<?page no="0"?> narr studienbücher Sabine Fiedler English Phraseology A Coursebook narr studienbücher Fiedler English Phraseology This book introduces students of English to one of the most fascinating and at the same time most difficult parts of language: Phraseology. Commonly known as phrases and idioms, phraseological units are fascinating because of their colourful authenticity and the insight they provide into a language community’s culture and history. Due to their frequently unpredictable meanings and their connotations these units are problematic, especially for foreign learners. The book was conceived for university classes as a coursebook with exercises, but it can also be used for self-study. It familiarizes readers with the key concepts in phraseology research and examines the behaviour and functions of phraseological units in discourse. With more than 200 examples drawn from a wide variety of written and spoken sources (including, above all, literary texts, newspapers, advertisements, comics, and films), the book illustrates the significant role that phraseology plays in the English language. ISBN 978-3-8233-6338-5 047807 Stud. Fiedler: 047807 Stud. Fiedler Umschlag 12.07.2007 13: 58 Uhr Seite 1 <?page no="1"?> narr studienbücher 047807 Stud. Fiedler: 047807 Stud. Fiedler Titelei 12.07.2007 13: 58 Uhr Seite 1 <?page no="2"?> Sabine Fiedler English Phraseology A Coursebook Gunter Narr Verlag Tübingen 047807 Stud. Fiedler: 047807 Stud. Fiedler Titelei 12.07.2007 13: 58 Uhr Seite 3 <?page no="3"?> PD Dr. Sabine Fiedler ist Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin am Institut für Anglistik der Universität Leipzig. Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über <http: / / dnb.d-nb.de> abrufbar. © 2007 · Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG Dischingerweg 5 · D-72070 Tübingen Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages unzulässig und strafbar. Das gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. Gedruckt auf chlorfrei gebleichtem und säurefreiem Werkdruckpapier. Internet: http: / / www.narr-studienbuecher.de E-Mail: info@narr.de Druck: Gulde, Tübingen Bindung: Nädele, Nehren Printed in Germany ISSN 0941-8105 ISBN 978-3-8233-6338-5 047807 Stud. Fiedler: 047807 Stud. Fiedler Titelei 12.07.2007 13: 58 Uhr Seite 4 <?page no="4"?> Contents Preface ................................................................................................. 7 Introduction (by Rosemarie Gläser) ................................................ 9 1 What is Phraseology? ........................................................................ 15 1.1 Terminology ....................................................................................... 15 1.2 The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) ................ 17 1.2.1 Polylexemic structure ........................................................................ 17 1.2.2 Stability ................................................................................................ 19 1.2.3 Lexicalization ...................................................................................... 21 1.2.4 Idiomaticity ......................................................................................... 22 1.2.5 Connotations ....................................................................................... 23 1.2.6 Transformational deficiencies .......................................................... 26 1.2.7 Other types of anomalies .................................................................. 27 Exercises .............................................................................................. 29 2 Classification ....................................................................................... 35 2.2 Conventional types of PUs in the majority of systemic descriptions ......................................................................................... 39 2.2.1 Phraseological nominations ............................................................. 39 2.2.2 (Irreversible) Binomials ..................................................................... 40 2.2.3 Stereotyped comparisons .................................................................. 43 2.2.4 Proverbs .............................................................................................. 44 2.2.5 Winged words .................................................................................... 47 2.2.6 Routine formulae ............................................................................... 50 2.3 Special types of PUs ........................................................................... 51 2.3.1 Paraphrasal verbs ............................................................................... 51 2.3.2 (Restricted) Collocations ................................................................... 51 2.3.3 Rhyming Slang ................................................................................... 53 2.3.4 Wellerisms .......................................................................................... 54 2.4 An onomasiological approach: PUs with special elements ......... 55 2.4.1 PUs containing colour terms ............................................................ 55 2.4.2 PUs containing designations of parts of the body ......................... 57 2.4.3 PUs containing proper names .......................................................... 59 Exercises .............................................................................................. 63 3 Phraseology in Use ............................................................................ 71 3.1 PUs as text constituents ..................................................................... 71 3.2 Functions of PUs ................................................................................ 78 3.2.1 Journalistic texts ................................................................................. 78 3.2.2 Literary texts ....................................................................................... 85 3.3 Metacommunicative signals ............................................................. 87 <?page no="5"?> Contents 6 3.4 Marked uses of PUs ........................................................................... 90 3.4.1 Modifications ...................................................................................... 90 3.4.2 Playing with deliberate ambiguity .................................................. 97 3.4.3 PUs in combination ............................................................................ 104 3.4.4 Non-verbal representations of PUs ................................................. 104 3.4.5 PUs and proper names ...................................................................... 107 Exercises .............................................................................................. 109 4 Phraseology and Translation ............................................................ 115 4.1 The PU as a translation problem ...................................................... 115 4.2 The translation process ..................................................................... 117 4.3 Translation techniques ...................................................................... 122 Exercises .............................................................................................. 132 Supplements (by Rosemarie Gläser) ............................................... 137 Answer key ......................................................................................... 143 List of figures and pictures ............................................................... 173 Abbreviations ..................................................................................... 174 Sources ................................................................................................. 175 Bibliography ....................................................................................... 179 Glossary of linguistic terms .............................................................. 189 Index .................................................................................................... 195 <?page no="6"?> Preface 8 idiomatic dictionaries I have used: the Collins COBUILD Idiom Dictionary (2002), the Longman Dictionary of English Idioms (1979), and the Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English (Volume 2: Phrase, Clause & Sentence Idioms) (1983). I wish to thank my academic teacher and mentor Professor Rosemarie Gläser for her valuable critical comments on the text. It was her comprehensive textbook Phraseologie der englischen Sprache (1986/ 1990) that aroused my enthusiasm for the topic, and I am deeply grateful for the joy and excitement phraseology has brought me since then. I greatly appreciate Rosemarie Gläser’s valuable introduction to this book as well as her supplements, in which she casts light on traditions in phraseology research and gives an indepth overview of phraseological units in English for specific purposes and in the national standard varieties of English. Special thanks go to Catherine Sharpe, Peter Tosic, and James Kerr, who helped in various ways in the preparation of the manuscript. I would also like to thank the editorial and production team at Gunter Narr Verlag for their professional support. Needless to say, any shortcomings and inadequacies that still remain are entirely my own. Last but by no means least, I would like to thank the students at Leipzig University and at Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main who have participated in my courses on English phraseology. This is for two reasons. Firstly, they have served as guinea pigs for most of the material presented in this book, including the exercises. Secondly, their concrete contributions to our classes have been a valuable addition. In order to enlarge our phraseological stock and to gain an understanding of the significant role of phraseology in language we established the tradition of starting each lesson with the presentation of three units drawn from the press, from literature, music, film, and other spheres of life as the basis for the nomination of an Idiom of the Week. Some of the students’ ‘finds’ have now been integrated into this book. I would welcome feedback on this book at sfiedler@uni-leipzig.de. Leipzig, July 2007 Sabine Fiedler <?page no="7"?> Preface This book deals with one of the most fascinating and at the same time most difficult aspects of language: phraseology. Known as phrases and idioms, phraseological units are fascinating because of the tone and colour they give the vocabulary and the insight they provide into the history of a language community and its culture. Due to their frequently unpredictable meanings and their connotations these units are problematic, especially for foreign learners. As pervasive features of a language, they must be considered important items in classroom teaching. The target of this book is to offer students of English a course in phraseology. It can be used either for self-study or as a coursebook. English Phraseology has a dual intention. Firstly, it introduces students to the most important theoretical concepts in phraseology research. Secondly, the book examines the behaviour and main functions of phraseological units in discourse. In Chapter 1 the main characteristics of phraseological units will be discussed. Chapter 2 is devoted to different types of classification. Chapter 3 deals with the attested usage of phraseology. The examples have been drawn from a wide variety of written and spoken sources. These include literary texts, newspapers, magazines, films, recorded conversation, and radio and television programmes. They represent both formal and informal registers and reflect usage in different varieties of English. Chapter 4 focuses on phraseology and translation. Each chapter is accompanied by practical exercises to help students improve their knowledge and command of phrases and idioms, and on a higher level to encourage research into specific linguistic fields with respect to phraseology. The exercises are supplemented by an answer key at the end of the book. English Phraseology is not only aimed at university students, but may also be suitable for meeting the needs of learners at other levels and at different institutions of English language teaching. With this aim in mind, explanations have been kept as simple as possible. The focus of the book is on idioms because they are the main source for creative use and stylistic effects, as text analyses have shown. With about 200 examples, found in common usage and explained in detail, the book may also serve as a reference book in a broader sense for all learners interested both in curiosities in language (as found in idioms and phrases) and eventually in how the English language actually works. This coursebook draws on the achievements of many phraseology researchers. In the bibliography, I have tried to include the published works that helped to develop this linguistic sub-discipline, and I apologize for any omissions in this respect. My greatest debt is owed to the authors of the three <?page no="8"?> Introduction (by Rosemarie Gläser) The present coursebook on English Phraseology by Sabine Fiedler continues a tradition in phraseology research linked with the University of Leipzig, where the author spent her formative years which have shaped her academic career and her research interest in this field ever since. At the beginning of the 1980s the trend-setting textbooks on phraseology as a linguistic discipline in German and English were Phraseologie der deutschen Gegenwartssprache by Wolfgang Fleischer (Leipzig 1982) and Phraseologie der englischen Sprache by Rosemarie Gläser (Potsdam 1981), the precursor of the enlarged version of 1986. The descriptions of the systems of Russian and French phraseology were presented in comprehensive chapters in textbooks on lexicology, which were published nearly at the same time. Rainer Eckert provided a survey on Russian phraseology in the textbook Die russische Sprache der Gegenwart, volume Lexikologie (Leipzig 1978). And the corresponding chapter on French phraseology appeared in the textbook Französische Lexikologie. Eine Einführung (Leipzig 1983) written by Ulrich Ricken. To a certain extent, the theory and methodology of the textbooks on German and English phraseology were also influenced by research work flourishing in the Soviet Union at that time, notably by a lively exchange of ideas with scholars such as I.I. Černyševa for German and A.V. Kunin for English phraseology. A fresh and lasting impetus to corpus-based phraseological studies in English came from English lexicography, particularly the Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English. Vol. 1 Verbs with Prepositions and Particles by A.P. Cowie and R. Mackin, London 1975, and the Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English. Vol. 2 Phrase, Clause and Sentence Idioms by A.P. Cowie, R. Mackin and I.R. McCaig, Oxford etc. 1983. These reference books updated the Longman Dictionary of English Idioms by Thomas Hill et al., Harrow and London 1979, and subsequently became an invaluable source of information. They provided the necessary data base for the linguistic description of the properties of phraseological units, their classification and communicative function. An important asset of these dictionaries was and still is that idioms and phrases are also quoted in their textual environment. From the very start, my textbook Phraseologie der englischen Sprache (English Phraseology) was designed as the complementary volume to the textbook Englische Lexikologie. Eine Einführung in Wortbildung und lexikalische Semantik by Barbara Hansen, Klaus Hansen, Albrecht Neubert and Manfred Schentke (Leipzig 1982), a joint project conducted at the Academy of Sciences in (East) Berlin. The authors’ intention was to discuss key problems of lexicol- <?page no="9"?> Introduction (by Rosemarie Gläser) 10 ogy and phraseology in the same theoretical framework, to apply semantic and structural categories in the same way and to harmonize terminology. In this respect, the two textbooks were a considerable achievement to the user’s benefit. Whereas the textbook Englische Lexikologie was strictly focused on the description of word formation and semantics in terms of systemic linguistics, i.e. in the language system, my textbook on Phraseologie der englischen Sprache deliberately widened the scope of discussion to communicative linguistics by including independent chapters on the communicative function of phraseological units, and on phraseological units as a translation problem. This broader perspective resulted in quite a number of follow-up studies on aspects of phraseology which I could not treat in depth in my 1986 textbook. By and large, these include five main topics. (1) Contrastive analysis of English and German phraseological units In this field my attention was focused on false friends (Gläser 1999a and 2000). We know from experience that these lexical units may be pitfalls for the foreign learner, the translator, and the interpreter. A general distinction is made between total false friends (Engl. as free as a bird [‘completely free’] as opposed to German vogelfrei [sein] [‘to be an outlaw’]) and partial false friends (Engl. to live in the street [‘to be on the go all the time’] as opposed to German auf der Straße leben [‘to be homeless’]). The German equivalent to the first-mentioned English idiom would be ständig auf den Beinen/ auf Achse sein. The misleading semantic similarity of constituents in both languages leads the reader or listener to premature conclusions of equivalence and a wrong interpretation of the whole phrase. For further comments see Chapter 4.1 in the coursebook. (2) Phraseological units as translation problems in literary texts The general problems which arise for the translation of a phraseological unit in ? a ? literary ? text ? were ? briefly ? discussed ? in ? an ? earlier ? publication ? (Gläser 1984) before they were given more prominence in my textbook (Gläser 1986a). A previous study on the translation of routine formulae from English into German (Gläser 1987) was elaborated into a trilingual comparison of these phraseological units in German, English and French (Gläser 1999b). In a phraseological ? analysis ? of ? the ? English ? and ? French ? translations ? of ? select ? novels written by Christa Wolf, I put special emphasis on the rendering of routine formulae in her documentary book Was bleibt/ What remains/ Ce qui reste. This article appeared in the proceedings of a conference devoted to „Phraseologie und Übersetzen” (Phraseology and Translating), held at the University of Hildesheim in 1997 and organized by the Romance phraseologist and editor, <?page no="10"?> Introduction (by Rosemarie Gläser) 11 Annette Sabban (1999). Further translatory aspects of phraseological units will be discussed in Chapter 4. (3) The stylistic value and effect of phraseological units in various text forms and genres As early as 1986 I published a programmatic paper entitled “A Plea for Phraseo-Stylistics” in which I put strong emphasis on the stylistic value of phraseological units in their textual environment. Idioms lend themselves to playful modifications, and proverbs and quotations may be the source of intertextual allusions. In the chapter of my textbook which dealt with the communicative function ? of ? phraseological ? units ? in ? various ? text ? forms, ? I ? could ? only ? give ? typical ? examples ? from ? newspaper ? texts, ? prose ? fiction ? and ? scientific/ technical discourse. A broader survey, however, was provided in my paper entitled “The Stylistic Potential of Phraseological Units in the Light of Genre Analysis” (Gläser 1998), which appeared in the proceedings of a phraseology conference organized by the British lexicographer A.P. Cowie at the University of Leeds in 1994. My enlarged text corpus included popular-scientific articles, academic-scientific monographs, student textbooks, commercial advertisements, and texts of prose fiction. This aspect will be elaborated in greater detail in Chapter 3.2 of this coursebook. (4) Phraseological units in the language for special purposes of presentday English In my 1986 book, my main concern were phraseological units in English for general purposes (EGP), i.e. the general language of present-day usage. Set expressions in specialist discourse, in job-specific subject areas, however, were only mentioned in passing in connection with non-idiomatic phrases and terminological word groups. On closer inspection, phraseological units in the language for general purposes (LGP) and the language for special purposes (LSP) differ in their semantic and pragmatic properties. The distinction results in different definitions of the phraseological unit in LGP and LSP. Moreover, there is a striking contrast in the classification systems of phraseological units in English for general purposes (EGP) and English for special purposes (ESP). Whereas EGP has a fully elaborated phraseological system with regard to the types of phrases, ESP is characterized by a restricted phraseological system (cf. Gläser 1995, 2007). This complex interdependence will be analysed in the supplement of this book. <?page no="11"?> Introduction (by Rosemarie Gläser) 12 (5) Phraseological units in overseas varieties The title of my textbook Phraseologie der englischen Sprache and that of the present students’ coursebook English Phraseology by Sabine Fiedler may suggest that the authors based their description and instruction on a clearly defined concept of the English language. In fact, publishers of English textbooks and dictionaries take it as a tacit assumption that their products disseminate the standard variety of English spoken on the British Isles. Upon closer inspection, however, the term English is an abstraction, a generalization and even a simplification, a kind of umbrella term, in view of the multitude of Englishes scattered throughout the British Commonwealth of Nations - beyond the territorial boundaries of British English to the modified standards which developed in the remote overseas countries of the former British colonies. In ? addition ? to ? specific ? features ? of ? vocabulary, ? overseas ? standard ? varieties ? of ? English ? have ? brought ? forth ? idioms ? and ? phrases ? of ? their ? own. ? These phraseological units designate items of indigenous culture, of native flora and fauna, ? phenomena ? of ? climate, ? and ? last ? but ? not ? least, ? life ? itself ? in ? overseas settlements past and present. In this field I did some preliminary and selective research on 1) the phraseology of American English (Gläser 1991, 1992) 2) the phraseology of Australian English (Gläser 1999c) 3) the phraseology of New Zealand English (Gläser 1999c) and 4) the phraseology of South African English (Gläser 2002). Such studies could be expanded into the phraseology of Canadian, Indian, West African and Caribbean English, etc. There is ample opportunity for ongoing research. Comments and examples will be given in the supplement of this coursebook. To a certain extent, Sabine Fiedler applied results of my later publications on the topics mentioned above in her numerous empirical studies. On a much larger scale she discussed international current issues of phraseology research in her monograph Plansprache und Phraseologie. Empirische Untersuchungen zu reproduziertem Sprachmaterial im Esperanto (Planned Language and Phraseology. Empirical Research into Reproduced Language Material in Esperanto), published as her professorial thesis in 1999. With a more practical aim in mind, she aptly implemented the latest findings of phraseology research in her teaching material for university students of English, which may be regarded as the previous stage of the present volume. In her coursebook on English Phraseology Sabine Fiedler has broken new ground. Unlike earlier authors of practical exercise books on English idioms she has aimed at capturing the essentials of theory and methodology in English phraseology as an academic subject and tried to incorporate these into an intricate framework of tasks. There is a lively interaction between <?page no="12"?> Introduction (by Rosemarie Gläser) 13 teacher and students, and theoretical passages are interspersed with assignments of graded complexity. Following the method of Gläser (1981/ 1986a), the author proceeds from word-like to sentence-like phraseological units and is fully aware of the interrelation between systemic and communicative linguistics. Her own description and classification of phraseological units are discussed in the light of different linguistic theories. The students are given a multitude of demanding tasks for finding out the stylistic values of idioms in all sorts of texts and to evaluate the adequacy of their rendering in a translation. Here again, the careful comparison of equivalents in the source and target language is a necessary previous step. As an experienced university teacher, Sabine Fiedler has used all her imaginative and creative capacity to set the students on a track towards exploring English phraseology for themselves. They are expected to make individual inquiries in libraries, to consult linguistic reference books or to browse through monographs. But there are also many stimulating illustrations in this teaching material which are based on punning with idioms. I am confident that teachers and students will share the author’s prime concern, which is to raise their awareness of and to rouse their enthusiasm for English phraseology. In this spirit, the book may be used to their best advantage, and they may receive from it both instruction and enjoyment. Dresden, July 2007 Rosemarie Gläser <?page no="14"?> 1 What is Phraseology? 1.1 Terminology The term ‘phraseology’ can be used, firstly, to name the field of study (phraseology research) and, secondly, to denote the set of linguistic units that are investigated in this field. The latter consist of phraseological units, which constitute the phrasicon, i.e. the block or inventory of idioms and phrases. Both meanings are relevant in this coursebook. The subject of our studies is the phraseological unit (PU). This term has been widely used recently, largely due to international cooperation between phraseology researchers and the dominant role the English language plays in the linguistic community. 1 It has to be considered of substantial significance that the term PU has equivalents in many languages, such as unité phraséologique in French, фразеологическая единица in Russian, phraseologische Einheit in German. In English-speaking research, idiom was the traditional term, as the titles of outstanding works on the topic illustrate (e.g. Idiom Formation by Charles Hockett 1956; Idiom Structure in English by Adam Makkai 1972; Longman Dictionary of English Idioms 1979). However, this term has rarely been applied to idiomatic units only, but also serves as a hyperonym to cover many kinds of conventional multi-word units. A glance at the Oxford English Dictionary (1989) shows us that the term idiom can be used in different ways: 1a. The form of speech peculiar or proper to a people or country; own language or tongue. 1b. In narrower sense: The variety of a language which is peculiar to a limited district or class of people, dialect. The specific character, property or genius of any language; the manner of expression which is natural or peculiar to it. 3a. A form of expression, grammatical construction, phrase etc. peculiar to a language; a peculiarity of phraseology approved by the usage of a language, and often having a significance other than its grammatical or logical one. 3b. A characteristic mode of expression in music, art or writing; an instance of this. 4. Specific form or property; peculiar nature; peculiarity. 5. Comb. Idiom neutral, an international language based on Volapük, devised chiefly by W. Rosenberger, and first published in English in 1903. 1 Cf., for example, the documents and publications of the European Society for Phraseology Research EUROPHRAS, and publications such as Naciscione (2001) and Allerton et al. (2004). <?page no="15"?> What is Phraseology? 16 Based on the meaning of the Greek word idiōma (‘peculiar feature’), the definitions quoted above pinpoint different aspects of an idiom. Whereas 1a and 1b reflect the more general uses of the term, which are described in modern linguistics as ‘dialect’ and ‘sociolect’, definition 2 refers to the traditional aim in language learning that sentences should be formed and used in the way a native speaker of that language would (cf. Stubbs 1997). In this sense, however, the whole language is to be considered idiomatic and there is no need for a term to characterize a special subgroup of linguistic units as such. Definitions 4 and 5 are irrelevant for the purpose of this book, since 4 refers to the general (i.e. non-linguistic) use of the word and 5 lists the name of a historical planned language project. It is, therefore, OED definition 3a that is the underlying definition for this book’s approach - describing an idiom as “a peculiarity of phraseology approved by the usage of a language, and often having a significance other than its grammatical or logical one”. Exercise (1) A review of phraseological dictionaries reveals that the term idiom (even when used in line with the OED definition 3a) is applied to very heterogeneous items, firstly, with regard to the structure of an idiom, and, secondly, to its characteristics of “having a signification other than its grammatical or logical one”. The Longman Dictionary of English Idioms (LDEI) (1979) and the Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English (ODCIE) (Cowie et al. 1983), for example, include items with both word group structure and sentence structure, and they do not differentiate idiomatic units from non-idiomatic ones. It is therefore necessary to discuss the term idiom and its relationship to phraseological unit in more detail. There are, however, still several competing expressions for phraseological units. As Anthony P. Cowie (1998: 161) puts it, “[i]n the complex and rapidly developing field of phraseology, widely differing views are held as to the nature and naming of the linguistic categories involved”. In a similar way, Rosamund Moon (1998: 19) points out that “there is no generally agreed set of categories, as well as no generally agreed set of terms”. The assessment “chaotische terminologische Vielfalt” (chaotic terminological variety) given by Klaus-Dieter Pilz (1981: 25) suggests that the same holds true for other languages, as well. In English, cliché, fixed expression, multi-word lexeme, phraseme, and set phrase are used synonymously with phraseological unit (cf. Burger et al. 2007). Further terms, such as saying, proverb, routine formula, are also applied to name specific subtypes of PUs. We shall resume this topic in Chapter 2, which deals with classifications. <?page no="16"?> The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) 17 1.2 The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) 1.2.1 Polylexemic structure PUs are polylexemic items, i.e. they consist of at least two independent words. Compare the following figure (based on Hansen et al. 1982: 13): flame flameproof an old flame Dutch Dutchman Dutch courage end endless a sticky end Figure 1: Word lexemes and PUs The polylexemic structure as a delimitation criterion is treated differently by scholars. Charles Bally noted this feature as early as 1909. Referring to the form of a PU, he wrote that a phraseological unit (“unité phraséologique”) could be recognized by the fact that “un groupe est composé de plusieurs mots séparés par l’écriture” (p. 75, original emphasis; ‘a group is composed of several separately written words’). Charles Hockett (1956; 1958), “the first linguist writing in English to examine idiom in the light of modern linguistic theory” (cf. Fernando/ Flavell 1981: 4), however, included every linguistic item as long as its meaning “is not deducible from its structure” - from the single morpheme to complete texts: lexeme word lexeme word-group lexeme / multi-word lexeme (PU) simple complex <?page no="17"?> What is Phraseology? 18 Let us momentarily use the term ‘Y’ for any grammatical form the meaning of which is not deducible from its structure. Any Y, in any occurrence in which it is not a constituent of a larger Y, is an idiom. A vast number of composite forms in any language are idioms. If we are to be consistent in our use of the definition, we are forced also to grant every morpheme idiomatic status, save when it is occurring as a constituent of a larger idiom, since a morpheme has no structure from which its meaning could be deduced. (Hockett 1958: 177) In contrast to Hockett, A. Healey (1968) excludes monomorphemic units from the definition of idioms. In his tagmemic classification, compounds are regarded as the lowest structural limit of idiomaticity, and sentences, such as proverbs and formulae, are seen as the upper limit. Compounds are also included by Adam Makkai (1972) (cf. 2.1). As a defining criterion of a PU, polylexemic structure is, in fact, controversial. It seems to be questionable whether it is correct to choose size, i.e. the orthographic structure, as a basis for separating PUs from nonphraseological items. Language use sometimes contradicts this principle. For example, a phraseological word group can be transformed into a compound (e.g. to pull the wires wire-puller; to catch sb.’s eye eye-catcher). Furthermore, there are often discrepancies between languages. Crocodile tears is a PU in English (as is крокодиловы слёзы in Russian and equivalent expressions are in other languages), but Krokodilstränen in German is a compound and, therefore, not part of the phrasicon. Nevertheless, it seems necessary to differentiate PUs from compounds, which are word lexemes that obey word formation rules. Expressions such as egghead or birdbrain share the features of idiomaticity (cf. 1.2.4) and connotative content (cf. 1.2.5) with PUs, but they are not accepted as part of the phrasicon. As compounds, they are the subject of word-formation. Therefore, the majority of phraseology researchers (e.g. Cowie 1998, Gläser 1986a, Moon 1998, Dobrovol’skij 1997, 2002) recognize the word group as the lower limit for PUs. As for the upper limit, PUs can take on the form of sentences, for example, proverbs such as An apple a day keeps the doctor away or A friend in need is a friend indeed. Quotations sometimes consist of several sentences and represent ‘microtexts’, such as He who can, does. He who cannot, teaches. 2 This quotation has acquired the status of a phraseological unit mainly because it is frequently alluded to (cf. example [1] [1] [1] [1] ) and because it has its legitimate entry in dictionaries (cf. Cowie et al. 1983: 553; Rees 1997: 497). The following text provides the communicative setting of this quotation by way of modification. 2 Cf. Bernhard Shaw ‘Maxims for Revolutionists’ in Man and Superman (1903: 260) <?page no="18"?> The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) 19 [1] [1] [1] [1] (Found in The Times 3 May 2001) 1.2.2 Stability The key feature which makes the PU distinctive from a random combination of words as a syntagma is its relative stability, i.e. its stable semantic and syntactic structure. In contrast to ad-hoc constructions, a PU is conventionalised in content and structure. Only over considerably long periods of time will PUs, if ever, change their meanings. As for the structure of a PU, substitution tests can be applied to prove the syntactic stability of a unit. Compare the following example: A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. *A sparrow in the hand is worth two in the bush. *A bird in the hand is worth three in the bush. *A bird in the cage is worth two in the bush. *A bird in the hand is worth two in the tree. <?page no="19"?> What is Phraseology? 20 Yet within definite constraints, PUs are variable. For this reason we call this defining criterion relative stability. There are structural variants, in which the use of function words (prepositions, determiners etc.) or the spelling may vary, e.g. by/ in leaps and bounds; (as) dry as a bone; (all) shipshape and Bristolfashion; sweet f.a./ Fanny Adams, or constituents inside the phrase can be used in the singular or plural, e.g. not darken sb.’s door(s); down the tube/ tubes; sow the dragon’s/ dragons’ teeth. In addition, lexical constituents (autosemantic elements such as nouns, verbs, adjectives etc.) can vary: e.g. to sweep sth. under the rug/ carpet; to burn one’s boats/ bridges (behind one) to throw/ cast pearls before swine; to fill/ fit the bill a bad/ rotten apple; break new/ fresh ground. There are also expressions where both grammatical and lexical elements can be varied: to put/ have/ lay a/ one’s finger to/ on one’s lips. So-called phraseological synonyms are a third type of variants. These are different PUs with an identical (or at least a similar) meaning. Let us take the verb ‘to die’ as an example. As a taboo in society, it has led to a large number of euphemistic expressions which are in fact PUs. 3 Compare, for instance, the following passage in Monty Python’s sketch The dead parrot: [2] [2] [2] [2] This parrot is no more. It has ceased to be. It’s expired and gone to meet its maker. This is a late parrot. It’s a stiff. Bereft of life, it rests in peace. If you hadn’t nailed it to the perch, it would be pushing up the daisies. It’s rung down the curtain and joined the choir invisible. This is an ex-parrot. The humour of this passage is mainly based on the obvious overuse of expressions with the meaning ‘to die’ and the fact that they represent very different stylistic levels. Further expressions, such as to pop one’s clogs or to kick the bucket, might be added. As the examples show, phraseological synonyms are based on different metaphorical images. To what extent they can be regarded as synonyms, i.e. as real equivalents, will be discussed later (cf. ch. 4.2). Suffice it to say at this stage that they are ‘near’ or ‘quasi’ synonyms. Exercise (2) 3 Cf., for example, Heidi Anders’s 342-page book NEVER SAY DIE - Englische Idiome um den Tod und das Sterben (1995). <?page no="20"?> The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) 21 1.2.3 Lexicalization Lexicalization is the term used to describe the fact that a PU is retained in the collective memory of a language community. This characteristic is closely related to its stability. As a fixed and ready-made unit, a PU is recognized and accepted as a part of the language. Phraseological word groups and sentences are memorized holistically (i.e. as a whole) by the language users. Thus, they are not produced anew as random sequences of words are, but only reproduced. This is also the reason why it is often sufficient to mention only a particular element of a PU as a cue. A reader seeing Great Earlybird Deals (The Weekend Australian 12/ 13 February 2005) in a travel agency advertisement will have no problems in understanding what is being offered, being well familiar with the proverb The early bird catches the worm; and Grapevine (Wetherspoon News Winter 2004) seems to be an ideal title for a column in a magazine announcing the latest gossip about celebrities (e.g. to hear sth. on the grapevine). The process of lexicalization of a PU as a multi-word designation is not very different from the lexicalization of a simple word lexeme (cf. Bauer 1983: 45-50). It may start with a nonce-formation: a new expression is coined by a speaker or writer to fill some immediate need in finding an appropriate word. The new coinage catches on, it is gradually used by other speakers and becomes accepted as a lexeme - a process that is often called ‘institutionalisation’. When it is lexicalized, it will be permanently incorporated into speakers’ mental lexicons, often adopting a specialist function as well as idiosyncratic meanings. Although lexicalization is closely linked with the currency and common usage of an expression in a language community, it does not mean that PUs are necessarily frequent. Corpus research has shown that “there are often wide discrepancies between implicit native-speaker knowledge of idioms, catchphrases, proverbs and other word-combinations and their frequency of occurrence in large-scale computer corpora” (Cowie 2003: 73). Furthermore, lexicalization does not necessarily mean codification in a dictionary. As the inventory of phrases, phraseology is unpredictable. New expressions are constantly making their way into language. In fact, PUs can originate in all fields of social life, such as entertainment (e.g. Shaken, not stirred; Play it again, Sam; blind date; Can I call a friend? ) or political events (e.g. velvet revolution; the axis of evil; shock and awe; old/ new Europe). Expressions like these have a tendency towards lexicalization. Some of them sink their roots in the language permanently, while others fall into disuse or disappear. It would not be appropriate to restrict the phrasicon of a language to expressions in dictionaries because, on the one hand, there are numerous innovative units that have not yet found their way into a dictionary due to their novelty and, on the other hand, reference books often contain <?page no="21"?> What is Phraseology? 22 obsolete material. As a result, lexicalization and reproducibility should not be misunderstood as a lack in productive and creative uses of PUs. This aspect will be elaborated in Chapter 3. Exercises (3) (4) (5) 1.2.4 Idiomaticity Idiomaticity is the term used to describe the common phenomenon that the meaning of an expression is difficult or even impossible to derive from the meanings of the constituents it is composed of. This phenomenon causes many problems for language learners, who usually know the meanings of all the words in a phrase (e.g. pull and leg) but are unable to deduce the meaning ‘to tease sb.’ of the expression to pull sb.’s leg. Florian Coulmas (1981a) describes idiomaticity as a universal property which a language needs to expand its expressive possibilities. It guarantees the functioning and flexibility of a language, which has to meet different communicative requirements in a changing world. Idiomaticity is treated here as an intralinguistic feature. Thus expressions such as to hit the nail on the head or to lose one’s head are idiomatic in English because their meanings ‘say sth. that exactly describes a situation’ and ‘become confused/ lose control of oneself’ cannot be decoded on the basis of their elements, and it is of marginal importance that there are similar expressions in other languages which might help us to understand them (cf. German den Nagel auf den Kopf treffen; French perdre la tête). In other cases, semantic and structural similarity may be misleading and prove to be false friends (e.g. English to beat about/ around the bush and German auf den Busch klopfen) (cf. Gläser 1999a; 2000). Idiomaticity may be graded, i.e. PUs can have different degrees of idiomaticity. At one end of the scale there are real idioms, i.e. fully opaque expressions. At the opposite end of the scale, we find fully transparent PUs, which are, however, legitimately included in the phrasicon because they are polylexemic, stable, and lexicalised (cf. Gläser 1988). There are various theories to describe degrees of idiomaticity along this scale. For example, Fernando (1996: 35-36) distinguishes three subclasses: pure idioms (“a type of conventionalised, non-literal multiword expression”), semi-idioms (with “one or more literal constituents and at least one with a non-literal subsense”), and literal idioms (which “meet the salient criterion for idioms: invariance or restricted variation”). In a similar way, Cowie (1998), following Russian phraseology researchers (e.g. Amosova 1963; Kunin 1970), suggests a distinction between idioms, figurative idioms and restricted collocations. Whereas the first group includes “combinations that are ‘unmotivated’ (or semantically opaque) and often structurally fixed”, figurative idioms represent “a partially motivated type, whose meaning can be seen as a metaphorical extension of <?page no="22"?> The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) 23 some original literal sense”, and in the third sub-category one constituent is used in a literal sense. Following Uriel Weinreich (1969), Rosemarie Gläser (1986a: 55) differentiates between unilateral, bilateral, and multilateral idioms. In unilateral idioms (e.g. black market) one constituent has retained its literal meaning, which supports the decoding of its meaning. In bilateral idioms (e.g. lame duck), however, both constituents are used in figurative meanings. Gläser expands Weinreich’s classification of PUs by a third group described as multilateral idioms. Multilateral idioms are units of more than two constituents with complex semantic relationships (cf. Gläser 1986a: 54) (e.g. to burn the candle at both ends; to cut off one’s nose to spite one’s face). In empirical analysis, the different sub-categories are sometimes difficult to distinguish because there are borderline cases. Fernando, as well as Cowie and Gläser, emphasise that, in the last instance, there are no hard and fast dividing lines between the overall sub-groups of idioms. To sum up, with regard to idiomaticity we should keep two important aspects in mind. Firstly, idiomaticity is a typical, but only optional characteristic of a PU - Gläser (1986a: 54) regards the idiom as the prototype of a PU. Idioms are therefore a subset of PUs; they constitute the bulk of PUs within the phrasicon. Secondly, idioms are graded, i.e. the phrasicon includes units with different degrees of idiomaticity. A diagram consisting of a centre, a periphery and a transition area is an adequate model to illustrate this aspect (cf. 2.1). 1.2.5 Connotations PUs are often used to put emphasis on the speaker’s/ writer’s intention and to make a text more expressive. As we shall see in 3.2, PUs are applied with a large variety of functions - they serve to evaluate events and people, they are used to attract attention, to illustrate facts or to organize texts. They can promote solidarity on the part of the reader/ listener, evoke humour and put people at ease. Their expressive character becomes obvious when we compare phraseological with non-phraseological uses: [3] [3] [3] [3] He showed me forever that true love takes effort and involves not caring two not caring two not caring two not caring two hoots hoots hoots hoots what other people think. (The Age, Review 12 February 2005) not care two hoots ‘not care at all’ [4] [4] [4] [4] At 17, Johnson was a father. The few bob from gigs in pubs he wasn’t old enough to drink in were not enough to make ends meet make ends meet make ends meet make ends meet. (The Guardian 13 August 2005) make ends meet ‘earn enough money’ <?page no="23"?> What is Phraseology? 