media of the same direction later reported euphorically that MUSSOLINI‘s „male physiognomy“ (la maschia sua fisinomia) had taken on almost religious traits. For the staged work, MUSSOLINI (Figure 5) conscientiously took almost three minutes and moved around a quarter of a cubic meter of earth. He then issued the slogan in deliberately few but precise words that he wanted to „honor work no less than the initiative of capital“ (onoro il lavoro non meno che l‘iniziativa del capitale) [VANDONE 1923, pp. 33-37]. PU- RICELLI was also certain with MUSSOLINI „that the first motorway project in Italy has found the strongest and best collaborator in the present government, above all others in the person of [Hi]S. E[xcellency]. the Prime Minister Mussolini, who immediately understood the advantage and the growth that the country would gain from the realization of this initiative“ [PURCELLI 1925, p. 14]. On DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 33 History  FORUM 3,000 meters. Only four exceptions required the use of curves with a minimum radius of R = 300 m or only slightly more. The maximum longitudinal gradient was 3.0 %. In the elevation plan, crests and troughs were uniformly rounded to a radius of 3,000 m (Figure 9) a value that would justifiably raise safety concerns for freeways today. The standard roadway cross-section between Milan and the Gallarate junction was „RC 14“, while all other cross-sections were „RC 11“, with the former having 2 x 2 m wide grass verges and the latter having 2 x 1.50 m wide grass verges (Figure 10). The difference between the two cross-sections consisted in the requirements „for single and double overtaking“ [MOLL 1925, p. 21/ 22], in other words: the Milan - Gallarate section was ritory with the northern bypass of Chiasso, for which he realized for the first time in the history of the autostrade a provisionally bluntly terminating extension end at Como. The layout of the autostrade consisted mainly of long „monotonous“ straights of up to ten, eleven or even 18 kilometers in length. With a total route length of 84.6 km, 76.7 km (91%) were straight, and only 7.9 km (9%) of the route were curves. The design was based on a speed of 100 km/ h, even though most vehicles only reached a maximum speed of around 70 to 80 km/ h at the time. The route was planned in such a way that it required as few cost-intensive crossings with railroad lines as possible. In the curves, the roadway was slightly banked, with curve radii usually between 500 and June 28, 1925, a memorial stone was erected at the Lainate at-grade junction as was customary for many rulers at the time to commemorate the start of construction and the protagonists of the work (Figure 6). 5 The design parameters of the lakes car roads The finally approved project (Figure 7) deviated in various parts from the original project design attached to the concession (compare with Figure 3): ƒ Gallarate was no longer bypassed to the south, but finally to the north. ƒ The connection to the provincial road to Sempione was moved from Somma Lombardo to Vergiate in order to bring the highway closer to lake Maggiore. ƒ An agreement with the city of Milan made it possible to extend the autostrade 1.7 km to the south (as far as Viale Certosa), so that the new autostrade could now be routed over Musocco station by means of a bridge (Figure 8). This resulted in the following approval and construction phases (Table 1): In December 1925, PURICELLI also published two planned additions to the autostrade network (Figure 7): On the one hand, these included the Milan - Bergamo section, which was later built under his direction; on the other hand, the visionary already planned a short autostrada section on Swiss ter- Figure 7: The car roads network realized by Autostrade Ltd. from Milan to Varese, Como and Vergiate, including entry and exit points; the (partial) routes Milan - Bergamo and Como - Chiasso (Switzerland) were only planned at that time (as of December 1925) [PURICELLI 1925, supplement]. Table 1: The five approval and construction phases of the Upper Italian autostrade [PURICELLI 1925, page 19] Ongoing No. Number of the construction phase Route section Length roadway cross-section 0 1 2 3 4 1 CP 1 Milan (Viale Certosa) - Musocco - Lainate 12.085 km RC 14 [m] 2 CP 2 Lainate - Gallarate 20,673 km RC 14 [m] 3 CP 3 Gallarate - Varese 16.235 km RC 11 [m] 4 CP 4 Lainate - Como 24,507 km RC 11 [m] 5 CP 5 Gallarate - Sesto Calende (Vergiate) 11.119 km RC 11 [m] Sum: 84, 619 km DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 34 FORUM  History were arched or tubular below a clear width of 2.00 m. Iron bridges with straight beam superstructures were chosen when other constructions were unsuitable. The following five structures deserve special mention: ƒ Bridge over Musocco station, km 1.0 (three arch openings of 21 m each) (Figure 8) ƒ Bridge over the Villoresi Canal, km 11.5 ƒ Arch bridge over the Olona River, km 22.0 (span 48 m) (Figures 11 and 12) ƒ Tunnel under „Villa De Fernet“ near Olgiate Olona, km 23.0 (70 m long) (Figures 13 and 