Cultural Aspects of Translation
1023
2013
978-3-8233-7815-0
978-3-8233-6815-1
Gunter Narr Verlag
María del Mar Rivas Carmona
Dr. María del Carmen Balbuena Torezano
The second issue of the new book series Translation, Text and Interferences gathers a collection of papers dealing with a variety of topics focused on translation issues concerned with cultural issues stretching from ancient times until today. The contributors discuss mostly literary, but also a wide range of technical translations originated in the past and the present, and they include authors and corpora of texts in English, Spanish, German and French. The present collection of articles should serve as a useful platform for current work within the framework of multicultural topics and their application to teaching both undergraduate and graduate University students.
<?page no="0"?> Cultural Aspects of Translation María del Mar Rivas Carmona María del Carmen Balbuena Torezano (Eds.) TRANSLATION, TEXT AND INTERFERENCES 2 <?page no="1"?> Cultural Aspects of Translation <?page no="2"?> edited by Eva Parra-Membrives, Miguel Ángel García Peinado, and Albrecht Classen volume 2 TRANSLATION, TEXT AND INTERFERENCES <?page no="3"?> María del Mar Rivas Carmona María del Carmen Balbuena Torezano (Eds.) Cultural Aspects of Translation <?page no="4"?> Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the internet at http: / / dnb.d-nb.de. © 2013 · Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG Dischingerweg 5 · D-72070 Tübingen Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages unzulässig und strafbar. Das gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. Gedruckt auf säurefreiem und alterungsbeständigem Werkdruckpapier. Internet: http: / / www.narr.de E-Mail: info@narr.de Printed in Germany ISSN 2194-0630 ISBN 978-3-8233-6815-1 <?page no="5"?> Index Introduction............................................................................................... ix Translation and lexicography: Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna (1832-51). A propos the article diccionario Ignacio Ahumada Lara......................................................................................... 1 Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Diego de Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms (1593) María Águeda Moreno Moreno........................................................................... 13 Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen Eduardo José Jacinto García................................................................................. 29 Word-formation and translation in A. de Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805) Marta Torres Martínez........................................................................................ 45 Literature in ancient times: An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides through an analysis of the narrative settings that introduce the battle-speeches David Carmona Centeno..................................................................................... 69 Haggadic episodes in Aljamiado stories. A case from the ‘Poem of Yúçuf‘ Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala................................................................................. 89 The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization Carlos Santos Carretero....................................................................................... 99 <?page no="6"?> vi Literature of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries: The Elegy written in a country churchyard de Thomas Gray traduite en français par Marie-Joseph Chénier Soledad Díaz Alarcón......................................................................................... 113 Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception and Translation into Spanish Ángeles García Calderón................................................................................... 129 The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature: Gilbert White’s Letters translated into Spanish Cristina Huertas Abril...................................................................................... 155 Einige Bemerkungen zur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings durch Hartzenbusch Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez.................................................................... 169 La Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, de Claude-Joseph Dorat, une héroïde basée sur l´œuvre de Mme de Tencin Beatriz Martínez Ojeda.................................................................................... 185 Charles Dickens’s Hard Times: a pragmatic-cognitive approach to its translation into Spanish María del Mar Rivas Carmona........................................................................ 197 The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry: the literary career of Alexander Pope Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero...................................................................... 209 D. Juan de Escóiquiz’s Spanish version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado.............................................. 237 20th century literature: Was ist DDR-Deutsch und wie übersetzt man es? Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm und seiner Übersetzung ins Spanische Sabine Geck...................................................................................................... 257 <?page no="7"?> vii Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth “between cultures” in the translation of the biography of Frida Kahlo Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz............................................................................... 279 The Hybrid New South African Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk and Zakes Mda Compared: Man Bitch (2001/ 2006) versus The Madonna of Excelsior (2002) Juan Miguel Zarandona..................................................................................... 297 Non-literary translation: Corruption crimes and their translation: A contrastive study English-Spanish within the framework of European Union law Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente.......................... 313 Lost or found in translation? To what extent are the translations of scientific, medical and technical texts the key to their dissemination and impact? Bryan J. Robinson.............................................................................................. 333 Intercultural dialogue at hospitals for training interpreters Aurora Ruiz Mezcua......................................................................................... 345 Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle for the teaching and learning of Scientific and Technical Translation Miriam Seghiri Domínguez.............................................................................. 357 Analytic Translation Assessment: Experiment with a Template implemented in Markin María Cristina Toledo Báez.............................................................................. 373 The translation of grammatical metaphor in Europarliamentary opinions Mª Azahara Veroz González............................................................................. 389 <?page no="9"?> Introduction Cultural aspects of translation is the second volume of the series ‘Translation, text and interference‘ devoted to the projection of new insights into the area of translation and interpretation. The first volume of the series tackled the variety of problems faced within literary translation and consisted of a selection of papers originally presented at the eighth Conference on Translation, Text and Interference held in Cracow, Poland, in June 2011. This second volume deals with a wider range of cultural issues affecting the process of translation in different languages, English, Spanish, German, French and Arabic, and contains a selection of papers from the ninth Conference on Translation, Text and Interference held in Trujillo, Spain, in June 2012. This collection of essays provides different approaches to the relations between socio-cultural issues and the process of translation, most especially how these issues are linguistically reflected in the translated texts. In order to grasp the full meaning of the linguistic expressions of the texts involved, translators need to have a well-grounded command not only of the languages in question, but also of the cultural ‘background knowledge‘ (Sperber and Hirschfeld, 2004), common to the users of these languages. In reality, translators should not simply share a single cultural background, but rather a multiple cultural background that allows them to properly transmit contents. The present volume contains three major sections. The first one is devoted to the relation between linguistic and cultural issues as seen from the perspective of lexicography. The second section deals with the linguisticcultural components in the translation of literary texts and is, in turn, divided up into three main headings: literature in ancient times, literature from the 17th to 19th centuries, and literature in the 20th century. Finally, a third section is dedicated to a variety of other settings, types of text and approaches to translation. The lexicography section contains four articles dealing with the cultural and ideological issues affecting the lexical choices in original and translated versions. Ignacio Ahumada Lara’s paper entitled “Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna (1832-51). A propos the article ‘diccionario‘“ focuses on the fact that, although the Spanish contribution to the nineteenth century encyclopedic movement in Europe was scarce, it happened nevertheless through the translation and adaptation of foreign works. The author reviews those elements ideologically related to <?page no="10"?> x Rivas Carmona & Balbuena Torezano the so called neighborhood policy which appear in the Spanish version of the entry ‘dictionario‘ both in Mellado’s Enciclopedia moderna (1832-51) and in Pellissier’s Dictionnaire de la Conversation et de la lecture (1835). In “Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Diego de Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms (1593)“, María Águeda Moreno Moreno argues that in his dictionary Diego de Guadix ‘rationalizes‘ the Arabic component of the Spanish language by means of a ‘perfected‘ language, with the clear intention of prosecuting everything Islamic. To achieve this end and based on the homophonous character of casual similarities, the lexicographer’s translation contains numerous instances of denotative equivalence, with a false etymology, and even establishes supposed relations between Arabic and Hebrew linguistic structures by means of invented concepts. Eduardo José Jacinto García tackles the so-called “principle of authority“ and the relationship among translation, grammar and lexis in the compiling of Spanish dictionaries, in “Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen“. He focuses on the existence of translated texts in these dictionaries and on the role of the translator, as creator of neologisms or introducer of terms in the Spanish language, since translation involves a mediation between languages and cultures. In “Word-formation and translation in A. de Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805)“ Marta Torres Martínez reviews the treatment given to word-formation in the bilingual dictionary by Antonio de Capmany, published in the early 19th century. Nuevo diccionario francésespañol (1805) meant a major change in the orientation of lexicography, since it offered relevant notions on French-to-Spanish and Spanish-to-French translation. Torres Martínez refutes Campmany’s ‘patriotic’ reference to the “endless richness” or “superabundance” of Spanish, if compared to French, for the dictionary includes a not inconsiderable number of words documented for French, in this case generated by processes of lexical creation. The second block, devoted to literary texts, begins with a section dedicated to literature in ancient times. In the first article, “An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides through an analysis of the narrative settings that introduce the battle-speeches“, David Carmona Centeno debates the controversy arousing out of the first Spanish translation of Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War by Diego Gracián de Aldarete (1564). The contributor compares passages of “narrative settings” (opening or closing phrases by the characters inserted into the narrative line) from Gracián’s, Valla’s (1452) and Seyssel’s (1512) versions and concludes that the text is certainly not a replica of the French one, but that Gracián’s translational norms seem to depend on the specific kind of battle exhortation. <?page no="11"?> Introduction xi In “Haggadic episodes in Aljamiado stories. A case from the Poem of Yúçuf‘“ Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala traces the sources back to the potential textual origin of a topos preserved in the ‘Poem of Y suf’. Since the analysis of the Aljamiado fragment does not lead to the identification of a closer Arabic text as the direct source, Monferrer Sala tries to locate the possible Jewish original which served as the primary source for the Arabic text. He concludes that the Aljamiado fragment shows every sign of being the recasting of an earlier Arabic text which, in turn, draws on an earlier Midrashic account from the Haggad h that eventually found its way into the Sefer ha-Yašar. Carlos Santos Carretero’s essay, “The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization“, discusses the digitization process suffered by the most ancient existing biblical texts, the Dead Sea Scrolls. The author sets out debunking sensationalist theories and debating the texts antiquity, content and authorship. He finally assesses the digitization process which has permitted the accessing to the most important archaeological discovery dealing with “religious manuscripts” of the twentieth century. The next section within the literary block is concerned with 17th to 19th century literary texts. In “‘The Elegy written in a country churchyard‘ de Thomas Gray traduite en français par Marie-Joseph Chénier“ Soledad Díaz Alarcón analyses ‘Cimetière de champagne‘, the French version of Thomas Gray’s poem, translated by Marie-Joseph Chénier. According to Díaz Alarcón, Chénier maintains the linguistic and rethorical macrocosm of the original text, preserving the semantic and poetic criteria but not the same verse structure. She considers it a ‘successful’ translation for it achieves: sonority, cadence and musicality by means of the phonetic resources employed, the lexical and rethorical precision and the precise transmission not only of messages but also of emotions and sensations. In “Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception and Translation into Spanish“ Ángeles García Calderón presents a wide display of opinions on Thomson’s work, as well as on Gómez Romero’s 1801 translation, the source text for this version being not Thomson’s work but Mme Bontems’s prose translation of it. In fact, there was a closer relationship between Spain and France than between Spain and England in that period, partly due to the closeness of language; hence the understandable fact that many English works entered Spain through French translations. The paper contributed by Cristina Huertas Abril, “The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature: Gilbert White’s Letters translated into Spanish“, analyses the three translated letters into Spanish from Gilbert White’s Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne. This collection is the only classic work on natural history and is a clear example of the wide thematic diversity covered by eighteenth-century letter-writers. <?page no="12"?> xii Rivas Carmona & Balbuena Torezano Moreover, the texts analysed, with inherently literary and scientific characteristics, were not easy to tackle by the translator because of the specialized terminology and the cultural elements implied. In “Einige Bemerkungenzur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings durch Hartzenbusch“, Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez studies the reception of G.E. Lessing’s prose fables, from the translation by the Spanish Romantic writer Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch (1806-1880). The contributor carries out a structural and semantic analysis of Lessing’s work and concludes that the translation faithfully respects the German source text. The next paper, offered by Beatriz Martínez Ojeda, is entitled “‘La Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère‘, de Claude-Joseph Dorat, une héroïde basée sur l´œuvre de Mme de Tencin“. Mme de Tencin’s ‘Mémoires du Comte de Comminge‘ became a literary phenomenon and was profusely adapted. This is the case of ‘Dorat’s Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère‘, whose first free translation into Spanish was done by D. M. A. de C. in 1803. The author of the paper considers it a paraphrasis because of the recurrent ampifications, omissions and modifications, but admits its merits as a “belle infidèle“. The paper by María del Mar Rivas Carmona entitled “Charles Dickens’s Hard Times: a pragmatic-cognitive approach to its translation into Spanish“ examines a selection of extracts from Charles Dickens’s work and their translation into Spanish by A. Lázaro Ros. The analysis leads to the conclusion that ‘register variation‘ (in terms of idiolectal, dialectal and substandard features), which proves utterly ‘relevant’ in the original extracts under focus, is not preserved in the target version; hence, readers of the translated text may inevitably suffer an impoverishment of contextual effects and, consequently, obtain a flat and simplified impression of the characters. Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero’s “The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry: the literary career of Alexander Pope“ reviews Pope‘s literary career and states that the two great figures that consolidated the professionalization of writing in England were Dryden and Pope, with a line of chronological contiguity between one and the other with common elements. Pope was concerned about the boom that mediocre literature was experiencing, and the false knowledge that it contained. Rosalía Villa Jiménez and Vicente López Folgado’s contribution, “D. Juan de Escóiquiz’s Spanish version of Gray’s “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”“, discusses Escóiquiz’s translation and presents it as a refracted, adapted version, which widely fits into the translation procedures characteristic of the so-called oblique translation. The analysis reveals that the translator attempts to reflect, both through the morphosyntactic level, with the nominal mode prevailing over the verbal mode, and the lexicalsemantic level, with discursive creations, generalisations, misinterpretations and additions, the pensive and melancholy mood of the poem, thus <?page no="13"?> Introduction xiii providing the effect in the reader’s mind of an action slowly flowing from the present to the past and to the future (meditations upon life-deathafterlife). Three papers deal with literature of the 20th century. The first one is Sabine Geck’s “Was ist DDR-Deutsch und wie übersetzt man es? Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm und seiner Übersetzung ins Spanische“. Geck deals with German expressions characteristic of the GDR and their translation into Spanish, bearing in mind both the change of paradigm in literary texts and the Ostalgie of the East Germans who, after German reunification, do not feel fully integrated in the new political and social scenery. Geck analyses the novel Der Turm, by Uwe Tellkamps as a referent. Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz’s contribution entitled “Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth “between cultures” in the translation of the biography of Frida Kahlo“ studies the linguistic reflections of the complex cultural contingencies surrounding author, translator and biographied personality. The culture of the original text differs from that of the object of the story and this causes disparities depending on the place of publication of the biography. Rodríguez Muñoz’s analysis shows the threads to be pulled in order to undo the myth from a critical system which detects the subjective and cultural bias of the first American version of the famous biography. In “The Hybrid New South African Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk (1956- ) and Zakes Mda (1948- ) Compared: Man Bitch (2001/ 2006) versus The Madonna of Excelsior (2002)“ Juan Miguel Zarandona compares visions, perspectives, outlooks and interpretations of two works dealing with the same traumatic past, that of post-apartheid South Africa. Whereas Mda’s The Madonna means future and collective healing, van Wyk’s Man Bitch offers the return of a past of suffering; hence the fact the The Madonna of Excelsior has been so popular, as opposed to van Wyk’s work. The third section of the volume deals with non-literary translation. In the paper contributed by Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis and Ángela Almela Sánchez- Lafuente entitled “Corruption crimes and their translation: A contrastive study English-Spanish within the framework of European Union law“ the authors present a selection of terms, in accordance to the terminology on corrupt practices provided by the Spanish Penal Code, contrasting them with their different English counterparts, as provided by the international and EU documents. To attain this goal, they scrutinize the way in which these terms are stored by the lexical databases WordNet and EuroWordnet. The analysis reveals important problems in the lexical structuring of these databases regarding corruption incriminations, such as the disparate description of semantic relationships or the asymmetries between the <?page no="14"?> xiv Rivas Carmona & Balbuena Torezano meaning of terms in either language that the databases cannot describe or interpret. Bryan J. Robinson’s contribution, “Lost or found in translation? To what extent are the translations of scientific, medical and technical texts the key to their dissemination and impact? “, focuses on an issue that has recently caused concern among Information Science specialists, namely, the ethical question arising from so-called duplicate publications. His main aim is to determine how much language of publication influences any given journal’s impact. For instance, 20% of duplicate publications are translations into another language, which suggests the market for professional translators is growing apace with the publishing boom. Comparisons of publication volume suggest the countries that publish the most, produce the most duplicate publications too. Aurora Ruiz Mezcua analyses the type of work interpreters must carry out in health contexts and the type of training they should receive in “Intercultural dialogue at hospitals for training interpreters“. The author describes the specific formation in interpreters training as related to language, culture and psychology, since it is critical to make students and trainee interpreters aware of all the difficulties which community interpreters might face. Miriam Seghiri’s article “Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle for the teaching and learning of Scientific and Technical Translation“ describes the training of students of the subject “Specialized Translation English/ Spanish, Spanish/ English (Scientific-Technical Texts)” of Translation and Interpreting Studies at the University of Málaga, based on the use of the Moodle Platform, to create their own glossaries through this platform. Terminology management is one of the most important stages in a translation project and, according to Seghiri, online glossaries will not only save time for the students but ensure a consistent style and voice, an accurate rendering of the original text and a level of translation quality that is even throughout. The aim of María Cristina Toledo Báez’s paper, “Analytic Translation Assessment: Experiment wih a Template implemented in Markin“ is to present a template for analytic error assessment, for which the notion of error is basic. This template focuses on negative aspects such as source text related errors (wrong sense, unnecessary addition or inadequate linguistic variation), target text related errors (orthography, grammar, terminology or textual type) and also on positive aspects such as correct terms and appropriate renderings. The main features of the template are: 1) its implementation in the training software Markin, whose main advantage for lecturers is facilitating the tasks of assessing and marking electronic assignments and 2) its adaptation from previous templates. She describes the advantages and proposes lines for future work. <?page no="15"?