24 [5] [5] [5] [5] The press was in no hurry to retract their judgment and I couldn’t just lie there, had to take the bull by the horns take the bull by the horns take the bull by the horns take the bull by the horns myself and remodel the image of me, change the perception of it anyway. (B. Dylan Chronicles, 2004: 120) take the bull by the horns ‘act boldly and without delay’ [6] [6] [6] [6] And now the substitute, and what a substitute she proved on Tuesday. Thrilled to be. Look at that expression. That tells you volumes. And leading the job right there is the Olympic champion, her sister, now at Yale University, and thrilled. They used to fight like cat and dog fight like cat and dog fight like cat and dog fight like cat and dog and now they are terrific together. (Eurosport commentator Simon Reed about figure skater Emily Hughes and her sister; 23 February 2006) fight like cat and dog ‘quarrel fiercely’ The substitution of the PUs in the left column with the non-phraseological lexemes on the right in these examples leads to semantically comparable or even equivalent propositions. With regard to their connotative meanings, to the associations they trigger, however, there are losses. The sentences without the PUs are less pithy and less impressive. Gläser (1986a: 37) calls this capacity of a PU to express additional meanings its “intensifying function”. Connotations can be subdivided into stylistic and expressive connotations. Stylistic connotations refer to the communicative situations in which PUs are normally used and to the relationship between speakers and hearers in them. PUs differ along a scale from ‘formal’ to ‘informal’. An idiom marked (formal) will tend to reflect a distant rather than a close relationship; be more likely to be associated with an official setting; and tend to suggest a serious or elevated tone: […] An idiom marked (informal) reflects an intimate rather than a distant relationship; a domestic rather than an official occasion; an easy, relaxed attitude: […] (Cowie et al. 1983: xxxix) To describe PUs in the broad “neutral” space between the limits represented by the labels ‘formal’ and ‘informal’, dictionaries generally apply a system of style markers or usage labels. These include: literary e.g. a land of milk and honey; to give ear to; between Scylla and Charybdis archaic 4 e.g. the race is to the swift; the fairer sex; in the family way foreign e.g. coup de grâces; per se; horribile dictu 4 Also termed ‘old-fashioned’ or ‘dated’. <?page no="24"?> The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) 25 colloquial e.g. one too many; pull a fast one; over the hill slang e.g. to shit bricks; not know one’s arse/ ass from one’s elbow vulgar 5 e.g. fuck all; to shoot the shit; when the shit hits the fan Expressive connotations reveal additional information about a speaker’s subjective attitude towards the person or state of affairs denoted. PUs are used to show anger or irritation, to insult somebody, to refer to something unpleasant in a mitigated or indirect way, or to amuse the listener. In the same way as simple lexemes, PUs are therefore marked, for example, as derogatory (e.g. to have a bun in the oven), euphemistic (e.g. to breathe one’s last), or humorous 6 (e.g. and now for something completely different - a catchphrase from Monty Python’s Flying Circus). The difference between stylistic and expressive connotations is sometimes blurred, with inconsistent and overlapping labels in dictionaries. An expression such as shit hot (‘very good’) can be found marked as ‘taboo’, ‘slang’, or ‘impolite’, and it can be seen as both a stylistic and an expressive characteristic. Exercises (6) (7) In addition, phonostylistic properties such as rhyme, rhythm and rhetorical devices contribute to the expressiveness of PUs. Many figures of speech manifest themselves in them. Compare the following examples: give/ lend a hand metonymy a hot potato metaphor to sweat blood hyperbole bits and pieces tautology as free as a bird comparison as busy as a bee alliteration out of sight, out of mind parallelism the pot is calling the kettle black personification Exercise (8) Finally, there are PUs, such as frequently used routine formulae and fillers (e.g. you know; let alone, of course, in fact), which are not expressive. Like its idiomatic structure, the connotative content of a PU is, therefore, a typical but only optional characteristic. 5 Also termed ‘taboo’. 6 Also termed ‘jocular’ or ‘facetious’. <?page no="25"?> What is Phraseology? 26 1.2.6 Transformational deficiencies Phraseology researchers who follow a syntactic approach have paid special attention to the syntactic behaviour of PUs (or idioms in their terms) and in particular to their transformational defects. This term is related to the fact that idioms often resist syntactic transformations such as passivization (*The bucket was kicked.) or topicalization (*It was the bush that Tom beat around.). Exercise (9) Chafe (1968: 111) noted the following four properties of idioms: “their anomalous meanings” (i.e. non-compositionality), “their transformational deficiencies”, “the ill-formedness of some of them”, and “the greater text frequency of well-formed idioms relative to their literal counterparts”. Exercise (10) Bruce Fraser (1970: 32) claims that “the idioms of English differ widely with respect to how frozen they are in terms of the application of various syntactic transformations”. He presents these differences as a scale with six levels, a socalled frozenness hierarchy: L6 Unrestricted L5 Reconstitution L4 Extraction L3 Permutation L2 Insertion L1 Adjunction L0 Completely frozen Idioms such as kick the bucket and beat about the bush, which take only the gerundive transformation, are characterized as almost frozen (L1) at one end of the scale, whereas others such as read the riot act to sb. are at the other end (L6), and may undergo indirect object movement (Peter read me the riot act), passive transformations (The riot act was read to me by Peter; I was read the riot act by Peter) as well as the gerundive and action nominalization transformations (Peter’s reading the riot act to me was …; Peter’s reading of the riot act to me was …). Fraser’s rank-scale and the research into the transformational defectiveness of idioms in general have provided insight into the behaviour of PUs. Moreover, they have resulted in practical applications in lexicography. The Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English, for example, indicates transformational constraints on the PUs included (cf. Fernando 1996: 10). However, we should bear in mind that the syntactic description of PUs comprises <?page no="26"?> The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) 27 only one feature of their nature. Therefore, the characteristic of transformational constraints is, as Fernando/ Flavell (1981: 13) put it, “a useful supportive criterion but not a definite one”. It must be seen as closely related to the other characteristics (lexicalization, stability and idiomaticity) and is therefore only a complementary feature of the PU. Exercise (11) 1.2.7 Other types of anomalies In addition to the transformational defectiveness described above, two types of anomalies are worth mentioning with regard to PUs. These are, first, grammatical ill-formedness and, second, the occurrence of unique constituents. Both of these features only hold for a marginal set of PUs. Grammatical ill-formedness was mentioned as one of the criteria on which Chafe based his definition of idioms (cf. 1.2.6). His examples of idioms which are not syntactically well-formed are by and large, kingdom come (as in blow to Kingdom come from the Lord’s Prayer), and trip the light fantastic (from Milton’s poem L’Allegro). Chafe (1968: 121) stresses that the anomalous character of expressions like these results from language history and the development of the language community: Often the source of an idiom is well-formed at the time the idiom arises, only to pass out of the language of the idiom’s users while its ghost remains as the idiom’s literalization. Compare the sources of the examples quoted: John Milton: L’Allegro (Campbell 1990: 35, lines 33/ 34) Come, and trip it, as you go, On the light fantastic toe; The Lord’s Prayer (The Book of Common Prayer, 1662 version; cf. Rees 1997: 114- 115) Our Father which art in Heaven, Hallowed be Thy Name. Thy Kingdom come, Thy Will be done, In Earth as it is in Heaven. Deviant lexico-grammatical structures may be found in prepositional complements because of the absence of the definite article, e.g.: for free, in full, at once, for good, at large, for sure, on the quiet, on the straight and narrow. As Quirk <?page no="27"?> What is Phraseology? 28 et al. (1985: 424) state, in these phrases “the word-class status of the word following the preposition (or the) is indeterminate between adjective and noun”. Another kind of deviation is the omission of the definite article with countable singular nouns, such as in at length, beyond belief, from scratch, at first sight, on foot, for sale, by word of mouth, from pillar to post, from dawn to dusk, and head over heels. As the latter examples show, “‘frozen’ article use” (Quirk et al. 1985: 280) is especially typical of parallel binomial expressions, which, in addition, are linked by alliteration (cf. 2.2.2). Some PUs, such as short shrift, kith and kin, and to and fro, contain socalled fossilized constituents (shrift, kith, fro). These constituents are unique lexical items that date from earlier periods of language history and are obsolete in present-day English. They have ‘survived’ in these particular phrases only. Moon (1998: 21) terms them cranberry collocations. 7 Grammatical illformedness and the occurrence of unique constituents as marginal phenomena may be regarded as a strong proof of historical relics in the phrasicon of present-day English. Exercises (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) As a consequence of the discussions in this first chapter, we now arrive at the following definition of the PU (cf. Gläser 1986a: 16; 1998: 125): A phraseological unit (PU) is a lexicalized polylexemic linguistic unit which is characterized, in principle, by semantic and syntactic stability, and to a great extent by idiomaticity. Because of its optional connotative features, a PU may fulfil various pragmatic functions in discourse. PUs cover both word-like and sentence-like fixed expressions. 7 Cf. the term cranberry morph for unique morphemes, i.e. morphemes which occur in a single word only, with cranin cranberry as one example of this. <?page no="28"?> The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) 29 Exercises: (1) Study the uses of ‘idiom’ and ‘idiomatic’ in the following quotations and assign them to the meanings listed in the OED as quoted above. (a) Indeed, Seidlhofer’s preliminary findings appear to show that predictable learner ‘errors’ to which teachers would normally give much time and attention […] are not in fact stumbling blocks to intelligibility in EIL [= English as an International Language]. What is more problematical is the asymmetrical use of idiomatic speech, including metaphorical expressions, idioms, phrasal verbs and fixed expressions. (D. Davies Varieties of Modern English, 2005: 146) (b) He played on all the various planes, the full index of the old-time styles, played in all the genres and had the idioms mastered - Delta blues, ragtime, minstrel songs, buck-and-wing, dance reels, play party, hymns and gospel - being there and seeing him up close, something hit me. (B. Dylan Chronicles, 2004: 70) (c) It was certainly done most effectively for one culture some years ago when Romeo and Juliet were transposed into the idiom of youth group clash in modern New York in West Side Story. (G. Bolton Drama as Education, 1988: 92) (d) As there is a growing awareness, in the field of EFL [= English as a Foreign Language], of the importance of collocations for the teaching and learning of truly idiomatic English (for this goal, collocations seem to be more important than idioms), we will probably see, in the not-too-distant future, the publication of (more) material for the teaching of collocations to learners of different levels of proficiency. (J. Bahns “Lexical collocations: a contrastive view”. In: ELTJ 47/ 1, 1993: 61) (e) What A.P. Herbert called jungle English is often called ‘jargon’. This word has two principal meanings. One is confused unintelligible language and the other the technical terminology or characteristic idiom of a special activity or group. (Fisher Cassie, W. / Constantine, T. Student’s Guide to Success, 1989: 81) (f) From 1909, when Cubism emerged as a fully mature idiom, through until the months immediately preceding the outbreak of war in 1914, it was to be not only very self-contained as a movement, but also in certain respects curiously unaccentuated. (J. Golding Cubism. A History and an Analysis 1907-1914, 1988: 54) (2) The variation of PUs can also result from the variation between British and American English. Find the equivalents of the following BE PUs in AmE. If necessary, consult the OALD: (throw) a spanner in the works a skeleton in the cupboard <?page no="29"?> What is Phraseology? 30 not see the wood for the trees touch wood It never rains but it pours hum and haw (3) In daily communication proverbs are often shortened. One word may serve as a cue to call up the whole proverb. Find the complete forms for: the last straw the early bird clutch at straws a rolling stone a silver lining call the tune (4) Find out the origin of the following PUs: blood, sweat and tears the 64-thousand-dollar question (5) Remember and analyse new coinages in your mother tongue that have recently entered circulation. What do you know about their origin? Do you think they have a chance of being established in the language permanently? (Examples in German might include: Flasche leer; Wer zu spät kommt, …) (6) Study the following PUs and mark their connotations by using labels such as ‘literary’, ‘colloquial’, ‘formal’, ‘slang’, ‘euphemistic’ etc. Manners maketh the man to make bricks without straw Adam’s ale to be called to one’s eternal rest a/ the rat race (7) Study the expressions in bold print in the following sentences. What do they have in common and what makes them different? (a) Mr Otway is bisexual and only married Gillian because there was a bun in the oven. (ODCIE 1983: 255) (b) And with Liv Tyler, Claudia Schiffer, and Julia Roberts currently in the family way, there seems to be no let up on the press coverage of the stars’ expanding waistlines. (International Herald Tribune 9 October 2004) (c) Bridget Moynahan - three months pregnant with her ex-boyfriend Tom Brady’s baby - has the support of another woman who was dumped while she was expecting. (New York Post 1 March 2007) (d) Leo’s Girl Might Be Knocked Up (Post Chronicle 12 April 2007) <?page no="30"?> The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) 31 (8) Create a similar exercise by collecting expressions with the denotative meanings ‘urinate/ go to the toilet’ and ‘dismiss sb. from their job’. (9) Identify the PUs in the following examples. What figures of speech do they represent? (Sometimes more than one can be found). (a) Just try to relax, dear. You make mountains out of molehills. (Arthur Miller Death of a Salesman, 1949: 18) (b) I’ve got three girls who have got me absolutely under the thumb. (The Age 12 February 2005) (c) If I had cried my eyes out and got depressed, I am sure that would have spilled over on to them. (Sunday Independent LIFE 21 March 2004) (d) About 20 per cent of tickets will be sold for - £1 each way, on a first-comefirst-served basis. (METRO 20 February 2004) (e) From the children’s point of view, the perk of travelling with other families is the prospect […] of holiday playmates. We hit the jackpot with a rat pack of five boys and two girls […]. (The Age 12 February 2005) (f) War and peace in the countryside Ramblers, cyclist and horse riders are all fighting for rights of way over the land. (Financial Times 7/ 8 August 1999) (g) “It’s coming in dribs and drabs so far,” said the group’s director, David L. Shearer. (The New York Times/ Süddeutsche Zeitung 13 June 2005) (h) [financial situation in higher education] ‘It’s a sore point with us at the moment, actually. I could easily bore you to death on the subject.’ (D. Lodge Thinks, 1995: 46) (i) Is your memory like a sieve? (The Independent 3 September 2003) (j) Ian Dempsey presents The Breakfast Show on Today FM from seven o’ clock to 10 every weekday morning. He is the jewel in the crown of the station. (Sunday Independent LIFE 21 March 2004) (k) I suppose Rainer needs that job like a hole in the head. (spoken example, Irish speaker, 9 December 2004) (10) Recapitulate the main ideas of transformational-generative grammar (Chomskyan grammar). Consult linguistic reference books (e.g. Crystal 1995, Glück 2000). Why is idiomaticity seen as the ‘stumbling block’ (Weinreich 1969: 23) of this grammatical theory? (11) Read Chafe’s article “Idiomaticity as an anomaly in the Chomskyan paradigm” (1968). What conclusion does Chafe draw? (12) Look up the PUs kith and kin and to pass the buck in the ODCIE by Cowie et al. (1983). What transformations are possible? How does the diction- <?page no="31"?> What is Phraseology? 32 ary utilize the results of the representatives of transformational grammar in a practical way? Check your results on the basis of corpus work. (13) Explain why the following PUs violate the principle of wellformedness. as sure as eggs is eggs how come dog eat dog time and again all of a sudden ifs and buts in the know that’s old hat put pen to paper (14) The following words are no longer current in present-day English. Find the PUs in which they are used and explain their meanings. spick umbrage loggerheads bounden akimbo Find three more PUs with unique or phrase-bound constituents. (15) The presence of unique elements in PUs is not restricted to the English language. Find similar expressions in your mother tongue. (16) What is Ferdinand de Saussure’s approach towards phraseology? Read the chapter on syntagmatic relations in his Course in General Linguistics (de Saussure 1966: 124/ 125). What does he mean by idiom? (Part Four. Geographical Linguistics, ch. 1, 191) (17) Study Hockett (1958). What types of idioms does he distinguish? Comment on his classification. (18) Perform a substitution test with the help of native speakers of English. Choose PUs (e.g. to have one foot in the grave) and ask them whether variations of certain constituents (e.g. foot leg) are used or acceptable. (19) Conduct a survey among a representative number of native speakers of German on the meaning of the phrase passen wie die Faust aufs Auge. (20) In recent years the traditional linguistic theory of phraseology has been influenced by findings of cognitive-psycholinguistic research. Study the relevant publications dealing with the main views on how PUs are stored in the mental lexicon and how the figurative and literal mean- <?page no="32"?> The main characteristics of a phraseological unit (PU) 33 ings are processed. Overviews are given, for example, by Cacciari/ Tabossi (eds.) (1993), Moon (1998: 31-36), Hallsteinsdóttir (2001: 29- 45) and Vega-Moreno (2001), and Dobrovol’skij (2007). Concentrate on the following models: the idiom list hypothesis, the lexical representation hypothesis, the direct access hypothesis, the idiom decomposition hypothesis, the configuration hypothesis, the conceptual metaphor hypothesis, and the graded salience hypothesis. <?page no="34"?> 2 Classification 2.1 v The typologies by Makkai (1972), Gläser (1986a) and Roos (2001) As illustrated by the examples in Chapter 1, the phrasicon of a language is a rich inventory of all sorts of heterogeneous items. It is therefore necessary to structure it and to differentiate between types of PUs. The classifications by Makkai (1972), Gläser (1986a) and Roos (2001) are based on both structural and functional criteria. These typologies have the advantage of being relatively complete for the English language and will, therefore, be used as the starting point for the classification presented in this book (cf. 2.2.-2.4). Makkai (1972: 25) identifies two main types of idioms: (1) idioms of encoding and (2) idioms of decoding. Only idioms of decoding (e.g. red herring; to fly off the handle) are genuine, semantic idioms. Idioms of encoding are only phraseological peculiarities which do not lead to unintelligibility or ambiguity. Makkai gives drive at 70 mph as an example contrasting it with constructions in other languages, such as using with as in both mit einer Geschwindigkeit in German and avec une vitesse in French. In contrast, idioms of decoding are subdivided into lexemic and sememic idioms. 8 Any polylexonic lexeme which is made up of more than one minimal free form or word (as defined by morphotactic criteria) each lexon of which can occur in other environments as the realization of a monolexonic lexeme is a LEXEMIC IDIOM. Lexemic idioms differ from other lexemes (especially monolexonic lexemes, such as no, yes, who? , hot, dog, etc.) in that THEY ARE SUBJECT TO A POSSIBLE LACK OF UNDERSTANDING DESPITE FA- MILIARITY WITH THE MEANINGS OF THE COMPONENTS, OR TO ER- RONEOUS DECODING: THEY CAN POTENTIALLY MISLEAD THE UN- INFORMED LISTENER, OR THEY CAN DISINFORM HIM. […] (Makkai 1972: 122, original emphasis) Lexemic idioms include the following six types (Makkai 1972: 135-169): 1) phrasal verb idioms (e.g. to come up; to take off) 2) tournure idioms 9 (e.g. to kick the bucket; to miss the boat) 8 Makkai’s terminology is associated with the model of stratificational grammar (cf. glossary). 9 Tournure idioms present the most complex type of lexemic idioms in Makkai’s classification. He provides the following definition: “A tournure idiom is a polylexonic lexeme of a larger size-level than a phrasal verb insofar as it consists of at least three lexons that are lexemes elsewhere, (…).” (Makkai 1972: 148) As the examples show, a tournure idiom usually includes a verb. <?page no="35"?> Classification 36 3) irreversible binomial idioms (e.g. by and large; far and away) 4) phrasal compound idioms (e.g. blackbird; hot dog) 5) incorporating verb idioms (e.g. to baby-sit; to eavesdrop) 6) pseudo-idioms (e.g. kith and kin; tit for tat) The second “idiomaticity area” includes sememic idioms: A polylexemic construction whose aggregate literal meaning derived from its constituent lexemes functions additionally as the realization of an unpredictable sememic network is a SEMEMIC IDIOM. (Makkai 1972: 128, original emphasis) Sememic idioms are marked by institutionalisation. They are ready-made sentence-like constructions that express warnings, evaluations, requests, etc. (for example by a ‘moral’ in proverbs), which is why Makkai (1972: 169) also calls them “cultural-pragmatic idioms”. He identifies nine types of sememic idioms (172-179): 1) ‘first base’ idioms, which are highly culture-specific (e.g. to have two strikes against one; never get to first base) 2) idioms of institutionalised politeness (e.g. May I …; Would you mind doing …? ) 3) idioms of institutionalised detachment and indirectness (e.g. it seems that …) 4) idioms of proposals encoded as questions (e.g. how about …? ; Why don’t you …? ) 5) idioms of institutionalised greetings (e.g. How do you do? ; So long) 6) proverbial idioms with a ‘moral’ (e.g. Too many cooks spoil the broth; Birds of a feather flock together) 7) familiar quotations as idioms (e.g. Frailty, thy name is woman! ; Brevity is the soul of wit) 8) idiomaticity as institutionalised understatement (e.g. It wasn’t exactly my cup of tea; I wasn’t too crazy about it) 9) idiomaticity in institutionalised hyperbole (e.g. He won’t even lift a finger; cold as a witch’s tit) The main difference between the two “idiomaticity areas” appears to be that lexemic idioms are primarily phrases (on the lexemic stratum) and sememic idioms are essentially clauses and sentences (on the sememic stratum). In addition, Makkai considers the existence of a third, hypersememic (or pragmemic) idiomaticity area for “cultural idioms”, which are described in categories (1), (3), (4), (5), and (8) of sememic idioms. These, as he maintains, “are the idioms which are shorter sized independent texts, familiarity with which <?page no="36"?> The typologies by Makkai (1972), Gläser (1986a) and Roos (2001) 37 does not depend on being or not being a mature native speaker of the language, but rather on culture or education” (Makkai 1972: 134). Adopting a stratificational model, Makkai offers a useful classification that considers both syntactico-semantic and pragmatic aspects and furthermore includes a wide range of idioms from phrasal verbs to proverbs as well as various types of institutionalised formulae. Exercise (1) The point of departure of Gläser’s classification (cf. her introduction to this coursebook and 1986a: 44-49) is a basic subdivision into word-like PUs (nominations) and sentence-like PUs (propositions). Restricted collocations and idioms constitute the group of nominations. They are alike in that they are both part of the lexicon. In contrast to idioms, however, the denotativeliteral meaning of restricted collocations is still transparent. To illustrate the difference, Gläser compares restricted collocations, such as a blessing in disguise, to cut a long story short or once in a while, with the idioms to have a skeleton in the cupboard, to paint the town red and once in a blue moon. She admits, however, that there are fuzzy boundaries between restricted collocations and idioms. Propositions can be subdivided into partial and complete propositions. Her classification of partial propositions includes proverbial sayings (e.g. to throw out the baby with the bathwater), fragments of proverbs (e.g. too many cooks), allusions and fragments of quotations (e.g. the green-eyed monster), irreversible binomials (e.g. dead or alive), and stereotyped comparisons (e.g. as old as the hills). Complete propositions are proverbs (e.g. Every cock crows on his own dunghill), quotations and winged words (e.g. Brevity is the soul of wit), commonplaces (e.g. One never knows), slogans (e.g. Keep Britain Tidy), commandments and maxims (e.g. Thou shalt not kill), and routine formulae (e.g. How do you do? ). Gläser arranges the phraseological material in a circular diagram with a centre and a periphery (see fig. 2). 10 Idiomatic PUs dominate in the diagram’s centre and in its transition area. The non-idiomatic PUs in the centre are, for example, technical terms (i.e. terminological word groups) and restricted collocations. The majority of commonplaces, quotations, slogans, commandments and routine formulae are found on the periphery. The units in this area are mainly sentences to express propositions. The PUs in the transition area comprise irreversible binomials, stereotyped comparisons, proverbial sayings, and fragments of proverbs, allusions and quotations. Gläser (1986a: 71-103) also provides a detailed syntactico-semantic classification of 10 The concept of centre and periphery, developed by the Prague School, was already applied to the phrasicon of the German language by Fleischer (1982). His decision to arrange a PU in the centre is based on the criteria of idiomaticity, syntactic and semantic stability, lexicalization, and reproducibility. <?page no="37"?> Classification 38 nominations based on parts of speech and of propositions based on communicative situations and states of affairs. Figure 2: Gläser’s phraseology system of Modern English (1998: 128) Eckhard Roos (2001: 51) states that idiomaticity can be semantically or pragmatically defined. Semantically defined idioms are 1) metaphorical idioms, i.e. metaphors and metonymies whose original images have become more or less lost (e.g. to buy a pig in a poke; to keep a stiff upper lip), 2) unilateral idioms, whose idiomaticity seems to be restricted to one of the phraseological elements (e.g. white lie; maiden speech), 3) idioms with specialized meanings, i.e. expressions which are characterized by additional meaning components that distinguish them from their literal counterparts (e.g. fish and chips ‘a warm meal’; to be with child), and <?page no="38"?> Conventional types of PUs in the majority of systemic descriptions 39 4) idioms without literal counterparts, i.e. idioms with fossilized elements (e.g. to and fro) and idioms that are syntactically ill-formed (e.g. to go places). Pragmatic idioms are identified by their role in discourse. They can be subdivided into 1) social formulae, i.e. idioms which fulfil phatic functions in communication (e.g. How are you? ; You’re welcome), 2) gambits, i.e. idioms used to structure discourse (e.g. It was nice talking to you; believe it or not), and 3) expressive formulae (e.g. dear me; what the hell). In addition, Roos (2001: 62-69) proposes a classification on the basis of grammatical ? functions ? into ? word-equivalents ? (with ? further ? divisions ? according ? to parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) and sentence-equivalents, and he describes formally defined idiom classes, with irreversible binomials as a prominent example. A comparison of the three classifications presented here reveals a number ? of ? similarities. ? Firstly, ? the ? description ? and ? classification ? of ? the ? phrasicon ? has ? to ? consider ? both ? lexico-grammatical ? and ? pragmatic ? aspects. ? This ? is due to the fact that PUs are a phenomenon of the lexicon as well as of discourse. ? Secondly, ? a ? basic ? division ? into ? word ? groups ? (word-like ? PUs) ? and ? sentences ? (sentence-like ? units) ? seems ? to ? be ? of ? importance. ? Thirdly, ? classifications within this overall division into these two major groups on the basis of structural, semantic, and functional criteria result in recurrent, corresponding types, such as binomials, stereotyped comparisons, proverbs, winged words, formulae, etc. These types are not restricted to a particular language and can also be found in an international planned language such as Esperanto (cf. Fiedler 1999). We might call them conventional or established types of PUs. The remainder of this chapter will deal with their description. 2.2 Conventional types of PUs in the majority of systemic descriptions 2.2.1 Phraseological nominations Phraseological nominations are word equivalents which have one common feature - their nominative function. They denote objects, people, states, processes, or relations. They can be classified according to word classes. <?page no="39"?> Classification 40 nouns: supply and demand an old maid a man about town the three Rs hot dog a curtain lecture adjectives: mad as a hatter bored to death off one’s rocker cool, calm and collected shipshape and Bristol fashion verbs: to cut a long story short to rest on one’s laurels to leave sb. in the lurch to pay through the nose to spill the beans adverbs: at full throttle at the end of the day behind the scenes once in a blue moon before you can say Jack Robinson 2.2.2 (Irreversible) Binomials This type of PU has been intensively studied in the literature. Malkiel (1959: 113) defined binomials as “the sequence of two words pertaining to the same form-class, placed on an identical level of syntactic hierarchy, and ordinarily connected by some kind of lexical link”. These “lexical links” are the conjunctions and and or (e.g. law and order; in and out), and less frequently but, or prepositions (e.g. back to front; from top to bottom). The conjoined pairs can also be identical words (e.g. by and by; side by side). Furthermore, ‘trinomials’ can be found (e.g. any/ every Tom, Dick and Harry; lock, stock and barrel). Binomial structures can also be found in PUs with sentence structure (e.g. Cold hands and warm heart; Am I right or am I right? ). In addition to the links and the word class of the elements, semantic relations between the members can be a starting point for classification (cf. Malkiel 1959: 126-129; Roos 2001: 66). A frequent pattern is the combination of near-synonyms or co-hyponyms, as in first and foremost, bits and pieces, and hammer and tongs. These tautologous expressions have an emphatic function <?page no="40"?> Conventional types of PUs in the majority of systemic descriptions 41 in the same way that the combinations of identical words do. Other patterns include the combination of mutually complementary items (e.g. food and drink, knife and fork, assault and battery), or of opposite notions (e.g. sink or swim, rain or shine, assets and liabilities). The conjoined pairs can also express a consequence or sequence of actions (e.g. hire and fire; hide and seek; spit and polish). The main characteristic of binomials is their fixed order, which is why they are often called irreversible binomials. William E. Cooper and John Robert Ross (1975) attempted to find rules that determine the linear order of conjoined pairs (they term binomials “freezes”) by way of semanticpragmatic and phonological parameters. Their semantic constraints (A) include the fact that the elements expressing the following ideas are generally first (65/ 66): (1) here here and there this and that come and go (2) now now and then sooner or later tomorrow and the day after (3) adult father and son cow and calf cat and kitten (4) male man and woman husband and wife boys and girls (5) positive plus or minus now or never more or less (6) singular Mick Jagger and the Rolling Stones one or two once or twice (7) friendly friend or foe for or against accept or refuse <?page no="41"?> Classification 42 (8) power source bow and arrow gin and tonic car and driver As the examples illustrate, it is always the more dominant, logically prior or ‘nearer’ member that occupies the initial position. Therefore, Cooper and Ross (1975: 67) summarized these rules in a general “Me First” constraint. Such a ‘me-first’ orientation is also stressed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 132). In addition, Cooper and Ross (1975: 66) establish a so-called Food and Drink Hierarchy: Fish Meat Drink Fruit Vegetable Baked Goods Dairy products Spices. Examples are ham and eggs, fish and chips, fruits and vegetables, tea and scones, bread and butter, and neither fish nor fowl. The most important phonological criteria (B) for the structure of binomials are in order of decreasing strength: 1) number of syllables (Panini’s law): the first constituent contains fewer syllables than the second, e.g. rough and ready; hale and hearty 2) vowel length: short before long vowel, monophthong before diphthong, e.g. trick or treat; stress and strain 3) quantity of initial consonants: the first constituent contains fewer consonants than the second, e.g. fair and square; by hook and by crook 4) quality of initial consonants: the obstruency of the initial consonant of the second constituent (fricatives, plosives) is stronger than the obstruency of the initial consonants in the first constituent (glides, liquids, nasals), e.g. wear and tear; hickory dickory 5) quality of vowels: the sequence of vowels is ( h > H > D > z > ` > N > n > t ), e.g. tit for tat; ping pong 6) quantity of final consonants: the second constituent contains fewer final consonants than the first, e.g. sink or swim; wax and wane 7) quality of final consonants: the first constituent contains a strong, obstruent consonant, the second a weak, obstruent consonant, e.g. spic and span; rock and roll. In addition to the semantic and phonological constraints on the structure of binomials, Cooper and Ross examine three so-called ‘space-axis referents’ (C): (1) up vs. down up and down head and shoulders <?page no="42"?> Conventional types of PUs in the majority of systemic descriptions 43 (2) right vs. left East and West right about face (3) vertical vs. horizontal latitude and longitude top right corner Cooper and Ross are circumspect enough not to withhold the fact that there are counterexamples, such as safe and sound and leaps and bounds (p. 77), or that some principles override one another, e.g. free and easy (B1 overrides B4) and tattered and torn (B5 overrides B1). The linguists’ classifying zest is often faced with marginal examples and borderline cases in language as it is actually used. Exercises (2) (3) (4) 2.2.3 Stereotyped comparisons In a similar way as binomials, stereotyped comparisons (also called ‘[frozen] similes’) are structurally fixed and conditioned. Two frequent types can be distinguished: (as) + adjective + as + noun phrase Examples: (as) clear as crystal as old as the hills (as) strong as a horse as quick as lightning (verb) + like + noun phrase Examples: sleep like a log eat like a horse (behave) like a bull in a china shop breed like rabbits In both these frames the intensifying figurative noun phrases may vary, so that whole sets of possible comparisons linked with identical adjectives and verbs are available in the phrasicon and are listed in idiom dictionaries: (as) happy as Larry/ a clam/ a lark/ a pig in muck/ a sandboy (cf. Collins COBUILD Idioms Dictionary 2002: 177-178) <?page no="43"?> Classification 44 work like a horse/ a dog/ a slave/ a Trojan/ a black/ a nigger/ like stink (cf. Longman Dictionary of English Idioms 1979: 374; the use of black and nigger is marked as ‘offensive’) Whereas adjectival comparisons express the analogy explicitly (clear, old, strong, quick), the point of comparison (tertium comparationis) must be inferred by the reader/ hearer in the verbal comparisons (deeply, a great deal, in a rough awkward manner, enormously). Not all stereotyped comparisons are transparent. Compare, for example, as good as gold (‘very well behaved’), as right as rain (‘perfectly all right’), as clear as mud (‘not clear at all’ - irony). Some expressions contain fossilized or rare words as constituents (e.g. as plain as a pikestaff, as dull as ditchwater, as dead as a doornail). As these examples show, ? alliteration ? is ? a ? common ? feature ? in ? adverbial ? comparisons. ? It ? contributes to the memorability of such phrases: as busy as a bee as dead as a/ the dodo as thick as thieves Exercises (5) 2.2.4 Proverbs A proverb is a concise, well-known sentence which expresses a general truth, shared experience, a piece of advice, or a moral principle in an easy to memorize form and is handed down from generation to generation (cf. Mieder 2004: 1-9). The majority of proverbs are metaphorical or involve some kind of metaphor (cf. Norrick 1985). Examples are: Let sleeping dogs lie. (‘Don’t look for trouble on purpose; don’t interfere with a situation if it is likely to cause disorder’) Birds of a feather flock together. (‘People who have the same ideas and interests are attracted to each other’) Proverbs which are intelligible in content because their meaning can be inferred from the denotative meanings of their constituents (e.g. He who never made a mistake never made anything; A liar should have a good memory) are easily recognized and accepted as proverbs due to the high degree of general validity they express. Another aspect is their wide circulation. While proverbs can have the structure of simple sentences (e.g. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush) or complex sentences (e.g. When the cat’s away, the mice will play), another frequent pattern is an elliptic construction <?page no="44"?> Conventional types of PUs in the majority of systemic descriptions 45 without a finite verb, which is a feature they share with irreversible binomials (cf. 2.2.2) (e.g. Waste not, want not). Proverbs are embedded in social life, refer to cultural norms, shared values and to patterns of behaviour. Hence, they may express a recommendation, a warning, a command or even a prescription. These functions are often clothed in the imperative, for example: Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched. Strike while the iron is hot. However, the didactic character of a proverb can also be expressed indirectly. The readers/ listeners then are supposed to infer the instruction from the proverb themselves, by taking the social content and background into account, as in the following examples: A watched pot never boils. Don’t be impatient./ Stop monitoring the process so impatiently. Prevention is better than cure. Be careful in advance./ Taking the trouble to be careful in advance will avoid a markedly more troublesome situation if you don’t. The general validity and truth of proverbial wisdom are expressed grammatically by determiners (all, every, no; the indefinite articles a, an) and certain adverbs with generalizing, ‘categorical’ meaning (always, never). Examples are: All roads lead to Rome. Every cloud has a silver lining. Necessity knows no law. A woman’s place is in the home. The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence, Never say die. Furthermore, the construction he who can count as a formal marker of proverbs. He who laughs last laughs longest./ He who pays the piper calls the tune. In our initial definition, the proverb was also characterized as easy to remember because of a number of stylistic features. Phonostylistic effects are gained by alliteration (e.g. Live and let live; Forgive and forget), rhyme (e.g. Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise; An apple a day keeps the doctor away) and assonance (e.g. A stitch in time saves nine; There’s no fool like an <?page no="45"?> Classification 46 old fool). Syntactic devices supporting retention are repetition (e.g. Different strokes for different folks; Fine feathers make fine birds) and parallelism (e.g. In for a penny, in for a pound; Easy come easy go). Moreover, paremiologists (i.e. specialists on proverb research) have found recurrent proverb patterns, for example “Like X, like Y” (e.g. Like father, like son; Like master, like man), “Where there’s X, there’s Y” (e.g. Where there’s life, there’s hope; Where there’s a will there’s a way), “Better X than Y” (e.g. Better safe than sorry; Better late than never), and “No X without Y” (e.g. No gain without pain; No smoke without fire) (cf. Mieder 2004: 6-8; Norrick 1985: 56). All these markers make proverbs pithy and catchy and assure their recognizability and memorability. Therefore, a mere allusion to a proverb is often sufficient to evoke the entire proverb, as we saw in 1.2.3. In addition to their memorizable structure, proverbs convey traditional views and values, as they are inherited from generation to generation. As Wolfgang Mieder (1997: 3) puts it, proverbs can be traced back to the earliest written records. The ancient Sumerians included them on their cuneiform tablets, and rich Greek and Latin proverb collections demonstrate their popularity in classical antiquity. The English proverb reached its peak in the 16 th and 17 th centuries. Proverbs were very popular in the Elizabethan era as well, and Shakespeare used them in his works to craft his characters. Yet a large number of English proverbs are loan translations from Latin (e.g. Art is long and life is short - ars longa, vita brevis; All that glisters/ glitters is not gold - non omne quod nitet aurum est). It is also due to this historical development that proverbs have variants 11 and, in a few cases, even contradictory contents, as in the typical examples Too many cooks spoil the broth Many hands make light work and Look before you leap He who hesitates is lost. The flavour of traditional or perhaps even out-dated knowledge conveyed by proverbs might be the reason why many proverbs are parodied or humorously manipulated today. Punning with proverbs is, in fact, a common practice, as, for example, the publication Old Proverbs Never Die, They Just Diversify (2006) by Anna T. Litovkina and Wolfgang Mieder, a collection of so-called antiproverbs illustrates with over 5,000 texts based on 580 traditional Anglo- American proverbs. Some proverb parodies are already common with their satirical additions or changes, such as A new broom sweeps clean, but the old 11 Mieder (1989: 23) illustrates this with the example Big fish eat little fish: “When the proverb ‘Big fish eat little fish’ entered the English language from the Latin version ‘In mari pisces maiores deuorant minores’ it did so by the direct translation in the 12 th century by a monk as ‘The more fishes in the sea eten the lasse’. Over the next centuries we find this proverb in such variants as ‘The more fishes the less frete’, ‘The more fishes swelewen the lasse’, ‘The great fish eat the small’, ‘The great fish eat up the small’, ‘The great fish devour the less’ and finally the two most popular variants ‘Great fish eat little fish’ and ‘Big fish eat little fish’, where the parallel structure prevalent in so many proverbs is at its best […].” <?page no="46"?> Conventional types of PUs in the majority of systemic descriptions 47 one knows the corners; Absence makes the heart go wander. Mieder (1989: 239- 275) shows that proverb manipulations already have a long history: Strike while the employer has a big contract. (1906) (cf. Strike while the iron is hot) Where there’s a will there’s a won’t. (1906) (cf. Where there’s a will there’s a way) Marry in haste and repent in the Divorce Court. (1908) (cf. Mary in haste, repent at leisure) A man’s home is his wife’s castle. (1908) (cf. An Englisman’s home is his castle) A lie in time saves nine. (1908) (cf. A stitch in time saves nine) A hair on the head’s worth two in the brush. (1926) (cf. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush) Early to bed, early to rise, and your girl goes out with the other guys. (1935) (cf. Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise) One man’s junk is another man’s antique. (1967) (cf. One man’s meat is another man’s poison) A married man and his money are soon parted. (1981) (cf. A fool and his money are soon parted) Parodies like these and other textual modifications - to be shown in the third chapter of the book - can only be understood and enjoyed by the readers/ listeners if they are familiar with their original wording and content. Such parodies and modifications are therefore proof that proverbs are very much alive today and that there is no doubt about their future longevity. Exercise (6) 2.2.5 Winged words Winged words are usually defined by their origin. In contrast to other types of PUs, they can be traced back to an author or a historical source. The term winged words is applied here as an umbrella term for catchphrases, slogans, sententious remarks, and quotations that enjoy currency in the language community and many contexts of speech. More than any other literary work, the Bible has exerted an immense influence on the English language. The following examples show that biblical expressions are very popular: [7] [7] [7] [7] Or if there is no collusion, the king can see the the the the republican writing on the wall writing on the wall writing on the wall writing on the wall so he has jumped in to make himself the saviour of the nation and in doing so, saviour of the crown. (The Age 12 February 2005) <?page no="47"?