14) ƒ Bridge over the railroad at Vergiate, km 43.0 (four openings, height 15 m) With regard to road construction, it is known that PURICELLI studied pavement types extensively, especially on trips to the USA: „America was also recommended as a model because the roads there, even if they are only ordinary roads, are almost exclusively used by cars today“ [PURICELLI 1925, p. 28]. The pavement construction on the can be seen, especially on the autostrade branches. At Gazzada, a moraine circle is reached that surrounds lake Varese. During the construction of the autostrade, peaty zones were found in the ground at Besnate (on the branch to Sesto Calende) and at Portichetto (at the branch to Como), where the soil had to be replaced with gravel for reasons of load-bearing capacity. The most picturesque branch of the first autostrade is the section from Gallarate to Sesto Calende, where moraine terrain of the Verbano glacier can be found, lined with hills densely covered with pine groves and protruding erratic boulders from the glacial and alluvial periods. The highest dam (15 m) is located near Castellanza, the deepest cut (22 m) just before the end of the autostrada at Sesto Calende. A total of 2 million m³ of earthmoving was carried out under the supervision of PURICELLI. To maintain intersecting roads and railroad lines and to cross rivers, 34 overpasses and 71 underpasses were to be built in the course of the autostrade, together including the culverts - 219 structures, which conceptually based on four lanes, while all 11 m wide cross-sections were to have three lanes. However, it later became apparent that at higher speeds, lanes only 2.50 m wide with no hard shoulders anyway were not practical, so that a different road marking had to be chosen. Embankment gradients of 1: 1 also proved to be too steep. However, things had developed so suddenly, focused and quickly that even in spring 1923 after final approval of the concession - PURICELLI still did not have all the technical details finalized. The actual construction work could therefore only begin in June 1923 because land acquisition and expropriation took longer than originally expected. In total, around 3,000 individual properties or an area of 2,600,000 m² were taken up. 6 The construction of the first Italian autostrade Geological investigations were carried out during the planning and construction of the first autostrade projects. From Milan to Gallarate, the autostrade crosses alluvial land rich in sand and gravel, which is cut through by the Olona River at km 22.0. From Origio, or about 3 to 4 km from Gallarate, foothills of the middle Dilivium Figure 8: The newly built bridge in the course of the Milan - Varese autostrada over Mussoco station (km 1.0 near Milan) [PURICELLI 1925, p.22]. Figure 10: Standard cross-sections of the autostrade Milan - Upper Italian lakes, 14.00 and 11.00 m wide: The roadway was originally intended to have four or three lanes (as of January 1926) [GARBRIEL 2010, p. 79]. Figure 9: View of the Milan - Varese autostrada at the level of the (partially concealed) Castellanza secondary guard post (km 20.3): The trough roundings of HW = 3,000 m proved to be too small early on (among other things to maintain the minimum stopping sight distance) [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER, photo from approx. 1950] Figure 11: Teaching scaffold of the arch bridge over the Olona River in the course of the Milan - Varese autostrada (km 22.0) in the fall of 1923 [S. p. A. 1984, p. 51]. Figure 12: Completed arch bridge over the Olona River in the course of the Milan - Varese autostrada (km 22.0) in the fall of 1924 [PURICELLI 1925, p. 23]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 35 History  FORUM ceded him by a few years, the road-building entrepreneur was proud that „this first example of car roads for Italy represents a primacy, because even if there are roads abroad which have one or the other characteristic, such as the cement surface, the straight line, the wide curves, etc., there is none which has all the advantages mentioned above and which, what matters above all, is reserved exclusively for automobiles, there is no such road which has all the advantages mentioned above and which, most importantly, is reserved exclusively for automobiles and at the same time, through a complex of perfect construction and precise regulations, provides a full guarantee of peace and safety while driving“ [PURICELLI 1925, p. 11/ 12]. The new road, which was closed to motorless vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians, undoubtedly looked very futuristic in the mid-1920s, even though JELMONI 1974 described it as „so small, so simple, so modest, so pathetically ‚old‘“ (ci appare tanto piccola, semplice, modesta, tanto pateticamente „antica“) compared to today‘s freeways [JEL- MONI 1974]. He took the liberty of making this judgment because the first-generation autostrade was based on design parameters that he and today would justifiably describe as fundamentally unacceptable. JELMONI therefore did not want