> Introduction xv Lastly, the paper contributed by Mª Azahara Veroz González, “The translation of grammatical metaphor in Europarliamentary opinions“ tackles the study of ‘grammatical metaphor’ in its ideational variant in the genre of Europarlamentary opinions. The analysis follows the Systemic Functional Grammar perspective (Halliday, 2004), and it is based on a trilingual parallel corpus review (English, French and Spanish). It proves that there is a preference for metaphorical expressions in the three languages under focus which results in an increase of lexical density and grammatical simplification. Curiously enough, the decrease in the use of personal pronouns and modal verbs also endows the ‘opinions’ with impersonality and objectivity. The second issue of the series ‘Translation, Text and Interferences‘ gathers a collection of papers dealing with a variety of topics focused on aspects of translation which are concerned with cultural issues that spans from ancient times until today. The contributors discuss mostly literary, but also a wide range of technical translations originated in the past and the present, and bring into interactive focus the widely varied areas of literary history and criticism, linguistics and methodology. The papers deal with authors and corpora of texts in English, Spanish, German, French and Arabic. Without doubt, the present collection of articles should serve as a useful platform for current work within the framework of multicultural topics and their application to teaching both undergraduate and graduate University students. The Editors María del Mar Rivas Carmona María del Carmen Balbuena Torezano <?page no="17"?> Ignacio Ahumada Lara Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna (1832-51). A propos the article diccionario* 1 Introduction The Spanish contribution to the nineteenth century encyclopedic movement in Europe was scarce as far as originality is concerned, as the really original works of our national bibliography were too few. We regret that none of the projects carried out in this century was brought to fruition 1 . Quite another thing would happen with the translation and adaptation of foreign works. In this line there stand out, above the other, the Enciclopedia moderna, otherwise known as Mellado’s encyclopedia (1851- 1855), the Diccionario universal de la lengua castellana, ciencias y artes: enciclopedia de los conocimientos humanos, otherwise Serrano’s dictionary (1875-1881) and the Diccionario enciclopédico hispano-americano de literatura, ciencias y artes, otherwise Montaner and Simon’s dictionary (1887-1898), all of them projects published in the second half of the century. With respect to the three works above cited and best known in the nineteenth century, we must consider that only Mellado’s Enciclopedia can be ascribed to the encyclopedic genre properly speaking, although the arrangement is alphabetical. The other two correspond to that sort of repertoire we call hybrid encyclopedic dictionary. The length and the encyclopedic treatment of much of its nomenclature have been the cause that led critics to traditionally include Serrano's Diccionario and Montaner and Simon’s Diccionario within the genre of encyclopedias. By adding the world of words to the world of things, of objects, of historical events, geography, etc…, with the purpose of offering the user a more complete lexicographic product, we were persuaded to make a very different classification, strictly speaking, of encyclopedic cataloging. The linking * This article fits well within the frame of those carried out for the project Diccionario bibliográfico de la metalexicografía del español, 2006-2010, a project that has been funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation. National I + D + i (2008-2011). Call 2010. Project no. FF2010-19702. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. Vicente López Folgado, of the University of Córdoba, for the translation of this article into English. 1 Take for example, the Enciclopedia española del siglo diez y nueve (1842-1847) (published last volume no. XII: art-arm). <?page no="18"?> 2 Ignacio Ahumada Lara nexus of these three repertoires puportedly lies in the translation and adaptation of other Spanish culture encyclopedias originally written in French, English or German. I attempt here to review, within the study field of translation, those elements ideologically related to the so called neighborhood policy which appear in the Spanish version of the entry dictionario both in Mellado’s Enciclopedia moderna and in the Dictionnaire de la Conversation et de la lecture (1835); the latter was a reference for the Spanish translators whereas the Encyclopédie moderne (1847-1862) a model for the publisher Francisco de Paula Mellado apparently did not have a monograph on lexicographic repertoires. The conclusions of this last work, it seems evident, could be extrapolated to the Encyclopédie moderne, as our focus on the ideological aspects of policy of neighborhood is laid on two works brewed in France and written originally in French. 2 Encyclopédie moderne (1824-1832) and Dictionnaire de la Conversation (1832-1851) The Encyclopédie moderne, ou dictionnaire abrégé of sciences, des lettres et des arts was first published in Paris between 1824 and 1832 under the direction of Eustache Courtin. The project, of an undoubted success for nearly half a century, sought, from the scientific point of view, to update the data of the two major French encyclopedias of the eighteenth century 2 ; and, in addition, from the commercial point of view, “mettre l’encyclopédie à la portée de toutes les fortunes”. 3 Re-edited in 1843, it was subject to review supplements under the supervision of Léon Renier between 1847 and 1862. 4 It was precisely this second edition the one handled by F. P. Mellado in order to translate it and adapt it to the Spanish culture. As far as the methodology of the work is concerned, I must also mention, in this respect, the external collaboration the Encyclopédie moderne received as a complement to the list of editors appointed for the task. This was quite 2 “Un autre motif non moins puissant a déterminé la publication de cet ouvrage. La marche continuelle et progressive des lumières a rendu plusieurs parties de nos deux grandes Encyclopédies imparfaites, insuffisantes, et presque surannées…“ (Encyclopédie, 1824: I, v-vi), that is, the Encyclopédie (1751-1777) of Jean LeRond D’Alambert and Denis Diderot, on one hand, and the Encyclopédie méthodique (1788- 1832) of the publisher Charles Joseph Panckoucke, on the other. 3 Encyclopédie moderne, vol. I, v. 4 The second edition was published between the years 1847 and 1862 under the direction, as I said, of Léon Renier. When his director moved to Argelia to enter the service of the Ministry of Public Education, he was substituted by Nöel des Vergers at the beginning and later on by Édouard Carteron. <?page no="19"?> Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna 3 apparent because of the explicit mention of Spanish lexicographer Vicente González Arnao made in the preface of the 1824 edition: “Il doit témoigner [E. Courtin] sa gratitude pour les renseignements que, par amour pour les lettres et la philosophie, lui ont été transmis par MM. Arnao, avocat au barreau de Madrid et membre de l’Académie de la histoire de la langue espagnole (sic); Barbier, ancien bibliothécaire du roi de France, Liagno, ancien bibliothécaire…“ 5 V. Gonzalez Arnao lived in Paris as an exile, due to his status as afrancesado (allied to the French), between 1814 and 1831. In all probability he had lexicographical experience, both of linguistic and encyclopedic kind, which would have led him to collaborate externally in the Encyclopédie moderne. To the best of my knowledge, within the scope of encyclopedic lexicography, V. Gonzalez Arnao had played a part in the failed project of the Royal Academy of History, the Diccionario geográfico-histórico de España, of which only the first few volumes were published. On that occasion, he wrote the corresponding part of the Señorío de Vizcaya in the volume Sección I. Comprehende el Reyno de Navarra, Señorío de Vizcaya, y las provincias de Álava and Guipúzcoa (1802). As regards linguistic lexicography, it is worth noting that his abridged edition of the academic Diccionario (1817) was published in Paris in 1826. 6 Gonzalez Arnao’s connections with the Encyclopédie moderne may have had an influence on the choice and adaptation of this encyclopedic work to the Spanish culture and not to any other, at any rate, in spite of the fact that F. P. Mellado‘s had already a printing establishment in Paris; however, he could have chosen the Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture instead, for instance. Both French encyclopedias seem to have acknowledged similar acceptance among the educated Spanish readers, if we take into account the number of copies kept in Spanish public libraries. The Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture had, the same as the Encyclopédie moderne, a deeply revised second edition in only two decades. In this second installment, published between 1853 and 1858, the responsibility of the work was explicitly taken on by the former director in both editions, the Parisian journalist William Duckett, whose purposes were firmly based, as stated in the "Avis" to the first edition, in impartiality, bearing in mind the clear ideological differences that kept apart that type of works in the last two centuries: “Quand nous avons annoncé un livre de bonne foi et d’impartialité, nous n’ignorions pas les obstacles d’exécution que nous rencontrerions, et combien par 5 Encyclopédie moderne, vol. I, xii. 6 V. Gonzaléz Arnao became a member of the Royal Academy of History (1794) and the Spanish Royal Academy (1804). <?page no="20"?> 4 Ignacio Ahumada Lara là nous restreignions nous-mêmes notre cercle d’action. Nous n’en avons pas moins persisté à suivre la voie que seule nous avait paru sage et bonne.“ 7 Both the title and the nomenclature of the encyclopedia are taken from the German tradition, where such type of works (conversations-lexicon) can be seen as a variant of the overall genre of encyclopedias, if they are not a proper encyclopedia in the full extent of the word. 8 3 Enciclopedia moderna (1851-1855) The Enciclopedia moderna is the first encyclopedic project adapted to the Spanish culture that an editor, F. P. Mellado, brought ever to fruition. It should be recognized that there were some examples already in previous decades, but the readers were hardly given but the first few volumes of the work. F. P. Mellado’s strong personality, as often happens when a great project is eventually fulfilled, must have been, no doubt, one of the key factors for its success. F. P. Mellado counted not only with the workshops of his 'printing establishment' to undertake his duties, but he also had founded the newspaper La Estafeta; he had published some occasional narrative or other, and had translated from the French some stories and novels, etc. In sum, he was much more than just the owner of a publishing house: “Desde que concebí el pensamiento de esta publicación, mi primer cuidado fue reunir todas las obras análogas que han salido a la luz en otros países; la última edición de la enciclopedia inglesa, el Diccionario de la conversación del alemán Brockhaus, el Diccionario francés de la conversación y la lectura, el Diccionario enciclopédico universal de Meyer, publicado en alemán, la Enciclopedia moderna de Didot en fin, y cuantas obras pueden tener analogía con la presente, otras tantas he consultado. 9 Una vez examinadas, desde luego me decidí a tomar por base la Enciclopedia de Didot, no solo por ser la mejor sino porque es la más moderna, como que aún no se ha concluido de publicar en París, y porque en esta edición, que es la segunda, se ha aumentado considerablemente y enriquecido con los adelantos de la ciencia hechos hasta el día en todos los ramos“ (Mellado, 1851: vii) 7 See [W. Duckett]: “ [Avis]”, in Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture. Paris 1832, p. 3. 8 There is an express statement by the director of the project, while the adoption of the title speaks strongly in favor of the German thesis: “Nous avons, par l'adoption de ce plan, singulièrement agrandi ouvrages celui des Allemands et anglais that nous servent of modèles“ (in [W. Duckett]: “ [Avis]”, in Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture. Paris 1832, p. 4). 9 It refers to The Encyclopaedia Britannica (7. ª ed., 1830-1842), a Conversations-Lexicon oder kurz gefaßtes Handwörterbuch (4. ª ed., 1814-1819) by F. A. Bockhaus, to the Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture (1832-1851) by W. Duckett, to Grosse Conversations- Lexikon für die gebildeten Stande (1839-1855) by J. Meyer and to Encyclopédie moderne (2. ª ed., 1847-1862) by F. Didot. <?page no="21"?> Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna 5 The resources of his mentor do not end up with the translation and adaptation of the French model, as we shall see, but the group of writers resorts to other repertoires of the time to overcome any possible shortcomings presented by the original work. To this point of departure that steers the course of modern Encyclopedia, we have to count on the additions to the general nomenclatures of those entries that were specifically Spanish, contributed by the most prestigious men of the day: Rafael María Baralt was concerned with everything dealing with philology; Eugenio de Ochoa with literature, Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch with theatre, Tomás Rodríguez Rubí with criticism, Ventura de la Vega with Spanish poetry and poets; Ramón Mesonero Romanos with Madrid; Modesto Lafuente (F. P. Mellado’s brother in law) with History, etc... While the participation of a broad group of scholars is acknowledged in the preface, signed by the editor, the new articles written by this large group of collaborators lacked the signature as was the case with the French version , which makes it impossible for us to identify and assess properly their individual work. Does the translation and adaptation of the article under scrutiny, for example, belong to the Venezuelan scholar based in Spain Rafael María Baralt, whom we know well as a lexicographer: Diccionario matriz de la lengua castellana (Prospecto) (1850), Diccionario de galicismos (1855)… 3.1 The entry diccionario The omission of the entry dictionnaire in the nomenclature of the Encyclopedie moderne can be a cause of surprise, whether in its first edition or Courtin’s (1824-1832) or in the second edition or Renier’s one (1847-1862), when the voice in question (dictionnaire) does form part of the subtitle of the work itself: Dictionnaire abrégé. The decision to include the entry in the Spanish work could have been made either because the responsible for the Philology section or the group of editors or the F. P. Mellado himself believed it necessary to overcome what for them was a major defect of the original French. To improve their work they made use of the repertoire that disputed then the editorial primacy in France, the Dictionnaire de conversation et de la lecture. The entry diccionario transferred with omissions and amplifications to the Enciclopedia moderna had been published in French under the signature of Jean Baptiste Pellissier in 1835 in the Volume 20: “Mr. Pellicier (sic), de cuyo escelente artículo sobre diccionarios inserto en el de la Conversación, que hemos refundido y adicionado, tomamos todas estas noticias, dice que…”. 10 10 See EM, 1852: s. v., col. 1015. It should be borne in mind that J. B. Pellissier, as well as being a playwright, he worked with the team of the sixth edition of the Dictionnaire de la Académie Française (1835) (cf. Querard, 1835, sv). I must also note that for modern <?page no="22"?> 6 Ignacio Ahumada Lara I cannot bring to a close this presentation without noting that having structured J. B. Pellissier his work under two broad headings (a) «Notions historiques» (pp. 469-477) and (b) «Principales conditions d’un bon dictionnaire» (pp. 477-485) far exceeded the benchmark of the time, that is, the Encyclopédie of J. L. d'Alembert and D. Diderot. 11 In the encyclopedia par excelence of the time, the entry dictionary scorns the historical part in order to focus exclusively on the description of the so called dictionary of languages (or words). 12 J. B. Pellissier himself highlights it in the long introduction to the two main sections which I just mentioned: “Et qu’aucun libre jusqu’ici, à ma connaissance, n’a présenté l’historique des vocabulaires. Je vais donc essayer de remplir, sous ce rapport, une partie de la lacune que nous a laissée la science bibliographique“. 13 It seems apparent that the process of adaptation of the original French text is much more appropriate from the historical point of view than from a theoretical point of view, as the collaborator of the Enciclopedia moderna shows. It actually poses for him fewer problems to incorporate news about the history of our dictionaries than to do it about the theoretical principles governing a general dictionary. For J. B. Pellissier one of the blemishes of the Dictionnaire de la langue française lies in the absence of authorities in contrast with the French academicians‘ choice to supply their own examples which illustrate each of the word meanings. Our general lexicography, save notable exceptions, is characterised both by the absence of the authorities and by the examples provided in it. No further comments can be made on one of the most crucial issues of lexicographical theory. 3.2 Neighborhood policy Not always can neighborly relations between nations be considered to be the best, at any rate. Sometimes the concrete historical or political circumstances are not even relevant in order to understand certain attitudes; simple neighborhood relations are valid enough with regards to positions contrary to the principle of objectivity; and the code of good practices that must quotations of the Enciclopedia moderna we employ the acronym EM, and since this is actually a long article (12 pages in 22 columns) I also indicate the number of the column for the sake of an easier location. 11 I am concerned with the strictly meta-lexicographical aspects between the original French and the Spanish translation-adaptation of my work: “Traducción lingüística y traducción cultural: meta-lexicografía del español en la Enciclopedia moderna (1852)” (in press). 12 “On peut distinguer trois sortes de dictionnaires: dictionnaires de langues [de mots], dictionnaires historiques [de faits] et dictionnaires de sciences & d’arts [de choses] ” (Encyclopédie, 1755, s. v.). 13 Cf. J.B. Pellissier: Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, xx, Paris, 1835, p. 469a. <?page no="23"?> Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna 7 govern all scientific procedures should be generated by a feeling of identity, be it either individual or collective. In the present case, I refer to the translator’s atavistic silence in the face of the supposedly subjective assessment of a particular text dealing with the excellence of a project, an author or a country. Going from the particular to the general, it not surprising that the translator, in order to achieve a fluid, universal discourse, should omit or generalize references to the French language: “ Des langues en général, et en particulier de la nôtre” (480a) > “ Esencial de todas las lenguas” (col. 998), “ Les bases sur lesquelles doit reposer aujourd’hui un bon dictionnaire français” (478a) > “ Sin embargo debemos confesar que las bases sobre que hoy debe descansar un buen diccionario son muy amplias” (col. 1012), “ Ce n’est pas la généalogie du mot français, c’est son origine immédiate qu’il est essentiel de donner dans un dictionnaire français” (480a) > “ No es la genealogía de las palabras, sino su origen inmediato lo que conviene dar en un diccionario (col. 1014); o bien la especificación: “ Il n’existe pas dans notre langage deux mots qui puissent en toute occasion être substitués indifféremment l’un a l’autre (482b) > “ En la lengua francesa” (col. 1018). In the case of omissions such phenomenon can be produced either by the sheer lack of cultural reality to which the text makes reference or by what we call neighborhood policy. In the first case: “On en composa [dictionnaires] de tout genre, non seulement pour toutes les langues, et même pour des idiomes populaires, mais encore sur toutes les matières les plus graves et les plus futiles. La fable y l’histoire, les mœurs y le théâtre, les voyages et le romans, la morale et les quolibets, les précieuses et les halles“ 14 “Se han compuesto diccionarios no sola para las lenguas y aun los idiomas populares, sino también sobre las materias así graves como frívolas: la fábula y la historia, las costumbres y el teatro, los viages y las novelas, la moral, etc.“ 15 The numerical and typological wealth of contemporary French dictionaries are comparately superior, in my opinion, to other lexicographical work in the neighboring countries, and not just to Spanish lexicography 16 , which, though abundant in dictionaries of proverbs and sayings since the dawn of Renaissance humanism, repertoires of jokes, ironic phrases, etc. (quolibets) are practically unknown; for instance, the repertoire published by Antoine Oudin in 1660: Curiosités françaises pour supplément aux dictionnaires, ou recueil de plusieurs belles propriétés, avec une infinité de proverbes 14 Cf. J.B. Pellissier: Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, xx, Paris, 1835, p. 469a. 15 Cf. EM, 1852, s. v. col. 998. 16 In the re-elaboration of this article that J. B. Pellissier himself one year later in the Bulletin du Bibliophile we can notice a sample of the diversity of lexicons to which he refers in that work (cf. Pellissier, 1836, 121, n. 1). <?page no="24"?> 8 Ignacio Ahumada Lara et de quolibets, pour l'explication de toutes sortes de livres. 17 The same could be said about the dictionnaires des précieuses. 18 In the case of the dictionary of the markets (halles), the same text J. B. Pellissier would have suffice to maintain it in the enumeration, as he would be referring to it in the next pages: “Así es que desde su aparición la obra de la Academia llegó a ser el blanco de numerosas críticas, siendo la más ingeniosa y mordaz de todas, la de haber estraído de ella las maneras de hablar populares y proverbiales, y publicarlas en 1696 bajo el título de Diccionario de los mercados. La Academia no respondió, en lo cual hizo bien“. 19 Let us look now at some cases of the so-called neighborhood policy: first, with respect to the French nation, and, in the last instance, with respect to the Portuguese lexicography. When dealing with the classification and management of meanings, J. B. Pellissier gathers in his article the two ideas which were much debated at the time about the synonymy in languages. On the one hand, the traditional view, according to which the abundance of synonyms was considered the first quality of a language; on the other, the rationalistic position, spread out primarily ever since the publication of the Encyclopédie, i.e. that which supported the linguistic accuracy as the expression of ideas, since the language must be linked to thought: hence the need to promote the identity between the world of ideas and the linguistic expression: “Sans doute comme l’a judicieusement remarque d’Alembert, il n’existe pas dans notre langage deux mots qui puissent en toute occasion être substitues indifféremment l’un à l’autre: deux mots absolument synonymes seraient un défaut dans une langue“ 20 Such acknowledgement of rationalistic arguments on the part of J. B. Pellissier does not prevent him from making concessions to a more traditional posture and from showing his satisfaction for the wealth of synonyms and resembling words that ornate the French language: “Ainsi, toutes les fois que l’on n’a besoin que du sens général, et que par la nature du sujet on n’a pas à exprimer ces nuances, chacun des synonymes peut être 17 Cf. Pellissier, 1836, 121, n. 1. 18 Saumaiserais (sic) (1660): Le dictionnaire des précieuses, ou la clef de la langue des ruelles, Paris (cf. Pellissier, 1836, 121, n. 1). I could only find a second edition: Baudeau, A., sieur de Somaize, Le grand dictionnaire des prétieuses (sic), ou la clef de la langue des ruelles, 2 e , ed. Paris. 19 Cf. EM, 1852, s. v., col. 1007. Artaud (1696): Dictionnaire de halles, Bruxelles (Pellissier, 1836, 133, n. 5). I must note that sometimes A. Furetiere can also be found as the author of this critique of the Dictionnaire de l’Académie Française. 20 Cf. Pellissier, 1835, 482b. <?page no="25"?> Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna 9 indifféremment employé: compris de la sorte, ils sont très nombreux dans la langue française“ 21 And it is here where the Spanish translator, paying no attention to the neighborhood policy, silences the virtues of the French language. We might think that the suppression of the paragraph should to owed to a signal of the translator’s adherence to the most original, popular trend, even in Spain, but, in view of other comments made by the author, it seems improbable that his reaction was such. 22 When J. B. Pellissier deals with the gallicisms, he adds his own comments: “Sobre este punto sería de desear que ya que se han importado en España tantos galicismos, cuyo uso nada justifica, siendo como es el idioma de Cervantes el más rico y abundante de cuantos se hablan en Europa, no hallasen cabida en los diccionarios donde solo deben tenerla los que racionalmente sean admisibles y cuya introducción pueda disculpar una absoluta necesidad“ 23 As for the neighboring country, Portugal, the attitude of the translator becomes much stingier, if that be possible. In his work J. B. Pellissier seems to us a staunch supporter of the general dictionaries of the language based on authorities ( “ a dictionnaire sans citations is a squelette“, according to Voltaire). The Real Academy of Sciences of Lisbon had initiated in 1793 the publication of the Diccionario da lingoa portugueza, a project of excellence of which only the first volume was regrettably to be published (letter A). For the French author the repertoire is exemplary in every respect and not simply for fostering his definitions with authorities (abonaçoes). The extolling of that work reaches such height that for him all nations and all languages should take it as a reference for the writing of their own dictionaries. For the Spanish translator the project did not seem to enjoy such excellence when it actually omits the last remarks by J. B. Pellissier: “En fin, j’indiquerai, en Portugal, l’admirable dictionnaire si heureusement commencé par l’Académie Royale des Sciences de Lisbonne, et, bien qu’il n’eu ait paru que la lettre A, formant un vol in-fol. de 543 pages à 2 colonnes, publié en 1793, l’éminente supériorité de cet essai doit le faire regarder comme un vrai modèle digne de servir désormais de type à toutes les nations et pour toutes les langues“ 24 21 Cf. Pellissier, 1835, 482b. 22 The first Spanish authors of dictionaries of synonymous, Manuel Dendo (1757), José López of Garden (1789) and Santiago Jonama (1806) shared the rationalist position: “la abundancia de sinónimos es contraria a la riqueza de la lengua” (Lázaro, 1985, p. 107); not in vain had they imported the model of dictionary of synonymous from the neighboring country, where the tradition commences, according to my information, round the middle of the 16th century. 