> Classification 48 [8] [8] [8] [8] It’s the 11 the 11 the 11 the 11 th th th th hour hour hour hour and nothing has been documented, or very little has been documented. (The Age 12 February 2005) [9] [9] [9] [9] Director is a fly in the ointment a fly in the ointment a fly in the ointment a fly in the ointment [theatre review] […] The operatic trio that opens the piece would not be out of place at Covent Garden. This is very much an ensemble production, each of whose constituents play their parts like the interlocking gears of a clock […] There There There There is only one fly in this sweet is only one fly in this sweet is only one fly in this sweet is only one fly in this sweet- -- -smelling ointment smelling ointment smelling ointment smelling ointment and it is a surprising one. Director Barrie Rutter also plays Sir Peter Teazle, whose awakening to the realities of the life around him is the main subtext of the play. Rutter is a dazzling performer. […] Whenever he appears on stage, nothing else matters. All eyes turn to him. And that is just the problem, for such virtuosity is surely out of place in such an ensemble-based company. His Sir Peter is too strong, too dominating. […] (Morning Star online edition 22 September 2005) [10] [10] [10] [10] Unlike their higher budgeted glossy US TV counterparts, Detective Inspector Jack Regan and Detective Sgt George Carter were troubled heroes with feet feet feet feet of clay of clay of clay of clay, as hard drinking, excessively violent and ruthless as the criminals they starked. (www.televisionheaven.co.uk [10 March 2006]) While some PUs have their origins in the Bible, others can be traced back to Greek mythology or might allude to historical events in classical antiquity: Achilles’ heel, apple of discord, clean/ cleanse the Augean stables, or cross the Rubicon. We will return to some of these examples in chapter 2.4.3, when we discuss proper names in PUs. Another source of PUs is to be found in the works of Shakespeare. They were disseminated both in the English language and by translations into many other languages: To be or not to be (that is the question). All’s well that ends well. Something is rotten in the state of Denmark. Brevity is the soul of wit. Well roared, Lion! A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse! Statesmen, military strategists, and other extraordinary figures can have a stunning impact on our languages as well: England expects every man to do his duty. (Lord Nelson) Believe in God, but keep your powder dry. (Oliver Cromwell) (…) ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. (J.F. Kennedy) Speak softly and carry a big stick. (Theodore Roosevelt) <?page no="48"?> Conventional types of PUs in the majority of systemic descriptions 49 Yet in modern times it seems to be above all the world of entertainment that provides ? the ? basis ? for ? potential ? new ? winged ? words. ? Example ? [11] [11] [11] [11] illustrates that the name of a TV game show as well as one of its recurrent mottos has become ? a ? winged ? word. ? The ? humour ? of ? the ? headline ? in ? [12] [12] [12] [12] will not only be appreciated by diehard trekkies. It is an allusion to the American sciencefiction TV series STARTREK with its introductory commentary: Space - the final frontier. These are the voyages of starship Enterprise. Its five-year mission: to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has gone before. [11] [11] [11] [11] (The Sun 3 May 2001) [12] [12] [12] [12] (The Straits Times 20 December 2002) (© AFP/ NASA/ JPL) <?page no="49"?> Classification 50 It is not always easy to differentiate winged words from other types of PUs, for language users are often oblivious to the fact that they are quoting or alluding to a previous textual occurrence. Following several dictionaries, for example, we could include One swallow doesn’t make a summer in chapter 2.2.4 as a proverb. Strictly speaking, however, it goes back to Aesop’s Fables and was made popular by Aristotle (cf. Röhrich 1991/ 1992: 1428; Paczolay 1997: 49). Similarly, most people will recognize (a) Mutt and Jeff (= rhyming slang for deaf), (b) Life is like a box of chocolates, (c) cast pearls before swine as something familiar and fixed. Only few, however, will be able to attribute them to (a) Bud Fisher’s comic strip, (b) the film For est Gump, and (c) the Bible. Exercises (7) (8) 2.2.6 Routine formulae Routine formulae (also called ‘pragmatic idioms’ [Roos 2001: 70] and ‘functional idioms’ [Cowie et al. 1983: xvii]) are conventionalized utterances that the language puts at our disposal as ready-made units for recurrent situations. Because of their discoursal functions, they can be seen as an expression of phatic communication. Examples are Many happy returns (of the day), a form of greeting to somebody on their birthday; What do you know! , an exclamation expressing surprise; and last, but not least, the well-known structuring formula used to introduce the last person or thing in a list to emphasize that this final item is not less important than the others previously mentioned. Routine formulae can be grouped according to their functions and to the social situations in which they are used. Roos subdivides them into social formulae, gambits, and expressive formulae (cf. 2.1). Florian Coulmas (1981c) proposes a classification into the five main classes of Gesprächssteuerungsformeln (discourse structuring formulae), Höflichkeitsformeln (formulae of politeness), metakommunikative Formeln (metacommunicative formulae), psychoostensive Formeln (formulae to express a speaker’s emotional attitudes), and Verzögerungsformeln (delaying formulae) with altogether 17 subtypes. Gläser (1986a: 129-152) discerns 15 groups. These include, for example, greetings and leave-taking formulae (e.g. How do you do? ; Take care! ), congratulations and commiserations (e.g. Merry Christmas; May I express my sympathy), inquiries (e.g. May I ask who’s calling? ; How come? ), apologies (e.g. Excuse me, No hard feelings), encouragements (e.g. Never mind; Keep smiling! ), replies (e.g. You’re welcome; Touch wood! ), warnings (e.g. Wet paint! ; Beware of dog! ), and rhetorical formulae (e.g. so to speak; to the best of my knowledge). We should bear in mind, however, that a number of routine formulae can fulfil several pragmatic functions in discourse. As Moon (1998: 188) shows in her corpus-based investigation, you know can be used as a filler, an attention-seeking device, and an appeal for shared knowledge. r <?page no="50"?> Special types of PUs 51 Exercise (9) 2.3 Special types of PUs 2.3.1 Paraphrasal verbs This special group among verbal PUs deserves special attention because of their productivity in present-day English. Paraphrasal verbs consist of a transitive verb with a relatively wide range of meaning (e.g. have, pay) and a noun phrase (e.g. a look, attention) which carries the semantic weight. Researchers distinguish between paraphrasal verbs ‘in a broad sense’ and paraphrasal verbs ‘in a narrow sense’. The latter type satisfies the condition that etymologically the verb has the same root as the noun. In such cases simple verbs occur as synonyms: 12 to make use of to use to make a contribution to contribute to have a fight to fight to give a smile to smile to make a decision to decide to give a warning to warn Constructions like these are called paraphrasal verbs because they ‘paraphrase’, and they restate the meaning of the synonymous verb (cf. Giering et al. 1984: 112). 13 František Čermák (1974: 288) observes a high degree of productivity in almost all European languages and sees the reason for their use in the growing intellectualisation of language in conjunction with speakers’ growing preference for abstract vocabulary. Furthermore, paraphrasal verbs are applied because of their potential to express durative, inchoative and causative meanings (e.g. to be in / to come into / to bring into focus; to be in / to come on / to bring to the scene; to be in / to fall to / to cut to pieces; to be in / to come into / to bring into sight). 2.3.2 (Restricted) Collocations A collocation may be defined as a combination of words which can be observed in close proximity to each other in discourse. John Rupert Firth (1957: 12 However, there are sometimes slight stylistic and semantic differences. Compare, for example, to drive (habitual) with to go for a drive (actual) (cf. Gläser 1986a: 68). 13 This is also the reason why in German, apart from Funktionsverbgefüge (‘construction with a functional verb’), the term Streckform des Verbs (‘stretched verb form’) is used. Other frequently used terms in English are support verb construction (cf. Evert/ Krenn 2005: 114) and light verb construction (cf. Burger et al. 2007: 14). <?page no="51"?> Classification 52 179), to whom the notion is attributed, called a collocation “the company it [a word] keeps”. Examples include strong tea (*heavy tea), to have patience (*to keep patience), or a close look (*an exact look). Open collocations are usual combinations of constituents used in their literal meanings and freely substitutable (cf. Howarth 1998: 28). Restricted collocations have one constituent that is used in a specialised or figurative sense. As described in chapter 1.2.4, phraseology researchers have often considered only a specific type of collocation - so-called restricted collocations - as part of the phrasicon. There are at least two reasons, however, why free (or open) collocations are also worth mentioning here. The first reason is their relevance for the foreign language learner. Whereas learners have to understand PUs only passively when they occur in a text, that is, as a receptive language skill, collocations may constitute a serious problem for language production, as they must be mastered as an active language skill. The learner of English has to become familiar with subtleties like the fact that in English the verbs gain, gather or acquire are collocates of the base experience (in the terminology of Hausmann 2004) and that make (in contrast to German Erfahrung machen) cannot be used. As reference books, the student has recourse to collocation dictionaries (e.g. the Student’s Dictionary of Collocations 1989 by Morton Benson / Evelyn Benson / Robert Ilson or the Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English 2002). In addition, in our modern era of huge electronic corpora, a web concordancer provides further collocation-learning help. 14 The second reason why collocations deserve our special attention is their role in texts. Humorous modifications and puns, which will be discussed in detail in chapter 3.4, do not only draw on PUs and restricted collocations, but also on open collocations, as the joke in [13] [13] [13] [13] and the headline in [14] [14] [14] [14] show. [13] [13] [13] [13] Customer: Waiter! What’s wrong with these eggs? x Waiter: x x Don’t ask me, sir. I only x laid the table laid the table laid the table laid the table. [14] [[14] x SEX DRUG VIAGRA’S GOT STIFF COMPETITION 14] [14] STIFF COMPETITION STIFF COMPETITION STIFF COMPETITION (Daily Star 3 May 2001) Moreover, we should keep in mind that the dividing line between free and restricted collocations cannot be sharply drawn. Their delimitation is often based on more than one criterion. In addition to the sub-categorizations presented by Fernando (1996), Cowie (1998), and Gläser (1986a) discussed in chapter 1.2.4, Peter Howarth’s collocational continuum should also be presented. Applying such discrete criteria as restricted collocability, semantic specialization, and idiomaticity, Howarth (1998: 28) employs four categories, giving examples of verb + noun and preposition + noun combinations: 14 ? Cf. the following introduction to working with web concordancers: www.georgetown.edu/ faculty/ ballc/ corpora/ tutorial3.html. <?page no="52"?> Special types of PUs 53 Free combinations Restricted collocations figurative idioms pure idioms Lexical composites (verb + noun) blow a trumpet blow a fuse blow your own trumpet blow the gaff Grammatical composites (preposition + noun) under the table under attack under the microscope under the weather Figure 3: Collocational continuum by Howarth (1998: 28) Whereas free collocations allow a free substitution of words and are understood in their literal senses, in restricted collocations one constituent (usually the collocate) is used in a transferred (figurative) meaning. Figurative idioms, as Howarth points out, have metaphorical meanings alongside a current literal interpretation. Pure idioms are the most opaque ones since their meaning cannot be derived from the meanings of the constituents. Exercises (10) (11) 2.3.3 Rhyming slang In the sketch Communication Problems (first broadcast by the BBC on 19 February 1979) of the unforgettable sitcom Fawlty Towers, a cornerstone of British humour, we heared the following dialogue: [15] [15] [15] [15] Terry: You’re in a good mood, Mr Fawlty. Basil: Had a little bit of luck on the gee-gees 15 , Terry. Er … not a word to the trouble and strife trouble and strife trouble and strife trouble and strife, eh? This passage will be rather incomprehensible to people who are not familiar with a special feature of the English language - rhyming slang. It is a kind of speech disguise with the pattern that two words paraphrase the concept intended and that the second of these two expressions rhymes with the word that is meant. Trouble and strife is a jocular way of saying wife. A more recent example can be found in the film Ocean’s Eleven (USA 2001): [16] [16] [16] [16] - Bash. What happened? - They did the same what I would have done. Only, they did it by accident. The problem is […] - So? 15 Gee-gees = horses. <?page no="53"?> Classification 54 - So, unless we intend to do this job in Reno, we’re in barney. [pause] Barney Barney Barney Barney and rubble and rubble and rubble and rubble - trouble. Rhyming slang is especially known as a feature of Cockney language, the local and social dialect spoken in London’s East End; well-known examples of Cockney Rhyming Slang are Cain and Abel (= table), artful dodger (= lodger), and dog and bone (= phone). However, similar techniques are popular in American English and Australian English as well (cf. Franklyn 1979). What makes rhyming slang especially witty (and for non-native speakers of the given type of English almost unintelligible) is the principle to omit the constituent of the new phrase that rhymes with the true word in the given context. Thus, instead of a butcher’s hook one can say a butcher’s. If somebody by applying rhyming slang says Let me have a butcher’s, he/ she means Let me have a look. Recent expressions, such as Britney Spears for beers or Tony Blair for hair are strong evidence of the popularity and productivity of rhyming slang. Exercises (12) (13) 2.3.4 Wellerisms A wellerism is a sentence-like PU which is mainly identified and defined by its triadic structure. According to Mieder (1989: 224) the following three items are necessary: 1) a statement, in the form of a word, a word group or a sentence (often a proverb or a figurative expression) 2) an identification of the speaker (as [the peasant] said) 3) a phrase which puts the statement into an unexpected situation (especially by literalizing it [i.e. by using it in its literal meaning]). Examples: “Everyone to his taste,” said the farmer and kissed the cow. “I punish my wife with good words,” said the peasant and threw the Bible at her. “Time works wonders,” as the woman said when she got married after a thirteen years’ courtship. “All’s well that ends well,” said the peacock when he looked at his tail. Black humour is a characteristic of wellerisms, and all shades of word play are employed, as the stereotypical beginning “I see,” said the blind man illustrates, which can be continued in different ways: to his deaf son / as he fell in the well / as he walked into the wall / as he picked up his hammer and saw. The term wellerism goes back to Sam Weller, a character in Charles Dickens’ novel The Pickwick Papers (1836), who was especially fond of uttering <?page no="54"?> An onomasiological approach: PUs with special elements 55 witty statements like these. It is known, however, that this type of satire was already popular in classical antiquity. Wellerisms are a specific type of PUs for two reasons. First, they are a part of the phrasicon (being polylexemic units with a conventionalised structure that are remembered as fixed expressions and are applied for stylistic purposes, mostly with a humorous intention). Second, they employ other types of PUs (e.g. proverbs) to parody them and to oversimplify the truth they express. Exercise (14) The classification in this chapter which is aimed at conventional types of PUs (nominations, binomials, stereotyped comparisons, proverbs, winged words, and routine formulae) and special types of PUs (paraphrasal verbs, restricted collocations, rhyming slang, and wellerisms) 16 has been based on a number of criteria. So far, the focus of our interest has been on the structure, origin and communicative functions of these PUs. In this framework of classification, dual assignments are possible. Thus, a binomial structure can at the same time be a proverb, and a biblical expression such as to cast pearls before swine is a verbal nomination, but it can also be classified as a winged word. In addition to this type of classification and syntactico-semantic groupings, PUs are often subdivided according to their constituents. As illustrated - also beyond linguistic and cultural boundaries - some elements of the lexicon are productive to a higher extent than others as phraseological constituents. These are colour terms, terms naming the parts of the human body, proper names, und numbers. These subclasses will be elaborated in the following chapter. 2.4 An onomasiological approach: PUs with special elements 2.4.1 PUs containing colour terms In this chapter the focus will be on notional areas from which particular words were borrowed to enter PUs as lexemic constituents with a wealth of semantic content. Colour terms provide such a notional reservoir for novel PUs. At the same time, this special type of PU leads us to the fascinating topic of the relation between language and culture. Intensive research from typological, psychological, historical, and cognitive points of view has been con- 16 Phrasal verbs are a further subtype of PUs which is considered a part of the phrasicon by the majority of researchers. They were excluded here mainly for practical reasons. Phrasal verbs form an easily separable type of PUs, and a large number of reference and exercise books have recently appeared (cf., for example, Macmillan Phrasal Verbs Plus 2005 and McCarthy/ O’Dell 2004). <?page no="55"?> Classification 56 ducted on colours in different languages, especially in the context of what is known technically as the Sapir-Worf hypothesis. We may refer to (a) publications which are devoted to the universal concept of basic colour terms, and (b) those findings which cast light on the peculiarities and idiosyncracies of colour terms in a particular native language (cf. Wyler 1992). As for English phraseology, a quick look at some ‘colour idioms’ will confirm this general approach. With regard to the ‘non-colour’ black, English PUs seem to be in accordance with Lakoff’s conceptual metaphor Badness is black (cf. Lakoff 1994). PUs with the constituent black refer to something negative or evil (e.g. to be as black as one is painted; the black sheep [of the family]), illegal (e.g. black market; black economy), or morally disgraceful (e.g. black list; be in sb.’s black books). Sometimes it is associated with anger (e.g. a black look; to look as black as thunder). The ‘non-colour’ white, on the opposite, can have positive connotations, as in a white hope. A mitigating effect is reached by the PU a white lie (‘an untrue statement made with good intentions and being more polite than telling the truth’) denoting something beneficial or at least harmless. The meaning seems to evoke the idea of innocence or purity (as in white wedding). However, an equally large number of PUs might be found where white expresses something negative or evil: to show the white feather (‘to reveal one’s fear’) a white elephant (‘a very costly possession which is worthless or even a trouble to its owner’) to show the white flag (‘to admit defeat’). With a strong social implication, white relates to race (e.g. the white man’s burden; white trash). The symbolic meaning of a colour is not necessarily a part of the meaning of the colour idiom. Blue, for example, is mainly associated with sadness and depression (as in I’m feeling blue), and it is with this connotation that the colour stands for a whole type of music, blues. Other PUs including this colour term can, however, express different meanings: blue film/ story/ joke (‘a film, book etc. containing obscene material’) sb.’s/ the blue-eyed boy (‘favourite’) a blue funk (‘state of great fear’) out of the blue (‘unexpectedly’). As bilingual and multilingual comparative analyses of colour idioms reveal (cf. Földes 1991; Matta 1993; Dobrovol’skij/ Piirainen 1997), similarities can be found (e.g. to give the green light - дать зелёную улицу [Russian] - zöld utat ad <?page no="56"?> An onomasiological approach: PUs with special elements 57 [Hungarian]) and differences (e.g. to be green with envy - gelb vor Neid sein [German: ‘to be yellow with envy’] - sárga irigység [Hungarian: ‘yellow envy’]). The white lie mentioned above has no equivalent in many languages. In Finnish (valkoinen valhe) it is also known with the same given English meaning. In Japanese, however, shirajirashii uso o tsuku (‘a white-white lie’, i.e. to tell an obvious lie, a lie that can be uncovered easily’) must be considered a false friend when translated into English, so a literal translation of this idiom from English into other languages is generally not recommendable (cf. Dobrovol’skij/ Piirainen 1997: 237). Exercises (15) (16) 2.4.2 PUs containing designations of parts of the body Terms denoting parts of the body are especially productive as constituents of PUs. This onomasiological field of phraseology is centred on human features. Figurative meanings connected with the functions of organs are easily understood (for example, the head as the most important part, responsible for logical thinking - cf. to lose one’s head; the ear with its ability to recognize and copy sounds - cf. to close one’s ears to sth.). It is not surprising, therefore, that comparative studies have confirmed the high frequency of body part expressions in PUs in Asian and African languages (Weng 1991; Kim-Werner 1998; Zouogbo 2003). There are, of course, structural differences and some semantic peculiarities. 17 Literal equivalents in European languages are often based on loan translations from Latin (cf. Iscla 1995; Strauss 1994): English: Four eyes see more than two Latin: Plus vident oculi quam oculus French: Quatre yeux voient mieux que deux Spanish: Más ven cuatro ojos que dos Italian: Vedono più quattr’ occhi che due Polish: Cztere oczy więcej widzą Dutch: Twee ogen zien meer dan één English: What you haven’t got in your head, you have in your feet Latin: Pedibus compensanda est memoria Spanish: ? A mala memoria, uenos pies French: Qui n’a pas de mémoire doit avoir des jambes Italian: Chi non ha testa, abbia gambe. 17 In Chinese, for example, the heart is not only the ‘place of emotions’ but also the ‘source of thought’, which is accordingly reflected in Chinese PUs (Weng 1991: 384). b <?page no="57"?> Classification 58 A check in the Longman Dictionary of English Idioms revealed the following body part terms as the most frequent: hand(s) (88), head(s) (86), eye(s) (67), heart (54), foot/ feet (40), ear(s) (29), finger(s) (24), nose (22), neck (18), back (18), mouth (17), heel (17). Designations of body parts are found in the so-called kinegrams (cf. Burger 2007: 101) or kinetic idioms (Langlotz 2006: 123) which constitute a specific action-related subtype of PUs. These are linguistic representations of gestures and other non-verbal behaviour, such as to point a/ the/ one’s finger at sb. or to hang one’s head. They may be understood both in their literal and their transferred (idiomatic) meaning. Compare the following examples, in which the focus is on the phraseological meaning, but imagery of the movement may also be evoked: [17] [17] [17] [17] The music press didn’t know what to make of it. I used a different voice, too. People scratched their heads scratched their heads scratched their heads. (B. Dylan, Chronicles 2004: 122) [18] [18] [18] [18] Talk to my friend Maurita, who says she is keeping her fingers crossed is keeping her fingers crossed is keeping her fingers crossed is keeping her fingers crossed for us, as is everybody she knows. (Sunday Independent LIFE 21 March 2004) [19] [19] [19] [19] Counter-intuitive? Well, it’s because of the public transport system - something Melbourne should also give itself a pat on give itself a pat on give itself a pat on give itself a pat on the back the back the back the back for, says US architect and academic, Professor Michael Sorkin. (The Age 12 February 2005) [20] [20] [20] [20] They raised eyebrows raised eyebrows raised eyebrows raised eyebrows when Jan Leschly, the SmithKline chief executive […] saw his share options valued at $100m but the deal sailed through. (The Guardian 4 July 2002) [21] [21] [21] [21] “Let me tell you over a cup of tea.” Katya pulled a face pulled a face pulled a face pulled a face. “I’m trying to get in a run before Soren arrives.” (N. Shakespeare Snowleg 2004: 355) <?page no="58"?> An onomasiological approach: PUs with special elements 59 [22] [22] [22] [22] x […] x Maureen x Fallon x and x Great x Chantmester x Lobsang x Tsering x give give give give the plan a aa a thum thum thum thumbs up bs up bs up bs up. Picture: Cathryn Tremain (The Age 12 February 2005) Exercises (17) (18) 2.4.3 PUs containing proper names PUs with onymic constituents represent a fascinating subgroup because they are deeply rooted in the cultural tradition of a language community. A look into historical dictionaries is often necessary to learn about an event, place, or person that left their marks in the language in this way: cross/ pass the Rubicon (‘to act in a way that there is no turning back; to make a decision that cannot be changed and has important consequences’) The expression refers to Julius Caesar’s decision to cross the river Rubicon in 49 BC. This little river in Northern Italy formed part of the border between Italy and Cisalpine Gaul, the province conquered by general Julius Caesar. Caesar crossed the river with his army against the orders of the Roman senate, and this act not only led to war but also had results that changed the history of Rome. <?page no="59"?> Classification 60 In some cases we are faced with several theories about the origin of a PU, as the article on send sb. to Coventry (‘to punish sb. by ignoring, especially refusing to talk to them’) in Linda and Roger Flavell’s Dictionary of Idioms and their Origins (1992: 62-63) illustrates: There are several suggestions as to why this Midland town lends its name to the idiom. The first claims that during the English Civil War (1642-1649) supporters of Parliament in Birmingham rose against small groups of their fellow citizens who were known to have pledged allegiance to the Crown. Some they killed, others were sent as prisoners to neighbouring Coventry, a town which was staunchly pro-Parliamentarian. […] A second theory is that the townspeople of Coventry so disliked having soldiers garrisoned in their town that if a woman was caught speaking to one she would instantly be shunned by her neighbours. The soldiers, of course, had no desire to be sent to Coventry where social contact was so difficult. No one knows at what period this aversion to soldiers is supposed to have arisen but the phrase was well-known by 1777. It has been suggested that this also happened during the turbulent period of the Civil War. Collins (1958) suggests that the term might be linked to the ‘covin-tree’, an oak which supposedly stood in front of a former castle in Coventry in feudal times and was used as a gallows. Those to be executed were sent to the covintree. The town’s name, Coventry, may derive from ‘covin-tree’. Another group of PUs with onymic constituents allude to Greek mythology and ancient literature for their origins: a/ the sword of Damocles (‘an imminent threat’) cleanse the Augean stables (‘to reform a big business thoroughly; to purge away corruption’) labour of Sisyphus (‘useless, fruitless, endless work’) Herculean task (‘a task needing a lot of effort and strength’) Achilles’ heel (‘a weak point, especially in sb.’s character [that is otherwise without fault]’) a Trojan horse (‘a disguised thing or person that is used to deceive the enemy’) to rise like a phoenix from the ashes (‘to be powerful and successful again’) Ariadne’s thread (‘a remedy that saves sb. from a hopeless situation’) Pyrrhic victory (‘a victory that is not worth winning because the winner has lost so much in winning it’) Because of their classical status expressions like these are often marked as ‘literary’ or ‘educated’. They cannot be understood by everyone, as the usage <?page no="60"?> An onomasiological approach: PUs with special elements 61 of the PU to open Pandora’s box (‘start a process which - after it has once begun - will cause many problems that cannot be solved’) in the following scene from the film Notting Hill (UK 1999) is to show: [23] [23] [23] [23] x Spike: x Come on - open up - this is me - Spikey - […] What’s wrong? x William: Well, x okay. x There’s x this x girl x … x […] x She’s x someone x I x just x can’t x - someone x who x … x self-evidently x can’t x be x mine x - x and x it’s x as x if x I’ve x taken x loveheroin x - x and x now x I x can’t x even x have x it x again. x I’ve x opened x Pandora’s x box ve opened Pandora’s box ve x opened x Pandora’s x box. x And there’s trouble inside. x Spike: x Yeh. Yeh … tricky … tricky … I knew a girl at school called Pandora … never got to see her box though. Designations ? of ? nationality ? as ? constituents ? of ? PUs ? may ? refer ? to ? rivalries ? between countries dating from the past or ethnic stereotypes, such as to take French leave (‘run away secretly without permission’), which is supposed to reflect French soldiers’ lack of courage. Interestingly enough, the French use filer/ s’en aller à l’anglaise (‘to take English leave’) yet with the same meaning. 18 Further examples of this type of onymic PUs are: Dutch courage (‘courage obtained from drinking alcohol’) go Dutch (‘to share the costs of a meal etc.; have separate bills’) be (all) Greek to sb. (‘too difficult to understand’) Generally in language, the basic function of a proper name is to identify an object, a person, a place, event etc., to make it individual or even unique. Some of the names used in PUs, however, are especially chosen to denote the common, the prototypical example of a person or object. Any/ every Tom, Dick and Harry meaning ‘the ordinary people rather than the people with special qualities or those you know’ is the classic example. Furthermore, the name Jack, known from the children’s nursery rhyme Jack and Jill, has found entry in quite a number of PUs: a j/ Jack of all trades (and master of none) (‘sb. who can do a large number of different things, but not a single one of them very well’) I’m all right, Jack (‘I’m very well’ - used to express that sb. doesn’t care about other people’s problems) Jack is as good as his master (‘an employee is not necessarily inferior to his employer’) every man j/ Jack (‘every person’) All work and no play (makes Jack a dull boy) (‘sb. who spends all his time working will be a dull and uninteresting companion’) 18 It should be mentioned, however, that un anglais was a French term for a creditor in the 17 th century. <?page no="61"?> Classification 62 Finally, the PU keeping up with the Joneses belongs to this group. It means trying to reach the same social level as and to have the same standard of possessions as one’s friends and neighbours. The expression was invented by New York Globe cartoonist Arthur R. Momand, who first used it in 1913 as the title of his successful comic strip. It resulted from his own efforts to keep up with his neighbours. In a personal letter, Momand wrote about the name he had chosen: “At first I thought of calling it Keeping up the with the Smiths, but finally decided on Keeping up with the Joneses as being more euphonious.” (quoted from Flavell/ Flavell 1992: 114) The discussion of terms for body parts, of colour terms, and of proper names as frequent constituents in PUs 19 focuses on an important question: Is phraseology a universal phenomenon, or is it rather something culturally specific? There are in fact arguments for both interpretations. On the one hand, some PUs include particular constituents, such as proper names or colour terms (e.g. send sb. to Coventry; be green with envy) that might be regarded as incommensurable and thus typically English. This is also true of some winged words that have their roots in history or literature (e.g. read sb. the riot act; a catch-22 situation). On the other hand, a high percentage of English PUs is truly international (cf. Piirainen 2006). Identical expressions can be found in many languages because of loan translation, common sources (such as the Bible or Greek mythology) as well as - and this seems to be a factor of growing relevance to a lingua franca like English - language contact. Yet there is still another aspect regarding PUs. Some expressions, for example, to carry coals to Newcastle, seem highly culture-dependent. We know that Newcastle-upon-Tyne once was a centre of coal-mining in England. Similarly, the Russian equivalent ехать в Тулу со своим самоваром/ ездить в Тулу со своим самоваром (‘to go to Tula with one’s own samovar’) seems to be typically Russian, as the Russian town Tula is the traditional centre of samovar production. A comparison of the two expressions, however, shows that they share the same meaning ‘to do sth. that is completely unnecessary’ 20 and that this builds on the image ‘to transport something to a place where there is plenty of it already’. This model is repeated and verified by PUs in other languages: German: Eulen nach Athen tragen (‘carry owls to Athens’) Hungarian: a Dunábe vizet hord (‘carry/ pour water to the Danube’) Polish: wozić drwa do lasu (‘carry wood to the forest’) Spanish: vender miel al colmenero (‘sell honey to the beekeeper’) 19 Numerals (e.g. forty winks) as well as designations of animals (e.g. a wolf in sheep’s clothing) might be added. 20 Subtle differences, as described by Dobrovol’skij (2002), are negligible here. <?page no="62"?> An onomasiological approach: PUs with special elements 63 Chinese: hua she tian zu (‘paint snake add feet’) 21 Japanese: da soku (‘snake, feet’) Hausa: sai da baba a ruga (‘sell indigo in a Ful settlement’) Language contact might be a reason for similarities among European languages or for the equivalence between the Japanese and Chinese PUs, but is not a reason for the similar models in, say, Polish and Hausa (a language spoken in Nigeria, Niger and nearby areas). The variety of images created by the different cultures for the same content in PUs is evidence of the fact that universal features and regularities in human cognition and also people’s extralinguistic associations and collective experience have to be considered in order to explain such similarities. Exercises: (1) Study Adam Makkai’s classification. Which of his types of “idioms of decoding” contradict the criterion of polylexemic structure? Comment on Makkai’s type of “pseudo-idioms”. (2) Decide on the order of the constituents in the following binomials. Then paraphrase their meanings (if there is a new one) and, finally, name the rule according to Cooper and Ross: bag / baggage hem / haw deal / wheel husband / wife fall / rise prim / proper now / never regulations / rules The Rolling Stones / Mick Jagger betwixt / between driver / car eggs / bacon every cranny / nook money / shmoney easy / free the pros / cons 21 Painting in feet on a painting of a snake (which will not make it move any better than snakes already can). <?page no="63"?> Classification 64 (3) Compare the following binomials. What conclusions can be drawn for the validity of the rules set up by Cooper and Ross (1975)? English come and go French aller et venir (les allées et venues) English bow and arrow German Pfeil und Bogen (4) Study the following sentences and fill in a suitable binomial from the following list: safe and sound; bow and arrow; spick and span; odds and ends; friend or foe; to and fro; null and void; bread and butter; wheeling and dealing; in dribs and drabs; the pros and cons; from head to toe; gin and tonic: (a) If you feel that you need to earn your ………., or your full-course meal in one of Skye’s many excellent restaurants; […] (The Visitor Summer 2005) (b) “I CAN buy any man in the world,” said Howard Hughes, more beast than human, who ended up “a mindless zombie”, drag-ridden and out of control, yet up to his death in 1976 was “constantly ………., feisty, manipulative and power-hungry”. (The Weekend Australian 12/ 13 February 2005) (c) T.S. Eliot wrote a poem once where there were people walking …….…, and everybody taking the opposite direction was appearing to be running away. (B. Dylan Chronicles, 2004: 72-73) (d) Grossman informed me that I had been under twenty-one when I’d signed the contract, therefore I had been a minor, making the contract ………. that I should go up to the Columbia offices and talk to John Hammond and tell him that my contract was illegal and that Grossmann would be coming up to negotiate another one. (B. Dylan Chronicles, 2004: 289) (e) Hostages ‘……….’ in sheikh’s house (The Guardian 21 January 1999; headline) (f) He was intrigued. But thinking it looked a bit too risky, he decided to go back to his hotel room and weigh up ………. of jumping off a mountain with just a canopy made of fabric to stop a deadly fall to earth. (The Age BUSINESS & MONEY 12 February 2005) (g) Linda: Well, you owe him three and a half. And ………., comes to around a hundred and twenty dollars by the fifteenth. (A. Miller Death of a Salesman, 1949: 36) (h) Mr. Gorst leapt at the challenge to preserve the house. He spoke to Exhibitions International […] which agreed to raise money. Organizers estimate they need $50,000 to move the house and $150,000 for restoration. “It’s coming ………. so far,” said the group’s director, David L. Shearer. (The New York Times/ Süddeutsche Zeitung 13 June 2005) (i) The approach to Ledbury’s parish church, for instance, must have looked much the same to James as it did to me - not the ………., perhaps, in his <?page no="64"?> An onomasiological approach: PUs with special elements 65 day, and no doubt smellier - but essentially it has been preserved from modernization. (D. Lodge Thinks, 2002: 232) (j) “If they were married, why did they have different names? You and daddy have the same names.” “Yes, but we’re not famous, Danny,” Jack said. “Famous women keep their same names even after they get married because their names are their ………..” (S. King The Shining, 2001: 140) (k) For all the difficulties, the instinctive countermeasures, we go on watching closely, trying to read a face, trying to measure intentions. ………? It’s an ancient preoccupation. (I. McEwan Saturday, 2005: 141) (l) By late summer Red Cloud had a force of three thousand warriors. Through their friends the Laramie Loafers, they managed to assemble a small arsenal of rifles and ammunition, but the majority of warriors still had only ………. (D. Brown Bury My Heart At Wounded Knee, 1991: 133) (m) She hated wearing her raincoat. She would rather get soaked ………. (L. Goldberg Mr. Monk Goes to the Firehouse, 2006: 159) (5) Add the missing adjectives in the following stereotyped comparisons. All of them are marked by alliteration: as … as a fiddle as … as a cucumber as … as a bat as … as brass as … as grass as … as life (6) Find English proverbs of late origin which show that new proverbs are coined in our modern societies. If necessary, consult Mieder (2005: 208- 219). (7) Study the Shakespearian expressions in chapter 2.2.5. Name the works they come from and give the equivalents in your mother tongue. (8) Find the origin of the following PUs: Peeping Tom, to grin like a Cheshire cat, to cut the Gordian knot; Beam me up, Scotty; a catch-22 situation. (9) Study the following sentences and identify the routine formulae which they include. Explain their meanings and describe the situations in which they might be used: (a) Willy: […] Did I hear your wife had a boy? Bernard: That’s right. Our second. Willy: Two boys! What do you know! (A. Miller Death of a Salesman, 1949: 92) <?page no="65"?> Classification 66 Even the ones I couldn’t understand, or guess at the contents of, like Either/ Or and Repetition, seemed pregnant with hidden meaning designed especially for me. And, what do you know, Kierkegaard wrote a journal. I must get hold of it, and some of the other books. (D. Lodge Therapy, 1995: 65) (b) An enormous bonus for me was that Jenny likes sport. She likes watching cricket, football, athletics, swimming, you name it. (Good Weekend 12 February 2005) Dave sang folk songs, jazz standards, Dixieland stuff and blues ballads, not in any particular order and not a superfluous nuance in his entire repertoire. Songs that were delicate, expansive, personal, historical, or ethereal, you name it. (B. Dylan Chronicles, 2004: 261) (c) ‘[…] You don’t want us to fix it, take your attitude home. We got plenty of other patients waiting to get in your bed. Look, here’s your stuff in the locker. You want me to start putting it in your bag? OK. Here we go. Toothbrush. Discman. Hairbrush … No? (I. McEwan Saturday, 2004: 105) Here we go again: rumours in the press matched by “industry” figures showing that the British film industry had a “good” year in 2004. (The Guardian 13 August 2005) (d) ‘I’d like to put some sense in that head of yours, boy. I’m trying to help you. I’m trying to help you, if I can.’ He really was, too. You could see that. […] ‘I know you are, sir,’ I said. ‘Thanks a lot. No kidding. I appreciate it. I really do.’ I got up from the bed then. Boy, I couldn’t’ve sat there another ten minutes to save my life. ‘The thing is, though, I have to get going now. I have quite a bit of equipment at the gym I have to get to take home with me. I really do.’ (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 13) The thing is, Finn is exactly the sort of dastardly yet seductive cad that makes watching trashy shows such as this so enjoyable. (The Weekend Australian 12/ 13 February 2005) (e) For people who are having difficulty mastering any of these sounds, it may be reassuring to know that there is a training guide (with record included): Frederick R. Newman’s Mouthsounds shows you - tongue in cheek, as it were - how to make over seventy noises with your mouth. (D. Crystal Language Play, 1998: 27) For her part, she already considered Hubert Dearing the handsomest of men, having seen several photographic portraits of him in black and white, but she looked forward with eager expectation to seeing him, as it were, in the flesh. (D. Lodge Thinks, 2002: 156) (10) In chapter 2.3.2 the web concordancer was mentioned as a tool to find collocations. It was shown, for example, that the verb make is not a collocate of the base experience in English. However, make is a frequent <?page no="66"?> An onomasiological approach: PUs with special elements 67 constituent in other collocations, such as make a statement, make a point, make a mistake, make a contribution, make an effort, make use of, make an attempt, or make a decision. Fill in the missing bases in the following collocation exercise (one base for each block). 22 on. I was saved from making the ………. As the phone rang, and the If we have not thought and made a ………. entirely in these terms, then urse. In seconds, Greg made his ………. . He pushed the radio button They also contribute to top-level ………. making. The president who lls assured me that the President’s ………. could be made and announce more than three seconds to make his ………. . For over the years there American scholars, repeatedly made ………. of this phrase, or of “Christ es and robbed banks, making liberal ………. of their guns. Bill Doolin’s As a result, although we still make ………. of this distinction, there I the attempt of the Russians to make ………. of the tragedy of Dag Hamm to-day. I am naïve, they say, to make ………. of such words. I take this ble the number of teams and to make ………. of improved equipment However, Montgomery makes little ………. to leadership theory and ich we believe makes a significant ………. to explaining the wagea restatement it makes only a small ………. to knowledge of Igbo. ide in having made a world-shaking ………. to Marxist doctrine with the as Henry Clay, but because of the ………. He has made to the welfare Mr Nikolais has made a distinctive ………. to the arts of costume and Ed Burton. He didn’t. So he made a ………. . So what? He kept telling curred we were after all making no ………. , because we had never is poems very much, but I made the ………. of telling Dylan Thomas rly a statistical certainty that a ………. will be made and that the was told “the newspaper had made a ………. ”. So I started making some on a Saturday evening. I made the ………. of going to the Jour et Nuit. UENESS OF MAN makes the novel ………. that just as man is unique in further, and here he makes his main ………. , that once the Iliad and the If anyone ever bothered to make the ………. that when it comes to boats second time, but that it was the same ………. We were making. And if we is not being very hungry. I make this ………. because I know that a parent many unfortunate results. The main ………. I wanted to make about the 22 I owe the idea of creating exercises like these to David Eastment’s workshop “Language learning and the Internet” held in Leipzig in December 1996. <?page no="67"?> Classification 68 . The railroad president made the ………. in an interview as the Interst Then the President made a public ………. assuring us that nobody in, the Board that he had made no such ………. In 1956, and asserted that al (or existential) terms. The ………. Is often made that when Bult entered into such an agreement. The ………. was also made that undoubt re else. If this is so, then how can any ………. Be made about the biology dinner on time. Police did make an ………. To check Morse’s alibi ers. At the very moment that every ………. Is being made to take manag general as electrical forces. An ………. should be made to see if er a “quick study”, he now made no ………. To learn his “lines” and many ons within the trial area. A rough ………. was made to characterize the boycotted by white parents. Another ………. will be made this year in your plant money? What sort of ………. do you make to assure that / 13,-/ 15,-. Within each chapter an ………. has been made to group to orgi Zaroubin, he made a determined ………. To change this idea. Menshik apposition, but he rarely makes any ………. To capture any jazz “feeling” ense dislike, which he makes little ………. To conceal even in the presen front door. She lay there, making no ………. To get back on her feet. The (11) Exercise (10) shows that corpora can help us to make up collocation exercises. Create such an exercise to differentiate and practise intensifying adverbs (e.g. strongly, severely, deeply, seriously etc.) (12) Rhyming slang is probably the most striking feature of Cockney English on the lexical level. Name some characteristics in the fields of phonology and grammar. (13) What do the following expressions mean in Standard English? loaf of bread north and south Brahms and Liszt apples and pears rabbit and pork dog and bone china plate Rosy Lea raspberry tart (14) Wellerisms are not restricted to the English language. In German this type of PU is termed ‘Sagwort’. Try to find examples of wellerisms in your mother tongue. If necessary, consult Fleischer (1997). <?page no="68"?