to speak here of an autostrada or a freeway, but „merely of a tiring, especially at midday [KLINKMANN 1934, p. 117]. King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy presided over the opening ceremony and the opening to traffic of the „first autostrada section in the world“ from Milan to Varese on September 21, 1924 (Figure 17). The ruler was accompanied by PIERO PURICELLI in the carriage on the journey, which covered the entire section of the route. The second section to be opened on June 28, 1925 was the branch from the Lainate at-grade junction to Como. The third section from the Gallarate at-grade junction to Vergiate was opened to traffic on September 23, 1925. In December 1925, PURICELLI, who always carried out professional public relations work for his projects that still seems modern today, published his book „Autostrade“ in several languages, including an English, a French and a German version [PURICELLI 1925]. This book describes the planning, construction and operation of the first Italian autostrade in such a vivid and descriptive way that anyone who read it must undoubtedly have gained a lasting impression of a motorized future, in all likelihood linked to the desire to establish modern motor-only roads in their own country. Even if PURICELLI did not mention that the Avus, opened in Berlin in 1921, had preupper Italian autostrade was carried out almost exclusively with concrete pavers of the American KOEHRING type (Figures 15 and 16), whereby a total area of 750,000 m² was produced. „Initially, only 20 cm thick concrete was chosen for the road surface, probably based on American models and in the expectation that this surface would be the most resistant and would require hardly any maintenance. After completion of the tracks, the surface was given a bitumen coating for waterproofing“. In addition, long periods of driving on the previously bright-grey road are said to have been very Figure 13: Earthworks for the autostrada in the area of the “Villa De Fernet” near Olgiate Olona in the fall of 1923 (km 23.0) [S. p. A. 1984, p.47] Figure 14: The “world‘s first autostrada enclosure” shortly before its completion in the summer of 1924: The structure was built to protect the gardens of the “Villa De Fernet” near Olgiate Olona (km 23.0) [S. p. A. 1984, p.47]. Figure 15: Concrete roadway construction of an 8.00 m wide surface on a gravel layer in the course of the Milan - Upper Italian lakes autostrada [PURICELLI 1925, p. 24]. Figure 16: The American concrete paver KOEHRING in operation at the Gallarate atgrade junction (Sesto Calende branch): The completed concrete roadway of the branch to Varese can be seen in the background (km 32.8) [PURICELLI 1925, p. 26] Figure 17: King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy ceremonially opens the “world‘s first Italian autostrada” Milan - Upper Italian lakes on 21.09.1924 (together with PIERO PURICELLI in the car) [PURICELLI 1925, p. 9]. Figure 19: View of the at-grade junction (biforcazione) Gallarate (km 32.8) with the branches to Sesto Calende (left) and Varese (right) around 1930: An auxiliary guard with a signal flag can be seen on the right of the roadway. [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER] Figure 18: Contemporary panoramic drawing of a main watchtower (entry and exit point) on the Milan - Upper Italian lakes autostrada with the width of the carriageway deliberately drawn wider than in reality for advertising purposes [PURICELLI 1925, p. 8]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 36 FORUM  History with at least three pneumatic tires. Trucks were allowed to carry a maximum of one trailer. Deviating vehicles, persons, objects or animals were prohibited on the autostrade, as was stopping (with the exception of emergencies, when the vehicle had to be parked on the extreme right). In general, you had to drive on the right-hand side of the road at all times; driving in the middle for no reason was punishable by a fine of 1,000 lire. Overtaking took place on the left, whereby a signal had to be given beforehand. „Sound signals“ (by means of horns) riageway, which meant dangerous crossings of the (three or four) lanes when turning left or right. Crossing-free solutions at junctions initially seemed „not really necessary“ given the low traffic density, especially as the total number of registered vehicles in the most heavily motorized provinces of Milan and Como was only around 10,000 at the time. Conduct on the autostrade was governed by the „Regulations for the use of motor roads and traffic on them“, according to which use was reserved exclusively for cars road with a certain level“ (una strada di un certo livello) [JELMONI 1974]. 