23 Cf. EM, 1852, s. v., col. 1018 [my italics: IA.]. 24 Cf. Pellissier, 1835 , s. v., 476b. <?page no="26"?> 10 Ignacio Ahumada Lara “En fin, los portugueses tienen el admirable diccionario tan felizmente comenzado por la Academia Real de Ciencias de Lisboa, y aunque hasta ahora solo han publicado algunos tomos, la eminente superioridad de este ensayo basta para que se le considere como un verdadero modelo digno de ser imitado por otras naciones “ 25 In no case did the Spanish dictionaries, scarcely mentioned by J. B. Pellissier, receive such an appreciative comment, even if, as is well known, the lexicographical production of Spanish is far more abundant than that of the Portuguese. We might think that the French scholar had only scanty, shallow knowledge of it and that the Portuguese lexicography would no doubt be nearer to him. We lack the necessary information that would lead us to think of it as a bad neighborhood policy. Nevertheless, I cannot help pointing to what the most recent critique has found, which actually seems quite paradoxical, about the sources of which the three editors of the Dictionary da lingoa portugueza had made avail. “Sabemos que, en Madrid, la Academia Española redujo en 1780 a un volumen los 6 volúmenes del llamado diccionario de autoridades modernizando una parte de las entradas y microestructuras. El concepto de la Academia Portuguesa era por completo diferente: los redactores acumularon citas de forma desmesurada y cuando no encontraron las palabras en textos recurrieron a diccionarios anticuados y tradujeron entradas enteras de la Encyclopédie française sin indicar esta fuente“ 26 The research carried out by Prof. Messner, of Salzburg University, Austria, on the metalinguistic sources of the Portuguese work has gone still further when he demonstrated that one of such sources was the Diccionario, as J. B. Pellissier suggested, “ de l'Académie de Madrid”, which has been followed so closely that some of its definitions have been translated literally (ala, alcançadura and algo). 27 4 Conclusion As a whole, France (J.B. Pellissier) refuses to give a more ample coverage to the lexicography of Spanish in the context of Europe. Antonio de Nebrija, Sebastián de Covarrubias and "l'Académie de Madrid" with Autoridades appear only as a reference, therefore the author does not devote further commentaries to them, unless Autoridades takes the Crusca as a model. Does this mean a lexicographic ignorance of our past? We cannot discard this possibility, insofar as the Italian lexicography (Vocabolario della Crusca) received severe critiques for disdaining Ariosto and Tasso as authorities, for 25 Cf. EM, 1852, s. v., col. 1010 [my italics: IA]. 26 Cf. D. Messner: “El Dicionário dos dicionários portugueses”, in El diccionario como puente entre las lenguas y culturas del mundo. Alicante 2008, p. 36. 27 Cf. Messner, 2008, p. 36. <?page no="27"?> Translation and Ideology: neighborhood policy in the Enciclopedia moderna 11 regarding only le tre corone as referents and for completely ignoring etymology. Rather in the same way, it is concerned with some German and Swedish dictionaries. The excellence is recognized with special emphasis, apart from Greco- Latin and French lexicography, for Samuel Johnson’s English Dictionary of 1755, as well as for Diccionario da lingoa portugueza of 1793. In actual fact, the structuring J. B. Pellissier does of the article “diccionario“ narrowly follows the usual procedure in a European encyclopedia: paying close attention to common lexicography (Greek and Latin) and national one (French). Spain (the anonymous translator), firmly believing that the first quality of a language is the abundance of synonyms, simply omits J. B. Pellissier’s assessment on the richness of the French language in similar voices. The omission is reinforced, as we have seen, by highlighting the Spanish language as the richest and more abundant of those spoken in Europe. France (J.B. Pellissier), in addition to mentioning the Diccionario da lingua portugueza of Rafael Bluteau published in Coimbra, exceedingly extols that of the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, when his literary integrity, which, of course, J. B. Pellissier did not know, was held in doubt for failing to mention the Encyclopédie française and the Diccionario of the Royal Spanish Academy, among others. In sum, author and translator, alongside with Lisbon Academy of Sciences, boast of a good neighbor policy between languages and cultures of common origins, similar in their development and with clearly related literary influences. References Anonymous: “Diccionario”, in Enciclopedia moderna , xiii, Madrid 1852, cols, 997-1020. Anonymous: “Enciclopedia”, in Enciclopedia moderna , xvi, Madrid 1852, cols. 333-342. Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture , Paris 1832-1851, 68 vol., dont 16 supl. Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture. Inventaire raisonné des notions générales les plus indispensables à tous, par une Société de savants et de gens de lettres sous al direction de M. W. Dickett, 2e. éd., Paris 1853-1858, 16 vol. [William Duckett]: “[Avis]”, in Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, Paris 1832, pp. 1-4. William Duckett: “Avis place en tète de la première édition (1832)”, in Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, Paris 1853, pp. i-iv. Enciclopedia moderna. Diccionario universal de literatura, ciencias, artes, agricultura, industria y comercio, Madrid [Establecimiento Tipográfico de Mellado] 1851-1865, 34 tomos, 3 de atlas, 3 de complementos. Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences des arts et des métiers, par une Société des Gens des Lettres. Mis in ordre et publié par M. Diderot de l’Académie Royale des Sciences et des Belles Lettres de Prusse; et quant à la partie Mathématique par M. <?page no="28"?> 12 Ignacio Ahumada Lara D’Alembert, de la Académie Royale des Sciences de Paris, de celle de Prusse, et de la Société Royale de Londres, à Paris 1751-1777, 33 vols. Encyclopédie moderne, ou Dictionnaire abrégé des sciences, des lettres, des arts , par M. Courtin et par une Société de gens de lettres, Paris 1824-1832, 26 vol., dont 2 de planches. Encyclopédie moderne. Dictionnaire abrégé des sciences, des lettres, des arts, de l’industrie, de l’agriculture et du commerce, nouvelle édition, entièrement refondue et augmentée de près du double, publiée par MM. Firmin Didot frères, sous la direction de M. Léon Renier [Nöel des Vergers/ Édouard Carteron], Paris 1847-1862, 44 vol., dont 12 de compl. et 5 de atlas. Vicente González Arnao: Diccionario de la Academia Española, edición abreviada, Paris 1826, 2 vol.. Franz Josef Hausmann: “Pour une histoire de la métalexicographie”, in Hausmann, F.-J./ Reichmann, O./ Weigand, H.-E./ Zgusta. L (ed.), Wörterbücher. Dictionaries. Dictionnaires. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Lexicographie. An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. Encyclopédie internationale de lexicographie , I, Berlin- New York 1989, pp. 216-224. Fernando Lázaro Carreter: Las ideas lingüísticas en España durante el siglo xviii, Barcelona 1985. Dirk Messner: “El Dicionário dos dicionários portugueses”, in El diccionario como puente entre las lenguas y culturas del mundo. Actas del II Congreso Internacional de Lexicografía Hispánica, Alicante 2008, pp. 33-38. Jean Baptiste Pellissier: “Dictionnaire”, in Dictionnaire de la conversation et de la lecture, xx, Paris 1835, pp. 468b-485a. Jean Baptiste Pellissier: “Recherches sur les anciens lexiques, suivies de considérations sur les principaux moyens d’améliorer les nouveaux dictionnaires. Première partie: Des anciens lexiques et des principaux vocabulaires modernes”, in Bulletin du Bibliophile, 4 (2.ª série), 1836, pp. 119-138. Josef Marie Quérard: La France littéraire, ou dictionnaire bibliographique des savants, historiens et gens de lettres de la France , vii, Paris 1835. <?page no="29"?> María Águeda Moreno Moreno Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Diego de Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms (1593) 1 1 Introduction The mass baptism without neither instruction nor catechization developed in the city of Granada between the years 1499 and 1500 (Carrasco 2007) not only suggests a decisive and intransigent turn of political determination toward a narrow dogmatism, but also constitutes the end of a political, social, cultural and religious period. The beginning of a new era is settled with the expulsion of the Moorish in 1609. The vehement wish for the indoctrination and instruction of the first years, will soon lead to the aggressive attitude of Christianism. Thus, what in the first moment is understood as an instructive attitude on the part of the Church, that had become an instrumentum regni 2 in favor of the encouragement and strengthening of the emerging national feeling in its attempt to achieve the regional and religious unity, will conduct to opposite attitudes to this method of evangelizing. The political approaches change with the presence of Cardinal Cisneros and the primary wish of this religious state will be conversion. The political instrument to achieve that unity was the Holy Office of the Inquisition. Therefore, the first method to attract all the tax vassals of the Crown to the Catholic faith favored beyond the evangelizing dominant character of its first years, the pedagogical values. As a consequence, the spread of the Catholic religion brought about a philological activity in the hands of the mendicant orders. The power of the circumstances turned the religious into improvised authors of grammars and dictionaries. The praxis of the 1 This article can be classed among those undertaken for the research project Diccionario bibliográfico de la metalexicografía del español, 2006-2010; this project has been granted a subsidy by the Ministry of Science and Innovation. Plan Nacional de I+D+I (2008- 2011). Convocatoria 2010. Proyecto núm. FFI2010-19702. I have to thank Ana Maria Martínez Sánchez, Universidad de Oriente, Cuba, for her translation of this article into English with the consultancy of Malena Estrada. 2 Since 1493 several papal bulls in charge of Alexander VI, Julius II and León X, specially the Universalis Ecclesiae (1508) had allowed the kings of Castile the authority to establish and organize the Church, present candidates to the seats and collect and spend the ecclesiastical tithes (Vega 2006). Some years later, in 1522 the bull Omnimoda of Adriano VI empowered the monks to assume pastoral and sacramental tasks that were usually in the power of the secular clergy. <?page no="30"?> 14 María Águeda Moreno Moreno Christianization settles its basis on the very limits of the New Testament. Some precise methods like the evangelical preaching and the administration of the Sacraments were established within the Hispanic-Arabic world and they would be done in the “ common and perceptible language of the natives of the country“. 3 So it seems that the evangelization is encouraged from the beginning by the Spirit of Pentecost. 4 The great promoter of this pastoral task will be the first Archbishop of Granada, fr. Hernando de Talavera, who will found the Arabic-Catequist School of Granada, with the purpose of teaching Arabic for the preaching of the religious people that would drive the Moorish to know the doctrine from the very Arabic language: “que los que sabéis leer, tengáis todos libros en arábigo de las oraciones y salmos que vos serán dados”. 5 Hence, the linguistic work is to be born under the indoctrination of the new converts in these first years of the sixteenth century (Framiñán 2005) with a conciliatory spirit. The most incipient example is the publication in Granada in 1505 of the Arte para ligerame[n]te saber la Le[n]gua Arábiga and the Vocabulista arábigo en letra castellana by fr. Pedro de Alcalá. That is, Arabic grammar in 38 chapters and the catequism of the Christian doctrine and a lexico-graphical Hispano-Arabic corpus. In spite of the linguistic nature of the works, Alcalá gives a great importance to the benefit of the religious part. Thus, he highlights, referring to his Vocabulista, that the work is: “crecido provecho a los próximos, y non menos a los nueuos conuertidos a nuestra sancta fe católica que a los viejos cristianos, que tanta necesidad tienen de ser predicadores y maestros dellos. Ca así como los aljamiados (o cristianos viejos) pueden por esta obra saber el arauia, vieniendo del romance al arauia, así los 3 Francisco Cañes (o.f.m.): Diccionario español-latino-arábigo. Madrid 1787, prol. 4 In a historical period greatly influenced by the Christian law, the attitude and regal mood intends faithfully to follow the commandments of God: “It is written in the Law”-“the Apostle to the gentiles tells us” (1 Corinthians 14: 21) : “for with stammering lips and another tongue I will speak to this people” (Isaiah 28: 11-12). “Cretans and Arabs- we hear them speaking in our own tongues the wonderful works of God”(The Acts of the Apostles 2: 11). Undoubtedly, in this practice was evident the restoration of the unity lost in Babel, by the fact of speaking in tongues, the wonderful work of the universal mission of the apostles. Consequently, during this period is developed an interest in the unfaithful subjects and in the learning of the Eastern languages. The Apostle had aroused an evangelizing passion of ecumenical character: “I wish you all spoke with tongues […] therefore tongues are for a sign, not to those who believe but to unbelievers(1 Corinthians 14: 5, 22). 5 Íd.: Instrucción del Arzobispo de Granada en respuesta a cierta petición que hicieron los vecinos del Albaicín sobre lo que debían hacer y las prácticas cristianas que debían observar. ca. 1500. Quotation from Tarsicio de Azcona: Isabel la Católica. Madrid 1964, 763. <?page no="31"?> Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms 15 arauigos (o nuevos cristianos), sabiendo leer la letra castellana, tomando primero el arauia, ligeramente pueden venir en conocimiento del aljamía.“ 6 Nevertheless, as we have already said, this attitude will be compulsorily abandoned by more vehement stances specifically directed at refuting the Islamism. 2 Arabisms: Etymology and Translation With the change of the political and religious attitude, the resources for the indoctrination will also change, having a direct and immediate result in the linguistic work. The etymological studies and translation will now be instruments of exegesis to collaborate with the pastoral work, since these methods will be headed to establish an objective argument based in the natural logic to refute and challenge Islamism. The etymology makes its way not only as a methodology of the linguistic research that intends to guarantee the adjustment of the reasoning in the significant analysis of the words, to provide an educated and normative model of the Spanish and a major significance to the dark words (Moreno 2004), but it also goes further: the etymology is used as legitimate instrument to validate the dignity, prestige and credit of the common tongue and, consequently, the authority, power and legitimacy of the new Spanish state. That is why, in this period, the religious devoted to the work of indoctrination will not only take care of doing readers and catechisms to instruct the new converts in the new faith, but also, taking on the responsibility of the matter from the point of view of the etymological methodology and in the framework of translation, they start, from a field of linguistic analysis, to value the Arabic lexical component of Spanish (Moreno 2006). 7 Undoubtedly, this attitude can be amazing to a great extent, considering that this was a society ruled and structured from religion, defined from the Christian faith, and with an interest to eliminate any possibility of fracture 6 Pedro de Alcalá: Vocabulista arábigo. Granada 1505, p. 100. 7 From the point of view of the history of the language, authorities in the matter like Nebrija in his Gramática castallana (1492) and Valdés in his Diálogo de la lengua (1536), also showed the different points of view regarding the case of the Arabisms (Fórneas 1990, 127-155). In the same way: “siguiendo el trabajo de investigación que realiza Gloria Guerrero Ramos (1988: 873-890) sobre el componente árabe del léxico que recoge Nebrija, se hallan 157 arabismos, tanto en el Diccionario (1492) como en el Vocabulario (¿1495? ); así mismo, en el Diccionario se recogen 9 más que no recoge el Vocabulario; y por su parte, el Vocabulario recoge 95, no registrados en 1492. Todo hace un total de 121 voces de origen árabe. Por otra parte, hemos revisado la obra de Valdés encontrado una relación de 27 voces arábigas, identificadas como tales al amparo de justificaciones fonéticas.” (Moreno 2006, 1179, n. 7). <?page no="32"?> 16 María Águeda Moreno Moreno and division in the unity of the faith that proposed the methodical and planned elimination of the Arabisms that were still present in the Spanish language. The ideas of Martín de Viciana in his work Alabanzas de las lenguas hebrea, griega, latina, castellana y valenciana (1574), to whom the Spanish vocabulary of Arabic origin is reason enough to not consider the Spanish language as one worthy to be included in the catalogue of the educated languages, 8 were a clear example of this. Nevertheless, the approach to the study of the Arabisms does not imply that this resistance was overcoming the threshold of tolerance, on the contrary, it will be another strategy in which, from this perspective, and by means of the linguistic device of the lexicographical study, the preeminence of the Christian faith is secured. From an etymological analysis, a theoretical and ideological dimension about the origin of the language with a religious background is shown: the origin was in God, the absolute and universal Truth, judgment of reason and rule of behavior, and, therefore, the judgment of the formal and semantic dimension of the languages had been given by Him and it was settled on the Bible. That is why, from the beginning, the lexical studies about the origin of the words in Spanish, will have, “ la necesidad urgente de encontrar una lengua vehicular que restaure sus fracturas lingüísticas.“ 9 These fractures deeply affected the space of the formal content and the semantic interpretation. Hence, the etymological lexicography in these periods settles their foundations in the principle of translation of the languages and in the development of metalinguistic formulas that help the lexicographer to connect two languages. The formulas are given and acknowledged as information of etymological and/ or lexicographical value. 8 The words of Viciana that validate this thought are evident: : “es lástima ver, que en la lengua castellana cuya tanta mixtura de términos, y nombres del Arábigo y á les venido por la mucha comunicación, que por muchos años han tenido en guerra, y en paz con los Agarenos. Y hanse descuidado los castellanos, desando perder los propios, y naturales vocablos, tomando los extraños: y desto rescibe la noble lengua castellana no poco, sino muy grande perjuicio, en consentir, que de la más de cevil y abatida lengua arábiga tome vocablo, ni nombre alguno, pues en Castilla hay millares de Varones sabios, que en lugar de los arábigos podrían hallar vocablos propios á cualquier cosa, en demás teniendo la lengua latina.” (I quote by Bahner 1966, 80). Unfortunately, this will not be an isolated judgment since the Portuguese humanist Gandavos holds responsible the Spanish language for “el haber adoptado, en su propio perjuicio, palabras árabes, colocándose así por debajo de la portuguesa.” (Íd.: 81, n. 15. Some years were needed so that the Portuguese Duarte Nunes de Le-o leaves us in his work Origin of the Portuguese Language a list of two hundred seven Arabisms preserved in the Portuguese language (Fórneas 1990, pp. 140-141). 9 Humberto Eco: La búsqueda de la lengua perfecta. Barcelona 1999, p. 238. <?page no="33"?> Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms 17 In this way, in the ends of the sixteenth century an important field of research for the Spanish vocabulary that extends to the present day is started: the studies of the Spanish Arabism: “[La] necesidad de entender el árabe para descifrar el origen de muchas voces españolas ”. 10 That made this task come especially from the hands of translators and interpreters of the Arabic Language (Vega 1996/ 97 and Lépinette-Melero 2003). So, two religious men can be found among the most prominent pioneers and interpreters of the Arabic language in the Holy Office of the Inquisition in Granada: Francisco López Tamarid; Major Rationer of the Cathedral of Granada, and Diego de Guadix, Franciscan of the Order of Minors in the province of Granada. Tamarid will publish in 1585 a Compendio de algunos vocablos arábigos introduzidos en la lengua castellana, as a list of words that were added to the edition of Vocabulary of Nebrija (Granada 1585). This is just a list of words that have been charged an Arabic origin, but that have never been justified with an etymology. 11 Diego de Guadix will make up an etymological dictionary of Arabisms that appears with license for its printing in Rome in 1593 .The title page was: Recopilación de algunos nombres arábigos 12 and the title of the lexical corpus: Interpretación de los nombres arábigos arriba dichos. Recogidos y declarados por fray Diego de Guadix, de la orden de Sant Francisco y de la provincia de Granada. Intérprete de la lengua arábiga en el sancto officio de la Inquisición de la ciudad de Granada y su Reyno. The work turns out to be interesting not only for being a dictionary of outstanding importance regarding everything previously done in the lexicographical field 13 but also, 10 Francisco Cañes (o.f.m.): Diccionario español-latino-arábigo. Madrid 1787, t. I , section V , p. XXVI . 11 “El listado de voces muestra un total de 528 arabismos de léxico general, en el que se incluye una selección de «Nombres arábigos usados en el reino de Murcia» y otra de «Nombres arábigos en Portugal», más un total de 75 voces relativas a la toponimia y oronimia española. No cabe duda de que el autor entendió su obra como una breve y sumaria exposición de arabismos, con la precisión y brevedad propias del compendio, de ahí, su título y el hecho de que en su mayoría estos vocablos aparezcan alfabetizados sin ningún tipo de comentario.” (Moreno 2006: 1182). 12 Recopilación de algunos nombres arábigos, que los moros o árabes en España, Francia y Italia, y islas del mar Mediterráneo, y en otras muchas partes del mundo pusieron a algunas ciudades, villas, castillos, islas, montes, torres, ríos, puentes, valles, fuentes, puertas de ciudades: con a lgunos vocablos y verbos arábigos y frases o maneras de hablar de árabes, de que comúnmente se usa en las lenguas latina, española y italiana. Recogidos y declarados por fray Diego de Guadix de la orden de Sant Francisco y de la provincia de Granada. Intérprete de la lengua arábiga en el sancto oficio de la Inquisición de la ciudad de Granada y su reino (f. 3r). Ms. 59-1-24 from the Biblioteca Colombina of Sevilla. Study and Edition by M.ª Águeda Moreno Moreno, Jaén 2007. 13 The macrostructure of the dictionary of Guadix, in which a total of 4 336 entries are gathered, plus a total of 2 874 internal words described that increase the total corpus of <?page no="34"?> 18 María Águeda Moreno Moreno and closely related to what has been said, Guadix, the author of the Diccionario de arabismos puts clearly into practice two new and complementary tools in favor of the evangelization: etymology and translation. 3 Etymology as a process of hermeneutic: The Diccionario de arabismos of D. Guadix (1593) The figure of Diego de Guadix will be decisive to know the approaches and resources available in the Church for its pastoral labor in the final years of the sixteenth century. The human resource comes from these religious, translators and interpreters of the Arabic language. The etymology offers the methodology and the theoretical approach in which the basis of their religious reason is settled, that, being no other, is the defense of a unique and true faith: the Christian one; and the rejection of Islam. They are not lexicographers, they are religious and translators. 