> An onomasiological approach: PUs with special elements 69 (15) Summarize the main ideas of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Consult linguistic reference books (e.g. Crystal 1995; Glück 2000). (16) Study the following examples and identify the PUs that include colour terms. Paraphrase their meanings in the given context. (a) Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are being strangled in a sea of red tape because of onerous and complicated tax-compliance regulations - that’s the view of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia, which is lobbying the Federal Government to reform the tax system. (The Age 12 February 2005) (b) Greens see red over St Anne’s Rezoning plan (Northside People 24-30 March 2004; headline) (c) Why a hospital? Another red herring perhaps - or had the necklace belonged to Snowleg? (N. Shakespeare Snowleg, p. 313) (d) (…) this was about the first of twenty songs I would write in the next month or so. They came from out of the blue. (B. Dylan Chronicles, p. 165) (e) The Government has given the green light to foreign ownership of Australia’s uranium resources, prompting a battle for WMC. (The Age 12 February 2005) (f) Jade that makes you green with envy (The Sunday Times 22 December 2002) (17) Think of five PUs containing the element head and paraphrase their meanings. (18) To what extent are kinegrams culture-bound? Take to rub one’s hands and to shake one’s head as examples. / nod <?page no="70"?> 3 Phraseology in Use Having reviewed what PUs are and how the rich stock of phraseological material may be classified, we will now deal with their actual usage. It is through their textual occurrence, their being embedded in situational contexts, that PUs produce profound communicative effects. In this chapter the main focus will be on the text-forming potential of PUs and the role that context plays for their comprehension and interpretation. We start by analysing their functions in both written and oral communication, with special focus on journalistic and literary texts. 3.1 PUs as text constituents It can be said that the PU and the text mutually depend on each other. On the one hand, the text (as co-text, i.e. the words and phrases constituting the immediate context) tells the reader/ listener whether a string of words is meant in a literal or figurative sense. It is true, as Chafe (1968: 11) observes, that the text frequency of idioms is higher than that of their literal counterparts, and corpus-based research has verified this (cf. Moon 1998: 180). Nevertheless, there are occurrences where idioms are to be understood literally and where the context is of crucial importance to indicate this. Compare the following examples: [24] [24] [24] [24] To break the ice To break the ice To break the ice To break the ice, I said to Rudi that there was a small gap on the wall where all his oil paintings were, and joked, ‘There’s room for a small one! ’ (Good Weekend 12 February 2005) [25] [25] [25] [25] A shop I knew earlier: Harris and her grandparents’ corner store in Barnsley, where she remembers breaking the ice breaking the ice breaking the ice breaking the ice in the outdoor loo (The Sunday Times 28 March 2004) In [24] [24] [24] [24] the PU to break the ice is used in its phraseological (figurative) meaning ‘to ease the formality in a social situation by a friendly act, joke etc./ to do sth. that makes people feel more relaxed’, whereas in [25] [25] [25] [25] , the caption of a photograph showing an old shop, breaking the ice has to be understood literally. Similarly, at the end of the day, a PU that is often used in spoken discourse to summarize several points and to introduce the most important fact, is only activated in [26] [26] [26] [26] ; in [27] [27] [27] [27] the author is aiming at the literal reading (‘at night/ after work’). [26] [26] [26] [26] I don’t know if any of what I experienced is even allowed by the DHS (Department of Homeland Security). And I don’t even hold anything against the <?page no="71"?> Phraseology in Use 72 DHS, Americans, etc. At the end of the day At the end of the day At the end of the day At the end of the day it’s the guys’ job to protect the border from, as he said, “ingrates and other seedy characters”. (Ensight - Jeremy Wright’s Personal Blog 10 March 2006) [27] [27] [27] [27] We were very compatible, didn’t talk personal at all. He was very like me, polite but not overly friendly, gave me pocket change at the end of the day at the end of the day at the end of the day at the end of the day, said “Here … so you’ll keep out of trouble.” (B. Dylan Chronicles, 2004: 13) More than indicating literal or figurative meaning, the context disambiguates. The linguistic elements preceding or following the PU help us to interpret it according to the author’s intention, as examples [28] [28] [28] [28] and [29] [29] [29] [29] illustrate: [28] [28] [28] [28] I’ve had my showdown with Vasilios, my project manager, and he’s transcribed my list of complaints into Greek. Every problem is an opportunity. Every hunk of rock has a statue inside it. Every cloud has a silver lining Every cloud has a silver lining Every cloud has a silver lining Every cloud has a silver lining. Every building site is a dream home in the making. (The Sunday Times 28 March 2004) [29] [29] [29] [29] Don’t give me that dance that God is with us, or that God supports us. Let’s get down t get down t get down t get down to brass tacks o brass tacks o brass tacks o brass tacks. There isn’t any moral order. (B. Dylan Chronicles, 2004: 45) Disambiguation by means of the context is especially important when polysemous PUs are used, as we see in the examples that follow. Whether to have a thing about sb./ sth. in [30] [30] [30] [30] and [31] [31] [31] [31] expresses more a strong like or a strong dislike is made obvious by the surrounding sentences. The PU hit the roof in [32] [32] [32] [32] has to be understood as ‘increase very rapidly’, whereas in [33] [33] [33] [33] its second meaning as ‘be very angry’ is relevant. [30] [30] [30] [30] ‘You know I have this thing about have this thing about have this thing about have this thing about England, they don’t really love me enough. That’s just how I feel’ - Ringo Starr, former Beatle (The Weekend Australian 12/ 13 February 2005) [31] [31] [31] [31] Collins, who spent the Second World War years […], had a thing about had a thing about had a thing about had a thing about the humble spud which he elevated to a mighty height. (Sunday Independent 21 March 2004) [32] [32] [32] [32] As prices hit the roof hit the roof hit the roof hit the roof, oil wars will keep burning by Youssef M. Ibrahim Oil prices are back in the headlines and likely to stay there, as the world’s global energy crosses new thresholds of increased demand, clashing politics and threats of terrorism. (www.energybulletin.net 2 June 2004 [29 March 2006]) [33] [33] [33] [33] ‘24’ gets cut off in last 10 minutes TV fans hit the roof hit the roof hit the roof hit the roof when the local newscast begins before show ends (The State 16 January 2006) <?page no="72"?> PUs as text constituents 73 PUs contribute to text composition. The fact that PUs carry connotative meanings and therefore give the text a special flavour in terms of expressive and stylistic values (cf. chapter 1.2.5), does not mean that they are merely ornamental and should thus be omitted. Indeed, PUs clearly work as text-forming elements. Their text-constituting function is based, more than anything else, on their complex structure. Since they are polylexemic (word groups and sentences), they are syntactically and structurally variable. Isolated phraseological constituents can, in fact, be reiterated to play a specific role in the text. In the case of idiomatic PUs, the two potential meanings (the phraseological/ figurative and the literal) can be juxtaposed and made simultaneously relevant by contextual elements in order to create puns. PUs can contribute to text constitution in different ways (cf. Dobrovol’skij 1980: 691). On a first level, PUs function as textual building blocks. In accordance with grammar rules, they are inserted into the text. Verbal PUs, for example, can vary in tense, person, aspect, and mood: [34] [34] [34] [34] With perfect information […] these problems would never have occurred. With perfect information, shareholders would instantaneously have realised that the books were being cooked the books were being cooked the books were being cooked the books were being cooked, and roundly punished the corporate officers. (The Guardian 4 July 2002; to cook the books = ‘to change the records of a business or organization to deceive people and take money unlawfully’) [35] [35] [35] [35] Rather, it was a weaselly way of accusing Charles of cooking the books cooking the books cooking the books cooking the books on his estates. (The Age 12 February 2005) [36] [36] [36] [36] A woman applying make-up while driving is still something that catches the catches the catches the catches the eye eye eye eye. (The Age 12 February 2005; to catch the/ sb.’s eye = ‘to attract sb.’s attention’) [37] [37] [37] [37] In MY WORD, various celebs choose their favourite biblical passage, and the the the the eye is caught eye is caught eye is caught eye is caught, as so often, by Jeffrey Archer. (The Guardian 4 July 2002) [38] [38] [38] [38] Drinkers are voting with their feet voting with their feet voting with their feet voting with their feet - or their tongues. And the wine from South Africa I am drinking now would cost four times as much from a French producer, even assuming its quality could be matched - which I very much doubt. (The Guardian 13 August 2005; to vote with one’s feet = ‘to show one’s opinion through actions, e.g. you show your dislike of a place or situation by leaving it’) <?page no="73"?> Phraseology in Use 74 [39] [39] [39] [39] Vote with your feet! Vote with your feet! Vote with your feet! Vote with your feet! (Flyer found on a notice board at the Institute of Technology Tallaght, Dublin, Ireland, March 2004) The contribution of PUs to text composition and coherence is significant when their choice in headlines is influenced by the topic of the text or individual lexical elements, as in the following examples. Whilst the article headed [40] [40] [40] [40] deals with agriculture, the headline [41] [41] [41] [41] seems to fit an article on British comedy. [42] [42] [42] [42] , which exploits the well-known London Underground announcement, is the title of a series about students’ experiences during their gap years abroad, and [43] [43] [43] [43] , which alludes to the Freudian slip, refers to the dismissal of the Freud Museum’s curator in Hampstead, North London. [40] [40] [40] [40] Don’t wait until the cows come home (The Economist 12 December 1992) [41] [41] [41] [41] Del Boy and Basil have the last laugh (The Sunday Times 28 March 2004) <?page no="74"?> PUs as text constituents 75 [42] [42] [42] [42] Mind the Gap (The Mail on Sunday 28 September 2003) [43] [43] [43] [43] Freudian split provokes backlash (The Observer 28 September 2003) The communicative-stylistic properties and semantic peculiarities of PUs are employed to a large extent through a combination of several units, as in the following example: [44] [44] [44] [44] Pouring water on the flames Ted Bruning blows hot and cold over the attractions of real fires in pubs (Wetherspoon News Winter 2004: 37) The choice of the title and subtitle here is motivated by the topic of the article, ‘open fire’. Through witty juxtaposition, each of the two PUs (the modified oil/ fuel on the flames and to blow hot and cold) evokes the literal sense of the other. At the same time, presenting the topic as a controversial one, they signal the structure of the article. The character of the following travel advertisement, is to a high degree phraseological. It includes several PUs, such as at the end of the day; there is more to sth. than …; to beat the drum, which are tied to both the verbal and the visual elements in the ad. The most striking PU, however, is the proverb All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy, which is split to form the structural framework of the ad and to keep the reader in suspense. [45] [45] [45] [45] AS THE WORLD’S business community is rapidly learning, the Spanish don’t know the meaning of the expression “all work and no play”. Admittedly, Spain’s network of hotels boasts all the most recent communication technology, top conference facilities, highly qualified staff and traditional Spanish hospitality. And yes, there is a choice of recently updated large and small establishments, in modern or historically interesting buildings, located in cities, up mountains or by the beach. But at the end of the day, there’s a lot more to a business trip to Spain than business. The pleasant all year climate brings a sunnier disposition to even the heaviest of meetings. And the excellence of the cuisine can arouse even the most jaded of business palates. A short stroll after dinner can bring the added pleasure of a little local colour. In San Sebastián in January you might bump into the parade of the “Tanborrada”, a collection of drummers from schools and gastronomic societies of the district. But wherever you do business in Spain, the celebrations are never far away. And whatever is on the agenda, who can blame the Spanish for beating the drum. On a business trip to Spain, “Jack” will feel anything but a “dull boy”. (The Economist 12 December 1992) <?page no="75"?> Phraseology in Use 76 <?page no="76"?> PUs as text constituents 77 Sometimes a PU becomes the main element of the text structure. In Stephen King’s novel The Shining, for example, the PU be/ go on the wagon (‘not drinking alcohol’; from the phrase ‘on the water wagon’) is of central importance to the story. The unit or its part wagon occurs frequently in the book, but especially in the following passage. The protagonist Jack Torrance is talking to the barkeeper Lloyd, who, however, only exists in his imagination: [46] [46] [46] [46] “So here’s what,” Jack said. “You set me up an even twenty martinis. An even twenty, just like that, kazang. One for every month I’ve been on the wagon and one to grow on. […]” […] Jack contemplated the twenty imaginary drinks, the martini glasses blushing droplets of condensation, each with a swizzle poked through a plump green olive. He could almost smell gin on the air. “The wagon,” he said. “Have you ever been acquainted with a gentleman who has hopped up on the wagon? ” Lloyd allowed as how he had met such men from time to time. “Have you ever renewed acquaintances with such a man after he hopped back off? ” Lloyd could not, in all honesty, recall. […] “No, you never did,” he told Lloyd. “Few men ever return from the fabled Wagon, but those who do come with a fearful tale to tell. When you jump on, it seems like the brightest, cleanest Wagon you ever saw, with tenfoot wheels to keep the bed of it high out of the gutter where all the drunks are laying around with their brown bags and their Thunderbird and their Granddad Flash’s Popskull Bourbon. You’re away from all the people who throw you nasty looks and tell you to clean up your act or go put it on in another town. From the gutter, that’s the finest-lookin Wagon you ever saw, Lloyd my boy. All hung with bunting and a brass band in front and three majorettes to each side, twirling their batons and flashing their panties at you. Man, you got to get on that Wagon and away from the juicers that are straining canned heat and smelling their own puke to get high again and poking along the gutter for butts with half an inch left below the filter.” He drained two more imaginary drinks and tossed the glasses back over his shoulder. […] “So you climb up,” he told Lloyd, “and ain’t you glad to be there. My God yes, that’s affirmative. That Wagon is the biggest and best float in the whole parade, and everybody is lining the streets and clapping and cheering and waving, all for you. Except for the winos passed out in the gutter. Those guys used to be your friends, but that’s all behind you now.” He carried his empty fist to his mouth and sluiced down another […] “Then you start to see things, Lloydy-my-boy. Things you missed from the gutter. Like how the floor of the Wagon is nothing but straight pine boards, so fresh they’re still bleeding sap, and if you took your shoes off you’d be sure to get a splinter. Like how the only furniture in the Wagon is these long benches with high backs and no cushions to sit on, and in fact they are nothing but pews with a songbook every five feet or so. Like how all the people sitting in the pews on the Wagon are these flatchested el birdos in long <?page no="77"?> Phraseology in Use 78 dresses with a little lace around the collar and their hair pulled back into buns until it’s so tight you can almost hear it screaming. And every face is flat and pale and shiny, and they’re all singing ‘Shall we gather at the riiiiver, the beautiful, the riiiiiver,’ and up front there’s this reekin bitch with blond hair playing the organ and telling em to sing louder, sing louder. And somebody slams a songbook into your hands and says, ‘Sing it out, brother. If you expect to stay on this Wagon, you got to sing morning, noon, and night. Especially at night.’ And that’s when you realize what the Wagon really is, Lloyd. It’s a church with bars on the windows, a church for women and a prison for you.” (2001: 357-362) Uses like these illustrate the important role of PUs in texts. Further examples, taken from both literary and journalistic texts will be given in chapter 3.4.1, which deals with phraseological modifications. 3.2 Functions of PUs The main purpose of this chapter is to increase understanding of how and why PUs are used in discourse. The analysis is mainly based on two genres with which PUs of different types are generally associated: journalistic texts and prose fiction (cf. Cowie 1998; Sandig 2007). The press is an expected location of intertextual allusion and creative reshapings of proverbs, winged words and catchphrases. Furthermore, journalistic prose is an interesting source of investigation because it includes a wide range of subgenres (e.g. editorials, letters to the editor, news stories, captions) with differing functions and discourse manifestations. The intensifying function of a PU (cf. 1.2.5) is demonstrated most effectively in literary texts. PUs play an important role in a writer’s description of a fictional world. 3.2.1 Journalistic texts A quick look into a newspaper or a magazine reveals that especially headlines abound in PUs (cf. [40] [40] [40] [40] - [43] [43] [43] [43] ): [47] [47] [47] [47] I count my blessings (The Straits Times 17 December 2002) [48] [48] [48] [48] Inventors up in arms (The Daily Telegraph 19 February 2004) [49] [49] [49] [49] Schröder and Bush bury the hatchet (Financial Times 25 September 2003) In the headlines [47] [47] [47] [47] - [49] [49] [49] [49] the PUs work as cataphoric eye catchers. They are more interesting than other possible wordings, for instance, the paraphrases ‘I am fortunate’; ‘are upset/ angry’; ‘agree to be friends again’, and address the reader directly through their images and spoken characters. PUs in headlines <?page no="78"?> Functions of PUs 79 can be connected with the text in different ways and to varying degrees. In [47] [47] [47] [47] the author (or the editor) 23 announces and simultaneously summarizes the main content of the article, closely referring to a passage of the text in direct speech: “[…] In my case, God chose to bless me with three caring sons late in life, when I needed them most. […]”. In [48] [48] [48] [48] and [49] [49] [49] [49] , however, the PUs are not taken up again in the main body of the text. In [50] [50] [50] [50] , the headline and the last sentence of the test form a phraseological framework for the article. [50] [50] [50] [50] Heathrow strike Leaving a bitter taste Leaving a bitter taste Leaving a bitter taste Leaving a bitter taste Airline food is a standing joke - but the passengers stranded at Heathrow airport yesterday and Thursday looked as though they would have gladly accepted the usual tray of beef or chicken without complaint. […] (…) That will be cold comfort for those waiting at Heathrow. For the sacked workers, airline food leaves a bitter taste leaves a bitter taste leaves a bitter taste leaves a bitter taste. (The Guardian 13 August 2005) In the following example a PU used in the headline is closely related to the text by means of two playful literalizations (demetaphorizations): [51] [51] [51] [51] Chickens come home to roost Chickens come home to roost Chickens come home to roost Chickens come home to roost With markets returning to the mean, investors have had to rediscover risk It was a year that seemed to break the rules. Investors are supposed to be rewarded for thrift; in most cases, they lost money. They are also supposed to be rewarded for taking risks; but for the third year running, riskier equities heavily underperformed risk-free government bonds. The clucking sound you can hear is a flock of chickens coming home to chickens coming home to chickens coming home to chickens coming home to roost roost roost roost. In the 1990s investment returns far exceeded both the growth in profits and the growth of the economy. […] And some chickens, far from roosting chickens, far from roosting chickens, far from roosting chickens, far from roosting, defiantly stayed out in the free range. Take the US economic imbalances, which bears have fretted about for years. The private sector financial deficit narrowed, without damaging the economy severely […] (Financial Times 21/ 22 December 2002) In the majority of cases the selection of a peculiar PU in a headline is topicrelated, as shown in examples [40] [40] [40] [40] to [43] [43] [43] [43] . As these illustrate, the intention to announce and/ or to summarize the content can be combined with other functions such as warning [40] [40] [40] [40] or evaluation [41 [41 [41 [41] ]] ] . Topic-relation is frequently expressed by ambiguous phraseological headlines (cf. [50] [50] [50] [50] ), as in [52] [52] [52] [52] , a headline of an article about hiking in Scotland, or as in [53] [53] [53] [53] , a text on sun damage due to UVA radiation. Uses like these will be the subject of chapter 3.4.2. 23 Morley (1998: 24) points out that “headlines are not written by the journalist who has produced the article, but by a sub-editor”. <?page no="79"?> Phraseology in Use 80 [52] [52] [52] [52] Glenelg - welcome to a quiet corner off the beaten track (The Visitor Summer 2005: 5) [53] [53] [53] [53] Save Your Skin (International Herald Tribune 21 June 1999) The popularity of phraseological titles is not restricted to journalistic texts. As for literature, music, film etc., we observe the interesting situation that, on the one hand, titles of novels, films, or songs can gain currency and become PUs (winged words): Think of, for example, Graham Greene’s novel Our Man in Havana and the many allusions to it that can be found up to the present day, such as Robertson beats Mandelson to be our man in Europe (The Sunday Times 28 March 2004); on the other hand, PUs are also popular as titles, as illustrated in the following examples: Songs 24 : I’ve got a thing about you (Roxette, 2004) Hit the Road, Jack (Ray Charles, 1959) Last Straw (REM, 2004) Films: White Lies (USA 1998) Wag the Dog (USA 1997) Shaggy Dog (USA 2004) Novels: Nice Work (David Lodge, 1988) Where There’s Smoke (Simon Beckett, 1997) Feet of Clay (Terry Pratchett, 1996) Phraseological titles have the advantage of attracting attention immediately by presenting something familiar. Additionally, they arouse the interest of the readers/ listeners, who also want to detect to what extent the title applies to the content of the novel, film etc. This relationship can be quite sophisticated, which reminds us of Umberto Eco’s statement in his Postille a ,Il nome della rosa’ (1983): “A title must muddle the reader’s ideas, not regiment them”. Exercise (1) 24 Cf. George B. Bryan’s collection “An Unfinished List of Anglo-American Proverb Songs” in Proverbium 18, 2001: 15-56. <?page no="80"?> Functions of PUs 81 Another important function of PUs is the organisation of discourse. It should be said that a number of PUs have a structuring function per se. At a metacommunicative level, routine formulae, such as in other words, on the one hand / on the other hand, above all, to begin with and many others are used to organise discourse in a number of different ways. In a nutshell, for instance, is frequently found to announce concise summaries, as the following example of a student’s guide [54] [54] [54] [54] illustrates: [54] [54] [54] [54] (Waterstone’s Guide to University 2003: 28) (© Waterstone’s Guide to University, ? 2003, ? Open ? University ? Press, ? reproduced ? with ? kind permission of the Open University Press) <?page no="81"?> Phraseology in Use 82 The structuring function of PUs is, however, not restricted to this subgroup. Proverbs and winged words are often found in recurrent positions, especially at the beginning and at the end of paragraphs. In an initial position a PU can provide a core reference for textual expansion. Authors like to take general truths expressed in proverbs as a starting point for their reports and arguments, as in [55] [55] [55] [55] , an article about research into brain-gut reactions. [55] [55] [55] [55] The ‘Other’ Brain in the Stomach By HARRIET BROWN Two brains are better than one Two brains are better than one Two brains are better than one Two brains are better than one. At least that is the rationale for the close relationship between the human body’s two brains, the one at the top of the spinal cord and the hidden but powerful brain […] (The New York Times/ Süddeutsche Zeitung 5 September 2005) When PUs mark the end of a text, they can have the function of a comment, as with Only time will tell in the letter to the editor in [56] [56] [56] [56] or with Sounds like the start of a beautiful relationship in [57] [57] [57] [57] , an article about the trend to use short stories as the basis for big-screen films. [56] [56] [56] [56] “So Who Wants to Be a Father? ” (January 22) covered extremely well the complex issues involved. At 37, I’m still feeling the raw emotion of the demise of a relationship over my wanting to have children. Knowing he did not want more (he had three from another relationship), I have no one to blame but myself for wasting my child-bearing years. Yet, if we’d been unable to have children for medical reasons I know I would have stayed and worked through the emotions involved. Having to make a conscious decision on this ate away at the goodwill we felt for each other. I still worry that I have lost the love of my life. Only time will tell Only time will tell Only time will tell Only time will tell. J.M. Melloy Balmoral, NSW (Good Weekend 12 February 2005) [57] [57] [57] [57] […] Hoff visits film festivals regularly to tout up-and-coming short stories, and says this is just the beginning of a longer-term trend: “Hollywood has barely begun to mine the talent that’s out there.” Sounds like the start of a the start of a the start of a the start of a beautiful relationship beautiful relationship beautiful relationship. (Newsweek 6 March 2006) In ? [58] [58] [58] , a news report about the hostage crisis in a Moscow theatre in November 2002, the PU sb.’s chickens have come home to roost (in a slightly varied form) is used as an evaluative concluding comment. [58] [58] [58] [58] […] He [Putin] sent his troops into Chechnya in 1999 after a series of explosions in Russia that the authorities blamed on Chechen rebels. - ehm - However, throughout this crisis he had not even discussed this prime demand of the Chechen hostage takers that Russia would draw out its forces from Chechnya. […] Putin himself has been portraying this operation or this Chechen take-over in Moscow as part of the world-wide terror activities. So in the short term perhaps - ehm -ehm - a climb in popularity for Wladimir Putin, but what this incident has done is to focus attention on the situation <?page no="82"?> Functions of PUs 83 in Chechnya and on the fact that after years of having said that he is dealing with it the problem remains and came home to roost came home to roost came home to roost came home to roost in the very middle of Moscow to me. (spoken report: CNN 2 November 2002) Finally, let us have a look at photographs accompanying articles, where PUs are frequently used as captions: [59] [59] [59] [59] PROTEST: Do we want to have our cake and eat it? (Sunday Independent 21 March 2004) (© Sunday Independent) [60] [60] [60] [60] Meet your maker: Warbury’s French striker Fabian De Guisson (left) poses with his creator Pete Nash […] (The Observer 28 September 2003; the photograph shows the two men standing side by side with their arms folded) [61] [61] [61] [61] Minding her Peas and Qs. Becky tackles her role as Harvester’s Pea Czar yesterday (The Sun 3 May 2001) <?page no="83"?> Phraseology in Use 84 (© The Sun) Although they are related to the topics of the articles - in [59] [59] [59] [59] taxes in Ireland, which are low compared with other European countries, in [60] [60] [60] [60] Peter Nash, the ‘maker’ of the cartoon strip Striker, and in [61] [61] [61] [61] an investigation into the popularity of peas in restaurants - the captions in these examples can be seen as relatively independent texts. Together with the photographs they comment, they convey messages in their own right. The PUs are not used in the articles, they are applied to make the caption attractive. In [59] [59] [59] [59] You can’t have your cake and eat it (‘one can’t enjoy or get advantage from two things when one is entitled to benefit from only one of them or when one of them makes the other impossible’) is transformed into a provocative question implying that the demonstrators in the picture might demand too much. In [60] [60] [60] [60] the PU meet one’s M/ maker is not meant in its phraseological meaning (‘die/ be destroyed’) but in the literal sense (‘come together with your creator’). Since the article, however, deals with the end of the cartoon strip in The Sun, to a certain extent the reader might also infer the figurative meaning as true. Another playful use is presented in [61] [61] [61] [61] , where the homophony of pea and p seems to <?page no="84"?> Functions of PUs 85 have been the motivation for the use of the PU. The figurative meaning of mind one’s P’s and Q’s ‘be careful that one is polite and well-behaved, so that one does not offend other people’ is of marginal relevance here. 3.2.2 Literary texts Literary texts are marked by their poetic function. The use of linguistic means, including PUs, is mainly determined by the author’s aesthetic aims. Because of their imagery and the potential to evoke associations in the reader’s mind, PUs are often employed to describe people, situations or feelings in a vivid way, as in [62] [62] [62] [62] , a scene from Graham Greene’s Our Man in Havana, where the main character Wormhold, a vacuum cleaner salesman who agrees to work for the M.I.6 in Havana and sends fake stories to keep the job, meets Hawthorne, his superior. Example [63] [63] [63] [63] throws light on the emotional state of another protagonist called Peter, a doctor who has lost his love Snowleg. [62] [62] [62] [62] The bedroom door was closed and he began to move towards it. Then he stopped. Let sleeping dogs lie Let sleeping dogs lie Let sleeping dogs lie Let sleeping dogs lie. If Hawthorn wanted him, let Hawthorne find him without his stir, but a curiosity about Hawthorne induced him to make a parting examination of the room. (G. Greene Our Man in Havana, 1958: 40) [63] [63] [63] [63] His mind on his work. Burying Snowleg beneath a procession of sick children and fluourescent corridors and long hours. Bolstered by his English talent for appearing to sweep anything very serious under the carpet to sweep anything very serious under the carpet to sweep anything very serious under the carpet to sweep anything very serious under the carpet. (N. Shakespeare Snowleg, 2004: 142) In comedies and sketches playful distortions and parodies of proverbs serve to create humour, as for example in Monty Python’s classical sketch The Germans, when Basil is obviously confused after a chain of accidents. Cf. the proverbs The devil finds work for idle hands to do (‘those who are not kept busy by work will start doing harmful things’) and a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush (‘It is better to be content with something that one is sure to receive than to try to get something better and risk having nothing at all’): [64] [64] [64] [64] Polly: I see. Well, Mrs Fawlty said you were going to have a rest for a couple of days, you know, in the hospital. Basil (firmly): Idle hands get in the way of the devil’s work Idle hands get in the way of the devil’s work Idle hands get in the way of the devil’s work Idle hands get in the way of the devil’s work, Fawlty. Now … Polly: Right, well why don’t you have a lie-down, and I can deal with this. […] Miss Gatsby: You must have hurt yourself. Basil: My dear woman, a blow on the head like that … is worth two in the a blow on the head like that … is worth two in the a blow on the head like that … is worth two in the a blow on the head like that … is worth two in the bush bush bush bush. (Cleese/ Booth 1997: 36) Another important function of PUs in literature is to characterize the protagonists. This is often done by a character’s own speech, the so-called linguistic portrait. An illustrative example can be found in David Lodge’s novel <?page no="85"?> Phraseology in Use 86 Therapy, which deals with a successful sitcom writer trying to overcome his midlife crisis. In his endeavour to question and analyse everything, he constantly looks up words and expressions in dictionaries. In the following scene he thinks about the motivation of figurative expressions: [65] [65] [65] [65] It feels strange, writing this journal again. There’s quite a gap in it. After Sally dropped her bombshell dropped her bombshell dropped her bombshell dropped her bombshell that evening (what exactly is, or was, a bombshell, incidentally? And how do you drop one without blowing yourself up? Is it grenade, or a mortar shell, or was it a primitive kind of aerial bomb that they lobbed out of the open cockpits of the old biplanes? The dictionary isn’t much help) - after Sally burst into my study that Friday evening, and announced that she wanted a separation, I was too upset to be able to write anything, even a journal, for weeks. I was beside myself was beside myself was beside myself was beside myself with jealousy and rage and self-pity. (Now there’s a good cliché for you, “beside myself”: as if you’re so full of negative feelings that you shake your mind loose from your body, severing the connections between them, and the one is unable to voice the pain of the other.) (D. Lodge Therapy 1995: 202) Arthur Miller’s famous play Death of a Salesman is not rich in PUs. The few which are put into the actors’ mouths, however, are chosen cleverly to characterize the main protagonists and their attitudes towards life and in this way to crystallize the main conflict of the play. Willy Loman, a sixty-something salesman worn out by long-distance journeys to find new customers for his employer, believed in the idea of becoming successful and happy because of hard work and personality, but he is unable to live up to his own expectations. His grown-up son Biff, who has gone from job to job never finding success, realizes that his father’s life has been “a ridiculous lie”. The PUs used by the two protagonists (the world is your oyster ‘all the chances in life are open to you’; the sky is the limit ‘there are no limits, e.g. to the successes that one gains in one’s work’; a dime a dozen ‘common/ of little value’) reflect the contrary values: [66] [66] [66] [66] Willy: What’s the mystery? The man knew what he wanted and went out and got it! Walked into the jungle, and comes out, the age of twenty-one, and he’s rich! The world is an oyster, but you don’t crack it open on a mattress! The world is an oyster, but you don’t crack it open on a mattress! The world is an oyster, but you don’t crack it open on a mattress! The world is an oyster, but you don’t crack it open on a mattress! (1949: 41) [67] [67] [67] [67] Willy: Without a penny to his name, three great universities are begging for him, and from there the sky’s the limit the sky’s the limit the sky’s the limit the sky’s the limit, because it’s not what you do, Ben. It’s who you know and the smile on your face! It’s contacts, Ben, contacts! (1949: 86) [68] [68] [68] [68] Willy, with hatred, threateningly: The door of your life is wide open! Biff: Pop! I’m a dime a dozen a dime a dozen a dime a dozen a dime a dozen, and so are you! Willy, turning on him now in an uncontrolled outburst: I am not a dime a a dime a a dime a a dime a dozen dozen dozen dozen! I am Willy Loman, and you are Biff Loman! (1949: 132) <?page no="86"?> Metacommunicative signals 87 An expressive example of a linguistic portrait is provided in J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye. Holden Caulfield, the main character and first-person narrator, is a sensitive adolescent who was thrown out of his school and is now fleeing from the “phony” adult world in search for innocence and truth. To present authentic teenage language the author employs a wide range of PUs stylistically marked as colloquial, impolite and slang (e.g. not know one’s ass/ arse from one’s elbow ‘to have no common sense’; be given/ get the axe ‘to lose one’s job/ to be thrown out of school’; give sb. a pain in the arse/ ass ‘to annoy sb. very much’): [6 [6 [6 [69] 9] 9] 9] He started going into his nodding routine. You never saw anybody nod as much in your life as old Spencer did. You never knew if he was nodding a lot because he was thinking and all, or just because he was a nice old guy that didn’t know his ass from his didn’t know his ass from his didn’t know his ass from his didn’t know his ass from his elbow elbow elbow elbow. (1951: 7) [70] [70] [70] [70] So what I decided to do, I decided I’d take a room in a hotel in New York - some very inexpensive hotel and all - and just take it easy till Wednesday. Then, on Wednesday, I’d go home all rested up and feeling swell. I figured my parents probably wouldn’t get old Thurmer’s letter saying I’d been given d been given d been given d been given the ax the ax the ax the ax till maybe Tuesday or Wednesday. (1951: 45) [71] [71] [71] [71] That hat I bought had earlaps in it and I put them on - I didn’t give a damn didn’t give a damn didn’t give a damn didn’t give a damn how I looked. Nobody was around anyway. (1951: 47) [72] [72] [72] [72] But we chewed the fat chewed the fat chewed the fat chewed the fat for a while. That is, she chewed it. You couldn’t get a couldn’t get a couldn’t get a couldn’t get a word in edgewise word in edgewise word in edgewise word in edgewise. (1951: 96) [73] [73] [73] [73] She was always late. Then I hung up. She gave me a pain in the ass gave me a pain in the ass gave me a pain in the ass gave me a pain in the ass, but she was very good-looking. (1951: 96) Furthermore, Holden Caulfield is especially fond of stereotypical comparisons with the structure ... like hell: ‘So what? ’ I said. Cold as hell. - p. 36; I said it fast as hell - p. 62; Goddam money. It always ends up making you blue as hell. - p. 102; I was sorry as hell […] - p. 120. Apart from these expressions, it is the large number of routine formulae typical of spoken discourse that give his language its casual character, such as you know, The thing is …, and especially the protagonist’s stereotypical and all. Exercise (2) 3.3 Metacommunicative signals Speakers/ writers sometimes have the feeling that their use of PUs is not appropriate for a text or speech or that these stand out from the rest of the discourse, especially due to their idiomatic meanings and connotations. Since <?page no="87"?> Phraseology in Use 88 they want to dissociate themselves from their own language use to a certain degree, their PUs are often accompanied by expressions such as as the saying goes, as they say, so to speak, we say or they are put into inverted commas or italics: [74] [74] [74] [74] The grass is always greener over here. “The grass is always greener on the other side”, as the old saying goes as the old saying goes as the old saying goes as the old saying goes. But here in Ireland it happens to be true. We’ve definitely got green grass. At least 40 shades of it. (Leipziger Volkszeitung 4/ 5 December 1999) [7 [7 [7 [75] 5] 5] 5] My mind My mind My mind My mind as they say as they say as they say as they say went blank went blank went blank went blank, I thought of nothing. (D. Lodge Thinks, 2002: 4) [76] [76] [76] [76] “We have had people who have been bitten while trying to copy these guys by sticking their hand through the cage of a known dangerous animal. They They They They could be said could be said could be said could be said to ha to ha to ha to have put their life at peril ve put their life at peril ve put their life at peril ve put their life at peril,” he says. (The Guardian TRAVEL 13 August 2005) [77] [77] [77] [77] (Interview of Thomas Gottschalk with Peter Gabriel on German TV: ) Glaubst du, dass es für Rock-Musiker auch eine Aufgabe ist, politisch zu werden, Dinge anzuklagen, die nicht in Ordnung sind. Du hast das immer getan. Vermisst du das bei deinen Kollegen und glaubst du, es gehört zum Job eines Musikers dazu? [English translation for the artist] - Well, we say we say we say we say diffe diffe diffe differ rr rent strokes for different folks ent strokes for different folks ent strokes for different folks ent strokes for different folks. [English text no longer audible because of voice-over translation] Nun, jeder ist anders, jeder Mensch ist anders. Aber für mich war es immer ganz klar und ganz deutlich, also wenn wir die Chance haben, etwas anders zu machen, uns zu engagieren und anderen zu helfen, dann tun wir es eben auch. (ZDF 50 Jahre Rock, 17 April 2004) [78] [78] [78] [78] Hostages ‘ ‘‘ ‘safe and sound’ ’’ ’ in sheikh’s house (The Guardian 21 January 1999) [79] [79] [79] [79] Little of this is reflected in the French press, which cleaves to its diet of America-bashing pur et dur pur et dur pur et dur pur et dur. (Newsweek 6 March 2006; italics) If PUs are represented as phrasal compounds (cf. [80] [80] [80] [80] ) or by their core elements (cf. [81] [81] [81] [81] ), the signal kind of is frequently used: [80] [80] [80] [80] But being a let-sleeping-dogs-lie kind of kind of kind of kind of gormless individual and one not averse to sweeping things under the carpet, I said a very firm no and sent Homer packing with a flea in his ear. (The Weekend Australian 12/ 13 February 2005) [81] [81] [81] [81] I think that’s a kind of a kind of a kind of a kind of Rubicon as far as he is concerned. (D. Lodge Therapy, 1995: 145) These signals and typographic means have metacommunicative functions. They interrupt the actual process of communication to control and support <?page no="88"?> Metacommunicative signals 89 the receiver’s comprehension. Authors use them to mark their linguistic choices as something special in order to make the text coherent or to prevent expressions from being misunderstood (for example, in their literal sense). Signals used in this function are often conventional. Some of them (e.g. so to speak, as it were, you know, and all [that]) are PUs themselves. [82] [82] [82] [82] Homer was - is I should imagine, unless he fell on his own sword, so to so to so to so to speak speak speak speak - a man of very good humour, who clearly enjoyed his work. (The Weekend Australian 12/ 13 February 2005) [83] [83] [83] [83] For her part, she already considered Hubert Dearing the handsomest of men, having seen several photographic portraits of him in black and white, but she looked forward with eager expectation to seeing him, as it were as it were as it were as it were, in the flesh. (D. Lodge Thinks, 2002: 156) [84] [84] [84] [84] (A (A (A (A spokesman for the New York Police Department about false labels on handbags sold in Chinatown: ) It isn’t, you know, someone just down the street making, you know you know you know you know, a quick dollar. These things are manufactured, they are sold, they are imported. You are talking about a very large business. […] You are supporting organised crime. (CNN, spoken news report, 23 February 2005) [85] [85] [85] [85] “I’ve become a photographer. Nothing fancy. Weddings, portraits, that kind of thing. But it makes a lot of sense - if I’m doing the invitations. Two birds Two birds Two birds Two birds with one stone with one stone with one stone with one stone and all that and all that and all that and all that.” He gave a sad, light laugh. (N. Shakespeare Snowleg, 2004: 13) In oral communication PUs are often marked by special emphasis, by raising the voice or a deliberately slow way of speaking. Sometimes speakers can be heard saying in inverted commas or can be seen to make a gesture as if to ‘put quotation marks in the air’. The use of metacommunicative signals is definitely individual. The same PU can occur marked and unmarked. Their use depends on the writer’s/ speaker’s attitude towards their text, the target reader/ listener and the situation and is to a certain extent an indicator of communicative awareness and competence. Signals seem to be recommendable in intercultural situations (cf. [74] [74] [74] [74] und [77] [77] [77] [77] ) and in situations where a foreign language is spoken, because a non-native speaker can seldom be sure of the stylistic adequacy of a PU. An additional cultural ‘hedge’ such as as you might say in English or isn’t this a situation where you say … can avoid embarrassment and unwelcome reactions. Exercise (3) <?page no="89"?> Phraseology in Use 90 3.4 Marked uses of PUs When we compare the examples given so far we see that the PUs in some of them were used in a particular way (cf., for instance, [7] [7] [7] [7] , [34] [34] [34] [34] , [42] [42] [42] [42] - [44] [44] [44] [44] , [57] [57] [57] [57] - [59] [59] [59] [59] , [63] [63] [63] [63] ). Phraseological constituents were left out, other words were added, PUs were combined, used in both their literal and figurative meanings, or even made the theme of a whole paragraph. Authors did so to produce specific stylistic effects. Innovative or ‘marked’ uses of PUs like these play an important role. They amount to almost a quarter (23,6%) of the roughly 1,000 phraseological examples this book is based on. 25 This percentage must be regarded as high, for we have to consider the large number of non-idiomatic PUs (e.g. and so on, let alone, at least) which are used with high frequencies, but without any stylistic effect. Marked uses of PUs are a type of ludic linguistic behaviour or ‘language play’ (cf. Crystal 1998), which is a ubiquitous phenomenon in today’s communication. The multitude of mechanisms employing PUs in creative ways are presented in a systematic way in this chapter. 