7 No freeway junctions and interchanges as we know them today The first-generation autostrade as they are called in Italy today not only had a single carriageway for both directions of travel, they also did not yet have the multi-level junctions that are taken for granted today. At the junctions, which were therefore level, guards (cantonieri) were on duty: ƒ Main guard posts (raccordi alle cantoniere capotronco) (Figure 18) ƒ Secondary guard posts (raccordi alle cantoniere intermedie) ƒ At-grade junctions (biforcazioni) (Figure 19) The main guard posts of Milan (Figure 20), Varese, Como and Sesto Calende (Figure 21) were of particular importance as the start and end posts of the autostrade. The intermediate entrances and exits (varchi intermedi) could be designed as main or secondary guard posts, depending on their importance. The guards, of whom the respective head guard (cantoniere titolare) and his family lived in the guardhouse (casello), had additional auxiliary guards (cantonieri aggiunti) at their disposal for main sections. The usual color signal flags at the level junctions (including construction sites) in addition to the mandatory horn signal and column formation can be seen in Figure 22. Each guard post had running water, electric light, telephone, a fuel store, a „motorists‘ rest room“ and a first-aid kit. Stopping was compulsory at all main guard posts. There were also fuel pumps and oil and tire depots. A bicycle guard (cantoniere ciclista) was responsible for road policing and a motorcycle guard (cantoniere motociclista) for technical assistance (servizio d‘ispezione). Tickets were available for one-way as well as return journeys, both for total and partial routes. Figure 23 provides an overview of important structures, equipment, access, departure and branching options on the first autostrade (including fare zones). There were five price categories based on vehicle power (indicated in horsepower), as well as a „multi-journey card“ for 50 journeys and many different season tickets (including premiums for new cars of commercial (large) customers). No discounted tickets were issued to foreign vehicles. Subscribers and authorized free users were not included in the traffic load figures. The intermediate entrances and exits were located on one, sometimes both sides of the road always with a guard house (casello) next to them. After the barrier was opened, the entrance and exit were at the same level in a 90° bend into the main car- Figure 20: Milan main guard post (on Viale Certosa) in the 1950s, also the start of the Milan - Upper Italian lakes autostrade (km 0.0): Even then, the 10.00 m wide carriageway was not yet four-laned (see background) [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER] Figure 21: Sesto Calende (Vergiate) main guard post in the 1950s, also the temporary end of the Milan - Upper Italian lakes autostrada (km 43.8) [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER]. Figure 22: Signals on the autostrada: In 1925, PURICELLI also published instructions in German on how to behave and stop at guard signals at guard posts, at-grade junctions and construction sites [similarly PURICELLI 1925, p. 34]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 37 History  FORUM speculated in Germany that the „first Italian autostrade to be built, Milan - Upper Italian lakes, was more for tourist traffic“ [WILIMEK 1933, p. 88/ 89]. In September 1933, Autostrade Ltd. had to return the concession to the Autonomous State Road Company (Azienda autonoma statale della strada) (AASS) due to a lack of capital. This meant that the model of privately financed, built and operated autostrade to the northern Italian lakes was a thing of the past for the time being. 8 The autostrade of the pre-war generation is equipped with the 1956 to 1965 roadway „doubling“ (radoppio) converted to freeways After the Second World War, at the beginning of the 1950s, the „original“ autostrade was confronted with an enormously high traffic load in the course of economic growth, for which it had not been designed and which was also set to increase dramatically. As early as 1956, Italy therefore began to increase the capacity of existing car ways by adding a second carriageway next to the existing one, so that from then on a separate carriageway was available for each direction of travel. As the alignment parameters and junction requirements of freeways were taken as a basis at the same time, these route conversions were generally equivalent to new constructions, as, among other things, all bridge structures had to be fundamentally rebuilt under the changed conditions. In the case of the autostrade dei Laghi, the modernizations were carried out as follows: The changes and route deviations specified as part of the construction design for the future two-lane freeway related to the location, height, load-bearing capacity and systems of the bridges (and other structures) as well as all junctions and ancillary facilities. After obtaining the right to build, the responsibility for the reconstruction of the autostrade was transferred from the Autonomous National Road Company (Azienda nazionale autonoma della strada) (ANAS) to the Serravalle - Milano - Ponte Chiasso (S. p. A.) Freeway Company (Società per Azioni per l‘Autostrada) on July 2, 1962. This freeway joint-stock company had to construct a six-lane cross-section (type B, 31 m wide) between Milan and the Lainate junction, which was