14 The capacity and flair for the right development of the lexicographical activity, as well as the sufficiency and suitability to work and act as an etymologist comes from his condition of translator and interpreter and from the principle of the absolute and/ or universal translation of the languages. So, with a theological and pari-mutuel vision of the history of humanity a hermeneutic development is carried out, which allows to express and guarantee the universalization of the Arabic language in pre-diluvial times, in this way, making it independent, by origin, from the algarabía or language of the Arabs in Spain. Guadix, in the theoretical-linguistic development of the old antiquity and the expansion of the Arabic language in the world (Moreno 2011), describes with absolute certainty, how, when and which, according to him, the first universal language was: the Hebrew, that dates from “antes de la confusión de lenguas, que por el soberano poder, que hecha en la Torre de Babilonia erat terra labipunius et sermonum oerumdem, gere tui, que quiere dezir que todo el género humano hablaba una lengua. De aquí se infiere y puede entender como dize Nicolao de Lira y Esopicón, y común parecer de todos que era lengua hebrea, la que todo el mundo hablava antes de la fábrica de la Torre de Babilonia.” (sv algarabía) the work to 7 210 words, is, in any circumstance, comparable to what had been done until that moment. From the 152 statements that the author of Razonamiento brings us, the lexical list is progressively expanded with the selection of 231 terms of Alejo de Venegas, the 296 words (ms. de El Escorial: f. 125r-132v) of the work of Valverde, to which is finally added a list of 37 Latin words taken from the Hebrew (Id.: f. 133r- 133v), plus a list of 1200 etymologies attributed to the Brocense. 14 The Diccionario de arabismos is written in Rome, in the convent of Saint Mary in Aracoeli, where, as the author rightly points out: “la obediencia de mis prelados me mandó ir para ayudar a la traslación del Testamento Nuevo de la lengua arábiga en la lengua latina.” (Moreno ed. 2007, 8). It is the year 1590. <?page no="35"?> Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms 19 The most extense notes in the dictionary of Guadix, aimed at explaining the antiquity of the Arabic language, are the ones developed in the Primera advertencia of Prohemio al lector (Moreno ed. 2007, 12) and in the lexicographical article dedicated to the word algarabía. 15 From a deeply religious ideology, the lexicographer gives his own version and shows the origin of the Arabic within the bounds of the history of the first Jews, where, the divine presence, since it could not be in another way, is the vital note in the occurrences of the 15 “Sea el primer tranze y acontecimiento el diluvio universal, el qual fue 2 242 años después del día, quando Dios, nuestro señor, nos crió el cielo y la tierra, y 2 957 años antes de la encarnación del divino verbo. Y no muchos siglos después d´esto fue la edificación de la torre de Babilonia y la confusión de lenguas que en ella el poder de Dios, nuestro señor, hizo dende el qual tiempo tiene su principio la corrupción de la lengua hebrea, qu´es la lengua arábiga. El patriarca Abraham nació 3184 años después del día de la creación y 2 015 años antes de la encarnación del Hijo de Dios. Y en este tiempo ya avía muchos siglos que avía hebreos y lengua hebrea, aunque en la corrupción falta y menos cabo en que quedó después de la confussión que en ella se hizo en la torre de Babilonia. Y en tiempo d´este patriarcha Abraham, començó a aber árabes y lengua arábiga que fueron agarenos y sarrazenos, como arriba queda dicho. La fundación de la ciudad de Athenas fue 3 639 años después de la creación del mundo y 1 560 años a ntes de la encarnación del Hijo de Dios, y en este tiempo se hablava y estuvo en su pu nto en Grecia, una lengua griega, a que llamaron coyonedón, que era una lengua burda, basta y sin conjugación ni orden gramatical, como lo quentan Filippe Bergamo, en su Suplementum o Chronicarum. La fundación d´esta sancta ciudad de Roma fue 4 447 años después del día de la creación del mundo y 752 años antes de la encarnación del Hijo de Dios, y en este tiempo se hablava y estuvo en su punto en esta sancta ciudad de Roma y su comarca, una lengua latina, a que llamaron prisca, que era una lengua burda, vasta y sin conjugación ni orden gramatical. Y esta lengua prisca duró 244 años después de la edificación o fundación d´esta ciudad de Roma, en el qual tiempo fue esta dicha ciudad de Roma poseyda, mandada y gobernada por reyes, el último de los quales fue el rey Tharquino, el qual reynó en Roma 25 años, al cabo de los quales fue cibdad de Roma. Y començó esta república romana a ser mandada, regida y gobernada por cónsules, los primeros de los quales fueron Lelio Julio Beato y Lelio Tarquinio Colatino. En el qual tiempo se fue perdiendo la lengua latina prisca y se començó a hablar y poner en uso otra lengua latina más limada, puesta en conjugaçión y arte gramatical, a que llamaron lengua latina romana. De la qual lengua y gramática latina, començó a aver en esta ciudad de Roma escuelas y cátredas y lectores o precepturas de la dicha gramática latina, como lo quenta Titoline, en la primera década. Del primero libro en esta lengua latina romana assí puesta en conjugación y arte gramatical escrivieron: Çiceron, Oracio, Virgilio y todos los autores y libros a que oy llaman latinos. 4 849 años después de la Creación del Mundo y 350 antes de la Encarnación del Hijo de Dios, començó la lengua griega, llamada coyonedon, a yrse perdiendo, y començó otra lengua griega, llamada atrica a usarse, la qual se començó a poner en conjugación, arte y reglas gramaticales, en la qual lengua griegra atrica assí puesta en conjugación y arte gramatical escrivieron todos los autores y libros a que oy llamamos griegos. El lector curioso, que se pusiere bien en estas computaciones de tiempos y quisiere restar y computar unos tiempos de otros, tomará entera noticia y sabrá quántos siglos es más antigua la lengua hebrea, que la arábiga, y la arábiga, que la griega, y la griega, que la latina.” (sv algarabía). <?page no="36"?> 20 María Águeda Moreno Moreno languages. In this way, the biblical episode of the edification of the tower of Babylon, the historical moment of the creation of the Arabic language is described as follows: a. The Hebraic language and the people chosen by God: “Después de la confusión de las lenguas, que por el soberano poder fue hecha en la Torre de Babilonia, y todo el género humano se dividió en comunidades y naciones gentilicias, ymbentando y hablando cada qual d´ellas el lenguaje que le pareçió, entre las quales uvo una nación y comunidad de gentiles, cuya lengua fue hebrea o hebráyca. […] En este hebreo y gentil puso Dios, nuestro señor, los ojos y escogiéndolo por primero del pueblo y comunidad, que Dios, nuestro señor, quería tener por suya le enseñó y dio el sacramento de la circunçisión, con el qual el divino saber dio principio a la religión judáyca. Abraham y su posteridad quedaron diferenciados de los demás gentiles hebreos y no hebreos.” (sv algarabía) b. The Arabic language, the “first and great” cisma: “Los hijos y decendientes de Abraham ubo muchos que rebelándose le dieron las espaldas a la religión judáyca, que avía recebido y tenían de su padre Abraham. Unos decendientes de Abraham, por vía de la muger legítima: Sarra, y estos tomando denominación de su madre Sarra se llamaron sarracenos. Y otros también descendientes de Abraham, por vía de la muger no legítima, Agar, y estos, también tomando denominación de su madre Agar se llamaron agarenos. Y los unos y los otros hablando su lengua hebrea se juntaron e hizieron comunidad con los demás hebreos que no se avían circuncidado, ni eran de la religión judáyca de Abraham. Y también, tomando nombre de la provincia y patria donde habitavan, que era Arabia, se llamaron también árabes. […] Los unos y los otros como gente sin ley, libros ni escripturas dieron en barbarismo. Y así como gente bárbara hizieron tan grande corrupción en su lengua natural y hebrea, que perdió el nombre de lengua hebrea y, tomó denominación de tal provinçia, donde habitavan […] y se llamó lengua arabia, que antepuesto el artículo al- es alarabía, y corrompiéndolo los españoles dezimos algarabía. (Íd.: ib.). c. The Arabic language and the Hebrew language: one language: “E aquí los hebreos (combiene a saber) los gentiles, cuya lengua era hebrea, partidos en dos parcialidades (como si dixésemos) en judíos y árabes, y los unos y los otros hablaban su lengua hebrea. […] De suerte que la lengua hebrea y la lengua arábiga en caso de antigüedad no se deben nada la una a la otra, ni entre la una y la otra ay similitud, sino ydentidad, pues que ambas son lengua hebrea (Íd.: ib.). La lengua arábiga gana en antigüedad a las demás lenguas del mundo, porque es la lengua hebrea aunque corrupta . Y la lengua hebrea es la en que ha[bló] (sic) Adán, Noé, Abraham, etcétera.” (Íd.: primera advertencia) Guadix, from this exegesis of the Sacred Scriptures, provides a theory of truth and reliable method for the interpretation and formal and semantic reasoning of the etymology of the Arabisms that analyzes: <?page no="37"?> Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms 21 “salga del error que algunas personas tienen en pensar que no ay nombres arábigos sino sólo en las tierras o lugares donde an estado y habitado moros, pensando que siempre anduvieron a una la maldita seta de Mahoma y la lengua arábiga. Es grande yerro y malante inteligençia de tiempos, porque el maldito Mahoma y su infernal seta se començó a publicar en el mundo quinientos noventa y cuatro años después de la encarnación de Christo, nuestro redemptor […] luego mil ciento noventa y dos o mil doscientos noventa y dos años antes que ubian en el mundo Mahoma ni seta de moros, ya se usaban en el mundo y estava el mundo lleno de verbos y vocablos arábigos. [… Luego] malentender es dezir o pensar que no puede aver nombres arábigos, sino sólo en las tierras y lugares donde en algún tiempo llegaron y uvo moros, porque la lengua arábiga y su antigüedad no anda ni se a de medir con el tiempo de la seta de los moros, sino con el tiempo de la nación de los árabes. Y este es dende que ubo y habitaron hebreos, gentiles en Arabia, porque estos hebreos por habitar en Arabia se llamaron «árabes». Y esto fue muchos siglos antes de Abraham.” (Íd.: primera advertencia) And, more important, he saves the Arabic lexical and constitutive element of the Spanish language of belonging and/ or being an element of distortion for the Christian faith. His message and interpretation of the Sacred Scriptures clearly reveal his ideas, the cultural environment and his goals: the Arabic language has nothing to do with the *algarabía of the Moorish people: “Nadie se marabille de oirme dezir que en las islas de Canaria se hallen nombres antiguos arábigos, porque los guanches o canarios, o antiguos naturales de aquellas islas devieron ser de casta o naçión de árabes, porque quasi en todas aquellas islas hallé nombres de ríos, montes, pagos y otras cosas que los conoçí y noté por nombres arábigos. Y esto no pone en aquella gente nota de moros, porque hasta agora noventa o çien años, no avía aquella gente conoçido ni oído dezir el nombre del maldito Mahoma, ni aunque avía naçido en el mundo Jesuchristo, nuestro redemptor. Y assí ni eran moros ni christianos, sino puros gentiles, que, como digo, avían de ser de casta o naçión de árabes, pues hablaban la lengua arábiga, aunque en grandíssima corrupción. […] Da mucha luz y favorece mucho a esta verdad, ver que los naturales de la isla de Malta, y otros millones de christianos que habitan en Assia y Turquía, son árabes de naçión y hablan la lengua arábiga, y no por esso son deçendientes de moros ni tienen que ver con moros, porque començaron a ser christianos dende la predicaçión de los apóstoles, que es como seisçientos años antes qu´el maldito Mahoma naçiese en el mundo, ni su maldita seta se publicase. Esto e dicho para que nadie sea tan ignorante que le parezca ser todo una pieça o andar todo a una, el hablar en alguna tierra lengua arábiga y el ser aquella gente deçendiente de mahometanos.” (sv Aguadinace) As it can be seen, the hermeneutic process in the concretion of the etymological origin and the declaration of etymologies is inexorable. It allows the comprehension and favors the interaction of the two languages from its concrete and personal historicity. <?page no="38"?> 22 María Águeda Moreno Moreno 4 The translation and its lexicographical sense in the Dictionary of Diego de Guadix The translator-lexicographer accomplishes an important intellectual role in these dictionaries: his personality is revealed and he is privileged in the aspect of the personal interpretation and the discussion about the reasons or probabilities referent to the truth or the etymological certainty. Guadix, making a lexicographical use of explanatory notes in semantic interpretation, acts as a mediator between the vehicular etymological language and the usage of language. So the translator succeeds in connecting two languages, by means of metalinguistic formulas, where a relation between the language and other aspects of the culture and the society is established. In this particular case, the languages involved are Spanish and Arabic. The interpretation of the Americanism hamaca, among others, is an example of this: hamaca. Llaman en las Indias occidentales a cierta suerte de cama o lecho. Es AHMACA que en arábigo significa ‘loca (como si dixésemos) lo opuesto de cuerda’. Y corrompido dizen hamaca. Devieron llamarla assí, porque es un lienço o manta cotonda, qu´está colgada en el ayre de un árbol a otro, o de una pared a otra. Y como tal está siempre meciéndose y meneándose, y por este poco asiento o reposo que tiene, ba y llamaron ‘loca’ . A quite forced and evident semantic-phonetic analogy rather than purely linguistic aspects, prevails in his interpretation. That is why the act of translation and interpretation is shown as an uncomparable experience between the evocation of their own experiences, the significant reference by association or addressing by context and the semantic denotative recognition. 4.1 The equivalent translation in the etymological definition The methodological method in the Diccionario de arabismos (1593) of Diego de Guadix immediately imposes the establishment of a formal and semantic relation between the Arabism and the Arabic etymon. Hence the translation is established, from the lexicographical point of view, as a permanent, constant and independent equivalence; as a static relation of formal unities in parallel linguistic systems. The interpretation of the word adufe is an example of this (del ár. hisp. adduff, y este del ár. clás. duff) ( DRAE 2001: sv): adufe. Llaman en España a un instrumento vaxo, basto y de cuero, con que suelen tañer y regozijarse mugeres, que como es instrumento tan vaxo y tan basto, todas lo saben tocar. Consta de al que en arábigo significa ‘el’, y de duf, que significa el dicho instrumento o panderete. De suerte que todo junto: alduf significa ‘el panderete’. Y por lo dicho en la octava advertençia, no a de sonar la l del artículo, y assí resta, aduf, y corrompido dizen adufe. <?page no="39"?> Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms 23 Then, we find ourselves in the denotative equivalence in which the act of translating is made through interlinguistic correspondences. The result is, in many cases, a correct etymology 16 . The same occurs, for example, with the analysis of the word agárico that Guadix describes and to which applies an etymological equivalent in the Arabic language: “çierta droga mediçinal que debe de intervenir en algunas purgas […] al que en arábigo significa ‘el’ y de garicu que significa la dicha droga.” (sv agárico). The word comes from the Latin agar cum and this one from gr. soon passed to the Arabic language 17 , in such a way that, probably, from the Greek, it was introduced in Spain by the Arabs. Catálogo, dispuesto por abecedario, de algunas voces castellanas puramente arábigas, ó derivadas de la lengua griega, y de los idiomas orientales, pero introducidas en España por los árabes of Francisco Martínez Marina: AGARICO , agaricon (1805, sv). 18 4.2 The interpretation in the etymological analysis The etymological essay, in other occasions, needs the interpretation in the hermeneutic sense of making comprehensible or leading the analyses to the comprehension that is why his work is entitled Interpretación de nombres arábigos. He makes reference even 94 times to the task of interpretar ‘interpret’ (intérprete, interpretación, interpretar) in regard to the three uses of the term traducción ‘translate’ (sv. abadín, Bezmeliana and çayçar) and the two uses of the word traslación ‘translate’ (Id.: Proemio al rey and sv orça or yr a orça). In this way, the act of translating- defining is reinforced by the rational semantic interpretation of the vocabulary, reducing its content to social-historical elements, evocation of the own experiences and significative allusions by association or addressing by content. 16 The assessment of the etymological skills of Diego de Guadix have been thoroughly described by authorities like Federico Corriente 2005, pp. 111-112. 17 The word already appears in Arabic texts from the eleventh century. According to the Kit b Umdat al- ab b f ma rifat al-nab t li-kull lab b : (Libro base del médico para el conocimiento de la Botánica por todo experto) of Abulhayral'Isbfili (edition, notes and Spanish translation by J. Bustamante, F. Corriente y M. Tilmatine. Madrid, CSIC , 2004-2010, 4v): “ Z grïqün: es el agárico [agárïqún], en la letra gayn.” (Íd.: 2v., p. 16). In the work Farmacognosia: anales del Instituto José Celestino Mutis (Madrid, CSIC , 1943), it is pointed out that the origin of the name Agaricum comes from: “el origen del nombre Agaricum viene de la tribu sarmática de los Agaroi, habiendo pasado a todos los idiomas: por ejemplo, en indio «gharikum» y en árabe «garikum».” 18 Joan Corominas says its Latin (agar cum) and Greek origin ( ) and notes the following note about his character of loan: “[¿préstamo de origen mozárabe u oriental? ]” (1980-84, sv.). Federico Corriente in the Diccionario de arabismos: y voces afines en iberorromance (2003) not include the word agárico. <?page no="40"?> 24 María Águeda Moreno Moreno 4.2.1 Historical and social resources Historical quotations and references are used to refer to social events as a means of interpretation. Such is the case of the word almática that the Real Academia de la Lengua Española derives from the non-used word dalmática (del lat. tardío dalmat ca) ) ‘vestidura sagrada’ ( DRAE 2001, sv 2ª acep. dalmática). Guadix defines it in this way: “llaman en las iglesias a cierto ornamento o vestido de que se visten y adornan los ministros del altar para cantar las sanctas epístolas y los sagrados evangelios.” (sv almática). Guadix, in the phonetical calque of the Arabic word (mantiq, ‘lógica’) projects the etymological, as a linguistical result that begins after a process of adding the different formal and integrant elements of the etymon and the addition of the semantic content of these elements: “consta de al que en arábigo significa ‘la’, y de mantiq que significa ‘lógica o dialéctica’, y el ca es afixo de segunda persona de singular y significa ‘mya’. Assí que todo junto: almantiqca significa ‘la tu lógica o la tu dialéctica’. Y corrompido dizen almática.” (sv almática). Then, he continues and recurs to historical-social elements for the semantic interpretation: “Devieron a los principios de nuestra sancta iglesia y fe y religión christiana de llamar assí a esta suerte de ornamento o vestuario eclesiástico, porque es ve stuario que de ordinario se lo visten eclesiásticos moços que también de ordinario suelen ser estudiantes y gente que comiença a tratar y informarse en letras, y devieron de ser estudiantes lógicos, lo que començaron a con esta suerte de vestuario dezir epístolas y evangelios.” (sv almática) 4.2.2 Evocation of the own experience That is how, for example, when analyzing the word pizarra, he assigns to it the Arabic etymology bicerr ‘with secret’. The etymology is explained inasmuch as the ideological conception that the name is signifier and signified by nature, so he indicates that the mentioned stone: “tiene poros y concavidades en que se suelen hallarse metidas cosas tan secretas que el secreto d´ellas admira.” (sv piçarra). Nevertheless, the argumentation is not sufficient and he has to recur to the evocation of the own experience or offer a full semantic interpretation: . . “Yo soy testigo de vista de suerte hallado en lo interior de una piçarra d´estas, digo, en lo más profundo de la cantera, de donde se cortavan y sacavan piedras y sillares de piçarra, muchos caracoles y algunas almejas, o conchas de ostrones de los que el mar suele echar fuera de sí. Entiendo que por cosas semejantes, que se hallan en lo interior de las piçarras, digo, que devieron de llamar assí a esta suerte de peña o piedra.”(sv piçarra). <?page no="41"?> Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms 25 A similar example is the one offered by the word saúco ‘type of tree or bush with some medicinal properties’. By phonetic calque ,the Arabic etymology offers xaucu ‘its thorns‘. And, even when at the beginning he doubts about the semantic relation that is established: “No sé yo por qué lo llamaron por este nombre, pues que este árbol o arbusta no tiene espina alguna.” (sv sauco) his experience gives him a reasoning based in the existence of similar attributes in different things: “sé dezir que todos los setos de las heredades d´esta ciudad de Roma, que no son de muro o pared, son d´estas matas saúcos, porque es árbol que se cría con poco agua, y cierra o espesa el vallado. De suerte que haze oficio de sarças o de espinas.” (sv sauco). 4.2.3 Significative allusion by association or addressing by content Guadix, in this sense, exemplifies the word acabar ‘to finish‘ (derived from cabo that derives from the Latin caput, ‘head‘) that he relates etymologically to the Arabic (qabr, ‘tomb’). The translation would be incomprehensible except for the addressing of the semantic content by means of the interpretation: “Finalmente, por la similitud que tiene lo que se sepulta con lo que se acaba (combiene a saber), que assí como un hombre sepultado a acabado con todas las cosas d´esta vida, por esta razón o similitud, quiso el vulgo que lo finito o rematador se llamase sepultado. Y el acto de finir o rrematar se dixese sepultar¸ qu´eso significa acabar.” (sv acabar). The same interpretative process is given in the word acíbar, where the significative process by allusion is given, even by the mention of the Italian language: açíbar Llaman en España a una mediçina amarga que tienen los boticarios en sus boticas, a que en latín llaman aloes. El nombre es çabar, que en arábigo significa ‘paçiençia’. Y antepuniéndole el artículo al, saldría: alçabar. Y por lo dicho en la octava advertençia no a de sonar la l del artículo y assí restará açabar, que significará ‘la paçiençia’. Y corrompido dizen açíbar. Devieron de llamar assí a esta mediçina porque se deve de requerir paçiençia para tomarla o comerla. Nadie haga maravillas de que los árabes ayan llamado a esta mediçina assí, çabar, que como digo significa ‘paçiençia’, pues que en Italia llaman paçiençia a el escapulario de los religiosos y a el sambenito de los penitenciados por el sancto ofiçio, porque para traer sobre los ombros lo uno y lo otro se requiere paçiençia. <?page no="42"?> 26 María Águeda Moreno Moreno 5 Conclusions Definitely, there are many examples that would serve to show the lexicographical sense in the method of translating and interpreting of Diego de Guadix in his Diccionario de arabismos (1593). All of them, apart from their skills or etymological failures lead us to a built language, a well-planned and consciously designed tongue that begins with the study of the natural languages. In his art for making his dictionary he bases in an homophonous character of casual similarities of appearance and meaning, in a manner that he imitates, when possible, the formal and semantic analogy of the Arabism. Several significative values are projected on the translation, associated to interpretative dimension of the lexicographer and to the space and temporary context of the work. The translation is a denotative equivalence, although a false etymology. The ‘calque‘ of formal and semantic structures that the etymology presents allows to introduce the Arabic (pre-Babel Hebrew) as a vehicular language in the etymological task, related to the sacred Hebrew language through invented concepts, sometimes in true Arabic roots, and other times in Latin , Greek and even Amerindian roots. He is motivated by no other reason than the rationalizing of the Arabic component of the Spanish language by means of a perfected language, regulated according to a theoretical predetermined approach that places it in a cultural neutrality as regards the Spanish-Arabic world. His goal is, in the last instance, practical. It is a vital project that follows a clear line of the social structures of power: the pursuing of everything Islamic. References a) Dictionaries: Pedro de Alcalá: Vocabulista arauigo en letra castellana. Granada 1505. Francisco Cañes (o.f.m.): Diccionario español-latino-arábigo, Madrid 1787. Joan Corominas y José-A. Pascual: Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, 6 vols. Madrid 1980-1984. Federico Corriente: Diccionario de arabismos: y voces afines en iberorromance. Madrid 2003. Francisco de Guadix (o.f.m.)): Diccionario de arabismos. Edited by M.ª-Á. Moreno Moreno. Jaén [c.1593] 2007. Francisco Martínez Marina (1805): Catálogo, dispuesto por abecedario, de algunas voces castellanas puramente arábigas, ó derivadas de la lengua griega, y de los idiomas orient ales, pero introducidas en España por los árabes, in Real Academia de la Historia: Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia, vol. 4, pp. I - VIII y 1-85. Madrid 1805. <?page no="43"?