3.4.1 Modifications Modifications are ad-hoc exploitations. They are situational, innovative and closely related to a specific text or communicative act. Authors alter PUs deliberately with specific purposes in mind. In contrast to phraseological variations (cf. chapter 1.2.2) modifications cannot be registered in dictionaries. This situation may cause additional problems for non-native speakers. Not only do they need to be familiar with a PU, but they also have to be able to analyse the technique of modification and the effects on the text. The most frequent type of modification is substitution. Authors try to make a PU more precisely applicable to a textual situation by exchanging one or several of the elements. The substitutes are often semantically related to the content of the text, in this way contributing to its coherence, as in [86] [86] [86] [86] , an article on how to decorate a pool with lights, or [87] [87] [87] [87] , a report on May Frisby, owner of a successful Italian food emporium. [86] [86] [86] [86] Ready, steady, glow (The Mail on Sunday 28 September 2004) [87] [87] [87] [87] […] And in the company of a very handsome, tall, dark stranger. May knows knows knows knows on which side her ciabbata is buttered on which side her ciabbata is buttered on which side her ciabbata is buttered on which side her ciabbata is buttered and quickly introduced me to her new Italian friend, Carlos Barbera. (The Sunday Independent 21 March 2004) 25 My corpus has been built up primarily during a period of 20 years of intensive but unsystematic collecting of items from newspapers, literary and academic texts, conversation, television and radio programmes (cf. Sources). <?page no="90"?> Marked uses of PUs 91 While the meanings of the PUs which form the basis for these uses (ready, steady go! ‘Start the race/ sth. is quickly done’; to know on which side one’s bread is buttered ‘to know how to behave in order to be liked by people in power’) are fully relevant, the new members make the texts more attractive, firstly, by confronting the reader with something curious, and, secondly, by offering a new field of associations (sports, Italian food). In [88] [88] [88] [88] , the headline of an article on a new casino in Sydney in the style of the Arabian Nights, block in the PU a chip off the old block (‘a person who is very like one of his parents’) was replaced by kasbah (= a section of a North African city containing nightclubs and brothels). In addition to the modification and personification (the PU usually refers to human beings) that can be enjoyed, the reader will have fun discovering that the meaning of chip as ‘a piece of plastic used in gambling’ might have been a chief motivation for the selection of this PU. [88] [88] [88] [88] Casino’s a chip off the old kasbah (Sydney Morning Herald 28 November 1997) Another factor in the choice of a specific substitute is phonetic similarity, such as rhyme (cf. [86] [86] [86] [86] ) or homophony. Study, for example, the following articles about grills and ovens for outdoor cooking [89] [89] [89] [89] and about the smoking ban in Ireland [90] [90] [90] [90] : [89] [89] [89] [89] Use clay while the sun shines (Financial Times [Weekend] 7/ 8 August 1999; cf. Make hay while the sun shines ‘take advantage of sth. while you have the chance’) [90] [90] [90] [90] A breath of fresh Eire (The Sunday Times 28 March 2004; cf. a breath of fresh air ‘sth. pleasantly different that makes people feel happier’) In the following article both semantic and phonological aspects are relevant for the modified PU in the headline: [91] [91] [91] [91] Dressed to Steal NEW YORK - the crime rate has gone down in New York - except if you are the person the crime is committed against. The one I was the victim of was not a white-collar crime, but a Gucci silk blouse crime. […] What is the moral of this story? Crime is still rampant in New York City. Women dressed to kill dressed to kill dressed to kill dressed to kill are now roaming the city’s stores. I learned my lesson from all this. I vow I will never talk to an upscale lady in an upscale store in New York again. (International Herald Tribune 24 June 1999) Sometimes the exchange of but one letter brings about considerable effects, as in [92] [92] [92] [92] , an article referring to Norman Foster’s Swiss Re tower in the City of London, or [93] [93] [93] [93] , a report on in-car soundtracks. In [94] [94] [94] [94] an allusion to the film <?page no="91"?> Phraseology in Use 92 Bend it like Beckham is used to refer to the football player’s metrosexuality in an article about male skincare. [92] [92] [92] [92] In a g gg glass of its own (The Observer 28 September 2003; cf. a class of its own) [93] [93] [93] [93] Music to our g gg gears (The Guardian. The guide 13 August 2005; cf. music to sb.’s ears) [94] [94] [94] [94] T TT Tend it like Beckham (The Weekend Australian 12/ 13 February 2005) It is not only with newspaper headlines that substitutions abound. Oscar Wilde, an author widely known for all kinds of verbal humour, makes frequent use of them, as well. In his play The Importance of Being Earnest (p. 124), for example, he exchanges phraseological constituents for their antonyms and combines this substitution with permutation (cf. to wash one’s dirty linen in public ‘to reveal and talk about one’s hidden faults and personal affairs’ and Two’s company, three’s a crowd ‘in a situation where two people are happy to be by themselves a third person would cause inconvenience’): [95] [95] [95] [95] The amount of women in London who flirt with their own husbands is perfectly scandalous. It looks so bad. It is simply washing one’s clean linen in washing one’s clean linen in washing one’s clean linen in washing one’s clean linen in public public public public. [96] [96] [96] [96] You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is three is company and two is three is company and two is three is company and two is none none none none. In a second type of modification, expansion, authors use additional constituents to connect a PU to the topic of the text or to add specific semantic components. Adjectives in attributive function are especially frequent (cf. [7] [7] [7] [7] ), but additional affixes or word groups added after a dash can also be found (cf. [34] [34] [34] [34] ): [97] [97] [97] [97] As such, he could serve as the electoral Trojan horse Trojan horse Trojan horse Trojan horse for Russia’s pro-market liberals. (Financial Times 20 May 1999) [98] [98] [98] [98] Smells like Smells like Smells like Smells like pre-teen spirit teen spirit teen spirit teen spirit with a nip of flair and dual axe attack (The Age 12 February x 2005; x allusion x to x the x Song x Smells k like k teen k spirit x by x Nirvana; x article x on x an x Australian x band, x The k Flairz, x whose x members x are x 11 x and x 12 x years old) In the following passage, an oral example, dealing with Prince Charles and Camilla’s wedding preparations, the speaker feels the need to make the PU every Tom, Dick and Harry applicable to both sexes and, therefore, tries to create female names as equivalents. <?page no="92"?> Marked uses of PUs 93 [99] [99] [99] [99] Anybody has the right, in theory, to walk into a registry office. And so it’s not quite sure how that’s going to be handled. The very reason it’s going to be held at the registry office is because the original plan, as the others have said, was to have a quiet service in a room somewhere in Windsor Castle, not a service, a civil ceremony. Then it was discovered that if that happened, eve eve eve every Tom, Dick and Harry ry Tom, Dick and Harry ry Tom, Dick and Harry ry Tom, Dick and Harry, or Harriet, or or Tomasina would have the right to come along and say ‘I’d like to get married in the same room, thank you very much’ and so, that’s why they go across the room, the road. (CNN 23 February 2005) If an expansion refers directly to some of the phraseological constituents, it often relates to their literal meaning. This often results in ambiguity. In [100] [100] [100] [100] , a journal for visitors to Scotland, the topic of fishing causes the additional parenthesis, which activates the literal meaning of the PU up one’s street (‘within sb.’s area of interest or knowledge’), and in the job advertisement [101] [101] [101] [101] it is the list of fruits that calls to mind the literal way of reading to know one’s onions (‘to be experienced/ to know a great deal about a particular subject or one’s work’). [100] [100] [100] [100] If catching fish rather than losing balls is is is is more up your street up your street up your street up your street (or down your river) there is both freshwater and sea angling. (The Visitor Summer 2005) [101] [101] [101] [101] (Found in: The Daily Telegraph 19 February 2004) <?page no="93"?> Phraseology in Use 94 We will return to the playful creation of ambiguity by means of PUs in chapter 3.4.3. Reduction, i.e. the deletion of elements, has already been mentioned in chapter 1.2.3, where we discussed lexicalization. Some important constituents of a PU or sometimes even a single one is able to call the complete PU to mind, as was shown in the examples Great Earlybird Deals and Grapevine. The same can be said about textual occurrence: [102] [102] [102] [102] Birds of a Feather Birds of a Feather Birds of a Feather Birds of a Feather (The Sunday Times [Singapore] 15 December 2002; cf. Birds of a feather flock together) [103] [103] [103] [103] A girl’s best friend A girl’s best friend A girl’s best friend A girl’s best friend (RTÉ Guide 20 December 2002; cf. Diamonds are a girl’s best friend) [104] [104] [104] [104] There is a silver lining a silver lining a silver lining a silver lining amid the IPO misery (Financial Times 21/ 22 December 2002; cf. Every cloud has a silver lining) The following example comes from a TV news programme (cf. grin like a Cheshire cat): [105] [105] [105] [105] Chris Burns is at the SPD headquarters. Chris, chancellor Schröder has a large Cheshire Cheshire Cheshire Cheshire- -- -cat smile cat smile cat smile cat smile on his face today. (CNN Report on Germany’s election, 18 September 2005) Permutation, i.e. the reordering of phraseological constituents, can be seen in [106] [106] [106] [106] : [106] [106] [106] [106] Queen to see how Britannia has waived the rules has waived the rules has waived the rules has waived the rules THE Queen will today formally open one of the newest manifestations of Cool Britannia - a “Rebranding” of the National Maritime Museum at Greenwich which has alarmed traditionalists. (The Daily Telegraph 10 May 1999) Here, the headline Britannia has waived the rules alludes to the famous patriotic song (written by the Scottish poet James Thomson) Rule, Britannia, Britannia rules the waves. Britons never, never, never Shall be slaves. (…) The chiastic structure (waive the rules - rules the waves) in combination with homophony makes this headline an impressive example of a creative modification. <?page no="94"?> Marked uses of PUs 95 The use of a PU as a constituent of a phrasal compound can be classified as a special type of permutation. The meaning of a proverb or routine formula, otherwise presented in sentence structure, is expressed in a condensed form, which makes it especially appropriate for use in journalism (cf. [80] [80] [80] [80] , [105] [105] [105] [105] ): [107] [107] [107] [107] The book - subtitled: The Best Friend Who Casually Destroys Your Life - seems to have hit a nerve in dog dog dog dog- -- -eat eat eat eat- -- -dog New York dog New York dog New York dog New York, where professional success is highly prized and where “friends” are often after your jobs, your boyfriend and, especially, your apartment. (The Age 12 February 2005) [108] [108] [108] [108] […] tipping is more a carrot carrot carrot carrot- -- -and and and and- -- -stick arrangement stick arrangement stick arrangement stick arrangement. Serve us well and we’ll leave you a nice tip - maybe. (The Age 12 February 2005) [109] [109] [109] [109] “It’s the old sledgehamm sledgehamm sledgehamm sledgehammer er er er- -- -to to to to- -- -crack crack crack crack- -- -a aa a- -- -walnut scenario walnut scenario walnut scenario walnut scenario. […]” (The Age 12 February 2005) [110] [110] [110] [110] About 20 per cent of tickets will be sold for -£1 each way, on a first first first first- -- -come come come come- -- first first first first- -- -served basis served basis served basis served basis. (METRO 20 February 2004) The types of modification described (substitution, expansion, reduction, permutation) relate to the four basic categories of change in ancient rhetoric, immutatio, adiectio, detractio and transmutatio, which were already known and applied to the training of orators for public speaking in classical Greece and Rome (cf. Ueding/ Steinbrink 1994). In many cases, however, they do not occur in their pure forms. Several types of modification are applied simultaneously or modifications are combined with other stylistic devices, so that sometimes it might be better to speak of only allusions to PUs. Headline [111] [111] [111] [111] arranges parts of the Latin proverb in vino veritas in a new order mixed with English words to announce a letter to the editor containing a cruel criticism of the quality of French wine, and [112] [112] [112] [112] presents the headline of an article about Prince Harry’s gap-year in Australia. The colloquial name for Australia, Oz, was chosen here because of its formal identity with the title character in the popular children’s book, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. [113] [113] [113] [113] , the headline of a review on an innovative style guide for English, is an excellent example of the cooperation between different techniques in creative manipulations of PUs and the effect they can have on our understanding. The humour is, first of all, based on the use of a split infinitive in a passage where its usage is debated. In addition, we identify the allusion to the American science-fiction TV series STARTREK. 26 The subtitle then makes the punning headline’s relation to the topic obvious. The associations connected with the science-fiction series are transferred to the language guide, which allows all the features that have been disapproved of so far in formal writing - onesentence paragraphs, but, or, and and at the beginning of sentences as well as 26 Cf. chapter 2.2.5, example [12]. <?page no="95"?> Phraseology in Use 96 the split infinitive. It is as innovative und futuristic as STARTREK. With regard to the last two examples in this group - although only two words (a day) in [114] [114] [114] [114] , and in [115] [115] [115] [115] none of the authentic elements have been kept - a native speaker of English can easily detect the underlying well-known proverbs An apple a day keeps the doctor away and One man’s meat is another man’s poison. This is made possible by the rhythmic and structural features and semantic parallels. [111] [111] [111] [111] The veritas about vino (The Guardian 13 August 2005) 27 [112] [112] [112] [112] Cowboy Prince set to make it a wizard year for Oz (The Observer 28 September 2003) [113] [113] [113] [113] To boldly split your infinitive is no longer a sin According to a new language guide, some rules are unnecessary (The Daily Telegraph 31 July 1995) [114] [114] [114] [114] Orange a day can ward off cancer (The Mail on Sunday 28 September 2003) [115] [115] [115] [115] Others’ Trash Is Now An Architect’s Treasure (The New York Times/ Süddeutsche Zeitung 13 June 2005) Finally, a type of modification remains to be mentioned which defies classification within the four groups. It is the affirmation of a normally negative PU or, vice versa, the negation of an affirmative unit, as in the following examples: [116] [116] [116] [116] Last month over 60,000 people came back to BT. Maybe they discovered the grass isn’t a the grass isn’t a the grass isn’t a the grass isn’t always greener lways greener lways greener lways greener. (British Telecom Ad, found in METRO 20 February 2004; cf. The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence ‘People are inclined to think that life is better in any place where they are not at present living’) [117] [117] [117] [117] Sky’s not the l Sky’s not the l Sky’s not the l Sky’s not the limit imit imit imit That Dennis Tito is the first space tourist is an earthly assumption of galactic proportions. (Guardian Weekly 3-9 May 2001; The sky’s the limit ‘there are no upper limits to the success that sb. can gain or to the amount of money that can be spent’) [118] [118] [118] [118] If breast isn’t best breast isn’t best breast isn’t best breast isn’t best (The Guardian 17 August 1999; Babies could be hurt by toxins in breast milk; cf. Breast is best - a slogan promoting breastfeeding) The negation can also be expressed by visual elements, as in [119] [119] [119] [119] : 27 The author, however, ignores the fact that Latin is a highly inflectional language. The nominative is vinum. <?page no="96"?> Marked uses of PUs 97 [119] [119] [119] [119] (Found in RTÉ Guide 20 December 2002) The modifications strike the reader/ listener as being unusual, they catch attention by opposing their expectations. It is no wonder, therefore, that this device is likely to occur in newspaper headlines and advertisements. Exercices (4) (5) 3.4.2 Playing with deliberate ambiguity Ambiguous use of a PU depends on its typical characteristic of having a figurative and a literal meaning. By means of contextual features as well as verbal or visual textual elements surrounding the PU, authors provide conditions to make both readings relevant in a textual environment and in doing so to produce deliberate ambiguity. In linguistic literature this technique is often called literalization or demetaphorization. As the following examples show, however, in the majority of cases both the literal and the figurative (metaphorical) interpretation operate simultaneously. Therefore, the term phraseological pun, <?page no="97"?> Phraseology in Use 98 introduced by Anita Naciscione (2001: 79-90) seems to apply to the phenomenon described. Here is her definition: phraseolgical pun: an instantial pattern where two interpretations can be assigned to the case of use: direct and figurative. The salient feature of this pattern is the juxtaposition and contradistinction of the figurative meaning of the PU and the literal meaning of a component or components. […] This is a technique of double exposure where two pictures appear on top of each other without coinciding. The dual perception results in a dual reading of the lines. (Naciscione 2001: 236/ 237) In [120] [120] [120] [120] , for instance, readers will first recognize a popular hyperbolic formula, Thanks a million, and reading on they will realize that a million is used in a literal sense, as well. Similarly, seeing a headline Let’s pull all the strings [121] [121] [121] [121] , the phraseological meaning ‘to use personal influence to obtain sth.’ automatically comes to our mind. Progressing through this article on comedy and satire, however, we see that the literal pulling of strings, the ones on puppets, is relevant too. [120] [120] [120] [120] Thanks a million The Sunday Independent has increased its lead over all other Sunday newspapers … 1,064,000 readers (Sunday Independent 21 March 2004) [121] [121] [121] [121] Let’s pull all the strings […] Moreover, the things that irritated Stratton most about Team America - such as the strings on the puppets being clearly visible - were the very things I found funniest. Weren’t those all-too-visible strings a joke at the expense of the old Thunderbirds series? […] That’s the very essence of satire: you can see the strings. (The Weekend Australian 12/ 13 February 2005) [122] [122] [122] [122] Blood, Toil, Tears, Sweat (The Independent 3 September 2003) Example [122] [122] [122] [122] confronts us with winged words. This headline alludes to Sir Winston Churchill’s famous speech to the House of Commons on becoming prime minister (13 May 1940): “I would say to the House, as I have said to those who have joined this Government, I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat.” Blood, Toil, Tears, Sweat (or the variation blood, sweat and tears) are used to mean ‘very hard work/ a lot of effort’). For the article, a report on a week spent at a London hospital against the background of the National Health Service which is in crisis and needs reform, this figurative and the literal meanings are equally relevant. In the majority of cases there are verbal elements in the immediate co-text of the PU which refer to its literal meaning or a possible meaning of a phraseological constituent. In this way, for a short moment - as already described <?page no="98"?> Marked uses of PUs 99 for expansions (cf. 3.4.1) - two conflicting associations may be aroused in the reader’s mind: [123] [123] [123] [123] […] the characters would be the kind of characters I could personally relate to; they’d be flesh and blood, they’d have their faults and foibles, they’d be fallible and feisty, and - most important of all - inside their colourful, costumed booties they’d still have feet of clay have feet of clay have feet of clay have feet of clay. (S. Lee History of Marvel Comics, 1974: 17) [124] [124] [124] [124] Time to talk Turkey on Cuba (letter to the editor) Sir, As Turkey has been granted a tentative slot in its step-by-step promotion, the time has come for the European Union to follow the US’s example and flex its muscles - if any - on Cuba’s behalf vis à vis the North American Free Trade Agreement. An Ankara-matching timetable would probably be acceptable to La Habana. (Financial Times 21/ 22 December 2002) [125] [125] [125] [125] Clinton Shows His Muscle, but Not Yet His Will (International Herald Tribune 1 July 1999) The intended ambiguity can also be shown by metacommunicative signals (e.g. words like literal[ly] or real[ly]): [126] [126] [126] [126] Prince Charles’ wedding to Camilla at Windsor Castle in April will end decades of adultery, of Charles literally literally literally literally creeping about in the woods of both parties slinking past security in royal houses and in the safe houses of friends, and the memory of the skin-crawling embarrassment of the Camillagate tape. (The Age 12 February 2005) [127] [127] [127] [127] I walk up rue Lepic […] I am literally literally literally literally walking in their footsteps, magically keeping myself going in the right direction. (The Age 12 February 2005) <?page no="99"?> Phraseology in Use 100 [128] [128] [128] [128] (Found in The Straits Times 18 December 2002; cf. to blow one’s own trumpet ‘to praise one’s own abilities’) Visual elements produce a strong effect on our understanding. Headline [129] [129] [129] [129] is accompanied by a photograph showing a horse race, which reveals the play on words instantly. The direction of the reader’s decoding process differs from the examples shown above. The literal meaning presents the point of departure here. Having read the article about bookmakers who took bets on a dead horse, we know that the figurative aspect (‘keep trying to get satisfaction from sth. that cannot give it any longer’) plays a role as well. [129] [129] [129] [129] Flogging a dead horse (The Wharf 12 February 2004) Visual elements are particularly important in advertising. In [130] [130] [130] [130] it is mainly the picture that calls to mind that with no strings/ wires attached can also be understood in a literal sense referring to computer wires; whereas in [131] [131] [131] [131] the <?page no="100"?> Marked uses of PUs 101 presentation of the car in the shape of the foliage of a tree ambiguates the formula the shape of things to come (‘the way things are likely to develop in future’) to convey the message ‘Our environmentally friendly car is the future’. Example [132] [132] [132] [132] , as frequently done in advertising, provokes the reader, in this case verbally with a rude gesture (to give sb. the finger) to take it back visually presenting a hand and a computer mouse to express ‘book online’. [130] [130] [130] [130] (Found in Newsweek 24 May 2004) <?page no="101"?> Phraseology in Use 102 [131] [131] [131] [131] (Found in The Straits Times 16 December 2002) [132] [132] [132] [132] (Found in The Guardian TRAVEL 13 August 2005) <?page no="102"?> Marked uses of PUs 103 Phraseological punning, toying around with the two meanings of a PU, is a popular technique in advertising (cf. Bürli-Storz 1980). Potential customers might feel that they are being taken seriously by such demanding language use and might overcome their distrust. Furthermore, successful decoding is the result of mental processing, therefore, resulting in intellectual pleasure. Another aspect is language economy, as Redfern (1984: 130) puts it: Advertising space is costly. Economy is essential, and puns are highly economical (two meanings for the price of one word or phrase), and are in fact much more of a labour-saving device than many of the products they seek to promote. The potential of phraseological puns to amuse is exploited in a very large number of jokes and cartoons (cf. [133] [133] [133] [133] ). Humour, as we know, is based on incongruity. 28 We laugh at things that are out of place. The two meanings of a PU often juxtapose those incompatible items that surprise us when they are brought together. Even the funniest joke in the world 29 might be called a phraseological one. A figuratively meant formula was taken all too literally: A couple of New Jersey hunters are out in the woods when one of them falls to the ground. He doesn’t seem to be breathing, his eyes are rolled back in his head. The other guy whips out his cell phone and calls the emergency services. He gasps to the operator: ‘My friend is dead! What can I do? ’ The operator, in a calm soothing voice says: ‘Just take it easy. I can help. First, let’s make sure that he’s dead.’ There is silence, then a shot is heard. The guy’s voice comes back on the line. He says: ‘OK. Now what? ’ [133] [133] [133] [133] (Frank and Ernest by Bob Thaves, 17 July 1989 © 2005 Thaves/ Dist. by NEA Inc.) 28 An overview of humour theories is given by Attardo (1994). In addition, cf. Fiedler (2003: 86- 91). 29 In September 2001, at the University of Hertfordshire an experiment called LaughLab was initiated as part of Science Year in the UK to find the funniest joke in the world and to study the psychology of humour. <?page no="103"?> Phraseology in Use 104 Exercises (6) (7) (8) (9) 3.4.3 PUs in combination Another kind of the marked use of PUs is their combination. The units chosen are usually semantically related, for example, including co-hyponymic constituents [134] [134] [134] [134] , belonging to the same subtype of PUs (e.g. to those with parts of the human body) [135] [135] [135] [135] , or presenting contrastive ideas [136] [136] [136] [136] . [134] [134] [134] [134] New Labour’s sitting duck vows to cook Tories’ goose (The Observer 28 September 2003; cf. a sitting duck ‘sb./ sth. that can easily be attacked or criticized/ an obvious target’; to cook one’s/ sb.’s goose ‘to ruin sb.’s chances of success’) [135] [135] [135] [135] No bones about it, Marley’s heart belongs to Addis. (The Weekend Australian 12/ 13 February 2005; cf. to make no bones about sth. ‘to say or do sth. without delay or hesitation’) [136] [136] [136] [136] High hopes and cold feet in Arctic (The Daily Telegraph 25 February 1999) Combinations like these are often playful. The images that are brought together are often incompatible so that they cause breaks in the reader’s associations and function as additional eye-catchers. As the examples show, they can include further stylistic devices or modifications, such as topic-related expansions [134] [134] [134] [134] or phraseological puns, as in [136] [136] [136] [136] with cold feet and [135] [135] [135] [135] , where bones are also relevant in their literal meaning in this article dealing with plans to relocate Bob Marley’s remains. Sometimes an extremely large number of PUs are put together, as in the Monty Python scene shown in [2] [2] [2] [2] . Deliberate overuses (phraseological accumulations) like these make us aware of the multitude of figurative expressions in our language and the colourful images some of them evoke. When they deviate from ordinary language use, they create humour. Exercise (10) 3.4.4 Non-verbal representations of PUs At the end of chapter 3.4.1 it was mentioned that modifications sometimes go so far that they can be seen as mere allusions to PUs. When we discuss nonverbal representations, we even go one step further. PUs can be visualized without mentioning a single constituent. <?page no="104"?> Marked uses of PUs 105 Uses like these are especially popular in caricatures, as in example [137] [137] [137] [137] , a cartoon by Peter Till, where the recipient has to discover the unit to eat one’s words (‘admit that sth. one has said was wrong’). (© Peter Till 2004) [137] [137] [137] [137] (Guardian Weekly 29 April - 5 May 2004) In [138] [138] [138] [138] , an article about the trend of parents nowadays treating their children as equals and relying on their advice on life decisions. The text is illustrated with a visualization of the PU to follow in sb.’s footsteps (‘to do the same or to have the same style of life as sb. else, especially one’s relative’). The picture shows a father who leaves large footprints following his son who leaves small footsteps. [138] [138] [138] [138] Mommy and Daddy’s Little Life Coach (The New York Times 5 April 2007, E1) <?page no="105"?> Phraseology in Use 106 In [139] [139] [139] [139] we find a visualization of the PU the glass ceiling, an expression that refers to the invisible barrier formed by tradition that prevents especially women from being promoted to the most important positions. The picture on the front page (The Times 14 March 2006, T2) alludes to the cover story Forget glass ceilings - look for windows, following a few pages later. (© Charly Franklin/ Taxi/ Getty Images) [139] [139] [139] [139] (The Times 14 March 2006) <?page no="106"?> Marked uses of PUs 107 Non-verbal representations of PUs have a long tradition. A classical example is Pieter Bruegel’s painting The Netherlandish Proverbs (1559) [140] [140] [140] [140] . Most of the PUs illustrated there have equivalents in many European languages. [140] [140] [140] [140] Pieter Brueghel the Younger The Netherlandish Proverbs (1610) 30 The visualization of PUs can be regarded as a specific type of a phraseological pun (deliberate ambiguity) described above. Their peculiarity results from the fact that only one of the two possible readings, the literal one, is given and that it is presented non-verbally. Uses like these are fun and add an intellectual kick since knowledge of the PU is presupposed for successful decoding. Exercises (11) 3.4.5 PUs and proper names In chapter 2.4.3 we learnt about proper names as frequent constituents of PUs. When we deal with their use in texts some peculiarities can be observed. Authors like to employ the connotative potential of this class of PUs chiefly in two different ways. One frequent pattern is that the use of a PU with a proper name is induced by the topic, i.e., in the press, for example, an article deals 30 A copy Pieter Brueghel made of his father’s famous painting of 1559. <?page no="107"?> Phraseology in Use 108 with a person or place having the same name, such as Larry in [141] [141] [141] [141] or Daniel in [142] [142] [142] [142] , and the person’s character or the story told is semantically connected with the content of the PU. Additional puns (as with bonny in [143] [143] [143] [143] ) are popular. [141] [141] [141] [141] HAPPY AS LARRY LARRY ELLISON, GURU OF ORACLE AND THE LUCKIEST PLAYBOY IN SILICON VALLEY (The Guardian 8 July 2001) [142] [142] [142] [142] Daniel in the lion’s den (The Observer 28 September 2003; review on the book Who killed Daniel Pearl? ) [143] [143] [143] [143] Not bonny - but plenty of Clyde (The Observer 28 September 2003; review on a Scottish thriller which begins with the body of a woman floating in the Clyde) A second and more frequent pattern involves a personal name or place-name that is relevant in a text possessing an identical or similar form as a (nononymic) phraseological constituent. The effect can be compared to that of phraseological puns described in chapter 3.4.2. The focus is on the phraseological meanings (‘What is easily gained, is easily lost’ - [144] [144] [144] [144] ; ‘be crazy’ - [145] [145] [145] [145] ; ‘that is how things are and one must accept them’ - [146] [146] [146] [146] ), but at least in certain instances, a semantic switch occurs, that is, for a short moment the real objects (the airline Easy Jet; Harry Potter; Robin Cook) are evoked: [144] [144] [144] [144] Easy projects come, Easy Jet shares go for Stelios (The Daily Telegraph 19 February 2004) [145] [145] [145] [145] 100m fans go potty for Potter (The Sun 3 May 2001) [146] [146] [146] [146] COOKIE CRUMBLES AND CLEANS UP £400,000 LAST July, Robin Cook won a £50,000 consultancy job for Consolidated Contractors […] (The Observer 28 September 2003) [147] [147] [147] [147] Happy ever After (The Daily Star 28 November 2002) As [146] [146] [146] [146] shows, a mere allusion to a PU can be sufficient to activate the complete unit (That’s the way the cookie crumbles) in the reader’s mind. Headline [147] [147] [147] [147] is an allusion to the chocolate product After Eight as well as to the formula They lived happily ever after. This stereotypical closing signal of a fairy tale is motivated insofar as the article presents the spectacular success story of the chocolate company. In literature or films we can often find similar uses. Let us conclude this chapter with three examples in which authors have chosen names for their protagonists that are taken from PUs in order to create a play on words: <?page no="108"?> Marked uses of PUs 109 [148] [148] [148] [148] - I’m surprised I was invited. - Well, look around you. Who wasn’t? You ever heard the expression “Keeping up with the Joneses Keeping up with the Joneses Keeping up with the Joneses Keeping up with the Joneses”? - Of course. - Mr and Mrs Gordon Jones. The actual, historical family they invented the phrase about. - Good to know. (Screenplay Mona Lisa Smile, USA 2005) [149] [149] [149] [149] Alexandra is my shrink, my current shrink. Dr Alexandra Marbles. No, her real name is Marples. I call her Marbles for a joke. If she ever moves or retires, I’ll be able to say I’ve lost my Marbles ve lost my Marbles ve lost my Marbles ve lost my Marbles. (D. Lodge Therapy, 1995: 14) [150 [150 [150 [150] ]] ] Nick and Ralph got the mattress, which proved to be bug-free. Tom and Dick Tom and Dick Tom and Dick Tom and Dick - needing only a Harry to fill em up, Abagail thought - went out to the shed, where the Coleman lantern soon flared. (S. King The Stand, 1991: 500) A number of peculiarities in the use of PUs have been described in this chapter. Be it by means of modification or phraseological punning (playing with deliberate ambiguity), the characteristics of PUs offer a wide range of choice for creative applications. They are popular with authors in the press and in fictional literature, with copy writers and cartoonists as well as with readers because of their stylistic effects, especially the production of humour and intellectual pleasure. Exercises (12) (13) Exercises: (1) Find examples of films, songs, or novels that have phraseological titles. (2) What are the main uses of PUs in (a) journalistic texts and (b) literary texts. Give a summary of chapter 3.2. (3) What do the following PUs have in common? (a) One more big payday with Petty and that would be it for me. I was what they call over the hill. (B. Dylan Chronicles, p. 148) (b) In the state of Sachsen, students do not need to read more than a single short story in addition to what they read in their textbooks in their first six years of English instruction. […] If Nation’s (2001) estimate that native speakers read about 10-12 books per year to acquire 1000 words is correct, then one or two books in eight years does not seem to be more than the proverbial drop in the ocean. (E. Tschirner 2004: 36) (c) LaRouche said: “The proposal for the probably unlawful, U.S. Army Northern Command (‘USNORTHCOM’), when taken in its current strategic-policy setting, is clearly a proposal to ‘cross the Rubicon,’ a preparation to create a Caesarian <?page no="109"?> Phraseology in Use 110 military dictatorship over both the North American continent and the Caribbean. (Executive Intelligence Review 21 June 2002) (4) Study Mieder’s proverb manipulations in chapter 2.2.4. Paraphrase the meanings of the original versions and describe the type of modification. Example: A stitch in time saves losing your petticoat. Original version: A stitch in time saves nine. Meaning: Damage quickly worsens if it is not repaired; mend a fault as soon as possible. Technique(s): The second part was altered. The manipulation shows that stitch is no longer used in its figurative, but in its literal meaning. (5) Study the use of PUs in the following examples. Identify the phraseological basis and type of modification. Comment on the stylistic effects of the modification. (a) Eat, Drink, But It’s Best to be Wary Food poisoning can make the most intrepid business traveller ill and it can strike anywhere, not just in developing countries, but also in sophisticated cities or our own backyard,. The centers of Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta reports that contaminated food causes roughly 76 million illnesses and 5,000 deaths annually in the United States. […] (The New York Times/ Süddeutsche Zeitung 8 August 2005) (b) The fact that News Corp has now come to Yahoo! in search of an alliance pays eloquent testimony to the company’s hardiness. The big conglomerates have been unable to pose a serious threat to Yahoo! because they jumped on the Internet bandwagon and, despite all their extraordinary capital resources, simply cannot hope to attract the same sort of following - in Yahoo! ’s case, around half of all users of the Internet […] (The Independent 24 March 1999) (c) Umbrian Umbrage: Send Back That Etruscan Chariot (The New York Times 5 April 2007) [headline of an article about the residents of a mountain village in Umbria who reclaim a piece of art that is shown in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. They say it is part of their identity and was sold illegally.] <?page no="110"?> Marked uses of PUs 111 (d) (Found in The Observer 28 September 2003) (e) All that glisters … The iron chancellor disposes of fool’s gold In opposition Labour often accused the Conservatives of selling the family silver when they were privatising publicly owned property. Now in power Labour is selling the family gold. Gordon Brown’s decision to dispose of some of Britain’s gold reserves has triggered an unexpected barrage of criticism. […] (The Guardian 8 July 1999) <?page no="111"?> Phraseology in Use 112 (f) Charity begins at celebrity endorsement Move over Bono and Bob Geldof. Other stars are in the line to give their lives more purpose by doing their bit for poverty and other worthy causes, writes Wendy Tuohy. (The Age 12 February 2005) (g) GAT GIRL ABOUT TOWN FEBRUARY 16, 2004 No 1576 (name of a magazine) (h) New Labour, same old snobbery (…) New Labour live in sealed and gilded worlds, like Swiss millionaires (…) (The Guardian 8 July 1999, © Nicola Jennings 1999) (6) Give possible reasons why a commuters’ ticket in London is called an Oyster card. <?page no="112"?> Marked uses of PUs 113 (7) Compare the uses of the PUs to get one’s act together and close to the bone in the following examples. To what extent is (a) different from (b)? (a) Communication is what their business is all about, but when it comes to interacting with special needs customers via websites, the telecoms industry still hasn’t got its act together. (The Guardian 13 August 2005) (b) Labour’s left progressives need to get their act together (The Guardian 13 August 2005) (a) One of the problems with this series is that it is all a bit too close to the bone. (The Age 12 February 2005) (b) Questions for Susan Hendrickson Close to the Bone A famed diver and dinosaur hunter talks about her greatest disvovery and namesake, Tyrannosaurus Sue (New York Times Magazine 28 May 2000) (8) Study the cartoon in chapter 3.4.2 (example [133] [133] [133] [133] ). Explain the principle of phraseological puns on the basis of this example. Be specific and pay attention to both verbal and visual elements. (9) To what extent can the following jokes (found in Allen Morrison’s Laugh Scotland, 2003) and riddles (found in Catherine Hapka’s Stuart Little 2. The Joke Book, 2002) be called phraseological? Explain the mechanisms that create the humour. (a) A man put his hand out of his tenement window to see if it was raining. Just as he did this a glass eye fell into his hand. Looking up he saw a young woman looking down from the window of the flat above. ‘Is this yours? ’ he asked. ‘Aye, could you bring it up, please? ’ When he got to the flat he saw that she was a most attractive lady. She offered him a dram, and then invited him to bed. As he was leaving he asked, ‘Dae you act like this with every man you meet? ’ ‘Naw,’ she replied. ‘Jist them that catch ma eye.’ (A. Morrison Laugh Scotland, 2003: 23) (b) A man fell headlong down the Waverley Steps. As he picked himself up at the bottom, an old woman approached him. ‘Did ye miss a step, son? ’ ‘No, I hit every one of them! ’ (Morrison 2003: 35) (c) ‘Dearest,’ said Sylvia to her husband Tom. ‘Every day you come home from the office in town, and I make a point of asking you how your day was. I sit and listen to all your tales of what happened during the day. I <?page no="113"?> Phraseology in Use 114 have your dinner all ready for you, your slippers and your Herald at the side of your chair. You know, you never ask me how my day was. ‘Sorry,’ said Tom. ‘How was your day, darling? ’ ‘Bloody awful! Don’t ask.’ (Morrison 2003: 50) (d) The East Kilbride man was angry when he found out his wife had been cheating on him. He shouted at her, ‘Dae ye think I’m gonnae play second fiddle tae this man? ’ ‘Second fiddle! Ah’ll huv ye know ye’re lucky tae still be in the band! ’ (Morrison 2003: 54) (e) A new MSP took his seat in the Scottish Parliament yesterday. The police forced him to put it back! (Morrison 2003: 69) (f) Why are cats such bad dancers? They have two left feet. (Hapka 2002: 14) (g) How does Monty get rid of fleas? He starts from scratch. (Hapka 2002: 14) (h) Why did Margalo use hot rollers on her feathers? She heard that the curly bird gets the worm. (Hapka 2002: 31) (10) Find humorous overuses of PUs in your mother tongue, for example, in advertising or comedy. (11) Study Brueghel’s proverb picture in chapter 3.4.4 and identify as many PUs as possible. (12) Study Arthur Koester’s bisociation theory (1964) and explain some of the jokes given in (9) on its basis. (13) Study Herbert P. Grice’s maxims of cooperative behaviour. In how far do the jokes given in exercise (9) (a)-(e) and phraseological accumulations (as in [2] [2] [2] [2] ) mean a violation of some of these? <?page no="114"?> 4 Phraseology and Translation 4.1 The PU as a translation problem As a rule, the learner and user of a foreign language will experience PUs as a challenge. Whereas in free written or oral discourse they can decide whether or not to include elements of the phrasicon, in a translation they are faced with the problem of adequately rendering it in the target language (cf. Koller 1994, 2007). A large number of insufficient or even wrong translations underline the practitioner’s notion that PUs are a translator’s stumbling block. Compare the following examples from various spheres of language use: (A) In 2002 Kiepenheuer & Witsch published parts of Kurt Cobain’s 31 journals in a bilingual edition. The book gives fascinating insights into the musician’s life and ideas and proves to be comprehensive and user-friendly not the least because of the many supplementary notes providing background knowledge on music styles and events in music history. The translators overcame several difficulties such as the author’s substandard language use or occasional spelling mistakes, but they were not able to convince the reader of their good work as far as the translation of PUs was concerned. Compare the following two passages and their translations: I could probably explain why I never liked hardcore in a million different ways but let’s just say it wasn’t my cup of tea. All you have to do is read the letter section from maximum Rock-n-Roll from the past 6 years and you may understand what I mean. (K. Cobain Tagebücher, 2002: 94) Ich könnte wahrscheinlich auf eine Million verschiedene Weisen erklären, warum ich mir nie viel aus Hardcore gemacht hab, aber sagen wir einfach, das war nicht meine Tasse Tee. Man muss sich ja bloß die Leserbriefseiten in Maximum Rock’n’Roll der letzten 6 Jahre durchlesen, und man versteht vielleicht, was ich meine. (p. 95) Courtney, when I say I love you I am not ashamed, nor will anyone ever ever come close to intimidating, persuading, etc me into thinking 31 Kurt Cobain, born in 1967, was the songwriter and singer of the group Nirvana. He committed suicide on 8 April 1994. <?page no="115"?> Phraseology and Translation 116 otherwise. I wear you on my sleeve. I spread you out wide open with the wing span of a peacock, […]. (p. 270) Courtney, ich schäme mich weder, Dir zu sagen, dass ich Dich liebe, noch wird mich je irgendwer so weit einschüchtern, überreden etc. können, etwas anderes zu empfinden. Ich trage dich auf der Zunge. Ich breite dich weit aus, mit der Flügelspanne eine Pfaus, [...] (p. 271) (B) In an ARD television programme, Sabine Christiansen, on 16 April 2002 the hostess talked to the then Security Advisor to the American President, Condoleezza Rice, about Bush’s Iraq policy. Parts of the interview, accompanied by voice-over translation, are shown and afterwards commented on by some of the guests on Sabine Christiansen’s show. In a passage where Condoleezza Rice praises the USA’s policy as successful the translation runs as follows: Wir haben einen erfolgreichen Krieg in Afghanistan gekämpft [...] Und im Irak sind sie auch aus dem Wald herausgekommen und stellen sich uns, denn sie wissen, dass ein freies Irak, ein wohlhabendes Irak ihren ganzen Triumph zerstören wird. Daniel Cohn-Bendit, member of the European Parliament, when asked about his reaction, comments: Ich weiß gar nicht, woher Frau Rice ihre Informationen nimmt. Wahrscheinlich muss sie Geheimberichte haben, dass die Wälder, die es im Irak nicht gibt, aber so sind, dass [...]. An otherwise excellent translation fails here when confronted with a PU. To be out of the wood(s) ‘to be free from difficulties or troubles’, which is what Condoleezza Rice in fact said, should have been translated into German as sind über den Berg/ sind aus dem Gröbsten raus. (C) In the magazine Woman Nr. 19 (26 August 2003) we find a report on Allison Pearson and her best-selling book Working Mum. The article deals with the topic ‘women and career’ in a serious, linguistically appealing and not at all superficial way. In one paragraph, however, which is obviously based on an English quotation, the journalist translates: Pearsons Mann, der für das amerikanische Magazin “New Yorker” Filmkritiken schreibt und seine Artikel auch als Buch herausgebracht hat, verkaufte bisher gerade mal ein paar tausend Exemplare, Fanpost <?page no="116"?> The translation process 117 schickt ihm keiner. Neidlos muss er eingestehen: „Allison ist der große Käse, ich nur der kleine Cracker.