planned now to a multi-level Sesto Calende and Como (Figure 24). It was also responsible for the particularly eyecatching advertising and agency ticket sales at the time. The company „Società Esercizi Telefoni Autostrade“ (SETA), which was also founded, operated open-air telephone lines and was involved in „telephone systems and any other acoustic means of transportation along the road network“, which brought in additional income. PURICELLI repeatedly announced that the expected positive business results would soon outweigh the many skeptics who „had less confidence in the company than the founders of the autostrade [... and who had even] made some people smile“ [PURICELLI 1925, p. 41]. Nevertheless, the revenues of Autostrade Ltd. in no way covered the capital requirements of the company as a whole. Although the cost estimate had been based on a traffic load of 1,000 vehicles per day, and 800 vehicles per day were already using the autostrade on September 30, 1925, the income was not sufficient to cover the costs given the calculated traffic load (Table 2). The attempt to achieve capital coverage through fare increases failed because customers avoided the autostrade all the more as a result. As early as August 1933, it was and formation of columns were compulsory at all entry and exit points and level junctions or at special signs (e.g. roadworks). Autostrade supervisors were treated in the same way as civil servants. In addition to the statutory penalty, anyone who used the facilities without authorization was fined up to 1,000 lire, and also quite recently: in the event of resistance to keeping the road clear, Autostrade Ltd. had to call in the security forces. The concession agreement of Dcember 17, 1922 also made it possible to use the autostrade for other purposes that were compatible with public use (e.g. passenger and goods transportation, sales agencies at home and abroad, advertising or lateral cable laying). As early as 1925, the year it opened, Autostrade Ltd. had therefore founded a separate company called „Società Autostradale Trasporti ed Esercizi Diversi“ (SATED) (or simply: Autostradale), which from then on used buses to transport passengers and goods from Milan to Varese, Table 2: The traffic load on the autostrade to the upper Italian lakes [S. p. A. 1984, p. 45] Ongoing No. Year Total annual trips Vehicles per day 0 1 2 3 1 1926 421.405 1.115 2 1927 463.031 1.268 3 1928 546.512 1.497 Figure 23: Overview of the 17 main and secondary guard posts (with km indication), important bridges and partial route tariff areas of the autostrade Milan - Upper Italian lakes (reconstruction 2024) [Graphic: PETER GOMBAR and Dr. W. F. JAEGER] Figure 24: Bus of the newly founded Autostradale company for passenger and goods traffic on the northern Italian autostrade [PURICELLI 1925, p. 40]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 38 FORUM  History 9 PIERO PURICELLI, the „King of the autostrade“ a central figure of the time Of the dozen or so protagonists of the northern Italian autostrade, PIERO PURICELLI (Figure 28) (born on April 4, 1883, died May 8, 1951, both in Milan) is considered the outstanding personality under whose responsibility the local autostrade of the 1920s was planned, built and operated. He was born the son of ANGELO PURICELLI and CAR- LOTTA COMBI, learned several languages (including English and German) and later attended the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zurich, from which he graduated as an engineer in 1905. After graduating, PURICEL- LI joined his family‘s construction company and soon took over its management. In 1917/ 18, at his instigation, a laboratory for road construction materials was set up at the TCI, well ahead of similar developments in other European and North American economic regions. In addition to his commitment to the autostrade, he planned and built the Monza motor racing circuit together with ALFREDO ROSELLI in 1922 to mark the 25th anniversary of the Milan Automobile Club. PURICELLI, later also known as the „King of autostrade“, received many accolades for his achievements throughout his life: in 1927 he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Milan and on February 26,1929, at the suggestion of finally and conclusively converted into the new form of the „second generation“ (seconda generazione) freeways (Figure 27). A number of modernized, multi-level junctions with the downstream road network were not put into operation until after the line had been reconstructed. This was followed by the Legano North junction on December 18, 1967, Origgio on December 21, 1967 and Arese on May 4, 1970. 