> Translation and its lexicographical sense in the Guadix’ Dictionary of Arabisms 27 Real Academia de la Lengua Española: Diccionario de la lengua española (22ª ed.). Madrid 2001. b) Studies: Tarsicio de Azcona: Isabel la Católica. Madrid 1964. Werner Bahner: La lingüística española del siglo de oro. Madrid 1966. Gonzalo Carrasco García: “Huellas de la sociedad musulmana granadina: la conversión del Albayzín (1499-1500)”, in En la España Medieval, vol. 30. Ciudad, 2007, pp. 335-380. Federico Corriente: “Notas lingüísticas acerca de la Recopilación de algunos nombres arábigos de Diego de Guadix”, in Estudios de dialectología norteafricana y andalusí, 9. Ciudad 2005, pp. 93-114. Humberto Eco: La búsqueda de la lengua perfecta. Barcelona 1999. Tb. [en línea] http: / / www.philosophia.cl/ biblioteca/ eco.htm [Escuela de Filosofía Univers idad ARCIS]. José M. ª Fórneas (1990): “Hitos en el estudio de los arabismos hasta el «Glossaire» de Engelmann-Dozy”, in Homenaje al profesor Lapesa.Murcia1990, pp. 127-155. Mª Jesús Framiñán de Miguel (2005): “Manuales para el adoctrinamiento de neoco nversos en el siglo XVI ”, Criticón, 93. Ciudad 2005, pp. 25-37. Gloria Guerrero Ramos (1988): “Actitud de Nebrija ante los arabismos y mozarabismos”, in Actas del I Congreso Internacional de Historia de la Lengua Española. (Cáceres, 30 de mayo-4 de abril de 1987). Madrid 1988, pp. 873-880. Brigitte Lépinette y Antonio Melero Bellido (eds.): Historia de la traducción. Valencia 2003. Mª Águeda Moreno Moreno (2004): “Revisión a un capítulo de la historia de la lexicografía española: los diccionarios etimológicos en el Siglo de Oro”, in Nuevas aportaciones a la historiografía lingüística, II. La Laguna, Tenerife 2004, pp.1149- 1158. Mª Águeda Moreno Moreno (2006): “Los arabismos del español (siglos XVI y XVII )”, in Caminos actuales de la historiografía lingüística, II. Murcia2006, pp. 1175-1187. Mª Águeda Moreno Moreno: “Dimensión ideológica de la lengua en la obra lexic ográfica de Diego de Guadix (1593)”, in Ideolex. Estudios de lexicografía e ideología. Monza (Italia) 2011, pp. 385-402. Pedro Manuel Suárez Martínez: “Etimologías y traducciones populares en Cesario de Arles”, in Minerva. Revista de Filología Clásica, 4, 1990, pp. 231-254. Miguel Ángel Vega: “Apuntes socioculturales de Historia de la Traducción: del Renacimiento a nuestros días”, in Hieronymus Complutensis, núm. 4-5, 1996/ 97, pp. 71- 85. José Vega (o.s.a.) (2006): “La Fe en Cervantes”, in Revista de Religión y cultura, LII , núm. 236-237, 2006, pp. 21-104. <?page no="45"?> Eduardo José Jacinto García Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen 1 Einleitung Zweifelsohne hat die Arbeit von Übersetzern die Sprachen bereichert. Die Schaffung einer sprachlichen Norm, die als angesehenes Vorbild gilt, war weithin erst durch die Übersetzung und Nachahmung ausländischer Werke möglich. Obwohl sich eine Sprache innerhalb einer Gemeinschaft herausbildet, hängt ihre Vitalität nicht nur vom allgemeinen Sprachgebrauch ab, sondern es kommen auch einige historische Werte hinzu, die auf ästhetischen, ethischen und kulturellen Prinzipien beruhen. Als Ausdruck einer Kultur hat die Sprache eine ihrer wichtigsten Ausdrucksformen in der literarischen Produktion. Die Werke der großen Schriftsteller dienten über Jahrhunderte hinweg als Vorbild für sprachliche Korrektheit. Die europäischen Sprachen, darunter auch die Sprachen des germanischen Zweiges, erbten das Prinzip der Autorität, das auf der Vorbildlichkeit der literarischen Texte beruht, von den antiken Grammatikern. In den ersten Jahrhunderten, in denen sich die modernen Sprachen herausbildeten, kam es allerdings zu folgendem Paradoxon: Die Grammatiker fanden in den ersten literarischen Werken, die sie noch für ungeschliffen und allzu mangelhaft hielten, keine guten Vorbilder für sprachliche Korrektheit. So dienten anfangs die Übersetzungen, die vor allem von klassischen Werken des Lateinischen und des Griechischen angefertigt wurden, als sprachliches Vorbild. Das deckt sich ferner mit der Tatsache, dass die ersten literarischen Zeugnisse, die in den europäischen Sprachen erhalten sind, in der Regel Übersetzungen waren, und zwar Übersetzungen religiöser, historischer, literarischer oder juristischer Texte. Sobald die lateinischen Werke übersetzt waren, trugen sie dazu bei, den Volkssprachen ein höheres Ansehen zu geben. Dazu reicht es aus, die externe Geschichte der wichtigsten Sprachen des Alten Kontinents zu kennen. Alfred der Große (849-899), der «Übersetzerkönig», ist heute dafür bekannt, die Stärkung der angelsächsischen Literatursprache vorangetrieben zu haben. Er fertigte selbst Übersetzungen an, genauso wie er auch Werke übersetzen ließ, wie Der Trost der Philosophie von Boethius, Die Bekenntnisse und Vom Gottesstaat von Augustinus, oder die Kirchengeschichte des englischen Volkes von Beda Venerabilis. Die Person des englischen Monarchen ruft uns unverzüglich König Alfons X., genannt der Weise, und die berühmte Übersetzerschule von Toledo ins Gedächtnis. Eines der ersten Zeugnisse der katalani- <?page no="46"?> 30 Eduardo José Jacinto García schen Sprache ist nebenbei bemerkt eine Übersetzung des Forum Iudicum. Auch im Althochdeutschen zählen mehrere Übersetzungen zu den ersten literarischen Texten, darunter die Etimologiae von Isidor. Nicht vergessen darf man, dass eines der Werke, auf dem der Standard des modernen Deutschen basiert, die von Luther angefertigte Übersetzung der Bibel war. In dieser Arbeit möchte ich einen Beitrag zur spanischen Übersetzungsgeschichte und zur Geschichte spanischer Grammatikvorstellungen leisten, indem ich die Präsenz von übersetzten Texten in den modernen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen analysiere. Sowohl die Grammatiken als auch die Wörterbücher, die zwischen dem 16. und 20. Jahrhundert in Spanien verfasst wurden, basierten ausdrücklich oder stillschweigend auf dem sogenannten Autoritätsprinzip. Diese Werke wollten den besten Sprachgebrauch aufzeigen, um zu belegen, dass das Spanische allen anderen Fremdsprachen überlegen sei. Deren rhetorische, ideologische und kulturelle Komponente, die sich durch die Anführung literarischer und vor allem poetischer Beispiele äußert, war offenkundig. Im 16., 17. und 18. Jahrhundert kämpften das Französische, das Italienische und das Spanische um die Vorherrschaft im Kulturleben des Abendlandes. In diesen “Wettstreit“ reihte sich auch die englische Sprache ein. Die Wörterbücher mit Zitaten von Autoritäten waren Werke, denen es um die sprachliche Kodifizierung ging: In der Tat war es deren Ziel, all jene sprachlichen Einheiten zu verzeichnen, die als “typisch“ galten, als normal für die betreffende Sprache. Die Sprache der gefeierten Schriftsteller war die beste Garantie dafür, dass der beschriebene Gebrauch typisch, elegant und frei von jeglichem Barbarismus und Solözismus war. In diesem Zusammenhang fällt auf, dass die Texte, die als Beispiele für guten Sprachgebrauch angeführt wurden, in vielen Fällen Übersetzungen waren, denn dies widersprach ja in gewisser Hinsicht der Vorstellung von Eigenheit und der vermeintlichen sprachlichen Überlegenheit, die die Wörterbücher vermitteln wollten. Jedoch wurden Übersetzer aus den eingangs genannten Gründen von Anfang an als echte Sprachautoritäten betrachtet, denn ihnen war es gelungen, den jeweiligen Landessprachen größere Stärke und Komplexität zu verleihen. Das erste große Wörterbuch, das eine Volkssprache kodifizierte, der Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, führte schon in seiner dritten Ausgabe (1691) Beispiele bzw. Autoritäten ein, die aus der Übersetzung klassischer Werke stammten. Unter diesen Werken befinden sich zum Beispiel die des Tacitus, dessen Verfasser Bernardo Davanzati war; die Werke von Seneca, welche von Benedetto Varchi übersetzt wurden; oder die Schriften von Ovid, die Giovanni Mazzuoli detto lo Stradino übersetzte. Der Vocabulario zitiert auch einen weiteren berühmten Übersetzer, Pier Crescenzio, sowie, unter vielen anderen, die Übersetzung der Homilien von Augustinus und von Giordano Bruno ins Italienische. Ein weiteres wichtiges Wörterbuch, das sich auf Autoritäten stützte, war das Dictionary of the English Language <?page no="47"?> Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen 31 (1755) von Samuel Johnson, das für die englische Sprache eine äußerst wichtige Rolle bei der Festlegung des Standards spielte. Dr. Johnson nahm häufig Zitate von denjenigen Übersetzern auf, die er für Meister der Sprache hielt. Wie beim Vocabolario della Crusca zitiert Johnson das Werk der lateinischen auctores, die im 17. Jahrhundert ins Englische übersetzt wurden, wie John Dryden, Übersetzer von Ovid, und Nahum Tate, Übersetzer des Dichters Juvenal. Aus religiösen oder ideologischen Gründen stellt auch die englische Übersetzung der Bibel eine sehr gängige sprachliche Referenz in diesem Wörterbuch dar. In Spanien entstand parallel zum Kanon großer literarischer Schöpfer ein weiterer Kanon, der auf einer Liste herausragender Übersetzer beruhte. María Jesús García Garrosa und Francisco Lafarga haben in ihrem “Estudio preliminar”, der der Antologie El Discurso sobre la traducción en la España del siglo XVIII (2004) vorangeht, die Existenz eines expliziten Kanons vorbildlicher Übersetzer in den übersetzungstheoretischen Texten aus der Zeit der Aufklärung nachgewiesen. Die in den Siglos de Oro angefertigten Übersetzungen wurden als wesentlicher Bestandteil der Nationalliteratur betrachtet, sie standen in einer Reihe mit Dichtern, Dramatikern und Romanautoren (García Garrosa, Lafarga 2004: 47). Um nachvollziehen zu können, warum die Kanonisierung der Übersetzer des goldenen Zeitalters erfolgte, muss man die Diskussionen um die Übersetzungstätigkeit berücksichtigen, die es im 18. Jahrhundert gab, Diskussionen, die in den nachfolgenden Jahrhunderten noch andauern sollten. Vorrangig debattierte man in dieser Epoche darüber, ob sich Übersetzungen am Geiste des Originalwerkes orientieren sollten, zwar nicht mittels einer vollkommen wörtlichen Übersetzung, aber doch sehr nahe am Original, oder ob Übersetzungen nicht vielmehr frei sein und sich kulturell am Publikum der Zielsprache orientieren könnten. Die französischen Übersetzungen folgten im Großen und Ganzen der letzteren Tendenz, was sowohl die spanische als auch die deutsche Gegenbewegung zur Folge hatte; solche auf Französisch verfassten Übersetzungen waren auch als les belles infidèles bekannt. Und in der Tat war die Vorstellung, dass die literarischen Werke von Natur aus unübersetzbar seien, sehr weit verbreitet, weshalb man sich für die Freiheit des Übersetzers entschied. Trotz allem wurde von den Übersetzern der Aufklärung die spanische Tradition, die auf der philologischen Übersetzung beruhte, die treu gegenüber dem Originaltext war, ohne jedoch in der Zielsprache gegen die Regeln der sprachlichen Eigenheit zu verstoßen, zum Vorbild genommen. Eine weitere Debatte drehte sich um die Zweckmäßigkeit der Übersetzung wissenschaftlicher Werke. In diesem Punkt hatten die Gelehrten der Aufklärung keinerlei Zweifel: “La situación en este campo era de relativa novedad en la tradición traductora española y de claro retraso con respecto a Europa; es decir, un empezar a andar por un camino poco conocido. Pero al mismo tiempo varios sectores de la vida <?page no="48"?> 32 Eduardo José Jacinto García española, en especial el político y el institucional, estaban convencidos de la necesidad y pertinencia de ese género de traducciones, que veían como el primer paso para el progreso del país, por lo que animaban a su realización” (García Garrosa, Lafarga 2004: 30). Ab dem 18. Jahrhundert gab es eine beachtliche Zunahme von Übersetzungen vor allem französischer Werke, was zweifelsohne der spanischen Kultur zugute kam, im Gegenzug aber auch folgenreiche Auswirkungen hatte: die Einführung zahlreicher Gallizismen und typisch französischer Redewendungen, was geradewegs die Integrität, Eigenheit und Reinheit der spanischen Sprache verletzte. Das Problem lag nicht in der Übersetzung an sich, sondern an den zahlreichen Übersetzungen von schlechter Qualität, die überall entstanden. Aus diesen Gründen war es erforderlich, ein Modell auf Grundlage der spanischen philologischen Tradition festzulegen, die Übersetzer hervorbrachte, die ein sehr hohes literarisches Ansehen genossen. In seiner Übersetzung der Historia del Emperador Teodosio von Abbé Fléchier nennt Pater José Francisco de Isla ausdrücklich die sogenannten “príncipes de la traducción“, unter denen sich Manero, Gómez de la Rocha, Francisco de Borja y Aragón, Francisco de la Torre, Basilio de Buren und Altamirano befanden (apud García Garrosa, Lafarga 2004: 119). Juan Pablo Forner seinerseits erwähnt in den Exequias de la lengua castellana Gracián, Huerta, Manero, Pérez Velasco, Villegas, Abril, Coloma und Pellicer. Von diesen sagt er, er halte sie für Vorbilder «por la soltura y propiedad con que expresaron en castellano la sentencia de sus originales, bien así como si no fuesen traducciones» (apud García Garrosa, Lafarga 2004: 184). An vielen anderen Stellen sind Loblieder auf die in den Siglos de Oro und zur Zeit der Aufklärung angefertigten Übersetzungen zu finden. Oft erscheinen diese in Paratexten, das heißt in Vorworten, die von den Übersetzern selbst geschrieben wurden, in Bemerkungen und Hinweisen von den Herausgebern, oder auch in kritischen Texten wie Rezensionen, die oft in der Presse erschienen. Die Wörterbücher mit Zitaten von Autoritäten sind allerdings unerforscht geblieben. In dieser Arbeit werden wir den Stellenwert von Übersetzungen in derartigen Werken sehen. Das erste Wörterbuch der Real Academia, das seit dem 19. Jahrhundert als Diccionario de autoridades bekannt ist, würde eine eigene, tiefergehende Untersuchung verdienen. Davon abgesehen hat Margarita Freixas in mehreren ihrer Arbeiten alle Zitate, die in diesem Nachschlagewerk aufgeführt sind, umfassend untersucht (Freixas 2003, 2010). In meiner Studie werde ich mich mit drei allgemeinen Wörterbüchern befassen, die jeweils in einer anderen Epoche verfasst wurden: 1) Der Diccionario castellano con las voces de ciencias y artes (1786 - 1793) von Esteban de Terreros y Pando. Dieses Werk wurde in der Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts abgefasst und gehört zweifellos zum Paradigma der Aufklärung. <?page no="49"?> Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen 33 2) Der Gran diccionario de la lengua española (1852 - 1855) von Adolfo de Castro y Rossi. Dieses Wörterbuch ist, obwohl es nicht fertiggestellt werden konnte, äußerst wichtig, um die Entwicklung des Autoritätsprinzips in der Lexikographie des 19. Jahrhunderts nachvollziehen zu können. 3) Der Gran diccionario de la lengua castellana (1902 - 1931) von Aniceto de Pagés. Dieses monumentale Nachschlagewerk stellt das letzte allgemeine Wörterbuch dar, das in seiner Mikrostruktur Zitate von Autoritäten aufnimmt. Mit seiner Abfassung begann man Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts und zum Abschluss kam das Werk im ersten Drittel des 20. Jahrhunderts. 2 Der Diccionario castellano von Terreros und die Übersetzung der Aufklärung Der Diccionario con las voces de ciencias y artes ist das Resultat der Arbeit, die der Jesuit Esteban de Terreros durchführte, um ein enzyklopädisches Werk aus dem Französischen zu übersetzen: Spectacle de la nature (1732 - 1742) von Abbé Noël-Antoine Pluche. Das lexikographische Projekt sollte nach seiner ursprünglichen Konzeption nur den Fachwortschatz der Wissenschaften, Künste und des Handwerks beinhalten. Später plante Terreros sein Wörterbuch als ein Werk, das den gesamten Wortschatz des Spanischen enthalten sollte. Im Vorwort weist der Jesuit darauf hin, dass er keine höhere Autorität als den Verstand und den allgemeinen Sprachgebrauch kennt, der den Wortschatz der spanischen Sprache zu jedem Zeitpunkt legitimiert (Terreros [1987]: IX). Allerdings greift er auch auf die Autorität der Gelehrten und Experten zurück, um jenen Wortschatzbereich zu legitimieren, der nicht in der Allgemeinsprache vorkommt. Bedauerlicherweise wendet er dieses Kriterium nicht systematisch an. Dennoch werden zahlreiche Wörter durch einen kurzen bibliographischen Verweis auf das Textzeugnis, dem die behandelte lexikalische Einheit entnommen wurde, gestützt. Dadurch lassen sich allgemein die Quellen des Diccionario castellano und insbesondere die verwendeten Übersetzungen feststellen. Der Diccionario castellano beinhaltet meinen Berechnungen zufolge ungefähr 11.000 Verweise, die in gut 10.000 Artikeln erscheinen. Von der Gesamtzahl an Verweisen beziehen sich 1.941 mit Sicherheit auf verschiedene übersetzte Werke, was eine Quote von ungefähr 17% bedeutet. Im Wörterbuch werden rund 30 Übersetzer genannt. Welche Art von Übersetzungen Terreros benutzte, um die Aufnahme eines bestimmten Wortschatzbereiches zu untermauern, werden wir im Folgenden sehen. Terreros zeigte kein großes Interesse für die Übersetzung ausländischer literarischer Werke. Kaum lassen sich innerhalb des Diccionario castellano <?page no="50"?> 34 Eduardo José Jacinto García Übersetzungen fiktiver Werke als Autorität finden. Man begegnet einerseits der Übersetzung des Cantar de los cantares, die von Benito Arias Montano in der Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts durchgeführt wurde, um den Archaismus fenestra zu bezeugen, und andererseits der Übersetzung des Schelmenromans Historia de Gil Blas de Santillana, um den rhetorischen Fachbegriff protasis zu belegen, ein Begriff, der sicherlich dem Vorwort oder irgendeinem anderen Paratext entnommen wurde, und nicht dem Werk selbst. Was Terreros wirklich interessierte, war die Dokumentation des Fachwortschatzes mittels wissenschaftlich-technischer Werke. Es darf uns nicht überraschen, dass das im gesamten Wörterbuch am zweithäufigsten zitierte Werk der Espectáculo de la naturaleza ist, ein Werk, das von Terreros selbst übersetzt und zwischen 1753 und 1755 veröffentlicht wurde. Mit dessen Hilfe werden 1.343 Fachbegriffe dokumentiert, die zu den unterschiedlichsten beruflichen und wissenschaftlichen Bereichen gehören, von den Textilwerkstätten bis hin zur Astronomie. Als von großem Interesse erweist sich das zweite übersetzte Werk, das im Wörterbuch am häufigsten zitiert wird: die Cartas edificantes y curiosas escritas de las missiones estrangeras por algunos Missioneros de la Compañía de Jesús (16 Bände, 1757-1767), die von dem Jesuiten Diego Davin aus dem Französischen übersetzt wurden. Dieses Werk stellt eine Sammlung von Briefen und Berichten dar, die von Missionaren verfasst wurden, die auf so weit entfernten Kontinenten wie Asien und Amerika lebten. Terreros macht sich dieses Werk zunutze, um erstmals zahlreiche Realien einzuführen: dabei handelt es sich um kulturspezifische Begriffe, um Fremdwörter ohne Äquivalent im Spanischen, da dort die entsprechenden Referenten nicht existieren. Es darf uns nicht überraschen, dass Terreros zahlreiche Jesuiten zitiert. Denn wie der Übersetzer der Cartas edificantes selbst schon schrieb: “Me atrevo a decir que debe la geografía su mayor perfección a los misioneros de la Compañía de Jesús. Sin ellos poco o nada se sabría de la mayor parte de Asia y quedarían inmensos países de la América expuestos a conjeturas de los geógrafos de profesión, como ellos mismos lo reconocen o confiesan” (Davin 1757: XXVI). Über die Cartas edificantes nimmt Terreros 161 Wörter auf, von denen 155 in keinem anderen spanischen Wörterbuch zuvor dokumentiert waren. Der Autor des Diccionario castellano passt die Form der verschiedenen Exotismen, die oft eine an das Französische angelehnte Orthographie haben, nicht an, wie man unter anderem an bouri, bousa, cadou, cougles oder Vichnous sehen kann. In großer Zahl kommen Wörter aus dem Ägyptischen, Türkischen, Chinesischen und dem Sanskrit vor, die sich auf verschiedene Fisch-, Samen- und Pflanzenarten, und generell auf alle möglichen Heilmittel beziehen. Das Wort banana, das in diesem Werk belegt ist, wird zuerst im Diccionario castellano verzeichnet. Das Akademiewörterbuch sollte noch 100 Jahre brauchen, bis es dessen Gebrauch verzeichnet. Dem CORDE zufolge wird banana zum ersten Mal in einem 1884 veröffentlichten Buch dokumentiert, <?page no="51"?> Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen 35 auch wenn das Wort banana, wie wir gerade gesehen haben, schon in der übersetzten Fassung der erwähnten Cartas edificantes belegt war. Hinsichtlich der Wörter aus dem Sanskrit möchte ich die Einführung einiger hinduistischer Gottheiten hervorheben, die heute zwar sehr populär sind, im Spanien des 18. Jahrhunderts aber vollkommen unbekannt waren, wie Bracma [nsp. Brahma], Chiven [nsp. Shivá] und Vichnous [nsp. Visnú]. Im Diccionario castellano wird zum ersten Mal der sanskritische Begriff yogam [nsp. yoga] dokumentiert, den Terreros folgendermaßen definiert: «llaman algunos pueblos orientales á la union del alma con el supremo ser. Cart. Ed. tr. T. 15». Kenntnisse über die Mythologie und die heidnischen Gottheiten spielten bei der theologischen Ausbildung der Jesuiten eine wesentliche Rolle. Zu diesem Zweck übersetzte Terreros eine Abhandlung über Mythologie mit dem Titel Historia del Cielo, die auch von Abbé Pluche verfasst worden war. Durch diese Übersetzung konnten die Namen verschiedener griechischer und sogar ägyptischer Gottheiten ins Wörterbuch aufgenommen werden. Ich werde hier nur einige wenige nennen: Aphrodite, die Dioskuren, Eros, Hermanubis, Nemesis und Osiris. Wahrscheinlich hat Terreros die Welt der Mythologie gründlich erforscht, denn er erwähnt auch das auf Lateinisch verfasste Buch Panteon mytico, o Historia fabulosa de los dioses des Jesuiten François Antoine Pomey, das von Lorenzo Díaz de la Madrid übersetzt und im Jahr 1761 veröffentlicht wurde, kurz bevor Terreros sein Wörterbuch fertigstellte. Dem zuvor erwähnten Werk wurden neue Namen von Gottheiten entnommen, wie Brises, Phaethon und Lunus. Zwei weitere Werke, die sehr häufig zitiert werden, sind die Übersetzung der Naturalis Historia, die von Jerónimo Gómez de Huerta (1599-1629) angefertigt wurde, und die Übersetzung der Materia medicinal von Dioscurides, die von dem Arzt Andrés de Laguna (1554) durchgeführt wurde. Dabei handelt es sich um zwei klassische Werke, die eine sehr große Rolle im Diccionario de autoridades spielen. Folglich nimmt Terreros nur dieselben Wörter wie das Akademiewörterbuch auf. Für den Bereich der Medizin benutzt der Jesuit ein zeitgenössisches Werk des Arztes Laurencio Heister, die Institutiones Cirurgicas, o cirurgia completa universal, das von Andrés García Vázquez übersetzt und zwischen 1747 und 1750 veröffentlicht wurde. Insgesamt werden über dieses Werk 63 medizinische Fachbegriffe aufgenommen, von denen 55 nicht im Akademiewörterbuch verzeichnet sind. An einer Stelle werden auch die Principios de Cirugía von Jorge de la Faye erwähnt, die von Juan Galisteo y Xiorro (1761) aus dem Französischen übersetzt wurden. Terreros gab sich nicht damit zufrieden, klassische Werke der Medizin zu zitieren, sondern er legte Wert auf die neuesten Übersetzungen europäischer Werke. Neben den mythologischen und medizinischen Themen spielen die Philosophie und die Geographie eine wichtige Rolle im Diccionario castellano. Terreros zieht drei Übersetzungen philosophischer Werke heran: die Conver- <?page no="52"?> 36 Eduardo José Jacinto García saciones de Cleandro y de Eudoxio sobre las Cartas al provincial des Jesuiten Gabriel Daniel, die von Don José de Torquemada (1697) aus dem Französischen ins Spanische übersetzt wurden; die von «el Brocense» angefertigte Übersetzung des Enquiridion von Epiktet (möglicherweise benutzte Terreros die Ausgabe von Mayans aus dem Jahr 1764); und El oráculo de los nuevos Philosofos: M. Voltayre impugnado y descubierto en sus errores por sus mismas obras : en dos tomos / traducidos al español por... Pedro Rodriguez Morzo... del Real Orden de la Merced... (s. d.). Bei den geographischen Werken finden wir auch zwei Übersetzungen: Diario de observaciones hechas en el viage de la provincia al Paraguay, por el rio Amazonas, Y del Paraguay a Cayana, Surinam y Amsterdam von Mosr. de la Condamine, das aus dem Französischen ins Spanische übersetzt wurde (1745? ); und die Historia oriental de las peregrinaciones de Fernan Mendez Pinto, die von dem Akademiker Francisco de Herrera Maldonado (1656) aus dem Portugiesischen ins Spanische übersetzt wurde. Das Werk von Condamine dient beispielsweise dazu, einige Amerikanismen zu belegen, wie yacumama, eine Schlange von ungeheurer Größe, die man in Mexiko finden kann, oder mata-palo, womit in Amerika eine Ficusart bezeichnet wird. Die Übersetzung des Werkes von Fernán Mendez Pinto dient nur dazu, den Namen einer orientalischen Gottheit zu dokumentieren: Tinagogo. Unter den übersetzten Werken, die im Diccionario castellano am häufigsten angeführt werden, findet sich schließlich die Historia de España, die von dem Jesuitenpater Juan Baptista Duchesne auf Französisch verfasst wurde und von Francisco José de Isla (1745) ins Spanische übersetzt wurde. Diese Übersetzung fand sehr großen Anklang. Terreros erwähnt sie, um zwölf Wörter zu dokumentieren, von denen sechs noch nicht im Akademiewörterbuch verzeichnet waren: empedernimiento, gasconada, odiosidad, romanizar, síncrono und trastornamiento. Das Verb romanizar beispielsweise wird vom Akademiewörterbuch erst in der Ausgabe von 1925 erfasst. Ich schließe die Analyse darüber, wie Esteban de Terreros in seinem Diccionario castellano Übersetzungen gebrauchte, mit der Feststellung ab, dass dieser Lexikograph in den allermeisten Fällen nicht-literarische Spezialquellen verwendete, um unbekannte exotische Tatsachen bekannt zu machen, oder auch um Begriffe in Umlauf zu bringen, die sich auf neue technische Fortschritte bezogen, die es zur damaligen Zeit in Europa gab. Die Übersetzungen aus dem Bereich der Naturgeschichte und der Medizin werden am häufigsten erwähnt, gefolgt von den Werken mit mythologischem und religiösem Inhalt (um den Gebrauch der Wörter zu forcieren oder um die Namen von Sekten und von zahlreichen heidnischen Gottheiten bekannt zu machen). Weniger häufig werden übersetzte Bücher angeführt, die sich auf andere Bereiche wie die Philosophie, die Geographie oder das Recht beziehen. Letztlich machen die Übersetzungen französischer Werke ohne Frage den höchsten Prozentsatz unter den zitierten Werken aus, ge- <?page no="53"?> Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen 37 folgt von den lateinischen Werken. Die Ergebnisse passen zu denen, die man von einem Wörterbuch, das während der Zeit der Aufklärung verfasst wurde, erwarten konnte. 3 Adolfo de Castro: die philologische Wende in der Lexikographie des 19. Jahrhunderts Der Gran diccionario de la lengua española (1852-1855) von Adolfo de Castro gehört zu einem vollkommen anderen Paradigma als das, welches wir gerade behandelt haben. Ungefähr hundert Jahre sind seitdem vergangen, und in Spanien haben sich sowohl der literarische Kanon als auch die kulturellen Vorstellungen geändert. Adolfo de Castro aus Cádiz war ein Bücherliebhaber und großer Kenner der Literatur des goldenen Zeitalters. Während der Diccionario castellano des Jesuiten Esteban de Terreros dem Fortschritt und der Verbreitung aufklärerischer Ideen verpflichtet war, wollte Castro ein Wörterbuch verfassen, in dem Auszüge aus den großen literarischen Werken der Vergangenheit zur Schau gestellt werden. Während Terreros fast immer zeitgenössische Fachübersetzungen anführt, zitiert Castro überwiegend aus dem Kanon literarischer Übersetzungen. Es fällt jedoch auf, dass es sich bei den Übersetzungen, die am häufigsten zitiert werden, um verschiedene Übertragungen von Vitruvs Werk über die Architektur und um eine von Serlio handelt. Wir wissen nicht genau, warum Castro entgegen seiner Gewohnheit, literarische Werke zu zitieren, diesen technischen Bereich bevorzugte. In 55 Artikeln zitiert er die im Jahr 1582 von Miguel Urrea angefertigte Übersetzung des Vitruv; an 34 Stellen die im Jahr 1552 von Francisco Villalpando durchgeführte Übersetzung von Serlio. Weitere 16 architektonische Fachtermini werden über die Elementos de toda la architectura civil: con las mas singulares observaciones de los modernos belegt, die von Pater Miguel Benavente (1763) ins Spanische übersetzt wurden. Schließlich wird an fünf Stellen noch eine weitere spanische Übersetzung des Vitruv erwähnt, die von Ortiz y Sanz durchgeführt und zwischen 1780 und 1782 veröffentlicht wurde. Das Missverhältnis hinsichtlich anderer Bereiche ist deutlich, aber da Castro in seinem ganzen fruchtbaren Leben kein Buch schrieb, das sich mit Architektur befasste, können wir uns dieses Interesse nicht erklären. Es gibt noch weitere Fachübersetzungen innerhalb des Gran diccionario de la lengua española. In zwei lexikographischen Artikeln wird der Libro de los secretos de agricultura, casa de campo y pastoril zitiert, der von Fray Miguel Agustín (1617) aus dem Katalanischen übersetzt wurde; und an einer Stelle der Tratado del cultivo de las tierras (1751) von Miguel Casiri. Aus dem Bereich der Kriegskunst wird das Werk Cargos y preceptos militares zitiert, das von Bancaccio verfasst und im Jahr 1639 von Ildefonso Scavino übersetzt wurde. Aus dem Bereich des Rechts erwähnt Castro einmal die von Bernardino <?page no="54"?> 38 Eduardo José Jacinto García Daza angefertigte Übersetzung von Las instituciones imperiales o principios del derecho civil en latín y romance (1551). Schließlich habe ich noch den Verweis auf eine Abhandlung über Geometrie gefunden: die ersten sechs Bücher des Euklid, die von Rodrigo Zamorano (1575) ins Spanische übersetzt wurden. Wie man sehen konnte, fallen die wenigen technischen Werke, die im Gran diccionario de la lengua española angeführt werden, in die Zeit zwischen dem 16. und 17. Jahrhundert. Tatsächlich wollte Castro gar keine wissenschaftliche Neologismen aufführen, sondern vielmehr technische Archaismen, die in einem historisch ausgerichteten Wörterbuch erklärt werden mussten, da ihr Gebrauch obsolet war. Wie ich schon vorweggenommen habe, gehört die Mehrheit der Übersetzungen, die wir im Wörterbuch von Castro finden, zum literarischen Genre. Es überwiegen jene Texte, die verschiedenen Übersetzungen der Bibel entnommen wurden. Castro schrieb mehrere Bücher über die heterodoxen Strömungen in Spanien und griff so dem bekannten Werk von Menéndez y Pelayo vor. Kryptojuden, Erasmisten und Lutheraner in Ländern, die von Philipp II., einem fanatischen Katholiken, regiert wurden, waren Gegenstand seiner Untersuchungen. Er interessierte sich nämlich für die Übersetzungstätigkeit dieser heterodoxen Gruppen in einer Epoche, in der die einzig erlaubte Übersetzung der Heiligen Schrift die Vulgata des heiligen Hieronymus sein konnte. Nun, in nicht weniger als 79 Artikeln wird die sogenannte Biblia Vieja de Ferrara zitiert, eine Übersetzung des Alten Testaments, die im 16. Jahrhundert von Sepharden angefertigt wurde. Castro dokumentiert so zahlreiche Archaismen, wobei die Wörter vielleicht schon zum Ladino oder literarischen Dialekt des Judenspanischen gehörten. An 10 Stellen werden verschiedene Übersetzungen von Benito Arias Montano zitiert: die Salmos (dt. Psalmen), besonders der Miserere, und der Cantar de los cantares (dt. Hohelied). Es handelte sich dabei um literarisch geprägte Versübersetzungen, die aber dennoch dem hebräischen Originaltext gegenüber treu blieben. Auch wird die Übersetzung der von Arias Montano verfassten Sección cristiana erwähnt, die von dessen engen Freund Pedro de Valencia durchgeführt wurde, der ihn auch vor der Heiligen Inquisition gegen den Vorwurf der Häresie verteidigte. Viel heterodoxer ist da schon die Übersetzung der Bibel, die im 16. Jahrhundert von dem spanischen Lutheraner Cipriano Valera durchgeführt wurde, eine Übersetzung, die immer noch als Maßstab für die Bibeln gilt, die von spanischsprachigen Gläubigen der evangelischen Kirche verwendet werden. Insgesamt wird dieses Werk an 14 Stellen erwähnt. Eine der Gattungen, die im Gran diccionario de la lengua española am stärksten verteten ist, ist die Geschichtsschreibung. Als Autoritäten erwähnt Castro die Übersetzer einiger lateinischer Geschichtswerke. So begegnet man dem Geschichtsschreiber Marcus Iunianus Iustinus aus dem 3. Jahrhundert, Autor eines Epítome a Trogo, der im 16. Jahrhundert von Jorge de <?page no="55"?> Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen 39 Bustamente übersetzt wurde; dem berühmten Redner Tacitus, der von Antonio de Herrera (17. Jhd.) übersetzt wurde; und Sallust, der in zwei verschiedenen Übersetzungen vorliegt: in der von Manuel Sueyro und in einer älteren, der von Vidal de Noya (15. Jhd.). Innerhalb der Menge von Übersetzungen ist es die Übertragung von Dichtung, die im Gran diccionario de la lengua española am häufigsten vertreten ist, was mit den literarischen und philologischen Interessen seines Autors, Adolfo de Castro, in Einklang steht. All diese Übersetzungen wurden von klassischen Werken der griechischen und vor allem lateinischen Literatur angefertigt. Nur jeweils ein poetisches Werk wurde aus dem Italienischen und dem Französischen übersetzt: Ich beziehe mich einerseits auf Aminta von Torquato Tasso, die von Juan Martínez de Jáuregui übersetzt und im Jahr 1607 veröffentlicht wurde; und andererseits auf El caballero determinado (1553) von Hernando de Acuña. Von Martínez de Jáuregui stammt auch die Übersetzung der Farsalia von Lukan (1684). Übersetzungen von Horaz und Äsop werden auch erwähnt, wenn auch nur sehr wenige Male. Man muss ferner die Aufnahme eines Werkes in die Reihe von Autoritäten hervorheben, das von Castro selbst vor dem Vergessen bewahrt wurde: die Tebaida, die von Juan de Arjona gegen Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts verfasst und zuerst von Adolfo de Castro in seinem Werk Curiosidades bibliográficas (1855) veröffentlicht wurde, eine Schrift, die auch Bestandteil der Biblioteca de Autores Españoles ist. Die Tebaida wird an 7 Stellen zitiert, um den Gebrauch einiger literarischer Wörter zu belegen. 4 Der Gran diccionario de la lengua castellana von Aniceto de Pagés: eine Aktualisierung des Diccionario de autoridades Das Wörterbuch von Pagés, das mehrere Jahrzehnte nach dessen Tod im Jahr 1902 von José Pérez Hervás fertiggestellt wurde, stellt ein monumentales Werk dar, dessen Bedeutung noch nicht genug gewürdigt worden ist. Es handelt sich durch und durch um ein Autoritätenwörterbuch, und als solches plante es Aniceto de Pagés auch. Die sparsamen bibliographischen Hinweise, die sich auf die Angabe des Autorennamens beschränken, enttäuschten allerdings die Erwartungen der Benutzer und ließen dieses Werk sehr schnell in Vergessenheit geraten. Das größte Verdienst von Pagés bei der Abfassung seines Wörterbuches war, dass er das alte Autoritätsprinzip wieder einsetzte und die Zahl der Zitate und Beispiele, die zeitgenössischen Texten entnommen wurden, beträchtlich erhöhte. Der Gran diccionario de la lengua castellana ist nach wie vor ein diachronisches Wörterbuch, das heißt, es beschreibt die spanische Lexik vom Mittelalter bis zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts. Tatsächlich wurde eine große Menge von Zitaten wörtlich aus dem Diccionario de autoridades übernommen, sowohl in der ersten als auch in <?page no="56"?> 40 Eduardo José Jacinto García der zweiten Ausgabe. Der große Unterschied zu den früheren lexikographischen Nachschlagewerken mit Zitaten liegt allerdings darin, dass bei diesem Wörterbuch die Hälfte aller Referenzen, die von Pagés und Pérez Hervás zusammengestellt wurden, rein zeitgenössischen Werken (aus dem 19. und seltener dem 20. Jhd.) entnommen wurden. Früher beschränkte sich der Kanon von Autoren, die für sprachliche Vorbilder gehalten wurden, vor allem auf das 16. und 17. Jahrhundert. Hinsichtlich der Aufnahme von Übersetzungen in die Wörterbücher mit Zitaten sollten wir uns daran erinnern, wie Terreros es vorzog, anhand von Fachübersetzungen aus dem 18. Jahrhundert ausschließlich wissenschaftlich-technische Begriffe oder auch Exotismen zu legitimieren oder zu belegen. Das Hauptanliegen des Wörterbuches von Adolfo de Castro war es dann, die literarische Sprache des goldenen Zeitalters zu beschreiben, um die Kenntnis dieser zu ermöglichen und deren Verständnis zu erleichtern. Die mittels Übersetzungen bezeugten Wörter sind in der Regel Archaismen, was selbst im Bereich der Architektur vorkommt, den Castro in seinem unvollendetem Wörterbuch deutlich in den Vordergrund stellte. Im Gran diccionario de la lengua castellana von Pagés y Pérez Hervás nimmt dagegen die Zahl von Übersetzungen, die sich nicht auf eine Gattung oder eine bestimmte Epoche konzentrieren, enorm zu. Es finden sich Zitate einiger mittelalterlicher Übersetzungen, wie ein Werk von Bernardo Gordonio, der eine medizinische Abhandlung, das Lilium medicine, auf Lateinisch verfasste, die im Jahr 1362 von Juan de Aviñón übersetzt wurde, oder auch die Übersetzungen von Pedro Díaz de Toledo aus dem 15. Jahrhundert. Nicht weniger als 33 Werke, die im 16. Jahrhundert übersetzt wurden, und 15 aus dem 17. Jahrhundert werden erwähnt, obwohl die Anzahl an Zitaten nicht allzu groß ist. Die Gattungen, die innerhalb dieses chronologischen Rahmens vertreten sind, sind äußerst verschieden. Davon abgesehen muss man sagen, dass die Zitate an vielen Stellen genau mit denen des Diccionario de autoridades übereinstimmen. Das gilt etwa für die Beispiele, die der Übersetzung von Plinius, die von Jerónimo Gómez Huerta angefertigt wurde, und der Übersetzung von Dioscurides, die von dem Arzt Laguna durchgeführt wurde, entnommen sind (beide werden auch im Diccionario castellano von Terreros angeführt). Diese Werke waren wegen ihres enzyklopädischen Charakters eine wesentliche Quelle für die Herkunft wissenschaftlicher Begriffe, auch wenn diese für ein Wörterbuch des 19. Jahrhunderts bereits veraltet waren. Im Bereich der Geschichtsschreibung wird relativ häufig die von Pater Alfonso de Sandoval angefertigte Übersetzung des Lebens von San Francisco Javier zitiert (Autoridades zitiert es auch, aber an weniger Stellen). Auch wird die Übersetzung der Historia de Italia von Micer Francisco Guichardini erwähnt, die von Oton Edilo Nato de Betissana (1683) ins Spanische übersetzt und zu einer Epitome verkürzt wurde. Aber auch dabei handelt es sich um keine neue Auswahl, denn die Zitate wiederholen jene, die schon in den ersten <?page no="57"?> Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen 41 Akademiewörterbüchern angeführt wurden. Einige Werke werden aber tatsächlich zum ersten Mal in einem lexikographischen Werk des Spanischen aufgeführt, wie die Vida de Elio Seyano, die von Pierre Mathieu verfasst und von Vicencio Squarzafigo (1621) übersetzt wurde, und die Übersetzung der Memorias historicas de los monarcas othomanos, die von Giovanni Sagredo geschrieben und von Francisco de Olivares y Murillo (1684) übersetzt wurden. Im rein literarischen Bereich erwähnt Pagés insgesamt 248 Mal den herausragenden Übersetzer und Humanisten Diego Gracián y Aldrete. Weitere literarische Übersetzer, die wegen der Anzahl an Verweisen von geringerer Bedeutung sind, sind Alonso de Fuentes, Martín Laso de Oropesa (Übersetzer von Lukan und Cicero), Luis Hurtado (Übersetzer von Ritterromanen) und Fernán Juárez (der im Jahr 1546 den Coloquio de las Damas von Pietro Aretino übersetzte). Bei den poetischen Werken ragen die 49 Verweise auf Bernardino de Rebolledo (bekannter als Conde de Rebolledo) (1597- 1676) hervor, Autor von Los Trenos (1655), eine Versübersetzung der Klagelieder des Propheten Jeremia. Allerdings wurden viele der Zitate einmal mehr aus dem Diccionario de autoridades übernommen. Wie man sehen kann, wurde die Mehrheit der vor dem 18. Jahrhundert angefertigten Übersetzungen, die im Gran diccionario de la lengua castellana angeführt werden, schon im Diccionario de autoridades genannt. Erst ab dieser Zeit verwendet Pagés “eigene“ Übersetzungen. Nur wenige Werke, die während der Aufklärung übersetzt wurden, werden in diesem Wörterbuch erwähnt, und das an sehr wenigen Stellen. Unter diesen befindet sich kein fiktives literarisches Werk. Genannt werden Fachübersetzungen wie die von Francisco Javier Castañeda (1761) angefertigte Übersetzung von Vitruv oder die Übersetzung der Elementos de toda la architectura civil: con las mas singulares [von Rieger], die von Miguel Benavente (1763) durchgeführt wurde. Am häufigsten werden aber Spezialenzyklopädien und Fachwörterbücher genannt: - Gregorio Manuel Sanz y Chanas: Übersetzung der Encyclopedia metódica : Historia natural de los animales (1788): 1 Zitat. - Luis Castañón: Übersetzung der Encyclopedia metódica : arte militar / traducido del francés al castellano con algunas adiciones (1791): 5 Zitate. - Luis Mínguez: Übersetzung der Encyclopedia metodica : diccionario de Gramatica y Literatura (1788): 7 Zitate (zu Begriffen der Metrik). - Diccionario universal de física (1796) [von M. Brisson, übersetzt von den Ärzten D. C. C. und D. F. X. C.]: 2 Zitate. - Raimundo Sanz: Übersetzung der Diccionario militar, o Recolección alfabética de todos los términos propios al Arte de la Guerra (1794): 2 Zitate. Erwähnt sei noch ein aus dem Griechischen übersetztes Werk: der Fahrtenbericht von Hanno: Antigüedad maritima de la republica de Cartago, con el Periplo de su general Hannón, der von Pedro Rodríguez Campomanes (1756) <?page no="58"?> 42 Eduardo José Jacinto García übersetzt wurde. Über dieses Werk werden Wörter bezeugt, die mit der Geschichte des antiken Griechenlands in Verbindung stehen, wie olimpíada und ostracismo. Aber das Interessanteste an diesem Wörterbuch ist, wie ich schon erwähnte, die Bedeutung, die man der Erneuerung der Quellen, die über Recherchen in zeitgenössischen Werken erfolgte, beimisst. 23 Übersetzungen, die im Wörterbuch erwähnt werden, wurden zwischen dem 19. und 20. Jahrhundert veröffentlicht. Die Bereiche sind wieder sehr verschieden: Es werden literarische Übersetzungen zitiert, wie der berühmte Roman Los novios von Alessandro Manzoni, der im Jahr 1836 von Juan Nicasio Gallego übersetzt wurde; Die Räuber von Schiller, übersetzt von Desiderio Corchón im Jahr 1878; La divina comedia, übersetzt vom Conde de Cheste im Jahr 1879; oder La Dama de las Camelias, ein Roman von Alexandre Dumas dem Jüngeren, der im Jahr 1916 von Germán Gómez de la Mata übersetzt wurde. Man darf nicht vergessen, dass diese Autoren dadurch als Sprachautoritäten anerkannt wurden, dass sie in einem allgemeinen Wörterbuch des Spanischen zitiert wurden. Auch finden sich Beispiele, die wissenschaftlichen Werken entnommen sind. In 42 Artikeln erscheint der Verweis auf Doktor Manuel Carreras Sanchís, einen berühmten Arzt, der Übersetzer medizinischer Werke war; an 32 Stellen werden auch die Cuadernos de Historia Natural von Henri Milne Edwards zitiert, die von Miguel Guitart y Buch (1855) übersetzt wurden; nur drei Zitate sind einem mathematischen Werk entnommen: die Elementos de geometría analítica von H. Sonnet, die von Manuel María Barbery (1868) übersetzt wurden. 5 Fazit Zusammenfassend können wir feststellen, dass die Aufnahme der Zitate weder anhand einheitlicher noch anhand rein objektiver Kriterien erfolgte, sondern der Absicht und den Interessen jedes einzelnen Autors unterlag. Die Wörterbücher stellen historische Zeugnisse dar und verfügen über eine starke kulturelle und ideologische Komponente. Einerseits wurden die darin zitierten Übersetzungen anhand des Wortschatzbereiches, den man legitimieren wollte, ausgewählt. Der Übersetzer bildet Neologismen oder führt neue Wörter ein, und er schlägt Brücken zu anderen Sprachen und Kulturen. Das ist bei den Übersetzungen der Fall, die von dem Jesuiten Esteban de Terreros in seinem Diccionario castellano zitiert werden. Darüber hinaus gilt jener als guter Übersetzer, der zusätzlich in die Rolle des Schriftstellers schlüpft; das heißt, er bildet literarische Werke nach und erlangt dadurch den gleichen Status wie der Autor. Solche Übersetzungen, die als literarische Werke verstanden werden, werden im Gran diccionario de la lengua española von Adolfo de Castro zitiert. Ein Wörterbuch, das wie der Gran diccionario de <?page no="59"?> Der Übersetzer als Autorität in den allgemeinen Wörterbüchern des Spanischen 43 la lengua castellana von Pagés und Pérez Hervás zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts veröffentlicht wurde, verwendet schließlich moderne literarische wie wissenschaftliche Übersetzungen, um diesen eine ausgewogene Menge zeitgenössischen Wortschatzes zu entnehmen. Literaturverzeichnis Adolfo de Castro: Gran Diccionario de la Lengua Española […], vol. I , Madrid, pp. 1852- 1855. Diego Davin: Cartas edificantes, y curiosas, escritas de las missiones estrangeras, por algunos misioneros de la compañía de Jesus, I. Madrid 1757. Margarita Freixas: Las autoridades en el primer Diccionario de la Real Academia Española. Barcelona 2003. Margarita Freixas: Planta y método del “Diccionario de Autoridades”: orígenes de la técnica lexicográfica de la Real Academia Española (1713-1739). A Coruña, [Revista de lexicografía: Anejos 14] 2010. María Jesús García Garrosa/ Francisco Lafarga: El discurso sobre la traducción en la España del siglo XVIII. Estudio y antología. Kassel 2004. Aniceto de Pagés: Gran diccionario de la lengua castellana, autorizado con ejemplos de buenos escritores antiguos y modernos [...], 5. Madrid 1902-1931. Esteban de Terreros: Diccionario castellano con las voces de ciencias y artes y sus correspondientes de las tres lenguas francesa, latina, e italiana [Alvar Ezquerra Hrsg.]. Madrid 1987 [1786-1793]. <?page no="61"?> Marta Torres Martínez Word-formation and translation in A. de Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805) 1 “If the delicacy of our own language can become known just by means of a continuous and precise study, how much insight will those of a foreign one ask for? One cannot render a good translation in that manner, without a perfect knowledge of both languages“ (Capmany, Arte de traducir el idioma francés al castellano , 1776, V). 1 Introduction This piece of research is an attempt at reviewing the treatment given to word-formation in the bilingual dictionary by Antonio de Capmany, published in the early 19th century. Judging by specialists such as Roig (1995: 771), Nuevo diccionario francés- español (1805) means a major change in the orientation of lexicography, since “none of the great dictionaries or projects aims at solving the difficulties of translation”. In fact, Capmany’s Arte de traducir el idioma francés al castellano (1776) was published prior to his lexicographic repertoire, a work which we also resort to in order to understand the author’s earlier ideas regarding translation from French into Spanish. As regards Nuevo diccionario, due attention is paid to its prologue, where Capmany specifies both his lexicographic project and relevant notions on French-to-Spanish and Spanish-to-French translation. As revealed by Vidal (2011: 408), these preliminary words carry strong ideological connotations, also found in the body of the dictionary itself. We pay special attention to how the author deals with word-formation, an area which has enjoyed scarce attention in the Spanish grammatical tradition. This analysis is done by focusing on issues such as (i) the encoding of prefixes, suffixes or Greek and Latin roots in the dictionary’s macrostruc- 1 All the quotations in this article have been translated into English in order to facilitate the reading of the text. By contrast, it has been preferred to retain the original language in book titles and excerpts from dictionaries entries because this, we believe, is the best way to truly appreciate the author’s original work. <?page no="62"?> 46 Marta Torres Martínez ture; (ii) the inclusion of compounds, derivatives and parasynthetic units in the macro- and the microstructure; and (iii) the translation of words created by various lexicogenetic processes from French into Spanish. All in all, and starting from the grammatical field of word-formation, our purpose is to approach the lexicographic work of a Spanish scholar who lived during the Enlightenment and showed a great concern with the task of translation. 2 Bilingual Spanish-French lexicography A first token of bilingual Spanish-French lexicography is Vocabulario de los vocablos que más comúnmente se suelen usar […] (Alcalá de Henares, 1565) by Jacques de Liaño o Ledel, an adaptation from the vocabulary by Berlaimont, developed in the first third of the 16th century (Pablo, 2010: 91-198). 2 This index is conceived as an appendix to the French grammar by Baltasar de Montemayor. The Spanish and French repertoires that will serve as a starting point for the bilingual lexicographic tradition are created already towards the end of the 16th century: Recueil de dictionnaires françois, espagnol et latin (Brussels, 1599) by Heinrich Hornkens, Diccionario muy copioso de la lengua Española y Francesa (Brussels, 1604) by Jean Pallet and Tesoro de las dos lenguas francesa y española (Paris, 1607) by César Oudin. As pinpointed by Pablo (2010: 375), “the chronological proximity and the fact that they have a common objective [namely, an interest in learning Spanish] lead to shared features and mutual influences between these three works”. The Franco-Spanish lexicography of the 17th century, for its part, is highly inspired by Oudin’s dictionary, which was reprinted on numerous occasions and became the source of a long list of bilingual and plurilingual dictionaries. A rapid increase in the publication of French and Spanish catalogues would follow in the 18th and, especially, 19th centuries. At the beginning of the 18th century, a new French-Spanish dictionary is produced in Brussels: Diccionario Nuevo de las dos lenguas española y francesa (1705) by Francisco Sobrino, whose main inspiration for its Spanish-French section was Oudin. During the second quarter of the 18th century a bilingual French-Spanish dictionary is published in Spain, El maestro de las dos lenguas. Diccionario español y francés en dos tomos (1728-1731) by Francisco Torre y Ocón, a bidirectional work to be followed by two grammars (one French, explained in Spanish; the other Spanish, explained in French). The repertoire by Antonio 2 In his study, Pablo (2010) carries out a complete review of Spanish and French dictionaries from the 16th and 17th centuries, and places them parallel to similar works crea ted for the teaching of these two languages in Europe. <?page no="63"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 47 M.