“ (Woman 19/ 2003: 22) The PU the/ a big cheese refers to an influential person. Cf. German ein großes Tier. The examples illustrate some of the main problems PUs can cause. The reasons for these are to be seen in the PU and its characteristics. A PU must be identified as a peculiar translation unit and understood with its figurative meaning and relative stability, which require a special type of textrelated translation. As a polylexemic unit it often tempts authors to topicrelated modifications (such as to phraseological puns as with cheese in example C), which may cause additional problems. Sometimes PUs are incomplete, as in A, where I wear you on my sleeve goes back to wear one’s heart on one’s sleeve (‘to show one’s emotions, especially love for sb.’). Apart from the mere knowledge of the PU, which the translator obviously lacked in B, translation competence seems to include a reliable feeling for the acceptability of a figurative expression in one’s mother tongue (which is obviously absent in all the quoted examples). At present, literal translations of idiomatic expressions are unfortunately all too frequently found in dubbed versions of American films, in translated interviews in the media, and even in literary texts. They are uncritically accepted by both film companies and viewers. Reactions like embarrassment or even protests can only be observed if the translation grossly contradicts reality (‘There are no woods in Iraq! ’). 32 Exercise (1) 4.2 The translation process Translation is to be understood as the complex process of transferring a text from a source language (SL) into a communicatively adequate and equivalent text in a target language (TL) which meets all communicative requirements. The word ‘equivalent’ plays a key role in this definition. Equivalence, a term that is controversially discussed in translation studies, is influenced by a variety of factors and therefore of relative stringency. Translators aim at a high degree of equivalence, but they are not able to comprehend the totality of a text producer’s associations. Koller (1997: 216, 228-272) distinguishes five types of equivalence, all of which are relevant to the translation of PUs: denotative (or referential) equivalence, which is oriented towards the real world 32 I owe this interpretation to Ulla Kleinberger Guenther. <?page no="117"?> Phraseology and Translation 118 connotative equivalence, which refers to the stylistic and expressive dimensions of a text (cf. chapter 1.2.5) pragmatic equivalence, which includes the communicative effects a text producer wants to gain and the receiver’s presuppositions (i.e. their background knowledge, shared cultural values etc.) that have to be considered formal-aesthetic equivalence, which is especially relevant to literary translations, whereby aesthetic and formal text features as well as an author’s individual style are important text-normative equivalence, which is centred on the properties which characterise text types (e.g. formulae applied in letters - Yours sincerely/ Mit freundlichen Grüßen) In order to gain a high degree of equivalence in all these respects a translator can apply various procedures, including commenting paraphrase, omission, permutation, and compensation. As for phraseology, the translator’s decision depends on the (non)existence of an equivalent in the target language. As mentioned in chapter 2.4.3, English and German share a large stock of PUs that can be considered quasi-equivalents 33 due to common historical sources or language contact (e.g. to see red/ rot sehen; through thick and thin/ durch dick und dünn). Other units are partially equivalent, including different lexical or structural constituents (e.g. to have one foot in the grave/ mit einem Bein im Grab stehen; to live from hand to mouth/ von der Hand in den Mund leben). Zeroequivalents between English and German units are rare due to the dominant influence of English. An expression such as the golden handshake (‘a large payment given to sb. leaving a company, institution etc.’), still marked as an example of a missing phrase equivalent in German by Gläser (1986a: 169), has become frequent as a loan translation, goldener Handschlag: Er war 60 und hatte keine Lust mehr. Arbeitsverweigerung. So erzwang Rolf Peter Minnier, Ex-Verfassungsschutz-Chef Niedersachsen, den goldenen Handschlag. (ARD Panorama 22 January 2004) 33 Full equivalence, i.e. total correspondence in all possible parameters up to frequency in use, does not seem realistic in two languages. <?page no="118"?> The translation process 119 (Leipziger Volkszeitung 20 February 1997) Zero-equivalence may be caused by the fact that a PU is deeply rooted in the history of a language community and that it has a literary source. This is true for the German expression blauer Brief, a colloquial term for the dismissal notice issued by a firm, which goes back to the time when officers learnt of their discharge from the army by means of a letter in a blue envelope. 34 Examples in English are Catch 22/ a catch-22 situation (cf. the solution to exercise 8 on p. 155) or to send sb. to Coventry (cf. chapter 2.4.3). When they have to be translated, explanatory paraphrases seem to be unavoidable. Compare the following passage from Dominic Stuart’s article The Backside of the British Empire: Mit 14, ich war noch kein Jahr in Eton, wurde ich bei meinem Tutor wegen Schikanierens verpetzt: Zusammen mit einem Freund hatte ich ein paar Neuen die Hosen runtergerissen - debagging nannten wir das. Es war mies von mir und sehr erniedrigend für sie. Meine Strafe bestand aus drei Teilen und wurde vom House Master abgesegnet. Erst wurde ich von meinen Wohngenossen rituell debagged, dann vom House Captain verprügelt und anschließend zwei Wochen nach Coventry geschickt. Was so viel hieß wie, dass in dieser Zeit niemand 34 It is also a letter from a school telling parents that their child is in danger of failing the year and having to repeat the class. These letters were also delivered in blue envelopes in the past. <?page no="119"?> Phraseology and Translation 120 mit mir reden durfte. Das war die schlimmste Strafe, die je in meiner Schulzeit gegen mich verhängt wurde. (Park Avenue 1/ 2006: 127) We should not forget a fourth type of equivalence, namely the occurrence of pseudo-equivalents, which are normally termed false friends (cf. Gläser 1999a; 2000). Examples include lead sb. (around) by the nose (‘to control sb. completely’, German equivalent: jmdn. am Gängelband führen) vs. jmdn. an der Nase herumführen (‘to deceive sb.’, English equivalent: to lead sb. up the garden path/ to pull sb.’s leg) or over the hill (‘past one’s youth’, German equivalent: sich auf dem absteigenden Ast befinden/ mit einem Bein im Grab stehen) vs. über den Berg sein (‘free from difficulties or troubles’, English equivalent: to be out of the wood[s]). The translator has to take these different types of equivalence into consideration in order to decide how to produce a stylistically adequate text in the target language. The process of translating a PU consists of the following steps (cf. Łabno-Falęcka 1994: 261): 35 1) identification of the PU in the source language 2) analysis of the phraseological meaning (SL paraphrase) 3) translation of the phraseological meaning (TL paraphrase) 4) substitution by a PU in the target language. The step-by-step model can be demonstrated on the basis of the following example: E.g.: She can’t believe her luck that she is here and she’s made the most of it. (S.R.) - She really has. I think you’ve hit the nail on the head there. (C.H.) - Had to happen some time. (S.R.) - Hahaha. (Eurosport commentators Simon Reed and Chris Howard, 23 February 2006, on figure skater Emily Hughes) 1) hit the nail on the head 2) ‘say sth. that exactly describes a situation or explains the cause of a difficulty’ (LDEI) 3) ‘genau das Richtige sagen’ 4) den Nagel auf den Kopf treffen 35 The step-by-step approach presented here can also be applied to translating into a foreign language, which is a common task for university students and usually part of their final examinations. Participants of translation courses have found the model to be useful without being too complicated to manage (cf. Fiedler 1997). <?page no="120"?> The translation process 121 The first step, the identification of a PU, should not be underestimated. Many translation errors come about because the translator - generally translating from a foreign language into his/ her mother tongue - does not realise that a string of words is meant in a figurative sense (cf. [151] [151] [151] [151] ) or that the identical expression in the target language differs in meaning (cf. [152] [152] [152] [152] ). [151] [151] [151] [151] I make it a rule of mine: the more it looks like Queer Street looks like Queer Street looks like Queer Street looks like Queer Street, the less I ask. (R.L. Stevenson Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, 1885: 8) […] und ich mach’ es mir zur Regel: Je mehr eine Sache nach dieser verdächtigen Straße schmeckt, desto weniger frage ich. (translated by C. Thesing 1985: 10; cf. in queer street ‘in a difficult situation, esp. because one lacks money’) [152] [152] [152] [152] Watson looked at him admiringly. „Say, you really are a college fella, aren’t you? Talk Talk Talk Talk just like a book like a book like a book like a book. I admire that […]” (S. King The Shining, 2001: 30) Watson sah ihn bewundernd an. „Sagen Sie, Sie sind tatsächlich ein Studierter, was? Sie reden wie ein Buch. Das bewundere ich [...]“ (translated by H. Christensen 2004: 28; to talk like a book ‘to be very articulate’) The second step, the analysis of the phraseological meaning, can still be carried out within the limits of the source language. The meaning of the PU is represented in a non-phraseological way. Hit the nail on the head is paraphrased as ‘say sth. that exactly describes a situation or explains the cause of a difficulty’. It must be kept in mind that it is the meaning in context that must be paraphrased, as PUs are often polysemous (cf. chapter 3.1). This second step includes the evaluation of the communicative value of the PU in the specific situation, which is important for the translator’s future decision to replace the paraphrase with a PU in the target language. The third step can be termed translation in the strict sense. The paraphrase in the source language is transferred into a paraphrase in the target language. ‘Say sth. that exactly describes a situation or explains the cause of a difficulty’ becomes ‘genau das Richtige sagen’. The fourth step, the successful completion of the translation process, aims at producing a text that is as expressive and well-formed as the target text in terms of Koller’s criteria. To what extent this attempt is successful depends on several factors, not least on the existence of a phraseological equivalent in the target language. In the example given, where we have the rare situation that two languages include PUs identical in both meaning and constituents (hit the nail on the head/ den Nagel auf den Kopf treffen), a substitution seems to be possible. If there is no equivalent or if the target language puts a possible equivalent at the translator’s disposal that is based on a different metaphor (e.g. make hay while the sun shines - das Eisen schmieden, solange es heiß ist; the last straw - der Tropfen, der das Fass zum Überlaufen bringt), he or she has to examine to what extent the new image is suitable for the target lan- <?page no="121"?> Phraseology and Translation 122 guage context. In some cases it might then be advisable not to carry out the fourth step and instead express the content of the PU in a non-phraseological way. Finally, we should keep in mind that the translation model described here refers to the “ordinary” use of PUs. The translation of modified units demands additional steps, such as an analysis of the SL techniques of modification and possible counterparts in the TL and a careful examination of the effects of the modification on the text. Examples such as [149] [149] [149] [149] give us an impression of how challenging a task this is. Cf. the German translation: Dr. Alexandra Marple ist mein aktueller Seelenheini […] Eigentlich heißt sie Marbles, aber Miss Marple hat ja auch gern in der menschlichen Seele herumgestochert, deshalb finde ich den Namen passender. (translated by R. Orth-Guttmann, 2000: 24) Exercise (2) 4.3 Translation techniques We shall now discuss examples of translated PUs in various text types in order to throw some light on frequently applied translation techniques. With regard to the successful implementation of the translation model described above there are altogether four main types of translation. 36 In a first constellation, similar to the example hit the nail on the head, the PU in the source language is replaced by a PU in the target language including identical constituents: [153] [153] [153] [153] No wonder the country is going to the dogs is going to the dogs is going to the dogs is going to the dogs. (D. Lodge Nice Work, 1989: 13) Kein Wunder, daß England vor die Hunde geht vor die Hunde geht vor die Hunde geht vor die Hunde geht. (translated by R. Orth- Guttmann 1994: 25) [154] [154] [154] [154] He must have lost his head must have lost his head must have lost his head must have lost his head, or he never would have left the stick […] (R.L. Stevenson Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, 1886: 33) Er muß muß muß muß vollständig den Kopf verloren haben den Kopf verloren haben den Kopf verloren haben den Kopf verloren haben, sonst hätte er nie den Stock zurückgelassen […] (translated by C. Thesing 1985: 29) [155 [155 [155 [155] ]] ] He eats fast and does the dishes. He is nervous, and surprised that he is nervous, butterflies in the stomach butterflies in the stomach butterflies in the stomach butterflies in the stomach even, this early in the day. (N. McDonell Twelve, 2003: 189) 36 The techniques applied have similarities to methods of translating metaphors, which are widely discussed in translation studies (cf. Newmark 1981; Schäffner 1999). <?page no="122"?> Translation techniques 123 Er isst schnell und spült dann das Geschirr ab. Er ist nervös und das überrascht ihn, hat schon so früh am Tag Schmetterlinge im Bauch Schmetterlinge im Bauch Schmetterlinge im Bauch Schmetterlinge im Bauch. (translated by T. Gunkel 2003: 183) Sometimes, for well-known PUs, in both the source language and the target language the use of a pivotal element (e.g. Rubicon/ Rubikon) is sufficient to bring the whole unit to mind (to cross the Rubicon/ den Rubikon überschreiten): [156] [156] [156] [156] Another depressing development for Laurence is that his children know about the split now. I think that’s a kind of Rubicon Rubicon Rubicon Rubicon as far as he’s concerned. As long as they didn’t know, there was always the possibility that he and Sally might get back together again with no serious damage done […] (D. Lodge Therapy, 1995: 145) Deprimierend für Laurence ist auch, daß seine Kinder jetzt von dem Bruch wissen. Für ihn ist das wohl so eine Art Rubikon Rubikon Rubikon Rubikon. Solange sie es nicht wussten, gab es noch die Chance einer Versöhnung [...] (translated by R. Orth- Guttmann 2000: 170) Apart from structural peculiarities that have to be obeyed (e.g. to lose one’s head/ den Kopf verlieren in [154] [154] [154] [154] ), the translation of the PUs does not cause problems. Expressions like these do not only have equivalents in English and German, but in many European languages, which is why Braun/ Krallmann (1990: 81/ 82) termed them Inter-Phraseologismen (‘international PUs’). Compare the following examples: 37 English to lose one’s head to pour out one’s heart German den Kopf verlieren sein Herz ausschütten French perdre la tête décharger/ ouvrir son cœur Italian perdere la testa aprire il cuore By means of loan translation new PUs find their ways into other languages, with English playing a dominant role as a donor language at present. Among those English expressions which have found their firm position in the German phrasicon are (cf. Fiedler 2006): The early bird catches the worm / Der frühe Vogel fängt den Wurm One/ you cannot make an omelette without breaking eggs / Man kann kein Omelette machen, ohne dabei Eier zu zerschlagen a/ the golden handshake / der goldene Handschlag Pigs might fly / Und Schweine können fliegen 37 Equivalents in Eastern European languages might be easily found to complete Braun/ Krallmann’s examples (e.g. Russian терять голову and Czech vylít si srdce) (cf. Fiedler 2004). <?page no="123"?> Phraseology and Translation 124 Others, it seems, are gaining ground increasingly, having their origins in literal translations in the media as well as in literary texts: [157] [157] [157] [157] One may say you are a celebrity and it is easy for you to stand up in front of a million people and say what you want. Do you thinks that’s true? Ehm, at the end of the day at the end of the day at the end of the day at the end of the day I’m just an ordinary human being with the same emotions. […] It doesn’t make a difference. I think it’s just a blessing for us to be able to express ehm the mood of our times and the minds of this generation. So it’s not about celebrity or success or anything like that. It’s love. OK, er sagte, es spiele überhaupt keine Rolle, am Ende des Tages am Ende des Tages am Ende des Tages am Ende des Tages spielt es überhaupt keine Rolle mehr, ob man als berühmter Mensch, als celebrity auf einer Bühne steht, sondern es spielt eine Rolle, dass man etwas zu sagen hat und dass es vom Herzen kommt. […] (Interview by Anne Will with Metaphysics, a member of the group Die Söhne Mannheims, on the occasion of the concerts LIVE 8 in Berlin on 2 July 2005) [158] [158] [158] [158] “Well, who knows what lies in the future? “ Harold said, grinning broadly. “Every dog has its day Every dog has its day Every dog has its day Every dog has its day.” (S. King The Stand, 1991: 679) „Nun, wer weiß, was die Zukunft bringt”, sagte Harold und grinste breit. „Jeder Hund hat seinen Tag Jeder Hund hat seinen Tag Jeder Hund hat seinen Tag Jeder Hund hat seinen Tag.“ (translated by J. Körber 2003: 650) It is sometimes difficult to comprehend why translators prefer a literal translation to the application of a figurative counterpart in the target language. J.R.R. Tolkien gives the sixth chapter of The Hobbit a phraseological title: Out of the Frying-Pan into the Fire. It seems to be a lively and at the same time a concise summary of the protagonists’ adventures in this part of the book. In a passage in the chapter, this motivation is explained further: [159] [159] [159] [159] “What shall we do, what shall we do! ” he cried. “Escaping goblins to be caught by wolves! ” he said, and it became a proverb, though we now say “out of the frying-pan into the fire” in the same sort of uncomfortable situations.” (J.R.R. Tolkien The Hobbit, 1999: 93) Both of the existing German versions include a literal translation of the title, and the translators also decided to keep close to the original in this chapter, with only one of them adding the German equivalent vom Regen in die Traufe: Raus aus der Bratpfanne, rein ins Feuer [...] „Den Orks entwischt, um von den Wölfen geschnappt zu werden! “ rief er, und es wurde zu einem Sprichwort, obgleich wir heute bei ähnlich unangenehmen Situationen sagen: Raus aus der Bratpfanne, rein ins Feuer! (translated by W. Scherf 1993: 105, 114) <?page no="124"?> Translation techniques 125 Aus der Pfanne ins Feuer [...] „Den Orks entkommen, von den Wölfen geschnappt! “ sagte er, und daraus wurde ein Sprichwort, eines wie „vom Regen in die Traufe“ oder „aus der Pfanne ins Feuer“, die wir für dergleichen unerfreuliche Veränderungen heute gebrauchen. (translated by W. Krege 6 2001: 101, 109) A subtype within the first constellation consists in the presentation of PUs in their original form, i.e. in the foreign language: [160] [160] [160] [160] It’s like the Big Bang theory Big Bang theory Big Bang theory Big Bang theory of the universe. (D. Lodge Nice Work, 1989: 40) Wie die Big Big Big Big- -- -Bang Bang Bang Bang- -- -Theorie Theorie Theorie Theorie des Universums. (translated by R. Orth-Guttmann 1994: 62) [161] [161] [161] [161] The addictive nature of Valium wasn’t fully appreciated in those days, and of course I hadn’t been taking it long enough to become addicted anyway, but I went through a kind of cold turkey cold turkey cold turkey cold turkey as I struggled against the temptation to go back to Patterson and ask for another prescription. (D. Lodge Therapy, 1995: 69) Daß Valium süchtig macht, hatte sich damals noch nicht allgemein herumgesprochen, und ich hatte es auch noch nicht lange genug genommen, um wirklich abhängig zu werden, aber während ich gegen die Versuchung ankämpfte, mir eine neue Packung verschreiben zu lassen, machte ich fast so etwas wie einen Cold Turkey Cold Turkey Cold Turkey Cold Turkey durch. (translated by R. Orth-Guttmann 2000: 85) It is questionable, however, to what extent the reader is able to understand the passage without knowing the English expressions, or - in Koller’s terms - to what extent the denotative meaning was successfully transferred. The use of the German equivalent in [160] [160] [160] [160] , the term Urknall-Theorie, or in [161] [161] [161] [161] kalter Entzug, or a non-phraseological version, in [161] [161] [161] [161] , for example, Totalentzug would perhaps be more to the point. In the second type of constellation, with reference to our four-step model, the translation stops after the third step with the paraphrase in the target language. These are cases where an equivalent is not known and where translators, therefore, often decide on a non-phraseological version: [162] [162] [162] [162] I had my door key with me and all, and I figured what I’d do, I’d sneak in the apartment, very quiet and all, and just sort of chew the fat chew the fat chew the fat chew the fat with her for a while. (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 141) Ich hatte den Hausschlüssel bei mir und dachte, ich könnte mich ganz leise in die Wohnung schleichen und eine Weile mit ihr schwätzen. (translated by H. Böll 1966: 153) <?page no="125"?> Phraseology and Translation 126 [163] [163] [163] [163] Ullman stood. “I hope there are no hard feelings no hard feelings no hard feelings no hard feelings, Mr. Torrance. […]” “No. No hard feelings No hard feelings No hard feelings No hard feelings.” Jack flashed the PR grin again, but was glad Ullman didn’t offer to shake hands. There were hard feelings. All kinds of them. (S. King The Shining, 2001: 14) “Hoffentlich habe ich Sie nicht verstimmt […]” „Nein, nein. Ich bin nicht verstimmt.“ […] Er war verstimmt. Aus allen möglichen Gründen. (translated by H. Christensen 2004: 17) [164] [164] [164] [164] If you’re a single woman and you go out with a man you’ve either got to insist tediously on going Dutch going Dutch going Dutch going Dutch or you have an uneasy feeling that you’re incurring some kind of erotic debt which may be called in at any moment. (D. Lodge Therapy, 1995: 139) Wenn man als alleinstehende Frau mit einem Mann ausgeht, muß man entweder ständig darauf bestehen, seinen Anteil selber zu bezahlen, oder man hat das unbehagliche Gefühl, daß man so was wie erotische Schulden auflaufen läßt, die der Mann jederzeit eintreiben kann. (translated by R. Orth-Guttmann 2000: 163) In these examples only the denotative meanings were translated. Because of the missing connotations, the pragmatic effects of the translations do not attain the quality of the originals. Whereas [163] [163] [163] [163] presents a translation problem, due to the lack of a similar formula in the target language and especially because of the additional literalization (all kinds of them), the translator in [164] [164] [164] [164] could have found an equivalent, such as getrennte Kasse machen. There are situations, however, where a non-phraseological translation is to be preferred to the use of the phraseological equivalent or a literal translation. Compare the following examples taken from R.L. Stevenson’s The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde: [165] [165] [165] [165] It was a nut to crack a nut to crack a nut to crack a nut to crack for many, what these two could see in each other […]) (R.L. Stevenson 1886: 2) Gar manchem gab es eine Nuß zu knacken gab es eine Nuß zu knacken gab es eine Nuß zu knacken gab es eine Nuß zu knacken, was diese beiden aneinander finden mochten. (translated by C. Thesing 1985: 6) [166] [166] [166] [166] Have I been twenty years in this man’s house, to be deceived about his voice? No, sir; master’s made away with; he was made away with, eight days ago, when we heard him cry out upon the name of God; and WHO’s in there instead of him, and WHY it stays there, is a thing that cries to Heaven a thing that cries to Heaven a thing that cries to Heaven a thing that cries to Heaven, Mr Utterson. (R.L. Stevenson 1886: 54/ 55) Bin ich zwanzig Jahre lang in dem Hause dieses Mannes gewesen, um mich von einer fremden Stimme äffen zu lassen? Nein, Herr. Mein Herr ist verschwunden! Schon vor acht Tagen wurde er umgebracht, damals, als wir ihn den Namen Gottes anrufen hörten. Und wer steckt dort hinter jener Tür statt <?page no="126"?> Translation techniques 127 seiner? Und warum bleibt er dort? Das sind Sachen, die zum Himmel schre Das sind Sachen, die zum Himmel schre Das sind Sachen, die zum Himmel schre Das sind Sachen, die zum Himmel schreiiiien en en en, Mister Utterson. (translated by C. Thesing 1986: 45) [167] [167] [167] [167] But hark again, a little closer - put your heart in your ears put your heart in your ears put your heart in your ears put your heart in your ears, Mr. Utterson, and tell me (…) (R.L. Stevenson 1886: 6) Aber horchen Sie wieder! Ein bisschen näher - legen Sie Ihr ganzes Herz in legen Sie Ihr ganzes Herz in legen Sie Ihr ganzes Herz in legen Sie Ihr ganzes Herz in Ihre Ohren Ihre Ohren Ihre Ohren Ihre Ohren, Mister Utterson, und sagen Sie mir (...) (translated by C. Thesing 1985: 50) [168] [168] [168] [168] And the danger of it! For if this Hyde suspects the existence of the will, he may grow impatient to inherit. Ah, I must put my shoulders to the wheel must put my shoulders to the wheel must put my shoulders to the wheel must put my shoulders to the wheel - if Jekyll will but let me […] (R.L. Stevenson 1886: 23) Und Gefahr droht! Wenn dieser Hyde die Existenz des Testaments wittert, könnte ihn die Ungeduld packen, das Erbe anzutreten. Ja, ich muß meine muß meine muß meine muß meine Schultern gegen das Rad stemmen Schultern gegen das Rad stemmen Schultern gegen das Rad stemmen Schultern gegen das Rad stemmen - wenn Jekyll sich nur belehren ließe! (translated by C.Thesing 1985: 21) It seems to be questionable whether the German PU in [165] [165] [165] [165] is adequate in the given situation. As for [166] [166] [166] [166] , in Stevenson’s book Dr. Jekyll is physically transformed into the other identity by means of a potion. Hyde commits suicide when Utterson and Jekyll’s butler try to force their way into the laboratory. The focus is on the mysterious situation and inexplicable changes behind the door. The German PU Es schreit zum Himmel, however, is used as an exclamatory reaction to a horrible deed for which atonement is demanded. The literal translation in [167] [167] [167] [167] sounds somewhat clumsy. The translation of example [168] [168] [168] [168] must be regarded as misleading. The PU put one’s shoulders to the wheel means ‘work with eagerness and great effort’ (LDEI p. 296), whereas the German translation expresses the opposite idea ‘to stop a process/ to hinder a development’. At this point it should be said that there is an element of subjectivity in each translation criticism. Deciding on the suitability of a PU in a text will depend on the reader’s literary expectations. In addition, we often experience that a translated PU, which strikes the phraseology researcher immediately and perhaps evokes criticism, is simply overlooked by the ordinary readers, and does not at all detract from their reading pleasure. The third type of translation is the use of a PU in the target language bearing an image that is different from that of the PU in the source language. A number of those expressions are provided as established equivalents in dictionaries and are, therefore, frequently used as matching equivalents in translation: [169] [169] [169] [169] “I’ve become a photographer. Nothing fancy. Weddings, portraits, that kind of thing. But it makes a lot of sense - if I’m doing the invitations. Two birds Two birds Two birds Two birds <?page no="127"?> Phraseology and Translation 128 with one stone with one stone with one stone with one stone and all that.” He gave a sad, light laugh. (N. Shakespeare Snowleg, 2004: 13) “Ich bin Fotograf geworden. Nichts Aufregendes. Hochzeiten, Porträts, solche Sachen. Aber es bringt wirklich was - wenn ich dann auch die Einladungen drucke. Zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe Zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe Zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe Zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe, du weißt schon.“ Er stieß ein leises trauriges Lachen aus. (translated by H.M. Herzog 2006: 28) [170] [170] [170] [170] […] trying to kill two birds with one stone kill two birds with one stone kill two birds with one stone kill two birds with one stone: combining a little Kierkegaard research with the long-desired, long-frustrated illicit fuck, in a luxury hotel […] (D. Lodge Therapy, 1995: 209) Dabei hatte ich es mir so schön vorgestellt, zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe zu zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe zu zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe zu zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe zu schlagen schlagen schlagen schlagen: Ich konnte in Sachen Kierkegaard recherchieren und gleichzeitig zu meiner lang ersehnten außerehelichen Nummer kommen. (translated by R. Orth-Guttmann 2000: 240) [171] [171] [171] [171] I have this grandmother that’s quite lavish with her dough. She doesn’t have doesn’t have doesn’t have doesn’t have all her marbles all her marbles all her marbles all her marbles any more - she’s old as hell - and she keeps sending me money for my birthday about four times a year. (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 46) Als ich gepackt hatte, zählte ich mein Geld [...] Meine Großmutter hatte mir gerade vor einer Woche einen Haufen geschickt. Sie geht sehr großzügig damit um. Sie hat nicht mehr alle Tassen im Schrank hat nicht mehr alle Tassen im Schrank hat nicht mehr alle Tassen im Schrank hat nicht mehr alle Tassen im Schrank - sie ist alt wie ich weiß nicht was - und schenkt mir mindestens viermal im Jahr Geld zum Geburtstag. (translated by H. Böll 1966: 55) Ich habe so eine Großmutter, die mit ihrer Kohle ganz schön verschwenderisch ist. Sie hat nicht mehr alle Tassen im Schrank hat nicht mehr alle Tassen im Schrank hat nicht mehr alle Tassen im Schrank hat nicht mehr alle Tassen im Schrank - sie ist ungeheuer alt - , und sie schickt mir ungefähr viermal im Jahr Geld zum Geburtstag. (translated by E. Schönfeld 2004: 72) [172] [172] [172] [172] He had been having crying fits, and three nights ago he had gotten crying and couldn’t stop it and had broken a lot of things in the Stenger home. It wasn’t LOSING YOUR MARBLES LOSING YOUR MARBLES LOSING YOUR MARBLES LOSING YOUR MARBLES, daddy said, it was HAVING A BREAKDOWN, and Mr Stenger wasn’t in a BUGHOUSE, but in a SANNY-TARIUM. (S. King The Shining, 2001: 294) Er hatte Weinkrämpfe gehabt, und eines Abends hatte er geweint, ohne aufhören zu können, and anschließend hatte er in der Wohnung der Stengers eine Menge Sachen kaputtgemacht. Es war nicht so, dass er NICHT A NICHT A NICHT A NICHT AL- L- L- L- LE TASSEN IM SCHRANK hatte LE TASSEN IM SCHRANK hatte LE TASSEN IM SCHRANK hatte LE TASSEN IM SCHRANK hatte, sagte Daddy, sondern er hatte einen NER- VENZUSAMMENBRUCH gehabt, und er war nicht in die KLAPSMÜHLE gekommen, sondern in ein SANATORIUM. (translated by H. Christensen 2004: 209) Others are chosen with creative purposes from a list of possible equivalents in the target language, as different translations of the same original reveal: <?page no="128"?> Translation techniques 129 [173] [173] [173] [173] I have lived in New York all my life, and I know know know know Central Park like the back of like the back of like the back of like the back of my hand my hand my hand my hand, because I used to roller-skate there all the time and ride my bike when I was a kid […] (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 139) Ich habe mein ganzes Leben in New York gewohnt, und ich kenne kenne kenne kenne den Central Park wie meine Westentasche wie meine Westentasche wie meine Westentasche wie meine Westentasche, weil ich da als Kind ständig Rollschuh gelaufen und Fahrrad gefahren bin […] (translated by E. Schönfeld 2004: 197) Ich bin in New York aufgewachsen und kenne kenne kenne kenne den Central Park auswendig auswendig auswendig auswendig, weil ich als Kind immer mit den Rollschuhen oder mit dem Rad dort herumgefahren bin [...] (translated by H. Böll 1966: 150) [174] [174] [174] [174] ‘Yeah, I know. The thing is, though, I’ll be up the creek be up the creek be up the creek be up the creek if I don’t get it in. […]’ (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye 1951: 24) “Ja, ich weiß. Aber es ist doch eben so, daß es mir es mir es mir es mir sonst selber an den Kr an den Kr an den Kr an den Kraaaagen geht gen geht gen geht gen geht. (...)“ (translated by H. Böll 1966: 33) “Ja, ich weiß. Aber die Sache ist eben die, wenn ich den nicht abgebe, komm komm komm komm ich in Teufels Küche ich in Teufels Küche ich in Teufels Küche ich in Teufels Küche. (...)“ (translated by E. Schönfeld 2004: 43) The fact that identical PUs are rendered by the same translator differently (see [175] [175] [175] [175] ) underlines the importance of the communicative situation for a decision with regard to the whole text, the largest translation unit (cf. Neubert/ Shreve 1992): [175] [175] [175] [175] He was pretty nice about it. I mean he didn’t hit the ceiling didn’t hit the ceiling didn’t hit the ceiling didn’t hit the ceiling or anything. (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 7) Er war sehr nett. Ich meine, er hat kein Donnerwetter losgelassen hat kein Donnerwetter losgelassen hat kein Donnerwetter losgelassen hat kein Donnerwetter losgelassen oder so. (translated by H. Böll 1966: 14) Usually I never say crude things like that to girls. Boy, did she hit the ceiling hit the ceiling hit the ceiling hit the ceiling. I apologized like a madman, but she wouldn’t accept my apology. (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 120) Im allgemeinen bin ich mit Mädchen nie so grob. Junge, sie st st st stieg bis an die ieg bis an die ieg bis an die ieg bis an die Decke Decke Decke Decke. Ich entschuldigte mich wie besessen, aber sie wollte keine Entschuldigungen hören. (translated by H. Böll 1966: 131) In some situations it seems to be a must for the translator to convey the connotative potential of a PU in the source language, as in [176] [176] [176] [176] , where the conversation focuses on vulgar speech: [176] [176] [176] [176] “Do you think the bug will break down? ” […] “Dad said it might,” Danny said in a matter-of-fact, almost bored manner. “He said the fuel pump was all shot to shit was all shot to shit was all shot to shit was all shot to shit.” “Don’t say that, Danny.” “Fuel pump? ” he asked her with honest surprise. <?page no="129"?> Phraseology and Translation 130 She sighed. “No, ‘All shot to shit All shot to shit All shot to shit All shot to shit.’ Don’t say that.” “Why? ” “It’s vulgar.” “What’s vulgar, Mom? ” “Like when you pick your nose at the table or pee with the bathroom door open. Or saying things like ‘All shot to shit All shot to shit All shot to shit All shot to shit.’ Shit is a vulgar word. Nice people don’t say it.” (S. King The Shining, 2001: 17) “Glaubst du, dass das Auto kaputtgeht? ” [...] „Daddy hat aber Angst davor“, sagte Danny sachlich, fast gelangweilt. „Er sagte, die Benzinpumpe ist im Arsch ist im Arsch ist im Arsch ist im Arsch.“ „Das sagt man aber nicht, Danny.“ „Benzinpumpe? “, fragte er ehrlich überrascht. Sie seufzte. „Nein, ‚im Arsch im Arsch im Arsch im Arsch’. Das darfst du nicht wieder sagen.” „Warum nicht? “ „Es ist vulgär.“ „Was ist vulgär? “ „Wenn du zum Beispiel bei Tisch in der Nase bohrst oder beim Pinkeln die Badezimmertür offen lässt. Oder wenn du so was wie ‚im Arsch im Arsch im Arsch im Arsch’ sagst. Arsch ist ein vulgäres Wort. Nette Menschen gebrauchen es nicht.“ (translated by H. Christensen 2004: 19) In [177] [177] [177] [177] the PU not know one’s ass/ arse from one’s elbow (‘to be totally stupid or lacking in skill’), marked by the LDEI as ‘impolite’ and ‘slang’ is one of the linguistic markers characterising the protagonist Holden Caulfield (cf. chapter 3.2.2). None of the two translations, however, seems to be able to provide a sufficient equivalent: [177] [177] [177] [177] (referring to the protagonist’s history teacher: ) You never knew if he was nodding a lot because he was thinking and all, or just because he was a nice old guy that didn’t know his ass from his elbow didn’t know his ass from his elbow didn’t know his ass from his elbow didn’t know his ass from his elbow. (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 7) Man wußte nie, ob er soviel nickte, weil er über etwas nachdachte, oder einfach nur, weil er ein harmloser alter Knabe war, der seinen Hintern nicht seinen Hintern nicht seinen Hintern nicht seinen Hintern nicht mehr von seinem Ellbogen unterscheiden konnte mehr von seinem Ellbogen unterscheiden konnte mehr von seinem Ellbogen unterscheiden konnte mehr von seinem Ellbogen unterscheiden konnte. (translated by H. Böll 1966: 13/ 14) Man wusste nie, ob er so viel nickte, weil er nachdachte und so, oder weil er einfach ein netter alter Typ war, der eben dumm wie die Nacht war dumm wie die Nacht war dumm wie die Nacht war dumm wie die Nacht war. (translated by E. Schönfeld 2004: 18) Finally, a fourth type of translation has to be mentioned: omission. There are passages where translators simply leave out the PU, maybe because they find no way of translating it adequately or do not consider it important for the communicative situation. The corpus includes the following examples: <?page no="130"?> Translation techniques 131 [178] [178] [178] [178] You know who stirred up all those college riots a few years ago? The hommasexshuls, that’s who? They get frustrated an have to cut loose. Comin out Comin out Comin out Comin out of the closet of the closet of the closet of the closet, they call it. Holy shit, I don’t know what the world’s comin to. (S. King The Shining, 2001: 30) Wissen Sie, wer vor ein paar Jahren all die Aufstände an den Universitäten angezettelt hat? Die Homosexuellen und kein anderer. Sie sind frustriert, und dann brechen sie aus. Verdammte Scheiße, was ist bloß aus der Welt geworden? (translated by H. Christensen 2004: 28) [179] [179] [179] [179] Well, the bathroom was windowless, as they usually are in modern hotels, and the extractor fan didn’t seem to be working, at least it wasn’t making any kind of noise, so I made sure I used the bathroom first after breakfast. It wouldn’t surprise you in the light of our previous discussions about toilet training that, how shall I put this, that when I manage to do number twos do number twos do number twos do number twos the stools are rather small, hard, dense little things. (D. Lodge Therapy, 1995: 156) Ja, also das Bad hatte kein Fenster, in den modernen Hotels ist das heutzutage leider üblich, und die Entlüftung war offenbar nicht in Ordnung, jedenfalls hörte man sie nicht, deshalb richtete ich es so ein, dass ich nach dem Frühstück zuerst ins Badezimmer konnte. Wir haben ja oft genug über solche Sachen gesprochen, mein Stuhl ist ... wie soll ich sagen ... klein und hart. (translated by R. Orth-Guttmann 2000: 181) [180] [180] [180] [180] But we chewed the fat for a while. That is, she chewed it. You couldn’t get a couldn’t get a couldn’t get a couldn’t get a word in edgewise word in edgewise word in edgewise word in edgewise. First she told me about […] (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 96) Aber dann quatschten wir noch eine Weile. Das heißt, sie quatschte. Erst erzählte sie mir von [...] (translated bei E. Schönfeld 2004: 139) Examples like these seem to confirm the common opinion that every translation is connected with losses. However, with reference to this fourth type and the second type of translation, where a PU in the source language is replaced by a non-phraseological unit, we should not forget the technique of compensation (cf. Harvey 1995). Translators, being aware of the weakness of a passage, sometimes try to make up for losses of connotative value in other passages. Examples of this technique can also be found in the texts chosen as a basis for this comparison, and there are even examples where a translation of a PU is superior to its original in terms of expressiveness: [181] [181] [181] [181] ‘But you don’t seriously think the University will close you down close you down close you down close you down? ’ ‘No. Well, only as a last resort. (…) (D. Lodge Thinks, 2002: 48) “Aber Sie können doch nicht ernsthaft glauben, daß die Universität den L den L den L den Laaaaden dichtmacht den dichtmacht den dichtmacht den dichtmacht.” <?page no="131"?> Phraseology and Translation 132 „Nein. Naja, jedenfalls nur als letzten Ausweg.“ (translated by M. Ruf 2002: 79) [182] [182] [182] [182] - Well, you’ve come a long way from San Remo. - Yes, hooray. That in California? - Italy. Where you two were stationed. - Italy? Well, somebody’s been pulling your long leg s been pulling your long leg s been pulling your long leg s been pulling your long leg. We were stationed at the Army Language Institute on Long Island […]. Closest we ever got to Italy was the baked ziti at Mama Leone’s. (Mona Lisa Smile) - Ja, das war ein weiter Weg von San Remo. - Halleluja. Das in Kalifornien? - Italien. Wo Sie mit Bill stationiert waren. - Italien? Hahaha, da haben Sie aber was Falsches in Ihren hübschen Hals haben Sie aber was Falsches in Ihren hübschen Hals haben Sie aber was Falsches in Ihren hübschen Hals haben Sie aber was Falsches in Ihren hübschen Hals gekriegt gekriegt gekriegt gekriegt. Wir waren im Armee-Spracheninstitut auf Long Island stationiert [...] Glauben Sie mir, wir waren Italien nie näher als bei den Spaghetti von Mama Leone. [183] [183] [183] [183] He started talking in his very monotonous voice, and picking at all his pimples. I dropped about a thousand hints dropped about a thousand hints dropped about a thousand hints dropped about a thousand hints, but I couldn’t get rid of him. (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye 1951: 32) Er schwätzte mit seiner monotonen Stimme daher und fingerte an seinen sämtlichen Pickeln herum. Ich winkte mit ungefähr tausend Zaunpfählen winkte mit ungefähr tausend Zaunpfählen winkte mit ungefähr tausend Zaunpfählen winkte mit ungefähr tausend Zaunpfählen, aber ich konnte ihn nicht loswerden. (translated by H. Böll 1966: 41) As we have seen in previous chapters of this book, PUs fulfil important tasks in various spheres of communication. A translation has to consider them in order to safeguard their situational adequacy and pragmatic equivalence in the target language text. When rendering a PU, translators can apply a variety of translation techniques. The numerous successful examples given and discussed in this chapter convincingly refute the intuitive view that phraseology is so peculiar to a specific language that it is untranslatable. Exercises (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Exercises (1) How would you translate the passages it wasn’t my cup of tea and I wear you on my sleeve in (A) in the given context? (2) The terms ‘equivalent’ and ‘equivalence’ were used with two different meanings in 4.1 and 4.2. Differentiate the two uses from each other. (3) Study the following translations of PUs in J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye by Heinrich Böll and Eike Schönfeld. Discuss the techniques applied. <?page no="132"?> Translation techniques 133 (a) Nobody was around anyway. Everybody was in the sack. (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 47) Kein Mensch war zu sehen. Alle schliefen. (translated by H. Böll 1966: 56) Es war sowieso keiner da. Alle lagen in der Falle. (translated by E. Schönfeld 2004: 73) (b) I ordered a Scotch and soda, and told him not to mix it - I said it fast as hell, because if you hem and haw, they think you’re under twenty-one and won’t sell you any intoxicating liquor. (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 62) Ich bestellte einen Whisky mit Soda und sagte, er solle ihn nicht mischen. Das sagte ich, so schnell ich nur konnte, denn wenn man herumzögert, meinen sie, man sei unter einundzwanzig, und wollen keinen Alkohol bringen. (translated by H. Böll 1966: 71) Ich bestellte einen Scotch mit Soda und sagte ihm, er solle ihn nicht mischen - das sagte ich ungeheuer schnell, weil, wenn man rumdruckst, glauben sie, man ist unter einundzwanzig, und geben einem keine alkoholischen Getränke. (translated by E. Schönfeld 2004: 93) (c) ‘[…] Do you have to be home any special time? ’ ‘Me? No. No special time,’ I said. Truer word was never spoken, boy. ‘Why? ’ (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 115) „[...] Mußt du zu einer bestimmten Zeit zu Hause sein? ’ „Ich? Nein. Zu keiner bestimmten Zeit.“ Ein wahreres Wort wurde noch nie ausgesprochen, weiß der Himmel. „Warum? “ (translated by H. Böll 1966: 126) „[...] Musst du zu einer bestimmten Zeit zu Hause sein? “ „Ich? Nein. Zu keiner bestimmten Zeit“, sagte ich. Ein wahreres Wort ward nie gesprochen, Mann. „Warum? “ (translated by E. Schönfeld 2004: 166) (d) ‘[…] Where are you? Who’s with you? ’ ‘Nobody. Me, myself and I.’ Boy was I drunk! (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye, 1951: 136) „Wo bist du denn? Wer ist bei dir? “ „Niemand. Nur ich und Holden und Caulfield.“ Großer Gott, war ich betrunken! (translated by H. Böll 1966: 147/ 148) „[...] Wo bist du denn? Wer ist bei dir? “ „Niemand. Bloß meine Wenigkeit.“ Mann, war ich betrunken! (translated by E. Schönfeld 2004: 194) <?page no="133"?> Phraseology and Translation 134 (4) Revise the four types of translating a PU described in chapter 4.3 and give examples of them taken from a literary work of your choice and its translation. (5) Make a proposal for a stylistically adequate translation of example [177] [177] [177] [177] . (6) Study the following translations of PUs in Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and discuss the techniques of translations applied. (a) “Well, I’d hardly finished the first verse,” said the Hatter, “when the Queen bawled out ‘He’s murdering the time! Off with his head! ’” (L. Carroll 1865: 99) „Ich hatte nun den ersten Vers gerade beendet”, fuhr der Hutmacher fort, „da sprang die Königin auf und brüllte: ‘Er schlägt die Zeit tot! Köpft ihn! ’“ (translated by L. and M. Remané 1988: 58) (b) “Once upon a time there were three little sisters,“ the Dormouse began in a great hurry; “and their names were Elsie, Lacie, and Tillie; and they lived at the bottom of a well -“ […] “And so these three little sisters - they were learning to draw, you know -“ “What did they draw? ” said Alice […] “Treacle,” said the Dormouse […] “But I don’t understand. Where did they draw the treacle from? ” “You can draw water out of a water well,” said the Hatter; “so I should think you could draw treacle out of a treacle-well - eh, stupid? ” (L. Carroll 1865: 100, 102) „Es waren einmal drei kleine Schwestern“, sprudelte die Haselmaus in größter Eile hervor, „die hießen Elsi, Lassy und Tilly. Sie wohnten auf dem Grunde eines Brunnens.