1963 also saw the start of construction work on the extension of the freeway from Como towards Switzerland (or Basel), which had already been planned as a car road by PURICELLI. The Como - Grandate section of the freeway was opened to traffic on December 24, 1968 and the cross-border extension to Chiasso on December 1, 1971. The border crossing to Switzerland (Chiasso/ Brogeda) was then also open to trucks for the first time on February 12, 1973. The extension of the Sesto Calende branch (A 8/ A 26 Dir) beyond Vergiate to the A 26 freeway (Gravellona Toce/ Verbania - Genova-Voltri) was opened on December 21, 1988. Incidentally, a former section of the autostrada (now state road SS 707) between Vigano and the center of Varese (called „Via Autostrada“) still largely has the original PURICELLI cross-section and is therefore worth a historical detour during a vacation in Italy. With the transition to the 21st century and the renewed increase in traffic volumes, the freeways of northern Italy underwent further changes. The Milan - Musocco and Musocco - Lainate sections have now been widened to eight lanes, and the Lainate - Gallarate and Lainate - Como sections now also have six-lane cross-sections. The Lainate and Gallarate freeway interchanges have also been reconstructed. At the Gallarate freeway interchange, the main lanes were aligned with the Milan - Sesto Calende route and vice versa during the most recent conversion, meaning that almost the entire historic, at-grade PURICELLI junction at Gallarate is located next to the current freeway and is also worth a historical detour. intersection, and a four-lane cross-section (type A, 24 m wide) on all other branches up to Azzate-Buguggiate, Como and Vergiate. Although an attempt was made to keep the future freeway axis as close as possible to the existing road layout, it was nevertheless necessary to relocate the alignment due to the insertion of modern alignment elements (e.g. larger minimum radii or clothoids). In the elevation plan, the trough and crest radii were generally increased to 5,000 m and 10,000 m respectively (achieving a minimum stopping sight distance of around 300 m). These traffic safety requirements meant that the old and new upper edges of the carriageway differed in height by up to 2 m. The new bridges were always built at a distance of around 3 m from the old structures. The (replacement) construction of new underpasses was carried out in separate construction stages for each directional carriageway. In the case of overpasses, the old structures were demolished and steel superstructures were lifted onto new abutments during a full closure lasting around four hours. In the case of large structures (e.g. the „Villa De Fernet“ tunnel (Figures 25 and 26)), several construction phases with different traffic routes were generally required for the new replacements or conversions. The latter also applied to the conversion of the Lainate and Gallarate junctions, which had previously been at the same level, into modern freeway junctions. The section-by-section construction of the new directional lanes progressed rapidly between the Lainate and Como junctions, so that this branch (A 9) could be opened to traffic in December 1964 with a four-lane freeway cross-section. The other sections from Milan via Gallarate to Azzate-Buguggiate (A 8) and to Vergiate were opened to traffic on December 28, 1965. At the same time, not only was the existing traditional, closed toll system converted into a semiopen system, but on this day, all „first generation“ (prima generazione) autostrade in Italy, which were built before 1945, were Figure 25: The tunnel under the “Villa De Fernet” in Olgiate Olona in the 1950s before the addition of a second carriageway [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER]. Figure 26: When the old Laghi autostrade were converted to two lanes, the tunnel under the gardens of the “Villa De Fernet” near Olgiate Olona had to be demolished in 1963/ 64 and adapted to the wider crosssection [S. p. A. 1990, p. 94]. Figure 27: Expansion of the 11.00 m wide section of the Laghi autostrade to a freeway cross-section near Besnate in 1963: Construction-related transfer of traffic from the old autostrada to the newly constructed directional lane [S. p. A. 1990, p. 94]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 39 History  FORUM te Archives (Munich State Archive), among others. Of the approximately 200,000 final document sheets at the Munich State Archive, around 150,000 sheets have already been indexed in depth. Further in-depth indexing is currently being continued. There is no doubt that an astonishing number of elements of the autostrade in fundamental aspects of planning, but above all in construction and operation are very similar to the practice later followed on the German autobahns. It is to the great credit of PURICELLI and his fellow campaigners that they studied these elements in detail in the USA beforehand and then, with the help of science, business and politics, implemented a concrete example of their application the autostrade in Italy. In principle, however, no conclusive assessment of the above-mentioned criteria should be made at this point, as further scientific contributions will be required in the coming years in any case based on the status of the research conducted by QK 5.1. 