ª Herrero y Rubira, Diccionario universal francés y español, comes out in 1744, a monograph that takes its nomenclature from the Dictionnaire by the Jesuits of Trévoux. Later, on a date on which no agreement exists (1745, 1749 or 1759), Nicolas Séjournant publishes his Nouveau Dictionnaire espagnol- français et latin, a lengthy catalogue that takes its nomenclature from Diccionario de autoridades (1726-1739) by the Royal Spanish Academy. The work by Nicolás González de Mendoza, Diccionario general de las dos lenguas francesa y española, appears in 1761, with a second part (French-Spanish) following in 1763. A three-volume set, Sobrino aumentado or Nuevo diccionario de las lenguas española, francesa y latina by François Cormon comes out in 1769. Moreover, Father Esteban de Terreros provides three bilingual dictionaries (French-Spanish, Latin-Spanish and Italian-Spanish) in the fourth and last volume of his Diccionario castellano con las voces de ciencias y artes y sus correspondientes en las tres lenguas francesa, latina y castellana (1786-1793). On the other hand, the four-volume inventory by Claude-Marie Gattel, Nouveau dictionnaire espagnol-françois, françois-espagnol (1790) was a source of inspiration for a number of lexicographers (Capmany, among them). Finally, Diccionario nuevo portátil y manual francés-español (1795) by Diego Antonio de Godoy comes out in 1795 in a single edition and makes pocket dictionaries come into fashion, as would be common from the late 18th century on. The dictionary object of this study, Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805) by Antonio Capmany, is published already in the early 19th century together with works by many other scholars, e.g. Melchor Núñez de Taboada (Dictionnaire français-espagnol et espagnol-français, 1812); Domingo Gian Trapany, A. de Rosily and Charles Nodier (Nouveau dictionnaire français-espagnol et espagnol-français, 1826); Pedro Martínez López and Francisco Maurel (Dictionnaire français-espagnol et espagnol-français, 1839-1840); Joseph da Fonseca (Dictionnaire français-espagnol et espagnol-français, 1840); Pablo Valdemoros Álvarez (Dictionnaire général français-espagnol et espagnol-français, 1840); Ramón Joaquín Domínguez (Diccionario universal español-francés y francés- español, 1845-1846); Francisco Piferrer and Francisco Miguel de Neira (Nouveau dictionnaire français-espagnol et espagnol-français, 1846); Marie-Jean Saint-Hilaire Blanc (Nouveau dictionnaire français-espagnol, 1847); Domingo Gildo (Dictionnaire espagnol-français et français-espagnol, 1850); Vicente Salvá (Nuevo diccionario francés-español y español francés, 1856); Pedro Freixas y Sabater (Nuevo diccionario francés-español y español francés, 1864); Francisco Corona Bustamante (Diccionario francés-español y español-francés, 1881-1901) or Nemesio Fernández Cuesta (Diccionario de las lenguas española y francesa comparadas, 1885-1887). <?page no="64"?> 48 Marta Torres Martínez 3 Antonio de Capmany and his time The life of Antonio de Capmany is featured in the Diccionario histórico de la traducción en España (Lafarga and Pegenaute, 2009: 173-174): “Capmany, Antonio de (Barcelona, 1742-Cádiz, 1813). Spanish writer. He initially decided to undertake a military career, which he dropped in 1770; he moved to Seville, where he collaborated with Olavide in ta king Catalan colonists to Sierra Morena. In 1775, foreseeing the intendent’s fall, he left to Madrid. In that same year, he joined the Academy of History and, in 1790, he was appointed perpetual secretary, a position which he held up to 1802. He published several works on medieval Barcelona and its maritime activity that are today regarded pioneers of Spanish economic history. His philological qualities are also revealed in the works he devoted to lexicography, rhetoric (Filosofía de la elocuencia, 1777 and 1812) and literary history (Teatro histórico-crítico de la elocuencia española, 1786-1794). During the Peninsular War he was characterized by an extreme patriotism which is illustrated in his Centinela contra los franceses (1808). By the end of 1808 he took refuge in Seville and worked in the preparation of the Cádiz Cortes, where he would act as a representative for Catalonia until his death“. In his biographical sketch on Capmany, Cazorla (2002: 358-360) states that “ Two well-known names stand out among his detractors: on the one hand, the writer Manuel José Quintana, with whom he had public arguments; on the other, the eminent lexicographer Vicente Salvá. He published many and diverse works where one can straightforwardly perceive his concern for the Spanish language from various perspectives“. Among his works, and besides Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805) 3 , we must highlight Arte de traducir el idioma francés al castellano (1776), “whose objective was to fight the idiotisms from the French language that are present in the Spanish translations of his time” (Yllera and Ozaeta, 2002: 84). This handbook aims at offering Spanish readers an instrument to achieve “a reasoned translation, founded on a better knowledge of the grammatical and lexical particularities of the French language” (Lafarga and Pegenaute, 2009: 173). Arte de traducir consists of an extensive preface (pp. V-XVI), a “Compendium of French word classes” (pp. 1-34), “Preliminary warnings about the grammatical character of the French language” (pp. 35-72), a “Logical and figurative vocabulary of idiotisms in the French language” (p. 73-188), the “Translation of some technical nouns” (pp. 189-190), a “Dictionary of gentile nouns” (p. 191-193), a “Dictionary of personal names” (pp. 194-197) and a “Dictionary of names of philosophical sects and religious beliefs” (p. 198). As pointed out by Lépinette and Olivares (1992: 172), and based on the 3 Regarding its publication date, Cazorla (2002: 358) notes that “various researchers, among them Lázaro Carreter, Fernández Díaz and Saint Vincent, pinpoint 1801 as the date of first appearance, even if none provides conclusive data for this first dating”. <?page no="65"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 49 ideas of French encyclopédistes, Capmany believes that “translating is possible only if the sense of the original text is correctly grasped”. In addition, according to Capmany (1776: VIII), “a translator’s indispensable duty is to avoid all usual and witty idiotisms from the original language because the merit of elocution, and of style in general, does not depend on the national phrase or the grammatical use”. Not in vain, Cazorla (2002: 18), among others, accounts for the concerns for language during the second half of the 18th and 19th centuries, which converge mainly on two matters: translations and Gallicisms. As far as translation is concerned, Checa (1991: 594) and Anglada (1997- 1998: 32) indicate that a positive attitude towards this activity was predominant throughout the 18th century, primarily as a way to acquire new knowledge. This is so even if no agreement existed on the consequences of translations into our language. According to Checa (1991: 595), one of the reasons for the aforementioned shift of opinion is the scarce training of translators, who often created works of a terrible quality that were interpreted as “a way of corrupting our language”. Likewise, that change in attitude was undoubtedly favored by the political circumstances in Spain, then immersed in the Napoleonic Period (1808-1813) and rebelling against French occupation. This question brought into conflict those supporting openness to progress and freedom in the practice of translation 4 (an idea represented by, for example, Feijóo and Mayans) with those in favor of the purity of Spanish, among them Forner Vargas Ponce 5 . In short, as indicated by Vidal (2011: 408), “two postures are opposed: that of purists, zealous champions of language’s purity, against the innovators who demand their right to introduce new words to account for the expressive needs of a quickly evolving society”. Capmany, for his part, exemplifies the transition from one attitude to the other 6 . As Checa (1991: 598-599) and Cazorla (2002: 19) note, while his earli- 4 “The logical need to take “licenses” in Spanish translations led to a number of innovations, diversions or defects which affected the language’s lexicon, syntax or style although, fundamentally, the most polemical influence was that related to the creation of new words” (Checa, 1991: 596). 5 As for the attitude of the Royal Spanish Academy, Cazorla (2002: 20) points out that in its beginnings it expressed its support for casticisms, although it later approached purism by favouring the introduction of new words only when they were indeed needed. 6 Vidal (2011: 404-405) clarifies the point: “After the conflict against Portugal in 1762, Capmany sided, like most Spaniards, with Louis XV. Those who later became fierce enemies of the French were with them in their youth. The Mutiny of Aranjuez and the subsequent French occupation, with the king’s captivity and the widespread uprising in Spain, faced Capmany with the same dilemma that troubled thousands of Spaniards in those days: whether to be subjugated to and even collaborate with the king, or to <?page no="66"?> 50 Marta Torres Martínez est works praise the French language and are favorable to translations from it, Capmany’s Teatro histórico-crítico (1786-1794) moves on to a totally opposite attitude. In this book he blames the alleged decay of Spanish to bad translations from French. In the same vein, Lázaro (1949: 264) echoes the radical change in Capmany’s beliefs: “from a maximum breadth in the acceptance of foreign words to the utmost narrowness, a most closed kind of purism”. In fact, as is shown below, Capmany’s opinion is that Spanish didn’t need to be assisted by French in nourishing and dignifying its lexicon because it was self-sufficient or, at any rate, it could take lexical material from the Classical languages. It is however true that, in relation to Antonio de Capmany, specialists agree in asserting that he stands as a key figure in the scene of bilingual lexicography of the early 19th century. Not in vain, “if three essential factors make up the spirit of the 18th century (the historical feeling, the critical sense and the encyclopedic sense), we have to conclude that Capmany’s work is a genuine product from that century” (Vidal, 2011: 404). 4 Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805) Unlike preceding repertoires, this dictionary was not conceived as “an instrument suitable for those who wanted to learn French but, mainly, as a basic tool for those who undertook French-to-Spanish translations” (Bruña 1999: 99). It is, in effect, a unidirectional French-Spanish catalogue, since the author himself states in the preface that the Spanish-French part would lead to failure due to the difficulty in rendering words into French: “Such richness and superabundance have dissuaded and intimidated me, even if I had plenty of time and patience to undertake the long-winded and extremely laborious task of preparing a Spanish-French dictionary. I know well that an eighth of the entries would remain blank, or at least discolored“ (Capmany, 1805: XVI). Lázaro (1949: 280) makes the following remark about Capmany: “for the first time a Spaniard takes on the reputable and scientific task of comparing both languages [Spanish and French], thus trying to find a fair correspondence, when faced with patrimonial words, or setting a norm that corresponds to the French technicism“. Capmany (1805: I) admits devoting a period of six years to the “metaphysical fight of bringing face to face and adjusting two languages that are so different from each other”. He takes on this work in order to ease the scene of bilingual French-Spanish lexicography and to avoid “begging any support the cause of the country, desperate as that seemed. Capmany’s posture was radical and his hate for the French was extreme”. <?page no="67"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 51 longer to foreign hands” (Capmany, 1805: II). Furthermore, the Catalonian explains himself as follows with regard to his methodology: “The preparation of the present dictionary as it is has implied working with perseverance so that each French word had a corresponding genuine Spanish entry, while avoiding vague and irrelevant explanations. Quite on the contrary, by means of an extreme care, we have tried to keep the sense of the original French unit in the Spanish word, as well as the same style used in French […] I have employed diligence and a rigorous care in order to make of each entry a rule for the reader“ (Capmany, 1805: VIII-IX). As regards Capmany’s sources, the repertoire by Gattel and that by Cormon (published in 1769 and 1790, respectively) are quoted in the title of the dictionary itself: Nuevo diccionario francés-español. En este van enmendados, corregidos, mejorados y enriquecidos considerablemente los de Gattel y Cormon. In his preface Capmany alludes repeatedly to the errors made by these lexicographers: “All the entries in Cormon’s dictionary, and in Gattel’s more recent one (who has but reproduced the increases and mistakes of the former), […] had to be amended due to their typos or inadequate versions“ (Capmany, 1805: IV). “Once the aforementioned two dictionaries by Cormon and Gattel were combined, and some entries were corrected, other removed and all articles with new phrases and senses enriched […]“ (Capmany, 1805: VIII). Capmany (1805: IX) shows, also in the preface, a change in his attitude towards French, which he finds less abundant and varied than Spanish. In this sense, he is concerned with the impossibility of translating some words from French into Spanish because there is no corresponding unit whatsoever: “French words are found in dictionaries too that not only lack an exact correspondent in Spanish, but neither have an equivalence because we cannot have the specific names if those French things, uses, establishments or institutions do not exist in Spain“ (Capmany, 1805: XIIII). Capmany’s concern for helping translators motivates, besides the publication of this repertoire, the project of devising Diccionario comparado de la lengua francesa y española, which eventually does not prosper and remains unpublished 7 . “I am finishing another work in order to provide translations with a master key that will be a complement to my plan. I will manifest the nature of French- 7 As Lafarga and Pegenaute (2009: 173) claim, “other works by him remained unpublished, for example the materials which he was preparing on Spanish and French phraseology as well as a collection of Spanish proverbs, of which we have but a sample in one of the appendices of his Nuevo Diccionario”. <?page no="68"?> 52 Marta Torres Martínez Spanish compared phraseology with examples of all kinds and senses under the title Diccionario comparado de la lengua francesa y española“ (Capmany, 1805: XIV). Regarding the macrostructure, Capmany himself reveals in the preface that his repertoire consists of “more than thirty thousand entries” (1805: III). In effect, according to Cazorla’s (2002: 366) calculations, the figure goes up to around 32,000. As for the microstructure, Cazorla (2002: 367) notes the following order of the information: Entry + grammatical category + mark + definition = mark + sense 8 . Senses are kept under a single entry, separated by a = sign. Concerning definitions, Cazorla (2002: 367-368) records four types: a) Entry + one or various equivalents: Sage-femme, s.f. Matrona: comadre: partera. b) Entry + description: Sablonnier, s.m. El que vende la arenilla por las calles. c) Entry + one or various equivalents + translation [with a colon separating the equivalents from the explanation]: Abaissement, s.m. Baxa: baxada, como acción de disminuir de altura alguna cosa: descenso: minoración. [...] d) Entry + one or various equivalents + specification [which either differentiates them from other from the same genus, or restricts their use within a given field]: Abat-vent, s.m. Tejadillo, que se pone en los balcones, puertas, etc. Cazorla (2002: 368) also notes that, on several occasions, there exist “variants of the object named that appear marked in italic typeface under the main lemma”: Sable. s.m. [...] = Sable terreux: arena terriza. The same format is adopted for the expressions which Capmany incorporates to many lexicographic entries: Abonder. v.n. Abundar: estar abundante = Abonder en son sens casarse con su parecer. À l’abri. adv. Guarecido, resguardado = Se mettre à l’abri, guarecerse, resguardarse. The Catalan lexicographer, nevertheless, is not systematic when introducing examples, which are preceded by different abbreviations ex. or v. g. Similarly, Capmany employs the parenthesized abbreviation prov. to refer to proverbs. Likewise, Bruña (1999: 105) underlines Capmany’s explanations for each lexicographic entry, “a true delight thanks to the precision and variety of the Spanish vocabulary used by the author”. 8 Also Bruña (1999: 105) indicates that “following the French entry he almost always provides the corresponding translation or translations; only after it, and separated by a colon, comes the explanatory details of the meaning”. <?page no="69"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 53 5 The view of word-formation in the Nuevo diccionario francés- español This investigation aims at reviewing the information on word-formation included in Capmany’s repertoire. To this end, we will focus on three different sections of this dictionary: the preface, the body itself of the work, and the Supplement. 5.1 Preface Besides the aforementioned matters related to sources, methodology and objectives, interesting notes can be found in the Prologue to the Nuevo diccionario about lexical creation, basically as regards the production of new words through compounding, derivation or parasynthesis. Capmany is conscious of the need to provide Spanish dictionaries with a scientific-technical lexicon and, for this, he puts forward various word- formation mechanisms based on the elements of Classical languages instead of directly borrowing units from languages like French 9 : “We may not have names for all the perfected branches of manual arts and physical sciences in these times, since they have been underdeveloped. But, cannot we fortunately incorporate those missing from our common dictionary into it, like the French have done, either by borrowing or forming them based on Latin or Greek? And, similarly, who has claimed that these new words, either technical or didactical, come from French but rather from its writers, which is not the same thing? The dictionary of physics, chemistry, anatomy, medicine, pharmacy, botany, painting and architecture belongs to all educated nations; it therefore belongs to all languages, across which one should find no difference but the ending of words“ (Capmany, 1805: XV). In effect, as the above paragraph shows, the Catalonian considers technicisms as words formed from Classical languages and having a universal use, rather than as belonging to a specific language. They can therefore be avoided in any dictionary because it is only their endings that differentiate them. Lázaro (1949: 280) remarks, in relation to this issue, that “Capmany speaks of a truth that is as trivial today as it was singular back then: that scientific nomenclature comes from no particular country because it is of general domain”. In this sense, the preface proposes the exclusion of many words, especially those with a Greek origin, a measure that would reduce the size of the dictionary: 9 Capmany (1805: XX) also alludes to the transfer of words from Classical languages into French, which he finds a “menial imitation that has come to form some literary vassalage”. <?page no="70"?> 54 Marta Torres Martínez “Even those [words] that have been retained here and are of a Greek origin or composition, like those belonging to mathematics, astronomy, physics, medicine, and anatomy, which correspond to scientific nomenclature, and not to the body of vulgar languages, would have been left aside from this work on my decision. The readers would have been supplied with easy and general rules so to adapt these words to Spanish endings, which is the ultimate objective of the French-Spanish compared dictionary. For example, all French words ending in age and ague, arque, ere, gone, and oque, should be converted to Spanish endings ago, arca, arco, erio, gono, oco and oquo“ (Capmany, 1805: VII). In this excerpt, moreover, one finds an underlying idea vindicated today by numerous specialists (among others, Alvar Ezquerra, 1991: 91-115): the lemmatization of affixes and Greco-Latin stems in lexicographic repertoires would save space because it would avoid including in the macrostructure the derivatives that a prefix or suffix may create. Then again, Capmany illustrates the wide array of possibilities that Spanish has, by contrast to French, to generate compounds, derivative sand parasynthetic units. In an interesting excerpt from the preface, the author acknowledges that this is the reason why a Spanish-French section would be so difficult: “Even limiting our work to the letter A, which words would correspond to amanecer, anochecer, alborear, adocenar, asolear, anubarrar, alancear, asaetar, adietar, arracimar, aljofarar, apalabrar, and hundreds more? […] And if we move on to compounds, where should we find equivalents to alicaído, aliquebrado? To barbiteñido, barbilampiño, barbiblanco, barbicano, barbiponiente, barbilindo, barbitaheño, berbinegro, barbicurio, barbiroxo? To boquiabierto, boquirubio, boquimuelle, boquiduro? […] And what shall we say of the endless richness of simple and compound derivatives, such as amugerado, amuchachado, adamado, amulatado? Such as caballar, caballuno, perruno, muleño, asnal, ovejuno, carneruno, carneril, acarnerado? […] Just from the word fraile, which is moine in French, and with just the derivative moineau (sparrow), Spanish is able to form fraylería, fraylada, fraylesco, frayluno, afraylado, frayleño, fraylía, and also the verbs enfraylar and desenfraylar […] How shall we translate our augmentatives, diminutives and superlatives, which French lacks because it has to be aided by the adverb très in the latter case, and by the qualifying units gros, grand and petit for the former two? How to translate the numerous frequentative and energy-bearing verbs like pordiosear, menudear, aldabear, cerrojear, clamorear, colear, corcovear, cucharetear, aletear, tixeretear, &c.? Or inchoatives like vermejear, azulear, amarillear, albear o blanquear, negrear? Or active verbs of deprivation such as desemperezar, desamorar, desamistar, desacobardar, desendiosar, desendiablar, desautorizar, &c.? “ (Capmany, 1805: XVI-XVII). In accordance with the above, as indicated by Capmany, French normally uses petit + noun/ adverb (petit bruit, petit peu), a structure that is often translated via a Spanish diminutive that adds a lessening meaning and an emotional connotation. Nonetheless, in his Arte de traducir, and under the “Compendium of French word classes”, Capmany (1776: 10) admits the existence <?page no="71"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 55 of French diminutives created from suffixes like -et, -ette: grandelet 'a little big' (from grand 'big'), grasset 'a little fat' (from gras 'fat'), clairet 'a little clear' (from clair 'clear'), etc. It is, however, true that this suffix is scarcely productive nowadays, and that the formations carrying it are often lexicalized (fourchette 'fork', sonnette 'alarm bell, hand bell'). Also in his Arte de traducir and already under the “Logical and figurative vocabulary of idiotisms in the French language”, Capmany (1776: 147) adds in the word petit as a lemma. He provides its meaning ('little') and illustrate it with a number of formations like petit talent, petit esprit ('little talent, little understanding'), petit feu ('low or gentle heat') o petit enfant ('little one, infant, child') 10 . Also in Arte de traducir (1776: 11), Capmany indicates that “the French language lacks augmentatives”, even if it “forms them by using the words gros thick and grand big”, as happens in grand cheval 'big horse' o gros chien 'big dog' 11 . 5.2 The body of the dictionary Given the difficulty of examining every lemma of Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario in a work of limited extension like the present one, it was decided to touch on the entries included in the following sequences of the dictionary: A-AC, DE-DEC and RE-REC. This is not a random but a deliberate sampling. In Le bon usage, Grevisse (1980[1936]: 122-124) signals a-, dé-/ dés- and re- as the main French prefixes used in “popular compounding” 12 (together with others like après-, avant-, contre-, en-, par-, pour-, etc.). The sequence A-AC includes 466 lemmas overall; the sequence DE-DEC has 422 entries; in the sequence RE-REC 376 lemmas have been documented. 10 Concerning the theory of diminutives and augmentatives, other grammars of that time have been consulted as well. As a token, Arte de hablar bien francés (1824[1781]) by Pedro Nicolás Chantreau similarly indicates the lack of “simple diminutives”—that is, “expressed by a single word” (Chantreau 1824[1781]: 65)—, given that it recognizes only some like maisonnette ('little house'), historiette ('little tale'), femmelette ('little woman'), grandelet ('a little big'), formed from maison, histoire, femme and grand, respectively. 11 As far as augmentatives are concerned, Chantreau (1824[1781]: 66) claims that “French does not have simple words” and, like Capmany does, he indicates that “they are formed by putting one of these adjectives before the noun: grand, big, gros, thick; the former refers to height, the latter to thickness”. 12 We have also noted that Grevisse (1980[1936]: 118) embraces prefixation under compounding rather than under derivation, which contemplates only word creation through suffixes. This stance is due to the identification of prefix and preposition — “un préfixe est une particule (préposition ou adverbe)”—, which takes him to distinguishing between “préfixes séparables” (á, avant, bien, contre, en, par, plus, sur, etc.) and “préfixes inséparables” (dé-, dés-, in-, mé-, pré-, re-, archi-, anti-, etc.). Parasynthesis is also analyzed under compounding rather than as an independent morphological process. <?page no="72"?