“ [...] Es begab sich nun, daß die drei kleinen Schwestern pressen lernten.“ „Preßten sie Blumen oder Gräser? “ fragte sie. [...] „Sirup! “ antwortete ihr die Haselmaus [...] „Ich versteh nicht ganz - wo pressten sie den Sirup rein? “ „Sei doch nicht so begriffsstutzig! “ rief der Hutmacher empört. „In den Brunnen natürlich! “ (translated by L. and M. Remané 1988: 60, 62) (c) [...] “and the moral of THAT is - ‘Take care of the sense, and the sounds will take care of themselves.’” (L. Carroll 1865: 121) „Und die Moral davon ist: Habe das ganze im Sinn, dann fügen sich auch die Teile! “ (translated by L. and M. Remané 1988: 76) <?page no="134"?> Translation techniques 135 (7) Study the following headline of a German news magazine article (Focus 19 June 1995: 225). Analyse the several steps the translation process includes. Decide on a suitable translation technique and attempt a translation into English . (8) Watch the Disney cartoon Pluto’s Christmas Tree, transcribe it and translate into German. Compare your version with the published translation. What is your conclusion about PUs and translation? <?page no="136"?> Supplements (by Rosemarie Gläser) 1 Phraseological units in the language for special purposes The necessary distinction between phraseological units in the language for general purposes (LGP) and the language for special purposes (LSP) opened up a new perspective in phraseology research with special reference to English. The differences became evident in the description and the representation of LSP phrases in the phraseological system of the national standard English language. The following definition refers to this variety as LGP. A phraseological unit is a lexicalized, reproducible word group (a bilexemic or polylexemic expression) of common usage, which has syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized and carry (expressive or stylistic) connotations, and may have an expressive or intensifying function in a text. An idiom is a phraseological unit whose meaning cannot be derived from the meanings of its constituents. Its figurative meaning often results from metaphor or metonymy. Whereas the idiom may be regarded as the prototype of a phraseological unit in the general language, it is the exception in the phraseological inventory of a special language. Languages for special purposes must meet the needs of discourse communities in a specific domain of social activity and subject fields, such as science, technology, medicine, economics, art, sports, entertainment, etc. Therefore, LSP phrases which are often terminological word groups will be expected to be transparent, self-explanatory in their meaning, and stylistically neutral. Moreover, they do not have expressive connotations, but may be marked in dictionaries by usage labels (med., polit., econ., agricult.) with reference to their domain of discourse. It is also true that LSP phraseological units have a limited circulation. They are not in common usage in the language community, but are more or less restricted to the discourse community of specialists and experts. For this reason, the general features of a phraseological unit in LSP are lexicalization reproducibility semantic and syntactic stability and specialist usage. From this it follows that the features of idiomaticity and connotations do not apply. LSP phraseological units occur in a particular subject domain where they have a strictly referential function in a text. Using them for an emotive or <?page no="137"?> Supplements (by Rosemarie Gläser) 138 expressive effect in an LSP text would be incompatible with their denotative meaning and referential function in a scientific paper or a technical report, in a patent application or an encyclopaedia article. In literary texts, however, which are set in a job-specific environment (e.g. a mine, a factory, a laboratory, a clinic, a farm, an army camp, etc.) LSP phrases may fulfil a certain stylistic function in that they add a special flavour to the author’s description of a fictional world with its plots, conflicts and characters. In this connection, LSP phrases may substantiate the credibility of a literary work of art. These structural and functional properties of LSP phrases result in the following definition: A phraseological unit in the language for special purposes (LSP) is a lexicalized, reproducible word group (a bilexemic or polylexemic expression) which is used in a job-specific subject area, has syntactic and semantic stability, is stylistically neutral and self-explanatory in that its meaning can be derived from its constituents. Another fundamental difference lies in the phraseological system of LGP and LSP with regard to the distribution of the various types of phraseological units. In contrast to the general language (in this case present-day standard English) which has developed a fully elaborated phraseological system, the language for special purposes has a clearly restricted phraseological system (cf. Gläser 1995; 2007). This assumption calls for clarification and further comment. At the outset, a brief survey of the phraseological system of LGP is presented. In national Standard English it is constituted in the following way: 1) the centre (which includes word-like phraseological units, i.e. nominations, with idioms prevailing), 2) the transition area between nominations and propositions (or sentence-like phraseological units), in fact the border area between lexicology and syntax, lexical units and syntagmas. It includes irreversible binomials (here two lexemes are copulated by the conjunction and/ or) such as spick and span, dead or alive; stereotyped comparisons or similes (as reductions of two joined propositions) such as to pop up like mushrooms; as good as gold; fragments of proverbs, proverbial sayings (which may be expanded into a proverb); literary allusions and fragments of quotations, 3) the periphery which covers propositions, i.e. sentence-like phraseological units, such as proverbs; commonplaces or truisms; slogans; routine formulae; commandments and maxims; quotations and winged words. <?page no="138"?> Supplements (by Rosemarie Gläser) 139 The majority of these phraseological units are non-idioms (cf. Gläser 1986a: 48; 1995: 41). The phraseological system of LSP, in glaring contrast to that of LGP, is much poorer in types of phraseological units and in their distribution in the three areas. It is a restricted system. 1) The centre is chiefly occupied by nominations which are selfexplanatory terminological word groups: malignant tumour; malice aforethought; contempt of court; acid rain; unconditional surrender. Idiomatic phrases may occur in indoor professional jargon or as vernacular prescientific designation for objects or processes (cf. Gläser 1995: 51). Another sub-group of idiomatic phrases are popular trivial names which designate plants and animals and also occur in LGP: botanical phrases like love-lies-bleeding, forget-me-not; zoological phrases like mocking bird, flying fox, laughing jackass. Professional jargon phrases in economics are used in journalism: high fliers, idle funds. These, however, are not terminological phrases and carry the stylistic connotation ‘colloquial’ (cf. Gläser 1995: 51). 2) The transition area only includes irreversible binomials with a transparent meaning: legal expressions like terms and conditions, rights and immunities, goods and chattels; med. the wear-and-tear syndrome; geolog. ball-and-pillar structure. 3) The periphery merely includes routine formulae. Proverbs, commonplaces, quotations and winged words, as a rule, do not originate in LSP discourse to be codified in its phraseological inventory and system. Routine formulae often convey precise statements and instructions. in air-traffic control: Cleared into position; Cleared for take-off; Safety before schedule (in fact a maxim); Passengers should not leave their luggage unattended (also used at railway stations) in navigation: We have a heavy list; What is your position? Say your position for identification. in law: I herewith leave and bequeath (in a will); If death occurs. A quorum is not present. in pharmacy: Keep your medicine out of the reach of children (a typical phrase on patient information leaflets). <?page no="139"?> Supplements (by Rosemarie Gläser) 140 Although scientific and technical discourse do not bring forth sentence-like phrases which may catch on like slogans, proverbs or truisms, there are dicta of famous scholars which have gained a wider circulation beyond a discourse community and are comparable to the popularity of winged words in general language. Examples are: the survival of the fittest; the struggle for life (Charles Darwin); the greatest happiness for the greatest number (the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham). The German zoologist and evolutionist Ernst Haeckel formulated the tenet Ontogenesis is the abridged repetition of phylogenesis („Die Ontogenese ist die verkürzte Wiederholung der Phylogenese”). The dictum From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs goes back to a formulation of Karl Marx referring to the distribution law in the ‘economy of communism’ „Jeder nach seinen Fähigkeiten, jedem nach seinen Bedürfnissen”). In a more complex frame of reference, the subject of LSP phraseology and the state of the art of research in this field were elaborated in a treatise-like article in the international handbook Phraseology. An International Handbook of Contemporary Research as a double volume of the series Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science (HSK: Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft). The article on “LSP phraseology” (Fachphraseologie, Art. 42) appeared in Volume 1 (Gläser 2007). 2 Phraseological units in the national standard varieties of English Strictly speaking, even the English national standard language on the British Isles, of England as the honoured mother country which was regarded as the primary and dominant representation of English for a long time, is by no means a uniform language. There are other modified standards in its vicinity such as Scottish English (‘Scots’) and Irish English (‘Hiberno-English’), which do differ from English English. The present-day language situation of English on a world-wide scale was elaborated and discussed in a number of introductory books, e.g. K. Hansen/ U. Carls/ P. Lucko (1996), L. Bauer (2002), and B. Kortmann/ B. Schneider (2004). Against this background, English phraseology constitutes only the common core of phraseological units shared by the national standard varieties of English throughout the world. The diversification of English vocabulary and phraseology in these national standards (summarized under such umbrella terms as Americanisms, Australianisms, New Zealandisms, South Africanisms, etc.) is matched by a trend towards integration and globalization due to the growing influence of the mass media, which safeguard mutual intelligibility, but also help to preserve and develop indigenous features of <?page no="140"?> Supplements (by Rosemarie Gläser) 141 the lexicon and phrasicon. Moreover, global communication facilitates the influx of Americanisms into British (English) English and into other standard varieties as well. The following paragraphs can only give some typical examples of phraseological units in American, Australian, New Zealand, and South African English. 2.1 Phraseology of American English In this field the linguist and paremiologist Wolfgang Mieder has been a trailblazer and a pioneer (see bibliography). My own publications were focused on comparing phraseological units in British and American English and on describing the socio-cultural background of indigenous American idioms (cf. Gläser 1991, 1992). Reference to native fauna: in a coon’s age (‘in a very long time’, the coon is a raccoon); to play possum (‘to pretend to be inactive’, the possum is an opossum); Allusions to a popular locality: as busy as Grand Central Station (‘very busy’), to be from Missouri (‘to require proof’); Idioms referring to the labour world: to get the pink slip (‘to be laid off’); back to the drawing board (‘time to start again’); back to the salt mines (‘time to return to work’). 2.2 Phraseology of Australian English Quite a number of idioms refer to native plants and animals: white ghost (‘a eucalypt’); black boy (‘a grass tree, native to Australia’); thorny devil (‘a reptile in the Northern territory’); the bushman’s clock/ the laughing jackass (‘the kookaburra bird’); as miserable as a bandicoot (‘very miserable’) Other phrases are associated with life in the bush: Waltzing Mathilda (‘carrying the swag’, referring to a migrant worker); to go on the swag (‘to become a tramp’); to head for the shrub/ to take to the mallee (‘used of Aboriginal disappearing from his habitat’). Associated with the topography of the Fifth Continent are the phrases the tyranny of distance and the never-never (‘the regions remote from civilization’) (cf. Gläser 1999c). 2.3 Phraseology of New Zealand English Figurative designations of persons are old identity (‘long-term settler’); a kumera cruncher (‘offensive name for a Maori’); other idioms refer to indigenous flaura and fauna: <?page no="141"?> Supplements (by Rosemarie Gläser) 142 wild Irishman (‘a thorny shrub’); bird-catching tree (‘a small native tree on the coast of the northern island’); as dead as a moa (‘long dead’, the moa is an extinct flightless bird). Related to the topography of New Zealand are the phrases the Shaky Isles because of its location in an earthquake zone, and the Land of the Long White Cloud, the popular standard translation of the Maori name for New Zealand, Aotearoa, whereas the Other Side means ‘Australia’ (cf. Gläser 1999c). 2.4 Phraseology of South African English A striking phenomenon of post-apartheid education policy in South Africa are set expressions, in fact terminological word groups, which designate measures targeted on the development of African native languages, such as linguistic human rights; the raising of linguistic awareness; historically disadvantaged languages; marginalized languages; the hegemony of English. These phraseological units have gained a wide circulation in pamphlets, public reports of the Language Plan Task Group whose aim is to promote terminology work in the nine official African languages in the Republic of South Africa, and in the media. South African English, on the other hand, also includes idioms designating native plants. Examples are Hottentot cabbage; painted lady (‘any of several species of Gladiolus’); devil’s snuffbox (‘a puff ball fungus’); yesterday, today and tomorrow (‘the vernacular designation of a decorative South African shrub which has flowers of different colours according to their stage of blooming’). More idioms related to South African farming, means of transport, and native shamanism were discussed in Gläser (2002). <?page no="142"?> Answer key Chapter 1 (1) (a) Both the adjective idiomatic and the noun idioms refer to sense 3a in the OED, that is to an idiom as a special type of PU. (b) sense 3b, with reference to music (c) sense 1b (d) In this example two different meanings of idiom/ idiomatic can be found. The adjective idiomatic represents sense 2 in the OED (‘natural to a native speaker’). Idiom in the parenthesis refers to sense 3a, that is to an idiom as a special type of PU. (e) sense 1b (f) sense 3b, with reference to art (2) (throw) a spanner in the works; (AmE): (throw) a (monkey) wrench in the works a skeleton in the cupboard; (AmE): a skeleton in the closet not see the wood for the trees; (AmE): not see the forest for the trees touch wood; (AmE): knock on wood It never rains but it pours; (AmE): When it rains, it pours hum and haw; (AmE): hem and haw (3) It is the last straw that breaks the camel’s neck The early bird catches the worm A drowning man will clutch at a straw A rolling stone gathers no moss Every cloud has a silver lining He who pays the piper calls the tune (4) blood, sweat and tears / blood, toil, tears and sweat The formula is generally attributed to Winston Churchill, who used it on becoming prime minister in his speech to the House of Commons on 13 May 1940: I would say to the House, as I said to those who have joined this Government: I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat. Churchill had a number of possible sources for his famous words (cf. Rees 1997: 162; The Macmillan Dictionary of Contemporary Phrase & Fable 2002: 52) The 64-thousand dollar question (‘the most difficult question / the crux of a problem’) <?page no="143"?> Answer Key 144 This was the most difficult question competitors had to answer on an American TV quiz in the 1950s. Its forerunner, a radio programme, had offered sixty-four dollars. (5) Examples and explanations given by students will vary. The German phrase mentioned first, Flasche leer, goes back to a press conference on 10 March 1998, when the then football coach of FC Bayern München, Giovanni Trapattoni criticized players in a harsh and grammatically incorrect way. His constructions included expressions such as ware’ schwach wie eine Flasche leer and Ich habe fertig. These were very popular for a certain time after the event, but they are fading out more and more. As a large number of allusions and modifications illustrate, Wer zu spät kommt, den bestraft das Leben, attributed to Mikhail Gorbacev (7 October 1989), seems to have found its lasting position as a winged word in the German language. In fact, however, it was probably never uttered in the given wording. On 5 October 1989, at Berlin-Schönefeld airport, Gorbacev said to Erich Honecker Ich glaube, Gefahren warten nur auf jene, die nicht auf das Leben reagieren. A representative of the GDR press later commented on this translation in a slightly incorrect way. (6) Manners maketh the man oldfashioned, ‘politeness is an indication of sb.’s character’ to make bricks without straw old-fashioned (Biblical origin), ‘try to do sth. without having the necessary material’ Adam’s ale literary, ‘water’ to be called to one’s eternal rest euphemistic, ‘die’ a/ the rat race derogatory, ‘struggle for success (in one’s job)’ (7) The PUs in bold print share the denotative meaning ‘to be pregnant’, however, their connotative meanings are different. Whereas the PUs to be in the family way as well as to have a bun in the oven are marked as colloquial, with the latter being used in humorous contexts especially (cf. LDEI), be expecting as well as be/ get knocked up can be found with the general marker informal in the OALD. (8) Your collection of PUs having the meaning ‘urinate’ might include to go for a pee; to spend a penny; to go to the bathroom/ bog/ loo; to powder one’s nose; to have to wash one’s hands; those expressing ‘to dismiss sb. from <?page no="144"?> Answer key 145 their job’ are, for example, to give sb. the boot/ push/ sack, to make sb. redundant or to give sb. the pink slip (AmE). (9) (a) to make a mountain out of a molehill - metaphor (b) under sb.’s thumb - metonymy (c) to cry one’s eyes out - hyperbole (d) first come first served - parallelism/ anaphora (e) to hit the jackpot - metaphor (f) war and peace - metaphor + antithesis (g) in/ by dribs and drabs - alliteration (h) (i) to bore sb. to death - hyperbole (j) a memory like a sieve - comparison (k) the jewel in the crown - metaphor want/ need 2 sth. 2 like 2 one 2 wants/ needs 2 a 2 hole 2 in 2 the 2 head ? - ? comparison + irony (10) Transformational-generative grammar is based on the semantic theory of compositionality. Projection rules are provided to obtain meaning using the syntactic structure of a sentence and lexical specifications of individual elements as a basis. Since idioms are non-compositional, their meanings (and the meanings of sentences including idioms) cannot be represented within the framework of their grammar. It is therefore the main characteristic of an idiom itself that makes it a stumbling block of transformational-generative grammar, the lack of symmetry between its meaning and structure: On the surface they seem to be ordinarily generated strings but their meanings cannot be explained on the basis of the syntactic structure and the meanings of their constituents. The transformational defectiveness and ill-formedness of some of them (cf. chapter 1.2.6 and 1.2.7) as well as the potential coexistence of literal and figurative meanings cause additional problems. <?page no="145"?> Answer Key 146 The teacher likes his pupils BUT: The women chew the fat (11) Chafe concludes that idioms represent an anomaly within the system of ? transformational-generative ? grammar ? that ? shows ? its ? limited ? capacity. ? He ? considers ? generative ? syntax ? to ? be ? inadequate ? and ? demands the substitution of the old syntax-oriented paradigm by a new, semantically-oriented model. In this new generative semantic approach (Chafe 1967; 1968; 1970) idioms do not play a marginal role anymore. The quality of a linguistic model, as Chafe says, is to be evaluated by its ability to explain the phenomenon of idiomaticity. (12) Kith and kin is marked as non-reversible, that is the order of the two elements cannot be changed. Kith is a fossilized constituent (cf. chapter 1.2.7). to pass the buck, as we learn from the dictionary, allows passivization and nominalization; in addition, the compound buck-passing is possible. Altogether, the ODCIE offers information not only on the meaning of a PU and its origin (e.g. in the case of to pass the buck: ‘from the card game of poker, an object passed to the dealer but no longer used in the game’), but also on the transformational potential of idioms, grammatical pattern (e.g. compound formation) and style markers (e.g. pass the buck is marked as ‘informal’). The dictionary is a good example of how linguistic theory can lead to practical application in language learning. S NP VP Det N V NP Det N <?page no="146"?> Answer key 147 (13) The PUs given represent different types of grammatical illformedness. In as sure as eggs is eggs and dog eat dog, nouns and verbs do not agree in number; in all of a sudden, in the know and ifs and buts, a non-nominal word is used as a noun; countable nouns are used without determiners in put pen to paper and that’s old hat; how come and time and again (cf. time and time again) can be considered as ellipses of wellformed structures. (14) spick and span (‘neat and clean’) take umbrage at sth. (‘feel insulted or upset’) be at loggerheads with sb. (‘be in strong disagreement with sb.’) a/ your bounden duty (‘a responsibility you cannot ignore’) with arms akimbo (‘with one’s hands on one’s hips and one’s elbows pointing outwards’) Further examples might include, for example, lie doggo (‘lie still and quiet’), in dribs and drabs (‘in small amounts’), good riddance (to sb.) (‘express that one is pleased sb./ sth. has gone’), in high dudgeon (‘in an angry way’). (15) Examples in German given by Fleischer (1997) include: den Drehwurm bekommen/ kriegen/ haben Fersengeld geben ins Hintertreffen geraten auf dem Kien sein mit jmdm. auf dem Kriegsfuß leben Maulaffen feilhalten sein Scherflein beitragen aufpassen wie ein Schießhund jmdn. beim Schlaffitchen nehmen jmdm. ein Schnippchen schlagen (keine) Sperenzchen machen mit Verlaub sagen (16) The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure assigns the so-called locutions toutes faites to the language system, in contrast to sentences, which he considers to be part of parole: La phrase est le type par excellence du syntagme. Mais elle appartient à la parole, non à la langue […]; ne s’ensuit-il pas que le syntagme relève de la parole? Nous ne le pensons pas. Le propre de la parole, c’est la liberté des combinaisons; il faut donc se demander si tous les syntagmes sont également libres. On rencontre d’abord un grand nombre d’expressions qui appartiennent à la langue; ce sont les locutions toutes faites, auxquelles l’usage interdit de rien <?page no="147"?> Answer Key 148 changer, même si l’on peut y distinguer, à la réflexion, des parties significatives (cf. à quoi bon? allons donc! etc.) Il en est de même, bien qu’à un moindre degré, d’expressions telles que prendre la mouche, forcer la main à quelqu’un, rompre une lance, ou encore avoir mal à (la tête, etc.), à force de (soins, etc.), que vous ensemble? , pas n’est besoin de …, etc., dont le caractère usuel ressort des particularités de leur syntaxe. Ces tours ne peuvent pas être improvisés, ils sont fournis par la tradition. (de Saussure 1916/ 1969: 172) The sentence is the ideal type of syntagm. But it belongs to speaking, not to language […]. Does it not follow that the syntagm belongs to speaking? I do not think so. Speaking is characterized by freedom of combinations; one must therefore ask whether or not all syntagms are equally free. It is obvious from the first that many expressions belong to usage, even if we can single out their meaningful elements (cf. à quoi bon? ‘what’s the use? ’ allons donc! ‘nonsense! ’). The same is true, though to a lesser degree, of expressions like prende la mouche ‘take offense easily,’ (…) forcer la main à quelqu’un ‘force someone’s hand,’ romper une lance ‘break a lance,’ […] or even avoir mal (à la tête, etc.) ‘have (a headache, etc.),’ à force de (soins, etc.) ‘by dint of (care, etc.),’ que vous en semble? ‘how do you feel about it? ’ pas n’est besoin de… ‘there’s no need for …,’ etc., which are characterized by peculiarities of signification or syntax. These idiomatic twists cannot be improvised; they are furnished by tradition. (de Saussure 1966: 124/ 125) As the examples illustrate, locutions toutes faites do not only include idiomatic expressions in the sense of definition 3a in the OED, but also non-idiomatic PUs and especially routine formulae. (Therefore, the translation of ces tours as these idiomatic twists in the English version of the Course is misleading.) De Saussure’s usage of idiom is strongly influenced by the original meaning of the Greek word, peculiarity: Le terme d’idiome désigne fort justement la langue comme reflétant les traits propres d’une communauté (le grec idioma avait déjà le sens de «coutume spéciale»). (de Saussure 1969: 261) The term idiom rightly designates language as reflecting the traits peculiar to a community (Greek idiōma had already acquired the meaning ‘special custom’). (de Saussure 1966: 191) (17) Hockett (1958) subdivides idioms into the following types: Substitutes (e.g. He didn’t get here on time.) Proper names (e.g. Robert didn’t get here on time.) Abbreviations (e.g. red, blue) (e.g. Tell me not in mournful numbers … - allusion) (e.g. / kém læb/ chemistry laboratory) (e.g. UNESCO) <?page no="148"?> Answer key 149 English phrasal compounds (e.g. a white house - the ‘White House’; a black bird - a blackbird) Figures of speech (e.g. He married a lemon.) Slang (e.g. absquatulate vamoose scram - ‘go away’) The inclusion of such heterogeneous items in a taxonomy results from Hockett’s all-inclusive definition of idiom (cf. chapter 1.2.1). (18) Answers will vary according to the examples chosen. As for the PU to have one foot in the grave, foot cannot be replaced by leg. (19) There is convincing evidence that the PU etwas passt wie die Faust aufs Auge (‘sth. does not fit at all’ - cf. Röhrich 1991/ 1992: 421) is often used in its non-ironic meaning today, i.e. as ‘it fits very well’ (cf. Fiedler 1999: 203), The following newspaper article illustrates the semantic change (Leipziger Volkszeitung 5/ 6 November 2005). <?page no="149"?> Answer Key 150 (20) It has to be said in advance that the hypotheses and experiments described in linguistic literature represent a preliminary state of research. The problems concerning the mental processing of PUs are still under discussion. On the basis of different views on idiom representation and processing we can subdivide the following models: (a) The literal first hypothesis (or idiom list hypothesis) says that the literal meaning is processed first and that the figurative meaning is retrieved only after the literal interpretation has been rejected. An early model representing this hypothesis was proposed by Bobrow and Bell (1973), who argue that idioms are listed as ‘big words’ and independently stored in an idiom lexicon. If the literal-first hypothesis were true, literally used PUs would be processed more quickly than (partly) idiomatic PUs. Investigations into this phenomenon, however, did not reveal any significant difference (cf. Dobrovol’skij 1997: 13). (b) According to the simultaneous processing hypothesis (or lexical representation hypothesis), idioms as multi-word lexemes are stored and retrieved like single words. When we hear/ read the first element in a phraseological string, both the figurative and literal meanings are processed in parallel (although the phraseological meaning is often favoured quickly). Main representatives of this hypothesis are Swinney and Cutler (1979), who reject the idiom list hypothesis on the basis of experimental findings. (c) Representatives of the figurative first hypothesis (or direct access hypothesis) (e.g. Gibbs 1980; 2002) assume that the idiomatic meaning is retrieved directly from the mental lexicon as soon as the hearer/ reader encounters a PU. In this way the literal reading is completely bypassed. With regard to this, Cronk and Schweigert (1992) attach importance to the familiarity with a PU. In their figurative first approach the idiomatic meaning is processed first only in the case of well-known PUs, whereas for unknown units, for which a phraseological meaning cannot be activated in the mental lexicon, the literal meaning is analysed first. (d) The representatives of the idiom decomposition hypothesis (e.g. Nunberg et al. 1994) take into consideration that PUs differ with regard to their degree of idiomaticity (or compositionality). Apart from nondecomposable (i.e. opaque) units, whose meanings have to be learnt and are retrieved directly from the mental lexicon like the meanings of long words, there are also <?page no="150"?> Answer key 151 decomposable ones, whose elements contribute to the figurative interpretation. (e) The configuration hypothesis, proposed by Cacciari and Tabossi (1988) on the basis of experimental data, supports the idea of simultaneous processing. The PU, however, is not stored as a lexical item: An alternative hypothesis is that idioms are not encoded as separate entries in the mental lexicon. Rather their meaning is associated with particular configurations of words and becomes available - in lexical processing terms, is accessed - whenever sufficient input has rendered the configuration recognizable. (1988: 678) This means that idioms are retained in memory as strings with their parts being recognised as a configuration at some point when a so-called key word has been reached to activate the recognition of the whole. The same principle presents the basis of the so-called PIP model (phrase-induced polysemy hypothesis) (Glucksberg 1993). According to this approach, the literal and the figurative meanings are processed in parallel, until the configuration emerges and the phraseological meaning is activated. (f) The conceptual metaphor hypothesis (Gibbs 1994) is based on the works of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), who have shown that metaphor is not merely a literary device but a lively procedure of everyday language. Language use is motivated by preexisting metaphorical concepts in our minds, which are part of general human experience. As regards their mental representation, idioms do not need to be represented independently. They are understood via conceptual constructs: Idioms are not discretely represented in the mental lexicon in such a way that the figurative meaning of each phrase is arbitrarily linked to each idiomatic word string. Instead, idioms, whose meanings are generated from the same conceptual metaphor may be linked together in a temporal sequence as part of a semantic field for each type of conceptual referent (anger, fear, joy, etc.) (Nayak/ Gibbs 1990: 328) Recent psychological work supports the validity of metaphorical constructs. It should be stressed that Lakoff and Johnson regard metaphors as conceptually based. They do not focus on the sequence of words that constitutes the metaphor, but on the conceptual mapping that underlies this sequence. A number of researchers, however, expressed scepticism about the postulate <?page no="151"?> Answer Key 152 of the primary nature of conceptual metaphors (e.g. Burger 1998: 36; Keysar/ Bly 1999), saying, among other things, that conceptual metaphors only account for a few cases and that lost historical origins can be equally helpful as explanations. (g) The graded salience hypothesis (Giora 2002) says that the successful interpretation of a language item is determined by its degree of saliency. The most salient meanings (i.e. the most prominent, conventional, frequent, familiar, or prototypical ones or meanings enhanced by prior context) are always accessed immediately in the mental lexicon and remain activated. Less salient meanings lag behind, whereas non-salient meanings require extra processing and strong contextual support. Therefore, when the most salient meaning is intended, as, for example, the figurative meaning of conventional PUs, this is accessed directly and the less salient (literal) meaning does not have to be processed. However, when a less salient meaning is intended rather than a more salient one (for example, the figurative meaning of a novel metaphor or the literal meaning of a conventional PU), comprehension involves sequential processes: the more salient meaning is processed initially, before the intended meaning is derived (cf. Giora 1997: 201). Answer key Chapter 2 (1) Makkai reserves the term idiom for “any polylexonic lexemes made up of more than one minimal free form or word (as defined by morphotactic criteria)” (1972: 122). That means, however, as his examples show, that he includes compounds, such as eavesdrop, sightsee, or blackbird, which would be excluded from the phrasicon according to our definition. Makkai’s subgroup 6 within the first idiomaticity area (‘pseudo-idioms’) comprises PUs with unique (fossilized) constituents. From a synchronic point of view, since there is no lexeme behind these lexons, they cannot ‘mislead’ or ‘disinform’ the reader/ hearer and, strictly speaking, should be excluded from the system on the basis of Makkai’s definition. <?page no="152"?> Answer key 153 (2) bag and baggage (‘with all one’s possessions’) Panini’s law hem and haw (‘to speak without saying exactly what one means’) phonological constraint (quality of final consonant) wheel and deal (‘act in a clever but often immoral or dishonest way in business’) phonological constraint (quality of initial consonant) husband and wife male first rise and fall up vs. down prim and proper (‘formal’) Panini’s law now or never (‘if one does not act, the chance will be lost’) positive first rules and regulations Panini’s law Mick Jagger and the Rolling Stones singular first/ star first betwixt and between phonological constraint (quality of final consonants) car and driver power source first bacon and eggs food rule every nook and cranny (‘each small place where sth. might be hidden’) Panini’s law money shmoney (‘money doesn’t matter’; ironical remark phonological constraint (quantity of initial consonants) free and easy (‘friendly and free from anxiety’) Panini’s law the pros and cons (‘arguments for and against’) positive first (3) The phonological and semantic constraints isolated for English by Cooper and Ross do not seem to be universal. The authors give examples in some languages which exhibit the reverse ordering from that observed in English (cf. Cooper/ Ross 1975: 100-101) (4) (a) gin and tonic; (b) wheeling and dealing; (c) to and fro; (d) null and void; (e) safe and sound; (f) the pros and cons; (g) odds and ends; (h) in dribs and drabs; (i) spick and span; (j) bread and butter; (k) friend or foe; (l) bows and arrows; (m) from head to toe (5) as fit as a fiddle as cool as a cucumber as blind as a bat as bold as brass as green as grass as large as life (6) Mieder’s (2005) examples include Shit happens <?page no="153"?> Answer Key 154 Garbage in, garbage out No guts, no glory Been there, done that. As a result of the feminist movement A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle came into the language. (7) To be or not to be (that is the question) Hamlet III.i.56 German: Sein oder Nichtsein, das ist hier die Frage. All’s well that ends well Title (1603) German: Ende gut, alles gut. Something is rotten in the state of Denmark Hamlet I.iv.90 German: Etwas ist faul im Staate Dänemark Brevity is the soul of wit Hamlet II.ii.90 German: In der Kürze liegt die Würze Well roared, Lion! A Midsummer Night’s Dream V.i.254 German: Gut gebrüllt, Löwe! A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse! Richard III V.iv.7/ 13 German: Ein Pferd! Ein Pferd! Mein Königreich für’n Pferd! (8) Peeping Tom: Linda and Roger Flavell (1992: 158) trace it back to the following incident: “In 1040 Leofric, Earl of Mercia, imposed swingeing taxes upon the people of Coventry. His wife, Godiva, took the citizens’ part and pleaded with her husband to cut the amount levied, but he retorted that she must ride naked through the streets before he would do so. This Lady Godiva did, and the earl kept his promise. This well-known tale was expanded in the eighteenth century. The townsfolk, in accordance with Lady Godiva’s wishes, stayed at home with their doors and shutters closed tight. But one man, Tom the Tailor, was so overcome by curiosity that he spied at his lady through a window, whereupon he was struck blind.” <?page no="154"?> Answer key 155 grin like a Cheshire cat: The Cheshire cat is a character from Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. In the story, the cat gradually fades away until only its broad grin remains. Contrary to popular belief, Carroll is not the inventor of the animal. There are various stories about its origin. Cheshire is famous for its cheeses, and these were moulded in the shape of a grinning cat. Some say the idea might have come from signboards of inns in Cheshire which had a picture of a roaring lion on them. This, however, looked more like a grinning cat. cut the Gordian knot: An ancient legend has it that Gordius, the king of Phrygia, had tied such a complex knot that no one could untie it. Anyone who did, it was said, would become the ruler of Asia. Alexander the Great heard this on his conquests and solved the puzzle in an unorthodox way - by cutting through the knot with his sword with one stroke. Beam me up, Scotty! : The origin of this catchphrase is the science-fiction series STARTREK. Trekkies, however, doubt that Captain Kirk ever actually said to Lieutenant Commander Scott ‘Beam me up, Scotty! ’, which means that he should transpose body into light or something like that. a catch-22 situation is a frustrating situation, especially caused by a rule that is considered unfair. It says that the first event cannot happen until the second event has happened, but the second event cannot happen before the first event has happened. Therefore, it prevents people from escaping from difficult situations. Catch-22 is the title of a novel by Joseph Heller (1923-1999) about a group of US fliers in World War II. Captain Yossarian, a US Air Force bombardier, does not want to fly any more. He goes to see Doc Daneeka because he wants to be grounded on the grounds that he is crazy: Daneeka: There’s a rule saying I have to ground anyone who’s crazy. Yossarian: Then why can’t you ground me? I’m crazy. Daneeka: Anyone who wants to get out of combat duty isn’t really crazy. This is the catch - ‘Catch-22’. Accordingly, people say that something is a catch-22 situation to express ‘There’s always a catch’ or ‘Damned if you do, damned if you don’t’. <?page no="155"?> Answer Key 156 (9) (a) (Well,) what do you know: This formula is used to express surprise. It is informal. (b) you name it: This formula is used to express that whatever you mention, the person (or thing) referred to does it, is it or has it. (c) here we go: This formula is applied in spoken communication to express that sth. is starting to happen. Here we go again expresses that sth. (especially sth. bad) is starting to happen again. (d) the thing is: This formula is used to introduce an important fact, explanation or reason. (e) as it were: This formula is used when one refers to a particular way of presenting an impression or situation. It often accompanies metaphorical expressions (as in the examples given tongue-in-cheek and in the flesh) and has a metacommunicative function. With its stable and ill-formed structure, as it were is a PU itself (cf. chapter 1.2.7). (10) The given collocations should be added in an appropriate form in the following order: make a decision make use of make a contribution make a mistake make a point make a statement make an attempt make an effort (11) Your exercise might look like this: Add a suitable intensifier: heavily, highly, greatly, severely, deeply, strongly, seriously. out by Chris Green for the currently ………. improved outlook: the record Mr Justice Simon Brown said he ………. preferred the approach George Whitfield told a friend, ‘I was ………. refreshed to find what a the letters of his Lord the King, he ………. rejoiced in them, and said But the possibilities can ………. outweigh such things if Tree and shrub numbers ………. increase as grazing pressure yone entering the Cork Opera House ………. delayed the screening of And do you ………. believe that the American or This was deleterious to fly life and ………. interfered with fly fishing in <?page no="156"?> Answer key 157 No one, apart from the Palestinians, ………. thought of a return to the blackouts, even oil-rich Kuwait is ………. contemplating programmes Wisdom is a fool unto itself. Nobody ………. doubts that butter is lovely D a particular mood or event in time, ………. criticized for their voyeurism use pressure in areas that are already ………. cultivated and subject to , in minicomputers, British firms are ………. outnumbered by foreign repeat fees for one actor for a fairly ………. used commercial could reach rity, is essentially one of cleaning up ………. polluted rivers, but in rural of the urban-rural shift in the more ………. populated parts of the countr eaningless as any other gesture, as ………. rooted in the moment, in All in all, apart from the loss itself, a ………. traumatic experience heighte Mirror directors are understood to be ………. concerned about the mountin be, one undeniable fact is that people ………. want to believe these things. gestion is rejected out of hand by the ………. engrained, yet erroneous, narrow, galley-type room with two ………. recessed windows -; the sills tion of the Abbey vote on conversion ………. suggests societies would Nything that is troubling you today, I ………. recommend that you face it Is with some reluctance that I have to ………. disagree with one of my urs the straightforward approach and ………. dislikes people who behave The observed features of PSR1706-44 ………. resemble those of the Vela the next sentence he says, ”I should ………. object to a bar being placed elements of our common traditions: a ………. prized activity in a culture ently in Britain and Germany by two ………. esteemed professional scient year of, presumably, both mildly and ………. toxic wastes that appears to mber or concrete floors is likely to be ………. disruptive and prohibitively ntained for new investment, and other ………. conservative accounting dea of evolution but felt that the most ………. evolved society is one “in incidental catch need not be large to ………. affect some species, nor are art from the National Curriculum are ………. limited, except where child poorer countries in Europe have been ………. hampered by a lack of will ne were considerably less likely to be ………. disabled than those living unicate and collaborate with others, is ………. handicapped, and his or her A (December 22 nd ) suggests that laws ………. restricting access to firearms (The intensifiers should be added in the following order: greatly, seriously, heavily, deeply, strongly, highly, severely.) (12) The most striking features of Cockney include: (a) in the field of grammar <?page no="157"?> Answer Key 158 multiple negation I ain’t never done nothing. That boy don’t care nothing for nobody. reduced verb paradigms (e.g. do - done - done) You seen ‘im! They done it. use of them as demonstrative pronoun them books; the way of life in them days adverbs without -ly Trains are running normal. They talked quiet. possessive me Where’s me bag? Me brother left home. relative pronouns as/ what a bloke as I know; anybody what been away (b) in the field of phonology h-dropping (h Ø) half / `9e / ; happened / zo? m / th-fronting ( S , C f, v~d) thin / eHm / , brother / aqUu? / weakening ( ? t unstressed ? ) see you / i? / , try to / s? / t-glottalling ( s > ) butter / aU>? / ; cat / jz> l-vocalization ( k T ) milk / lHTj / ; well / vDT / diphthong shifts, e.g. / dH / / `H / bait / a`H> / ; face / e`Hr / (13) loaf of bread = head north and south = mouth Brahms and Liszt = pissed apples and pears = stairs rabbit and pork = talk dog and bone = phone china plate = mate Rosy Lea = tea raspberry tart = fart (14) Fleischer (1997: 79) mentions the following examples of German wellerisms (Sagwörter): Was sich liebt, das neckt sich, sagte die Katze und fraß die Maus. Scherben bringen Glück, sagte der Glaser, der den Leuten über Nacht die Scheiben einwarf. Was ein Häkchen werden will, krümmt sich beizeiten, sagte der Nagel und bog sich vor lachen, als sich der Mann auf den Daumen schlug. <?page no="158"?> Answer key 159 Mieder (1975: 87) explains German wellerisms on the basis of examples in the journal Stern: „Ausnahmen bestätigen die Regel”, sagte der Strauß und steckte den Sand in den Kopf. „Wasser hat keine Balken“, sagte der Sägefisch und sägte lustlos im Seetang herum. „Jedem Tierchen sein Pläsierchen“, sagte die Sardine und ließ sich in Öl malen. „In der Kürze liegt die Würze“, sagte der Kannibale, als er die Beine des Lügners kostete. (15) According to the so-called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (or ‘linguistic relativity principle’) the structure of our language determines - at least partly - the way we perceive the world. Edward Sapir (1884-1939) and his colleague and student Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941) came to this conclusion after they had analysed native American and Canadian languages and found that their grammatical categories and semantic distinctions were fascinatingly different from those found in European languages. Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication and reflection. The fact of the matter is that the “real world” is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group. (Sapir 1929: 69) We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organised by our minds - and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds. We cut nature up, organise it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language. The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory; we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organisation and classification of data which the agreement decrees. (Whorf 1940: 213/ 214). <?page no="159"?