11 Outlook PURICELLI‘s autostrade had attracted the attention of governments, associations, scientific communities, industry, etc. worldwide. In the USA, where, in PURICELLI‘s view, „the truly colossal development of automobile traffic has already automatically, if not yet completely, replaced the [... rules] of roads to car-only roads“, the development of public mobility infrastructure was already very far advanced, which was now also to characterize the Italian autostrade, even if the „King of the autostrade“ recognized that: „This urge to activity that prevails in Italy is running a little ahead of needs“ [PURICELLI 1925, p. 43]. At about the same time, the discussion about freeways had reached parliament in England in 1924/ 25. In France and Germany, associations and committees were formed in 1924/ 25 partly due to the influence of Italy - (including the Studiengesellschaft fuer Automobilstrassenbau (Stufa), which later became the Forschungsgesellschaft fuer Strassen- und Verkehrswesen (FGSV) e. V.), which from then on provided an important basis for the need for urgent improvements in the road system in public and research. Interest groups were subsequently formed in Egypt, Argentina, Spain and Portugal, which took the Italian autostrade as a model for their own efforts. According to PURICELLI, the pleasing result for the start of the autostrade and the understanding of the importance of car roads in Italy as a whole had „left such a lasting impression“ that by the end of 1925 a whole series of new autostrade plans had already been launched, which will be reported on again in due course in the continuation of the „A hundred years ago“ series of articles. ■ mobile, which in contrast to the railroad only emerged in a decades-long development process in the first half of the 20th century and which served for further development until general design standards on the way to the freeway road classification became more and more established. Terms such as car-only roads, freeway precursors or motor vehicle roads can generally be equated historically, as these traffic routes assuming they were not built on often still lacked one or more criteria that were required for a freeway according to general expectations in the 20th century. At the Road and Transportation Research Association (Forschungsgesellschaft fuer Strassen- und Verkehrswesen) (FGSV), its committee (Querschnittsausschuss) QA 5 „History of Roads and Transport“ contributed to analyzing a significant and very extensive part of this historical process with its long-standing series of publications, especially under the editorship of Prof. Dr.-Ing. WOLFGANG WIRTH. The research on freeways will now be continued in the FGSV committee (Querschnittskreis) QK 5.1 Freeway History, which was founded in 2020 and was thus established to document historical links to overarching national and international development trends [JAEGER 2021, p. 764]. In July 2005, ROLAND GABRIEL published a first scientific evaluation scheme at the FGSV on the extent to which freeway criteria are fulfilled or not in the case of freeway forerunners [GABRIEL 2005, p. 59-61]. Over the past five years, the QK 5.1 Freeway History has come to the conclusion that GABRIEL‘s evaluation scheme already provides a very good starting point for further research. An in-depth analysis of QK 5.1 on this topic is about two thirds complete. In the case of QK 5.1 Freeway history, it is viewed critically to refer to freeway forerunners as „early autobahns“, as this could give the impression that the absence of one or more criteria could not even completely rule out classification as a freeway in certain cases. There is agreement, however, that an optimal and reliable data basis must be available for a realistic assessment of all criteria, which is currently being carried out by means of literature evaluation and archive review. In this comprehensive review of (original) documents in various archives and libraries, QK 5.1, among others, is currently exploring new and previously unfamiliar avenues. Entire archive collections from departments that were involved in the planning and construction of route sections at an early stage play a special role here, such as the in-depth evaluation of the records of the former Supreme Construction Management (Oberste Bauleitung) of the Reichsautobahnen in Munich, which is currently being carried out at the Bavarian Stathe Fascist party, he became a senator and thus a member of the Italian Senate. Senator PURICELLI traveled to many countries, including Germany several times to propagate the idea of car-only roads there as well. On May 4,1938, he was awarded an honorary doctorate (Dr. h. c.) from the Technical University of Berlin-Charlottenburg. In 1940, PURICELLI was appointed hereditary count by the Italian Emperor and King and was henceforth known as PURICELLI, Count of Lomnago. He was also the founder of the „Puricelli Foundation“ (Fondazione PU- RICELLI), which ran specialist courses in road construction at the Milan University of Technology. The Italian Supreme Court for Sanctions against Fascism dismissed PURICELLI as a senator in 1945 and accused the autostrade inventor of supporting the political movement and sharing responsibility for the events of the war. The prosecution ended in July 1946 with an acquittal of the charge of collaboration. His early death at the age of 68 in 1951 caused consternation among experts and prompted numerous publications on the life‘s work of the Italian engineer, who was already world-famous at the time. 10 Were the autostrade to the northern Italian lakes the first freeways of the world? As already explained in more detail in issue IV/ 2021 of this journal, PAUL HAFEN in his 1956 work „Das Schrifttum ueber die deutschen Autobahnen“ (The literature on German freeways) consistently referred to car-only roads as „forerunners of freeways“ [HAFEN 1956, pp. 1-35]. Scientifically, the freeway precursor is defined as the exclusive high-speed traffic route for the auto- Figure 28: Portrait of the world-famous road engineer and “King of the autostrade” PIERO PURICELLI (1888 - 1951) [S. p. A. 1984, p. 21] DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 40 FORUM  History USA“, in: „Die Autobahn von der Idee zur Wirklichkeit“, Archiv fuer die Geschichte des Strassen- und Verkehrswesens, Heft 19, pp. 63-76, FGSV publishing house, Cologne 2005 THORZ, PAUL: „Die Automobilstrassen Mailand - Lombardische Seen“, in: Der Bauingenieur (6.) 1925, p. 977/ 978 VANDONE, ITALO: „Il problemo economico ed amministrativo della strada di fronte all‘incremento del traffico automobilistico“, in: Le Strade 1921, p. 288 - 295 VANDONE, ITALO: „Le ‚autostrada‘ da Milano ai laghi lombardi“; in: Le Strade 1923, pp. 33-37 WILIMEK, RUDOLF: „Lastautostrasse statt Eisenbahn”; in: Betonstrasse (8) 1933, p. 88/ 89 Special thanks go to Mr. Peter Gombar from Grafing near Munich for the time-consuming processing and restoration of pictures and drawings. KLINKMANN, G. H.: „Strassenbau in Italien“; in: Bitumen (4) 1934, p.113 - 119 MOLL, Ministerialrat a. D.: „Gesetzgebung und Finanzierung fuer Wege des Kraftwagenverkehrs“; in: Der Strassenbau (16) 1925, No. 1 (October), p. 18 - 25 MORAGLIO, MASSIMO: „Storia delle prime autostrade italiane (1922-1943)“, Nuova Trauben Edizioni, Turin 2007 N. N. (G. R.): „Der Schoepfer der italienischen Strassen zum Grafen ernannt“; in: Der Strassenbau (31) 1940, No. 5 (March 1, 1940), p. 60 PURICELLI, PIERO: „Autostrade“ (German edition), art and publishing house Bestetti e Tumminelli, Rome and Milan 1925 PURICELLI, PIERO: „Entwurf fuer ein europaeisches Autostrassennetz“; in: Die Strasse (1) 1934, No. 2 (1st September issue), p. 42 - 45 PURICELLI, PIERO: „Rete stradale per autoveicolo Milano - Lago di Como, Milano - Varese, Milano - Lago Maggiore. Relazione“, published by Umberto Grioni, Milan 1922 Società anonima Autostrade: „Le autostrade da Milano ai Laghi“, Milan 1923 S. p. A. per l‘Autostrada Serravalle - Milano - Ponte Chiasso: „1924-1935 Le autostrade della prima generazione“ (The car roads of the first generation 1924-1935), published by Arti Grafiche Leva A. & G., Milan 1984 S. p. A. per l‘Autostrada Serravalle - Milano - Ponte Chiasso: „1955-1975 Le autostrade della seconda generazione“ (The freeways of the second generation 1955-1975), published by Arti Grafiche Leva A. & G., Milan 1990 THEWALT, ALEXANDER: „Projekte der Autobahnfruehzeit im Ausland - Beispiele aus Italien und den LITERATURE Camera di commercio ed industria di Milano: „La strada permanente diretta Milano - Venezia“, Rovere publishing house, Milan 1921 GABRIEL, ROLAND: „Deutsche Autobahnvorlaeufer AVUS, HAFRABA, Munich - Leipzig - Berlin, Leipzig - Halle, Duesseldorf - Cologne - Bonn u. a.“, in: „Die Autobahn von der Idee zur Wirklichkeit“, Archiv fuer die Geschichte des Strassen- und Verkehrswesens, Heft 19, p. 24-62, FGSV publishing house, Cologne 2005 GABRIEL, ROLAND: „Dem Auto eine Bahn - Deutsche ‚Nurautostrassen‘ vor 1933“, Archiv fuer die Geschichte des Strassen- und Verkehrswesens, Heft 23, FGSV publishing house, Cologne 2010 HAFEN, PAUL: „Das Schrifttum ueber die deutschen Autobahnen“, Forschungsarbeiten aus dem Strassenwesen, Neue Folge Band 19, edited for the FGSV e. V. by Ernst Goerner, Ferdinand Duemmlers publishing house, Bonn 1956 HORSTER, Mayor Dr. jur. Dr. phil.: „Die Automobil- Bahnstrasse [Autobahn] als Wirtschafts-, Finanzierungs- und Verwaltungsproblem“; in: Der Strassenbau (16) 1925, No. 2 (November), p. 35 - 41 JAEGER, WOLFGANG F.: „Der Streckenentwurf der Reichsautobahnen - Eine ingenieurtechnische Analyse auf der Grundlage ausgewaehlter Archivbestaende“, Archiv fuer die Geschichte des Strassen- und Verkehrswesens, Heft 26, FGSV publishing house, Cologne 2013 JAEGER, WOLFGANG F.: „Vor 100 Jahren: War die Avus die erste Autobahn? “; in: Strasse & Autobahn (72.) 2021, p. 755 - 764, Kirschbaum publishing house, Bonn JELMONI, FRANCESCO AIMONE: „La Revista della Strada“, Rome and Milan 1974 Wolfgang F. Jaeger, Dr.-Ing., Head of the committee (Querschnittskreis) QK 5.1 Freeway History of the Road and Transportation Research Association (Forschungsgesellschaft fuer Strassen- und Verkehrswesen (FGSV), Koeln (Cologne) buero.dr.jaeger@gmx.de DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 41 History  FORUM