> Answer Key 160 This controversial hypothesis has generally been divided into two types: a strong and a weak concept. The strong or deterministic type of the hypothesis would attract few linguists today, as there is strong evidence against it, including the fact that the conceptual systems of a language can be understood by speakers of other languages, that we find it possible to translate from one language into another and that we borrow words from other languages. Many linguists, however, accept a weak or moderate Whorfianism that thought is influenced (rather than unavoidably determined) by our linguistic systems. Different boundaries within the colour spectrum, the fact that a colour term such as blue has no single equivalent in Russian as well as different distinctions within family relations signify linguistic relativity. It should be considered, furthermore, that the kind of language we use is also influenced by the way we see the world. (16) (a) red tape ‘bureaucracy/ unnecessary official rules and documents’ (b) see red ‘become very angry’ (c) red herring ‘diversionary tactic (to take attention away from the truth or from an important idea)’ (d) out of the blue ‘unexpectedly/ as a surprise’ (e) to give the green light ‘to allow/ to give permission’ (f) green with envy ‘extremely envious’ (17) The PUs you have found might include be/ go/ talk above/ over one’s head ‘beyond sb.’s ability to understand’ bury one’s head in the sand ‘to refuse to accept a truth or to take any notice of a problem’ laugh/ cry/ talk etc. one’s head off ‘to … a great deal/ in an extreme way, beyond reasonable limits’ from head to toe/ foot ‘completely, totally’ (be/ fall) head over heels (in love) ‘(become or be) completely/ deeply (in love)’ cannot make head or/ nor tail of sth. ‘cannot understand (a person or thing)’ have a head start on/ over sb. ‘have an advantage over other people (esp. at the beginning of a competition)’ lose one’s head ‘panic’ off the top of one’s head ‘without taking time to prepare sth./ as an immediate reaction’ (18) Non-verbal communication is culture-bound. Therefore, kinegrams, as their linguistic realisations, are restricted to specific speech com- <?page no="160"?> Answer key 161 munities. The PUs mentioned, to rub one’s hands and to nod/ shake one’s head, are examples of culture-specific PUs. The former, in a figurative sense, has to be understood as (malicious) joy or positive anticipation in our western culture, whereas the same gesture is dominantly associated with flattering or expressing complements in Asia. Similarly, the latter, expressing agreement/ disagreement, would be misunderstood, for example, in Greece or Bulgaria. In contrast to this, there are internationally known kinegrams, which have their origin in common sources, such as the Bible (e.g. to tear/ pull one’s hair out ‘to be anxious or upset’) or which are based on generally observed behaviour among human beings or animals (e.g. to make sb.’s hair stand up on end ‘to cause sb. to feel great fear’; to prick up one’s ears ‘to become suddenly interested/ to listen eagerly’; to keep/ have one’s ear to the ground ‘to make sure that one knows what people are doing or saying’). Answer key Chapter 3 [(1) No model answer is provided] (2) Your summary might include the following aspects: PUs contribute to text composition, i.e. they constitute text meaning and develop text coherence. In journalistic texts they are often employed as the headlines of articles and in captions, where they function as catchphrases to attract the reader’s interest. Within the body of the text, PUs can have functions related to structure. In literary texts PUs are used for emotive and expressive effects. They are used to describe situations and feelings in a vivid way and to characterise literary figures (in the so-called linguistic portrait). (3) All of them are marked by metacommunicative signals: (a) what they call, (b) proverbial, (c) inverted commas. (4) Strike while the employer has a big contract. (1906) Original version: Strike while the iron is hot. Meaning: Act immediately/ at the most opportune moment. Technique(s): The second part was altered (= substitution). Because of this manipulation strike is suddenly understood in a new sense (‘refuse to work as a protest’) (= phraseological pun). Funnily enough, the original meaning is still valid. <?page no="161"?> Answer Key 162 Where there’s a will there’s a won’t. (1906) Original version: Where there’s a will there’s a way. Meaning: When sb. is determined to do sth. - however difficult it may be - they will find a way of doing it. Technique(s): Only the last word was replaced (= substitution). Now suddenly will is understood as the verb will (presenting the opposite of won’t). The modification results in the reverse of the original meaning. Marry in haste and repent in the Divorce Court. (1908) Original version: Marry in haste, repent at leisure. Meaning: If a person marries sb. they have only recently met, the marriage is likely to be unsuccessful and they will have a long time to regret it. Technique(s): Again, this is a substitution. Due to its modern ending the generalizing character seems to get lost, i.e. the modification, at least to a certain extent, results in literalization. A man’s home is his wife’s castle. (1908) Original meaning: An Englishman’s home is his castle. Meaning: Nobody can tell an Englishman how to behave in his home/ People have the right to do what they want in their own home. Technique(s): Englishman was replaced by man (= substitution/ deletion), which makes the proverb more general and applicable not only in British (English) contexts. The addition wife’s (= expansion), first, makes us understand man in its meaning ‘male person’ or ‘husband’ only (= phraseological pun) and, secondly, it shows that now the opposite is expressed - a man’s wife has the say in their home. A lie in time saves nine. (1908) Original version: A stitch in time saves nine. Meaning: Damage quickly worsens if it is not repaired. Therefore, it is better to deal with a problem as soon as it is noticed. Technique(s): The new element lie (= substitution) changes the character of the proverb considerably. The speaker pretends to draw on the authority of a time-tested proverb, evoking humour through the unexpected replacement. A hair on the head’s worth two in the brush. (1926) Original version: A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. <?page no="162"?> Answer key 163 Meaning: It is better to be content with something that one is sure to receive than to try to get something better and risk having nothing at all. Technique(s): This is an extreme type of a substitution, with three major constituents being replaced. It seems to be merely an allusion to the original proverb. Its humour is based on the contrast between the generally accepted wisdom of a proverb and an everyday problem. Early to bed, early to rise, and your girl goes out with the other guys. (1935) Original version: Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. Meaning: Good health, wealth and wisdom will be gained by people who live sensibly without excesses. Technique(s): The innovative final part (= substitution) of the proverb literalizes its meaning and seems to prove how old-fashioned it is. One man’s junk is another man’s antique. (1967) Original version: One man’s meat is another man’s poison. Meaning: The things that are liked by one person are not necessarily liked by another person/ different people like different things. Technique(s): Again, several elements have been replaced (= substitution). The proverbial meaning is still the same but it has lost its metaphorical character. The modification is a humorous allusion to modern times and habits. A married man and his money are soon parted. (1981) Original version: A fool and his money are soon parted. Meaning: People who are not sensible spend their money on worthless things. Technique(s): The substitution of fool by married man provocatively implies that a married man is a fool or even that it is foolish for a man to marry, for then he is easily parted from his money. (5) (a) Basis: Eat, drink, and be merry (for tomorrow we die)! (a humorous way to say ‘enjoy yourself - life may become worse’; from the Bible: A man hath no better thing under the sun, than to eat, and to drink, and to be merry, Ecclesiastes 8: 15, cf. LDEI 1979: 94); type of modification: substitution (the quasi-rhyme wary/ merry helps the reader to recognise the proverb); effect: apart from the general eyecatching effect a distorted proverb has through ‘violating the expected order’, the headline due to its biblical context expresses the warning to be careful with the food you eat while travelling. <?page no="163"?> Answer Key 164 (b) Basis: to jump on the bandwagon (= ‘to join an activity or movement because it is fashionable or profitable’); type of modification: expansion; effect: The expansion is both an expressive and an economical way of realising the topic relation. In addition, since the PU is of a disapproving nature, its use is evaluative. (c) Basis: take umbrage at/ over sth. (= ‘to be offended by sth.’); type of modification: reduction; effect: As a fossilized (or unique) constituent (cf. 1.2.7) umbrage is the striking constituent of the phrase and able to activate the whole PU. The formal similarity between umbrage and Umbrian has been exploited by the author to create an eyecatching title. (d) Basis: When in Rome, do as the Romans (do) (= ‘one should follow the manners and customs of the people one is visiting or one lives with’); type of modification: substitution/ expansion; effect: the new element Istanbul relates the proverb to the Turkish bank, whereas the authentic element Romans and the additions Parisians, Londoners, New Yorkers are intended to express its international character. (e) Basis: All that glisters/ glitters/ glistens is not gold (= ‘a person or thing may not be as valuable as it appears’); types of modification: reduction; with three more PUs (fool’s gold, iron chancellor and to sell the family silver) in close proximity we can also speak of a phraseological accumulation - cf. chapter 3.4.3; finally, we notice a substitution in to sell the family gold; effect: The reader will automatically complete the proverb … is not gold in the elliptical headline - just to find that the article is literally about the precious metal. The occurrence of further PUs from the same semantic field add to the pleasure of reading the text. Considering its ambiguous character - on the one hand, based on its figurative meaning, evoking doubts whether selling Britain’s gold reserves is prudent and, on the other hand, announcing an article literally signifying gold - we might identify even a fourth type of modification: a phraseological pun. (f) Basis: Charity begins at home (= ‘one has to help one’s own family before one thinks about helping others’); type of modification: substitution; effect: the substitution of at home by at celebrity endorsement makes celebrities the key factor in charity. (g) Basis: a man about town (= ‘a man who spends much of his time among the rich and fashionable’); type of modification: substitution; effect: the modification does not only indicate the target reader <?page no="164"?> Answer key 165 of the magazine, it also seems to emphasise that not only men can enjoy the social life of the city. (h) Basis: Let them eat cake (Qu’ils mangent de la brioche - this remark is commonly ascribed to Marie-Antoinette [1755-1793], who is supposed to have said it during the bread shortage of 1789); type of modification: substitution; effect: the caricature showing Tony Blair sending messages from his lofty tower seems to enhance the content of the article about New Labour showing “all the sins of the snob: pride, vanity and greed”. The paper plane inscription places Tony Blair in close proximity to the French queen disliked by the people. The use of polenta (instead of cake) is to show the New Establishment’s wish to be fashionable. In addition, Blair spends at least one holiday a year in Tuscany (The tower could be in San Gimignano - also known as Chiantishire). The British press constantly attack him for that. 38 (6) The name is probably intended to evoke the PU the world is your oyster (= ‘There’s no limit to the opportunities which are open to you’). (7) The sentences in (a) are examples of non-modified PUs, those in (b) represent phraseological puns. In the latter expressivity is enhanced as both to get one’s act together and close to the bone are to be understood figuratively (as ‘to take control of oneself/ organise one’s affairs effectively’ and ‘making people uncomfortable about things people would prefer not to discuss’) as well as literally referring to a law and to a dinosaur’s bones. (8) In the Frank & Ernest strip it seems to be the verbally expressed figurative meaning of life in the fast lane (‘to live a life full of activity and excitement’) that dominates. It becomes immediately apparent, however, that it is a traffic metaphor when a second expression from the same semantic field (speed bump) comes into play. The contradictory nature of the two frames of reference causes a comical effect, which is enhanced by the people’s shapes reminding us of real speed bumps. (9) (a) This joke is an example of a phraseological pun. It is especially funny because of the highly improbable context that was created for a literal use of to catch one’s eye. 38 I owe this interpretation to James Kerr. <?page no="165"?> Answer Key 166 (b) This joke is also based on ambiguity. To miss a step (‘fail to see/ notice it’) was misunderstood as ‘not hit’ in order to comment on the falling process. (c) This joke works in many languages. Don’t ask is a routine formula that expresses that one does not want to reply to somebody’s question because something is terrible or embarrassing. The humour of this joke is based on the fact that the person who uses the phrase has just insisted on being asked. That is, as in (a) and (b), the literal meaning of a figurative expression is suddenly evoked. (d) Another example of a phraseological pun. To play second fiddle (‘to have a less important position/ a lower status than another person’) suddenly appears in its literal light when confronted with linguistic elements taken from the same semantic field (be in the band). (e) Similarly, to take one’s seat has to be taken literally, when put it back is mentioned. The Member of the Scottish Parliament as a stereotypical victim of Scottish jokes adds to the humour. (f) To have two left feet (‘to be awkward with one’s movements’), in this riddle, is literalized in a ‘natural’ way. Using the expression for a cat destroys the metaphor, which, however, is only evident on second thought. (g) The principle of literalization is applied here in a similar way as in (f). The application of from scratch in connection with a dog makes us aware of the real meaning of scratch. (h) As is often the case in children’s jokes and riddles, a rather hypothetical or even absurd situation was created here to evoke humour. The solution to the strange question, which is given by a modified proverb, the early bird catches/ gets the worm, with the substitution of early by curly, is simultaneously plausible and far-fetched and, therefore, funny. (10) Examples given by students will vary. The following passage was taken from the media (Die Harald Schmidt Show 3 April 2002). Thomas Goppel, a German politician sends a letter to the comedy show host, Harald Schmidt, who had suspected him of dyeing his hair: […] Ihr Interesse wenigstens an meinem Haarschopf und seiner Farbechtheit ehrt meinen Kopf. Weil es mir Spaß macht, das Haar in der Suppe Ihrer Sen- <?page no="166"?> Answer key 167 dung gewesen zu sein, ist es mir ein Anliegen, Sie in dieser haarigen wie auch farbigen Angelegenheit nicht im Unklaren zu lassen. Es sei Ihnen deshalb versichert: An Goppel ist alles original. Vom Scheitel bis zur Sohle bzw. von der Haarspitze bis zur Wurzel. Das ist der haarfeine Unterschied zu so manch anderem in deutschen Landen. Sollten Sie die Probe aufs Exempel machen wollen, also eine Haarprobe im übertragenen Sinne, stehe ich gern für haargenaue Erläuterungen zur Verfügung, natürlich auch live. Soweit haare ich Ihrer geschätzten Antwort. Dabei lege ich Wert auf die Feststellung, dass die Orthografie ? des ? Wortes ? ‚haare’ ? deshalb ? zustande ? kommt, ? weil ? ich ? im ? Sinne der PISA-Ergebnisse diesmal versuche, dem Thema statt der Rechtschreibung gerecht zu werden. [...] (11) The proverbs illustrated include: Big fish eat little fish to bell the cat to swim against the tide to put sticks in the wheel (12) Koestler’s theory is based on the human ability to think in two planes of thought at the same time. Bisociation consists in “the perceiving of a situation or idea, L, in two self-consistent but habitually incompatible frames of reference, M 1 and M 2 […]. The event L, in which the two intersect, is made to vibrate simultaneously on two different wavelengths, as it were” (Koestler 1964: 35; emphasis in the original). Koestler illustrates the bisociation principle in the following figure: Figure 4: Koestler’s bisociation model (Koestler 1964: 35) In joke 9 (e), for example, the co-text (the elements MSP and Scottish Parliament) makes us associate took his seat in the initial frame of reference as ‘began his duties’. Having read the second sentence (The police forced him to put it back), we have to reinterpret the PU. We shift our attention to a new frame of reference clashing with the initial one. In Koestler’s terms, the single PU take one’s seat is bisociated and laughter <?page no="167"?> Answer Key 168 ensues. Koestler’s notion has been applied by a number of comic researchers, e.g. Norrick (2001). (13) Grice (1975) proposed that in communication (in the sense of bona-fide discourse) participants proceed according to an implicit overarching guideline that he terms the cooperative principle: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. One might label this the COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE. (Grice 1975: 45) A set of guidelines, called conversational maxims, underlie the cooperative principle: Maxims of quantity: 1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Maxims of quality: 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Maxim of relation: 1. Be relevant. Maxims of manner: 1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 4. Be orderly. (Grice 1975: 45-46) In comic discourse, humour is evoked by the deliberate violation of maxims. The jokes presented in (9) (a)-(e), for example, exploit ambiguity (the two readings of a PU), which means a violation of a maxim of manner. Phraseological accumulation, such as in [2] [2] [2] [2] , contradicts the maxims of quantity. Answer Key Chapter 4 (1) In the first passage one might consider the German colloquial phrase Das ist nicht mein Ding. <?page no="168"?> Answer key 169 For the second passage, a non-phraseological translation might be more suitable than the German idiom seine Zunge auf dem Herzen tragen, such as: Ich schreie es in die Welt hinaus/ Jeder/ Die ganze Welt soll es wissen. Phraseological translations might include: keinen Hehl aus etw. machen or mit etw. nicht hinterm Berg halten. (2) ‘Equivalence’ was used in a text-specific way, i.e. to define the relationship between source text and target text. In a given context lexical means in the TL can be regarded as corresponding to or tantamount to those in the SL. They then fulfil (at least to a high degree) the criteria mentioned by Koller (1997). ‘Equivalence’ was also applied on the level of the linguistic system, i.e. with reference to pairs of PUs in two or more languages. To lose one’s head, for example, is a unit that has equivalents in several European languages. (3) (a) The PU to be in the sack/ to hit the sack is marked as colloquial. Therefore, Schönfeld’s translation lagen in der Falle seems to be stylistically more adequate than Böll’s version schliefen. (b) Again, to hem and haw is a colloquial way of expressing that one takes a long time to make a decision. The German prefix-like form herumis used to convey this informal style in both translations, with drucksen being more expressive and colloquial than zögern. Both the German translators have chosen a non-phraseological expression. It is interesting that Scotch and soda was rendered as Whisky mit Soda by Böll; perhaps the English expression was not known or at least not as common in German in his day as it is today. (c) Schönfeld’s translation sounds more natural and due to the poetically marked ward more adequate to the original. Böll’s addition, the routine formula weiß der Himmel, can be considered as a form of compensation. (d) This example proves that a non-phraseological translation is not necessarily inferior to a phraseological equivalent. Böll’s creative Nur ich und Holden und Caulfield seems to be more expressive than the PU nur meine Wenigkeit. (4) [No model answer is provided] (5) Proposals might include expressions such as nicht ganz rund laufen/ einen an der Waffel haben/ nicht mehr durchsehen. <?page no="169"?> Answer Key 170 (6) (a) L. Carroll exploits the ambiguity of time in He’s murdering the time to express ‘to spoil the rhythm of a piece of music’ as well as the reading ‘to do very little while waiting’. The German translation cannot master this ambiguity. Only one meaning is expressed by the German PU die Zeit totschlagen (to kill time). The German text is, therefore, less expressive. (b) This part of the story exemplifies to what degree whole passages of the book were influenced by the potential of the English language to create humorous puns. The sisters’ abode (the well) has certainly been chosen only for the reason to create the two phrases to learn to draw and to draw water from a well. The translators overcome the difficulty by introducing the German verb pressen, which has many collocates, as in Blumen/ Gräser/ Saft pressen. (c) In this scene the well-known proverb Take care of the pence and the pounds will take care of themselves is modified. As with many examples shown in chapter 3, the substitution of but a few letters (pence - sense; pounds - sounds) brings about a considerable effect. This passage is a challenge for translators. The German version conveys the approximate meaning of the proverb and, at least to a certain degree, reminds us of the structure and rhythm of a proverb. (7) The translation of a phraseological newspaper headline into a foreign language is a challenging task. The procedure proposed in 4.2 can be a suitable basis here as well. The first step includes the identification of the German PU in die Röhre gucken. It is an idiomatic expression and cannot be translated literally. The second step leads us to the German paraphrase ‘verzichten müssen/ beiseite stehen/ verloren haben/ benachteiligt werden’ (Duden 11, 1992: 588) and to the insight that this particular PU has been chosen because of its ambiguity. With its component Röhre - a colloquial expression for Fernseher (‘TV set’; cf. telly/ tube) - it lends itself to punning in this article about the chances of female presenters in US television. The third step, the translation of the phraseological meaning, results in a target language paraphrase such as are ignored/ are not included/ are left out or with reference to the article are not given fair chances/ are discriminated against. Although the translation proper has been finished, the translator will aim at finding a PU in the TL in order to find a version that is stylistically adequate to the original (step IV). Expressions such as be left out in the cold or come off badly might be considered. They, however, do not produce the pun. Headlines such as Female Presenters Switched Off, Bad <?page no="170"?> Answer key 171 News for Ladies, or Female Presenters Down the Tube might be better proposals. (8) Your transcript might look like this: OK, Pluto, let’s get our tree. Look at him over there. Here he cannot find us. You reckon? What was that? I don’t know. OK, Pluto, all right. Come on, let’s go. Hey, wake up. Well, what do you know? Wow! Well, Pluto, that’s it. Isn’t that better? Oh, Pluto. OK, I’ll light the candles. Thank you! Let’s go. Pluto, get out of there. What are you making? You dumbo. Look what you’ve done to our … Pluto, we’ve got chipmunks in our tree. Cute little fellows. Pluto, after all, it is Christmas. Here is the published German version: OK, Pluto, wir holen unseren Baum Da, sieh dir den mal an. Hier wird er uns nicht finden. Ja, [ha ha ha]. Was war das? Ich weiß nicht. OK, Pluto, das war’s. In Ordnung. Lass uns gehen. Hej, sieh mal da! Nun, was weiß man schon? Wow! So, Pluto, das war’s. Ist das nicht besser so? Oh, Pluto. OK, ich werde die Kerzen anzünden. Danke. Dann mal los! <?page no="171"?> Answer Key 172 Pluto, was glaubst du eigentlich? ! Komm raus da. Du Tollpatsch! Sieh mal, was du mit unserem Baum ange... Pluto, wir haben Backenhörnchen in unserem Baum. Sind die beiden nicht süß? Pluto, nach alledem, es ist Weihnachten. A comparison of the texts confirms that PUs are stumbling blocks for translators. The cartoon includes two routine formulae, Well, what do you know? And after all, which were both not identified as figurative and, therefore, translated literally without considering the situation. In the first example any expression of surprise would fit (e.g. Das gibt’s doch nicht/ Sieh dir das mal an/ Hast du so was schon gesehn). The second example cannot be understood as nach alledem (‘after all this’) because Mickey had no idea that the chipmunks were in the tree und Pluto had fought with them. A translation as Es ist schließlich/ doch Weihnachten would have been adequate. <?page no="172"?> List of figures and pictures Fig. 1 Word lexemes and PUs p. 17 Fig. 2 Gläser’s phraseological system of Modern English p. 38 Fig. 3 Collocational continuum by Howarth (1998: 28) p. 53 Fig. 4 Koestler’s bisociation model (Koestler 1964: 35) p. 167 ? [1] ? He 2 who 2 can, 2 does. 2 He 2 who 2 cannot, 2 teaches ? (advertisement; found in The Times 3 May 2001) p. 19 [11] Bin and gone (found in The Sun 3 May 2001) p. 49 [12] to boldly go where no man has gone before (found in The Straits Times 20 December 2002) p. 49 [22] to give the/ a thumbs up (found in The Age 12 February 2005) p. 59 [39] to vote with one’s feet (flyer) p. 74 [45] All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy (advertisement; found in The Economist 12 December 1992) pp. 75/ 76 [54] in a nutshell (found in Waterstone’s Guide to University 2003) p. 81 ? [59] ? (you 2 can’t) 2 have 2 your 2 cake 2 and 2 2 it ? (found ? in ? the 2 Sunday Independent 21 March 2004) p. 83 [61] to mind one’s p’s and q’s (found in The Sun 3 May 2001) p. 84 [101] to know one’s onions (advertisement; found in The Daily Telegraph 19 February 2004) p. 93 [119] a dog’s life (advertisement; found in RTÉ Guide 20 December 2002) p. 97 [128] to blow one’s own trumpet (advertisement; found in The Straits Times 18 December 2002) p. 100 [130] No strings/ wires attached (advertisement; found in Newsweek 24 May 2004) p. 101 [131] the shape of things to come (advertisement; found in The Straits Times 16 December 2002) p. 102 [132] to give sb. the finger (advertisement; found in The Guardian TRAVEL 13 August 2005) p. 102 [133] life in the fast lane (Frank and Ernest cartoon) p. 103 [137] to eat one’s words (cartoon by Peter Till; found in the Guardian Weekly 29 April - 5 May 2004) p. 105 [139] ? the glass ceiling (found in The Times 14 March 2006) p. 106 [140] The Netherlandish Proverbs (1610) p. 107 When in Rome (do as the Romans do) (advertisement; found in The Observer 28 September 2003) p. 111 eat <?page no="173"?> List of figures and pictures 174 Let them eat cake (cartoon by Nicola Jennings, found in The Guardian 8 July 1999) p. 112 Goldener Handschlag (Leipziger Volkszeitung 20 February 1997) p. 119 in die Röhre gucken (Focus 19 June 1995) p. 135 passen wie die Faust aufs Auge (Leipziger Volkszeitung 5/ 6 November 2005) p. 149 Abbreviations AmE American English BE British English ELTJ English Language Teaching Journal LDEI Longman Dictionary of English Idioms OALD Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary OED Oxford English Dictionary ODCIE Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English PU phraseological unit SL source language TL target language <?page no="174"?> Sources Bolton, Gavin (1988): Drama as Education, Harlow: Longman. 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Tübingen: Narr. Zouogbo, Jean-Philippe (2003): „Somatische Sprichwörter aus dem Bété im Vergleich mit dem Deutschen und Französischen“. In: Burger, Harald / Häcki Buhofer, Annelies / Gréciano, Gertrud (Hrsg.): Flut von Texten - Vielfalt der Kulturen. Ascona 2001 zur Methodologie und Kulturspezifik der Phraseologie. Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verlag Hohengehren, 289-302. <?page no="188"?> Glossary of linguistic terms ad-hoc construction (also called “nonce formation”): An expression that is coined spontaneously when necessary in a particular situation and that is not used regularly alliteration: A figure of speech involving the repetition of a letter or sound at the beginning of words that are close together or of stressed syllables within such words allusion: Reference to another person, object, event, a work of literature etc. outside the text itself that the reader/ listener is supposed to recognize; often made in an indirect way ambiguity: The state that a word, phrase, or sentence can be interpreted as having multiple meanings anti-proverb ? (also ? called ? “proverb ? parody” ? or ? “proverb ? manipulation”): An ? intentionally changed proverb with a new meaning antonym: A word that means the opposite of another word (e.g. poor and rich) autosemantic word (also called “lexical word” or “content word”): A word that establishes a relation between language and the world by denoting a person or object (noun), an action (verb) or a property (adjective). In contrast to a synsemantic word (also called “function word” or “grammatical word”), which has a languageinternal meaning cataphoric: Referring forward to another unit (in contrast to anaphoric reference, which points backwards) causative: A verb or clause expressing causation. A causative verb expresses that the subject of the verb causes an action to be performed bona fide (Latin: in good faith): Made with earnest intent chiasm/ chiasmus: A figure of speech involving the inversion of the order of elements in the second of two parallel words, phrases or clauses collocation: The frequent and habitual co-occurrence of words in a language. A natural-sounding combination of words, e.g. a hard frost (* a strong frost). Frost can be called the base of the collocation and hard the collocate. compound: A linguistic unit composed of two or more free morphemes, i.e. of elements that can function separately elsewhere, e.g. bedroom, computer freak, roll-call <?page no="189"?> Glossary of linguistic terms 190 connotation/ connotative meaning: The personal or emotional associations aroused by a word or expression in addition to its main meaning. These may involve expressive features, such as the derogatory nature of slum or bluestocking, or stylistic aspects, such as the difference in formality between pass away and be pushing up the daisies cuneiform: An ancient form of writing that used wedge-shaped characters denotation/ denotative (also called “referential meaning” or “cognitive meaning”): The objective relationship between a word or expression and the reality to which it refers determiner: A grammatical element that co-occurs with nouns to express concepts like number, quantity, definiteness/ indefiniteness etc., e.g. the, a, some, my dialect: A regionally restricted language variety durative: Implying duration or continuance euphemism: A vague or indirect word or phrase that is used in place of one that is embarrassing or unpleasant, e.g. pass away for die false friends (also faux amis): Words or expressions that seem similar in two languages, but have different meanings figure of speech (also called “rhetorical/ stylistic device”): A method or technique used to produce a particular effect. A figure of speech may relate to sound (e.g. alliteration), structure (e.g. parallelism) or meaning (e.g. metaphor). filler: Words or phrases that carry little meaning (e.g. you know, sort of) but have a function, for example, that of emphasizing, qualifying meaning or, especially in spontaneous speech, allowing the speaker time to think Hausa: A language spoken in Nigeria, Niger, and nearby areas homophones: Words with the same pronunciation but different meaning hyperbole: A figure of speech involving emphatic exaggeration hyperonym/ hypernym (also called the “superordinate”) A term of more general meaning (e.g. fruit) which includes several categories (hyponyms) (e.g. apple, orange, , banana) inchoative: denoting the beginning of an action or state institutionalisation: When a novel expression (ad-hoc construction) is also used by other members of the language community, it becomes a conventional expression lum p <?page no="190"?> Glossary of linguistic terms 191 intertextuality: The way in which one text refers to another text juxtaposed: Placed in a close specific relationship langue vs. parole: The distinction between a language as an abstract system and the concrete utterances of speakers of the language lexeme: A basic lexical unit which corresponds roughly to the everyday use of the term ‘word’. By convention a lexeme is the form that is used as a headword in dictionaries. The term refers to simple and complex words as well as to phrases (fixed multi-word expressions) lexicography: The theory and practice of dictionary-making lexicology: The systematic study of all aspects of words and vocabularies lexon: See stratificational grammar lingua franca: A language that is widely used by people who do not have a native language in common. For example, Latin in the Middle Ages or English today loan translation (also called “calque”): A word or phraseological unit whose parts are translated literally into a new language; a word-for-word translation metacommunicative: Connected with the function of talking about the use of language in order to guarantee communicative adequacy. The phrase so to speak is a typical metacommunicative signal to introduce a phraseological unit metaphor: A classical figure of speech. A figurative (i.e. non-literal) expression is used to describe somebody or something in terms usually associated with another notion in order to show that the two things have the same features and to make the description more powerful. A metaphor involves a relation of resemblance or analogy, although this is not explicitly stated (i.e. without using the words as or like). metonymy: A classical figure of speech. A word is substituted for another word or expression with which it is closely associated. The sorts of associative relation which support metonymy are varied. They include, for example, PART for WHOLE (pars pro toto - also called “synecdoche”) (e.g. I saw familiar faces), CON- TAINER for CONTAINED ENTITY (e.g. He drank the whole bottle), INSTITUTION for PEOPLE (e.g. The college was upset). morpheme: The smallest unit of linguistic meaning or function, e.g. dog, un-, -s obstruency: The situation in which the windpipe is fully or partly obstructed in the articulation of speech sounds <?page no="191"?> Glossary of linguistic terms 192 onomasiology: The study of words and expressions having similar or associated concepts and a basis for being grouped. An onomasiological approach proceeds from a given meaning and inquires in the forms that are used to express it. (In contrast to semasiology, which starts out from a given form and investigates its meaning) onymic unit: A proper name parallelism: A figure of speech involving the repetition of identical or similar words, phrases, or constructions paremiology: The study of proverbs part of speech (also called “word class”): A traditional class of words (such as noun, verb, adjective, etc.) distinguished according to their grammar and the kind of idea they denote personification: A figure of speech involving the figurative attributing of human qualities to animals, objects, etc. phatic: Used to establish or maintain social contact phrasal verb: A combination of a verb and particle(s) or preposition(s). It forms a single unit of meaning (e.g. put up with = ‘tolerate’) phrasicon: The inventory of idioms and phrases; the set of phraseological units in the lexicon of a language community planned language (also called “auxiliary language” or “artificial language”): A language system which has been deliberately developed according to definite criteria by an individual or a group of individuals for the purpose of making international communication easier, e.g. Esperanto, Basic English pragmatics: The study of meaning in context, especially in situations when what is said is not what is meant proposition: A statement together with its meaning; the description of a state of affairs pun: A form of word-play. Two or more meanings of an expression are activated at the same time to produce a stylistic (especially a humorous) effect. Example: Children really brighten up our life - they never turn off lights! rhyming slang: A two-term phrase is used for a single, everyday word with which it rhymes (e.g. loaf of bread for head). The second constituent of the phrase may be dropped (e.g. Use your loaf.) <?page no="192"?> Glossary of linguistic terms 193 sociolect (also called “social dialect”): A language variety spoken by members of a group motivated by socio-economic status, level of education, ethnicity, age, profession, or gender source language (SL): In translation studies, the language being translated (cf. target language) stratificational grammar: A theory devised by the American linguist S.M. Lamb in the 1960s. It analyses language as a system of several structural layers (‘strata’) with different syntactic rules. Terms ending in the suffix -on (e.g. semon, lexon) designate compositional units; terms ending in -eme (e.g. sememe, lexeme) designate realizational units. Semons, lexons etc. are components of sememes, lexemes etc. Sememes, lexemes etc. realize semons, lexons etc. of the stratum above. The structure of phrases is specified on the lexemic stratum, the structure of clauses and sentences on the sememic stratum. synonym: A word or expression that has the same or nearly the same meaning as another word or expression in the same language syntagm(a): A string of elements forming a unit in syntax syntagmatic: The linear relationship between elements in a word or construction tagmemics: A theory developed in the 1950s by the American linguist K.L. Pike. A tagmeme, which is the central notion in tagmemic analysis, is a grammatical unit that relates a linguistic item’s form and syntactic function target language (TL): In translation studies, the language into which a text is translated (cf. source language) tautology: An unnecessary repetition of the same idea in different words word class: See part of speech <?page no="194"?> Index affix 92 alliteration 25, 28, 44, 45, 65, 145, 189, 190 allusion 11, 18, 37, 46, 49, 50, 75, 78, 79, 91, 92, 94, 95, 98, 104, 106, 108, 138, 141, 163, 189 ambiguity 35, 72, 79, 93, 94, 97, 99, 101, 107, 109, 164, 166, 170, 189 American English 12, 29, 46, 54, 140, 141, 174 anomaly 26, 27, 31, 146 anti-proverb (see proverb parody) 46, 189 Bally, Charles 17 Bible 47, 48, 50, 55, 56, 62, 144, 161, 163 (irreversible) binomials 28, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 55, 56, 63, 64, 138, 139 body parts 58, 62 Book of Common Prayer 27 British English 12, 29, 140, 141, 174 Brueg(h)el, Pieter 107 Carroll, Lewis 134, 155, 170 catchphrase (see winged words) Chafe, Wallace I. 26, 27, 31, 71, 146 chiasm 94, 181 Chinese 58, 63 Chomsky, Noam 31 Churchill, Winston 98, 143 Cockney English 54, 68, 158 Collins COBUILD Idiom Dictionary 8, 43, 60 collocation 22, 28, 37, 52, 53, 56, 67, 68, 157, 189 - restricted collocation 22, 37, 52, 53, 56 colour 56, 57, 62, 69, 160 comic 50, 62 compensation 118, 131, 169 compound 18, 36, 88, 95, 146, 149, 152, 189 connotation 7, 18, 23, 24, 25, 28, 30, 56, 73, 87, 107, 118, 126, 129, 131, 137, 139, 144, 190 context 47, 54, 56, 69, 71, 72, 73, 97, 121, 122, 132, 144, 152, 162, 163, 165, 169, 192 Cooper, William E. 41, 42, 43, 63, 64, 153 corpus 9, 11, 21, 32, 50, 71, 130 co-text 71, 98, 167 Coulmas, Florian 22, 50, 51 Cowie, Anthony P. 9, 11, 16, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 50, 52, 78 Crystal, David 31, 66, 69, 90 Čermák, František 51 denotative meaning 37, 44, 117, 125, 126, 137, 144, 190 Dickens, Charles 54 Dobrovol’skij, Dmitrij 18, 33, 56, 57, 73, 150 Dutch 57 Eco, Umberto 80 equivalence 10, 15, 18, 20, 29, 57, 58, 63, 65, 107, 117-120, 132, 169 Esperanto 12, 39, 192 EUROPHRAS (=European Society for Phraseology Research) 15 <?page no="195"?> Index 196 expansion (of PUs) 92, 93, 95, 99, 104, 162, 164 false friend 10, 22, 57, 120, 190 Fernando, Chitra 17, 22, 23, 26, 52 figure of speech (rhetorical figure) 25, 31, 149, 189, 190, 191 film 7, 8, 50, 53, 79, 80, 91/ 92, 108, 117 Firth, John R. 51 Flavell, Linda 60, 62, 154 Flavell, Roger 17, 27, 60, 62, 154 Fleischer, Wolfgang 9, 37, 68, 147 Földes, Csaba 56 fossilized constituent 28, 39, 44, 146, 152, 164 Fraser, Bruce 26 French 9, 10, 15, 22, 35, 57, 61, 64, 123 gambit 39, 50 German 9, 10, 15, 22, 30, 32, 35, 37, 51, 52, 57, 62, 64, 68, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 135, 144, 147, 154, 158, 168, 169, 170, 171 gesture 58, 89, 101, 161 Gläser, Rosemarie 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 18, 22, 23, 24, 28, 35, 37, 38, 51, 53, 118, 120, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 173 Greek 16, 46, 48, 148 Greek mythology 60, 62 Greene, Graham 79, 85 Grice, H. Paul 114, 168 Hansen, Klaus 9, 17, 140 Hausa 63, 190 Hausmann, Franz Josef 52 Healey, A. 18 Hockett, Charles F. 15, 17, 18, 32, 148, 149 homophony 84, 91, 94, 190 Howarth, Peter 52, 53, 173 humour 20, 23, 49, 53, 54, 85, 92, 95, 103, 104, 109, 113, 161, 162, 163, 166, 168 Hungarian 57, 62 hyperbole 25, 36, 98, 145, 190 hyponymy 40, 104, 190 idiom 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 60, 63, 71, 73, 117, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 169, 170, 192 - kinetic idiom (see also kinegram) 58 Italian 57, 123 Japanese 57, 63 Johnson, Mark 42, 151 joke 52, 71, 103, 113, 114, 165, 166, 167, 168 kinegram 58, 69, 160 King, Stephen 65, 76, 109, 121, 124, 126, 130, 131 Koestler, Arthur 167, 168 Koller, Werner 115, 117, 121, 125, 169 Lakoff, George 42, 56, 151 Latin 46, 57, 95, 96, 189, 191 lexeme 16, 17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 35, 138, 140, 150, 152, 153, 155, 173, h 191 lexicalization 21, 22, 27, 37, 94, 137 Litovkina, Anna T. 46 Lodge, David 31, 65, 66, 80, 85, 86, 88, 89, 109, 122, 123, 125, 126, 128, 131 <?page no="196"?> Index 197 Longman Dictionary of English Idioms (ILDEI) 8, 9, 15, 16, 44, 58 Łabno-Falęcka, Ewa 120 Makkai, Adam 15, 18, 35, 36, 37, 63, 152 Malkiel, Y. 40 mental lexicon 21, 32, 150, 151, 152 metacommunication 50, 81, 87, 88, 89, 99, 156, 161, 191 Mieder, Wolfgang 44, 46, 54, 65, 110, 141, 153, 159 Miller, Arthur 31, 64, 65, 86 Milton, John 27 modification (of PUs) 11, 18, 47, 52, 78, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 104, 109, 110, 117, 122, 144, 162, 163, 164, 165 Momand, Arthur R. 62 Monty Python 20, 25, 85, 104 Moon, Rosamund 16, 18, 28, 33, 50, 71 Naciscione, Anita 15, 98 nomination 8, 37, 38, 39, 55, 138, 139 non-verbal behaviour 58, 104, 107, 160 Norrick, Neal R. 44, 46, 168 Oxford Collocation Dictionary for Students of English 52 Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English (ODCIE) 8, 9, 16, 26, 174 Oxford English Dictionary (OED) 16, 29, 143, 148, 174 paremiology 46, 141, 192 paraphrasal verb 51/ 52, 55 permutation 26, 92, 94, 95, 118 phrasal verb 29, 35, 36, 37, 55, 192 phrasicon 15, 18, 21, 22, 23, 28, 35, 37, 39, 43, 52, 55, 115, 123, 141, 152, 192 Piirainen, Elisabeth 56, 57, 62 Pilz, Klaus-Dieter 16 Polish 57, 62 Prague School 37 proper name 48, 55, 59, 61, 62, 107, 148, 192 proverb 11, 16, 18, 21, 30, 36, 37, 39, 44, 45, 46, 47, 54, 55, 65, 75, 78, 82, 85, 95, 96, 107, 110, 114, 138, 139, 140, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 170, 189, 192 - proverb parody 189 pun 13, 46, 52, 73, 95, 103, 107, 108, 170, 192 - phraseological pun 97, 103, 104, 108, 109, 113, 117, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166 reduction (of phraseological constituents) 94, 95, 138, 164, 167 rhyme 25, 45, 53, 54, 91, 163, 192 rhyming slang 50, 53, 54/ 55, 68, 192 rhythm 25, 96, 170 Roos, Eckhard 35, 38, 39, 40, 50 Ross, John R. 41, 42, 43, 63, 64, 153 routine formula 10, 16, 25, 37, 50, 55, 65, 81, 87, 95, 138, 139, 166, 169, 172 Salinger, Jerome D. 66, 87, 125, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133 Sapir-Worf hypothesis 56, 69, 159 de Saussure, Ferdinand 32, 147, 148 Shakespeare, William 46, 48, 65 <?page no="197"?> Index 198 simile (see also stereotyped comparison) 43, 138 slogan (see winged words) source language 117, 120, 121, 122, 123, 127, 129, 131, 174, 193 Spanish 57, 62 stability 19, 20, 21, 27, 28, 117, 137, 138 STARTREK 49, 95, 96, 155 stereotyped comparison 37, 39, 43, 44, 55, 65, 138 Stevenson, Robert L. 121, 122, 126, 127 Student’s Dictionary of Collocations 52 substitution (of phraseological constituents) 90, 92, 95, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 170 support verb construction (see also paraphrasal verb) 51 synonymy 20, 40, 51, 193 target language 13, 115, 117, 118, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 132, 170, 174, 193 Tolkien, J.R.R. 124 transformational deficiency 26, 27, 145 transformational generative grammar h 31, 145, 146 unique constituent (see fossilized constituent) visualization (of PUs) 105-107 web concordancer 52, 66 wellerism 54, 55, 68, 158, 159 Wilde, Oscar 92 winged words 37, 39, 47, 48, 49, 50, 55, 62, 78, 79, 82, 98, 138, 139, 140, 144 Wyler, Siegfried 56 <?page no="198"?> narr studienbücher Sabine Fiedler English Phraseology A Coursebook narr studienbücher Fiedler English Phraseology This book introduces students of English to one of the most fascinating and at the same time most difficult parts of language: Phraseology. Commonly known as phrases and idioms, phraseological units are fascinating because of their colourful authenticity and the insight they provide into a language community’s culture and history. Due to their frequently unpredictable meanings and their connotations these units are problematic, especially for foreign learners. The book was conceived for university classes as a coursebook with exercises, but it can also be used for self-study. It familiarizes readers with the key concepts in phraseology research and examines the behaviour and functions of phraseological units in discourse. With more than 200 examples drawn from a wide variety of written and spoken sources (including, above all, literary texts, newspapers, advertisements, comics, and films), the book illustrates the significant role that phraseology plays in the English language. ISBN 978-3-8233-6338-5 047807 Stud. Fiedler: 047807 Stud. Fiedler Umschlag 12.07.2007 13: 58 Uhr Seite 1