> 56 Marta Torres Martínez The following is a presentation of the data retrieved in relation to the number of entries created from the word-formation processes of derivation, parasynthesis and compounding: <?page no="73"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 57 The derivatives, compounds and parasynthetic entries recorded in the three samples are listed under appendix I. A number of conclusions can be drawn from the above charts. In view of the sample, and as stated by Capmany (1805: XVI-XVII) in the preface to the Nuevo diccionario, compounding is not as productive in French as it is in Spanish. This is so even if occasional compounds have been found in the sample (abat-vent, abrivent, de bout, etc.). The number of entries, by contrast, is significant as regards Capmany’s (1805: XVII) “simple and compound derivatives”, which feature similar figures in samples A-AC and DE-DEC, with a prominent increase in sample RE-REC (194). These units are currently considered either “derivative” (created by the addition of a derivative prefix or suffix to the base) or “parasynthetic” (created by the simultaneous application of a prefix and a suffix). The prefixes de, des and re (or ré) have been also documented as the first entries in the second and third samples: De, des. Preposiciones inseparables, y que se añaden a los verbos simples para formar compuestos. Re, o ré. Partícula aumentativa y reduplicativa. The lemmatization of these two prefixes means an advisable guideline when disclosing the semantic values of such affixes, as they help users interpret and/ or generate the complex words created from them. Besides the lemmatization of prefixes and complex words, interesting notes are found in the microstructure of some entries too. Capmany’s objective here is to assist translators and dictionary users in understanding the word in question by decomposing its forming elements. This is the case under the entry accolade, where the constitutive elements of the lemma are delimited (ac-col-ade): <?page no="74"?> 58 Marta Torres Martínez Accolade. s. f. Abrazo. Es voz muy usada en las ceremonias de Caballería, en que el recién armado recibía l'accolade: hoy solo se usa, en lugar de embrassement abrazo, en estilo de familiaridad y chanza. La misma composición de la palabra ac- col-ade, denota la acción de cruzar los brazos por el cuello […] On the other hand, information about related complex words is found under some entries when they have to do with the lemma in question. Such is the case of abatteur, accoucheuse, débouché and débouchement: Abatteur. s. m. Tumbador, el cortador de leña = (fig. fam.) Se dice grand abatteur de bois, ou de quilles, al bocón o fanfarrón. Accoucheuse. s. f. La partera o comadre. Dícese más comúnmente sage-femme, que corresponde a nuestra matrona. Débouché. s. m. Salida, conducto: para el despacho o venta de géneros, frutos u otra cosa. v. Débouchement. Débouchement. s. m. La operación de abrir o destapar alguna cosa = (fig.) Salida, vía o conducto: para dar despacho a las mercaderías, u otras cosas. V. Débouché, que está más en uso. Even in accommodable, for instance, Capmany warns about the danger of some words that are formally very similar in French and Spanish but carry different meanings: Accommodable. adj. Componible, concordable: no se debe confundir con acomodable, que en castellano suena adaptable o cosa que se puede acomodar a otra. On other occasions, he uses a diminutive to define the lemma, as in the cases of abat-vent and recoin: Abat-vent. s. m. Tejadillo, que se pone en los balcones, puertas, &c. Recoin. s. m. Rinconcillo, escondrijo. Furthermore, regarding Capmany’s interest in scientific-technical lexicon, we find that some lemmas are accompanied by field labels. To be precise, 14 notes are found out of the 1,260 entries in the three samples, as is shown in the following graph: <?page no="75"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 59 agric. ('word related to agriculture'): abbaisser, rebarder, dechaumer anat. ('word related to anatomy'): abaisseur arquit. ('word related to architecture'): recoupement blas. ('word related to a blazon'): accorné, ée; recroisetté carp. ('word related to carpentry'): décollement caza (unlisted under the “explanation of abbreviations used”): rebaudir cetr. ('word related to falconry'): abaisser chim. ('word related to chemistry'): récomposition, décomposer, décomposition, décrepitation, décrepiter fis. ('word related to physics'): réagir for. ('word related to forensics'): accommodation, réajournement, réassigner geom. ('word related to geometry'): décrire mont. ('word related to hunting'): débucher, acculer naut. ('word related to sailing'): abattre, rébander, débosser, débouquement, débourquer, de bout, rébander, réclamper pint. (unlisted under the “explanation of abbreviations used”): rechampir 5.3 The Supplement The Nuevo diccionario is completed with a Supplement, “which appears at the end of the general dictionary” and from which Capmany (1805: VII) dismisses “especially [those words] from medicine, anatomy, surgery and pharmacy”—around 1,300 terms—. The author justifies the inclusion of these scientific words in a Supplement and not in the body of the dictionary because “it is aimed directly and exclusively at presenting the simple Spanish translation of each French word” (Capmany, 1805: VII). Still, the Catalonian admits the incorporation to the repertoire of “those with a more common and current use”. The primary interest of this investigation is specialized words that were created from Greco-Latin stems, learned roots or compositive elements — “morphemes adopted from Latin and Greek that were used exclusively in the formation of scientific or, at least, specialized words” (Martín Camacho, 2004: 58)—. A particularly productive mechanism is the formation of terms by the union of two roots (compounding) 13 . In Nueva gramática de la lengua española (NGRALE, 2009: 782) reference is made to “neoclassical compounding”, a mechanism that nourishes from lexical roots labeled “learned compo- 13 Martín Camacho (2004: 60-61) remarks three possibilities: (i) compounds replaced by elements from Latin and Greek (acuífero, genotipo, hemofilia, lumbalgia, nitrógeno, etc.); (ii) compounds where a Classical root is appended to another from the general or scientific language (bacteriología, cefalotórax, dinosaurio, ideograma, oligoelemento, etc.); (iii) compounds where roots from the general and scientific languages are combined (gasóleo, inmunodeficiencia, avefría, saltamontes, etc.). In addition, there are the so-called “syntagmatic compounds”, namely those that are formed by two or more words with a syntactic and semantic, but not graphic unity (agujero negro, raíz cuadrada, caldo de cultivo, familia de palabras, etc.). <?page no="76"?> 60 Marta Torres Martínez sitive bases”, of Greek and Latin origin. Some of these resemble prefixes in their formal behavior, but others seem to be halfway between affixes and free bases 14 . Parallel to the case of Spanish, French also employs these learned bases in order to create words, especially those connected to specialized languages. In this manner, Grevisse (1980[1936]: 124-132) speaks of “learned compounding” and subclassifies it into “Latin compounding” and “Greek compounding”. Many of the morphemes included in this grammar are found in the Supplement to the Nuevo diccionario, as can be observed in Appendix II. 6 Assessment Besides the remarkable thoughts on language, translation and the art of devising dictionaries, interesting information is found in Capmany’s repertoire regarding word creation and, especially, the formation and introduction of words of a scientific-technical nature. By means of several samples, this study has verified the great number of complex words, especially derivative and parasynthetic units, contained in the Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805). In the light of our data, it seems suitable to pick up —and, in a way, refute— the aforementioned excerpt from the preface where Capmany (1805: XVI-XVII) points at the “endless richness” or “superabundance” of Spanish. Quite on the contrary, we have observed a not inconsiderable number of words documented for French, in this case generated by processes of lexical creation. We have noted how Capmany tinges the preface to his dictionary with an exacerbated patriotism —in fact, he does not hide his “national zeal” and “love for the native language”— and, in sum, with strong ideological connotations. All in all, we can but agree with Clavería et al. (2010: 28) in their statement that “in the transition from the 18th to the 19th century Capmany’s work presents linguistic ideas that are interesting and, at the same time, of a complex evolution for the knowledge of the history of linguistics, lexicography and the lexicon of the time”. 14 As the NGRALE (2009: 783-784) puts it, these are units that can be combined with other affixes, even if they occupy an initial position: bio- (anfibio), crono- (crónico), etno- (étnico), hidro- (hídrico), etc. Moreover, while prefixes and suffixes have a fixed position, these compositive elements may change their arrangement too: filólogo/ logófilo, fonograma/ gramófono, logotipo/ tipólogo, etc. Lastly, certain compositive bases show a behaviour that is similar to that of Spanish words: euro, besides being a compositive element (eurodiputado, eurodivisa, eurozona), is also a noun that designates the name of the currency from the European Union (the euro). <?page no="77"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 61 References Ignacio Ahumada (ed.): V siglos de lexicografía del español. Universidad de Jaén 2000. Manuel Alvar Ezquerra: “Diccionario y Gramática”. In: Lexicografía descriptiva. Barcelona: Biblograf, p. 89-143. Emilia Anglada Arboix: “Traducción y diccionario. Algunos neologismos de la química en el Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805) de A. de Capmany”. Revista de lexicografía, IV 1997-1998, pp. 31-47. Manuel Bruña Cuevas: “Las mejoras aportadas a la traducción por el Diccionario de Capmany (1805)”. In: Francisco Lafarga (ed.), La traducción en España (1750-1830). Lengua, literatura, cultura. Universitat de Lleida 1999, pp. 99-110. Antonio de Capmany: Arte de traducir el idioma francés al castellano. Con el vocabulario lógico y figurado de la frase comparada de ambas lenguas. Madrid: Antonio Sancha 1776. Antonio de Capmany: Nuevo diccionario francés-español. Madrid: Antonio Sancha 1805. Carmen Cazorla Vivas: Lexicografía bilingüe de los siglos XVIII y XIX con el español y el francés (PhD dissertation presented at the Department of Spanish Philology I, Faculty of Philology). Universidad Complutense de Madrid 2002. José Checa Beltrán: “Opiniones dieciochistas sobre la traducción como elemento enriquecedor o deformador de la propia lengua”. In: M.ª Luisa Donaire and Francisco Lafarga (eds.), Traducción y adaptación cultural España-Francia. Universidad de Oviedo 1991, pp. 593-602. Pedro Nicolás Chantreau: Arte de hablar bien francés o Gramática completa dividida en tres partes. Barcelona: N. Oliva y compañía, 8th ed. 1824[1781]. Gloria Clavería Nadal, Margarita Freixas and Joan Torruella Casañas: “La traducción de términos científico-técnicos del francés al español en el Nuevo diccionario francés-español (1805) de Antonio de Capmany”. Cuadernos del Instituto de Historia de la Lengua, 4 2010, pp. 27-54. Francisco Lafarga and Luis Pegenaute (eds.): Diccionario histórico de la traducción en España. Madrid 2009. María del Carmen Fernández Díaz: Antonio de Capmany, una visión original del problema de la traducción y del aprendizaje del francés en la España del siglo XVIII. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela 1985. Maurice Grevisse: Le bon usage: Grammaire française. Paris: Duculot, 11th ed. 1980[1936]. Fernando Lázaro Carreter: Las ideas lingüísticas en España durante el siglo XVIII. Anejo XLVIII de la Revista de Filología Española. Madrid 1949. Brigitte Lépinette Lepers and María Amparo Olivares Pardo: “La Lingüística y la traductología de Antonio de Capmany (1742-1813): El arte de traducir el idioma”. Livius: Revista de estudios de traducción, 2 1992, pp. 171-188. Wenceslao Carlos Lozano: “El Arte de traducir del idioma francés al castellano de Antonio de Capmany y Suris de Montpalau”. Sendebar: Revista de la Facultad de Traducción e Interpretación, 2 1991, pp. 15-22. José Carlos Martín Camacho: El vocabulario del discurso tecnocientífico. Madrid 2004. Luis Pablo Núñez: El arte de las palabras. Diccionarios e imprenta en el Siglo de Oro . Mérida 2010. <?page no="78"?> 62 Marta Torres Martínez Carmen Roig Morras: “El Nuevo diccionario francés-español de Antonio de Capmany”. In: Francisco Lafarga Maduell, Albert Ribas, Mercedes Tricás (coords.), La traducción: metodología, historia, literatura: ámbito hispanofrancés 1995, pp. 75-80. Mónica Vidal Díez: “El Diccionario (1817) de A. de Capmany”. In: F. San Vicente, C. Garriga and H. E. Lombardini (eds.), Ideolex. Estudios de Lexicografía e Ideología. Polimetrica International Scientific Publisher Monza/ Italy 2011, pp. 403-418. Alicia Yllera and Mª Rosario Ozaeta: Estudios de traducción. Francés-español. Madrid 2002. <?page no="79"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 63 A PPENDIX I C ORPUS A-AC D ERIVATIVES abaisse abaissé, ée abaissement abaisser abaisser (s') abaisseur abalourdir abasourdi, ie abasourdir abatteur abattre abattre (s') abjuré, ée abjurer aboiement abordé, ée aborder abouché, ée abouchement aboucher abrité, ée abriter abrouter accouvé, ée accredité, ée (adj.) accredité, ée (p. p.) accrediter (s') accroire accroissement accroître accroupi, ie (p. y adj.) accroupi, ie (p. p.) accroupir (s') accueilli, ie accueillir acrimonieux, euse actionnaire actionné, ée actionner P ARASYNTHETIC ENTRIES abatardi, ie abatardir abatardir (s') abatardissement abecher abecquer aborné, ée abornement aborner aboutir aboutissant, ante aboutissans aboutissement abruti, ie abrutir abymé, ée abymer acclimate, ée accolade accolé, ée accoler accommodable accomodant, ante accommodation accommodé, ée accommodement accommoder accommoder (s') accompagné, ée accompagnement accompagner accompagner (s') accorné, ée accouché, ée accouchement accoucher accoucheur accoucheuse accouder (s') accoudé, ée accoudoir accouplé, ée accouplement accoupler acculé, ée acculer acculer (s') accumulé, ée accumuler acheminé, ée acheminement acheminer acheminer (s') accoquiné, ée acoquiner C OMPOUNDS abat-chauvée abat-jour abat-vent abrivent acquit-á-cautiou <?page no="80"?> 64 Marta Torres Martínez C ORPUS DE-DEC D ERIVATIVES débaptisé, ée débaptiser débarbouillé, ée débarbouiller débarbouiller (se) débardeur débarré, ée débarrer débattre débattre (se) débattu, ue débilement débilitation débilité debiliter déboire débraillé, ée débrailler o se débrailler débredouillé, ée débredouiller débrouillé, ée débrouillement débrouiller débucher débusqué, ée débusquer décacheté, ée décacheter décharge déchargé, ée déchargement décharger décharger (se) déchargeur decharmer dechaumer déchiffrable déchiffré, ée déchiffrement déchiffer déchiffeur déchoir décoiffé, ée décoiffer décollé, ée décollement décolement (carp.) décoller décolorer décolorir (se) décomposé, ée décomposer décomposition décompte décompté, ée décompter déconcerté, ée déconcerter déconfire déconfit, te déconfort déconforter déconseiller déconvenue découcher (v. n.) découcher (v. a.) découdre découdre (en) découlant, ante découlement découler découpé, ée découper découpeur découpeur, euse découplé, ée découpler découragé, ée décourageant, ante découragement décourager décousu, ue décousure découverte découvrir découvrir (se) decrier décroché, ée décrochement décrocher décroire décroissement décroître décru, ue décuire décuire (se) P ARASYNTHETIC ENTRIES debandé, ée debandement debander debander (se) débanquer débardé, ée débarder débarqué, ée débarquement débarquer (v. a.) débarquer (v. n.) déboité, ée déboitement déboiter débonder (v. a.) débonder (v. n.) débondonner débondonné, ée débonnaire débonnairement débonnaireté débordé, ée débordement déborder (v. a.) déborder (v. n.) déborder (se) débosser débotté, ée débotter débotter (se) debouché débouché, ée débouchement déboucher (v. a.) déboucher (v. n.) débouclé, ée déboucler débouilli débouillir débouquement débouquer <?page no="81"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 65 débourbé, ée débourber débourgeoiser débourré, ée débourrer débourrer (se) déboursé déboursé, ée déboursement débourser déboutonné, ée déboutonner déboutonner (se) débridé, ée débrider débrutalisé, ée débrutaliser débruti, ie débrutir décampement décamper décaper décarrelé, ée décarreler dechagriner déchainé, ée déchainement déchainer déchainer (se) déchalander (des-) déchaperonneé, ée déchaperonner décintrer décloué, ée déclouer décolleté, ée décolleter décontenancé, ée décontenancer décontenancer (se) décordé, ée décorder décrassé, ée décrasser décrasser (se) décredité, ée décreditement décrediter décrepit, ite décrépitation décrépiter décrépitude décrotté, ée décrotter décrotteur décrottoire décrouter décrué, ée décruer C OMPOUNDS de bout sans débrider a découvert C ORPUS RE-REC D ERIVATIVES réagir réajourné, ée réajournement réajorner reaposser réappreciation réarpentage réassignation réassigné, ée réassigner reatteler rébaiser rébaisser rébander rebaptisans rebaptisation rebaptisé, ée rebaptiser rebarder rebati, ie rebatir rebattre rebattu, ue rebaudir rebénir rebéquer reblanchir reboire rebondi, ie rebondir rebondissement rebord rebordé, ée reborder rebotter rebotter (se) rebouché, ée rebouchement reboucher reboucher (se) rebouillir rebourgeonner reboutonner rebrassé, ée rebrasser rebrider rebrodé, ée rebroder rebrouiller rebroyer rebrunir rebuté, ée rebuter rebuter (se) recaché, ée recacher recacheté, ée recacheter recapitulation récapitulé, ée récapituler recarrelé, ée recarreler recassé, ée recasser recéder recélé, ée recélement recéler recéleur, euse réchange réchangé, ée réchanger rechanté, ée rechanter recharge rechargé, ée recharger rechaud <?page no="82"?> 66 Marta Torres Martínez réchauffé, ée réchauffement réchauffer réchauffer (se) réchauffoir réchaussé, ée réchausser recherché recherché, ée recherché rechoir rechu, ue (p. p.) rechu, ue (p. p. y adj.) rechute reciré, ée recirer recloué, ée reclouer recogné, ée recogner recoiffé, ée recoiffer recoin recollé, ée récollection recoller recolligé, ée se recolliger recommandé, ée recommander recommander (se) recommencé, ée recommencer récompensé, ée recompenser recompenser (se) récomposé, ée récomposer récompositon recompter reconciliable réconciliateur, trice reconciliation reconcilié, ée reconcilier reconcilier (se) reconduire reconduit, ite reconfort reconfortation reconforté, ée reconforter reconfronter reconnoisable reconnaissance reconnoissant, ante reconnoître reconnoître (se) réconnu, ue reconquérir reconquis, ise reconstitution reconstruction reconstruire reconstruit, ite reconsulter reconter recontracter reconvenir reconvention reconvoquer recopié, ée recopier recouvert, erte recorrigé, ée recorriger recoché, ée recoucher recoucher (se) recoudre recoupé, ée recoupement recouper recourbé, ée recourber recourir recouvrir recracher recreation récreé, é récréer recreé, é recréer récrepir recreusé, ée recreuser recriblé, ée recribler récrier, se récrier récrire récrit, ite récroître recrotter recueillement recueilli, ie recueillir recueillir (se) recuire recuit, ite recuite recui reculé, ée reculée reculer (v. a) reculer (v. n) P ARASYNTHETIC ENTRIES récépage récépe, ée récéper recampir réclampé, ée réclamper recoquillé, ée recoquiller recoquiller (se) recroisetté, ée <?page no="83"?> Word-formation and translation in Capmany’s Nuevo diccionario (1805) 67 A PPENDIX II aéro- ('air'): aéronaute, aerostatique agro- ('field'): agronomo amphi- ('around', 'double', 'on both sides'): amphiathrose (anat.), amphisbène ana- ('again', 'against', 'backward', 'over'): anadrome (medic.), analepsie (medic.) andro- ('male'): androgyne, androtonomie o andranatomie (anat.) anémo- ('wind'): anémomètrie, anémoscope angio- ('related to blodd or lymph vessels'): angiologie (anat.), angiotomie (anat.) anglo- ('English'): anglomane anthropo- ('man'): anthropophage, anthropologie anti- ('opposite', 'displaying opposite characteristics'): anticonstitutionnaire (teol.), antifébrile archi- ('preeminence', 'superiority'): archiépiscopat, archimaréchal chiro- ('hand'): chirologie, chiromance o chiromancie chrono- ('time'): chronogramme o chronographe, chronometre cosmo- ('universe'): cosmograhie, cosmologie crypto- ('hidden'): cryptographe, crytographie dactylo- ('finger'): dactylologie, dactylonomie deca- ('ten'): decamyron (farm.), décasyllabe dermo- ('skin'): dermologie dia- ('through', 'throughout', 'made of'): diaphenie, diaphese (anat.) dodéca- ('twelve'): dodécaèdre (geom.), dodécatémorie (astron.) electro- ('electricity', 'electric'): electrométre endeca- ('eleven'): endecagone (geom.), endécasylabe ennea- ('nine'): enneagone (geom.) épi- ('on', 'upon'): épiderme, épiglotte gastro- ('stomach', 'ventral area'): gastrolatre, gastroraphie (cirug.) géo- ('earth'): géodésie, géomance grapho- ('writing'): graphomètre gynéco- ('woman'): gynécocratie, gynécocratique hémi- ('half'): hemicycle, hémiplegie o hemiplexie (medic.) hémo- ('blood'): hémoptyque (medic.), hémoptyste hépta- ('seven'): héptamèron hexa- ('six'): hexacorde (mus.), hexaèdre (geom.) hippo- ('horse'): hippodrome, hippogriffe homo- ('same'): homophagie, homophonie hydro- ('water'): hydrocephale (medic.), hydrophobe hyper- ('superiority', 'excess'): hyperbolique, hypercrise (medic.) hypo- ('beneath', 'deficient in'): hypogastre (anat.), hypoglosses (anat.) iso- ('same'): isochrone, isometrie logo- ('word'): logogriphe, logomachie meta- ('later', 'between', 'next to', 'with'): métachronisme métro- ('measurement' , 'measuring device'): métromanie, métromètre micro- ('very small', 'one-millionth'): microcosme, micrographie mono- ('one', 'single'): monocule (cirug.), monogamie myo- ('muscle'): myologie, myotomie (anat.) myria- ('ten thousand'): myriade <?page no="84"?> 68 Marta Torres Martínez nécro- ('dead'): nécrologie neo- ('recent', 'new'): neographisme odonto- ('tooth'): odontalgie ophtalmo- ('eye'): ophtalmologie, ophtalmoscophie ortho- ('straight', 'correct'): orthodoxe, ortogonal (geom.) paleo- ('ancient', 'primitive'): paleographie panto- ('all'): pantographe, pantomètre para- ('near', 'alongside', 'against'): parachronisme, paradoxisme penta- ('five'): pentacorde, pentagone péri- ('around'): périmètre (geom.), périneumonie (medic.) pneumato- ('air', 'breath'): pheumatocéle, pneumatologie podo- ('foot'): podométre poly- ('plurality', 'abundance'): polyglotte, polygone pyro- ('fire'): pyromance, pyronomie radio- ('radiation', 'radioactivity'): radiomètre sarco- ('flesh'): sarcologie (anat.), sarcome (cirug.) scléro- ('hard'): sclérophtalmie (cirug.), sclérotique (anat.) syn- ('union'): synechia (cirug.), synérese (gram.) tétra- ('four'): tétraédre (geom.), tétrastyle (arquit.) thérape- ('treatment'): thérapeutes. thérapeutique zoo- ('animal'): zoographie, zoologie -algia ('pain'): odontalgia - forme ('having the form of'): cuneiforme (anat.) -gone ('angle'): dodécagone (geom.), hexagone (geom.) -graphe ('that writes or describes'): épigraphe -logie ('treaty', 'study', 'science'): dermologie, desmologie (anat.) -mancie ('guesswork', 'practice of predicting'): daphnomancie, dactylomancie -manie ('excessive tendency, 'obsessive impulse or pathologic habit', 'passionate liking'): démonomanie -metre ('measurement', 'measuring device'): hexametre, electromètre -oïde ('similar to', 'in the shape of'): condyloïde (anat.), conoïde (geom.), caracoïde (anat.) -technie ('science'): pyrotechnie -tomie ('cut', 'incision'): embryotomie, gastrotomie (cirug.) <?page no="85"?> David Carmona Centeno An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides through an analysis of the narrative settings that introduce the battle-speeches 1 1 Introduction The first Spanish translation of the History of the Peloponnesian War was published in 1564. Its author, Diego Gracián de Aldarete, received an excellent education, including the knowledge of Latin and Greek languages, by Luis Vives in Leuven. Therefore, he was required in Spanish court as secretary and translator of exotic languages by Charles I and later on by his son, Philip II. According to Gracián’s words in the Prologue, he made his translation of Thucydides directly from the Greek text, a fact that not had been questioned for centuries. Thus, this translation continued to be published and read despite the numerous errors it contains, until Adrados realised a new translation in 1952. Adrados was also the first to criticize harshly Gracián’s translation. He did not question that it was made directly from the Greek text, but said that “es imposible recorrer una sola página sin encontrar varios errores graves de traducción… y no merece ni siquiera, en los tiempos que corren, el calificativo de traducción”. 2 Lasso de la Vega’s criticism is not less severe. He even thinks Gracián did not take into account the thucydidean text and explains the numerous failures by a supposed use of intermediate versions, such as Valla’s Latin translation and, above all, Seyssel’s French text. 3 Certainly the Spanish translation depends heavily on the French, to the point that Gracián even copied fundamental ideas of Seyssel’s and Colin’s prefaces and passed them off as his own. 4 However, as already shown with regard to Gracián’s translation of Plutarch’s Moralia, 5 we think it would be too easy to state 1 This paper is written thanks to a Postdoctoral Scholarship that is subsidised by the Gobierno de Extremadura-Consejería de Economía, Comercio e Innovación, and the European Social Fund. It was undertaken as a part of the research project (FFI2009-11162), “Selecciones de discursos historiográficos desde la Antigüedad al Renacimiento”. 2 Rodríguez Adrados: Tucídides: Historia de la Guerra del Peloponeso. Madrid 2003, pp. 72- 75. 3 Lasso de la Vega (1962: 497-9). Also cf. Gil (1981). 4 Iglesias Zoido (2011: 174). 5 Cf. Morales Ortiz (2000). <?page no="86"?> 70 David Carmona Centeno simply that the first Spanish version of the Thucydidean history is a mere calque of other versions. We aim, therefore, to shed more light on the complex process of translation followed by Diego Gracián. For this purpose, a comparative analysis with passages of the other versions that, in principle, he had at his disposal reveals also necessary: Valla’s Latin translation (1452), 6 and Seyssel’s French (1512, but published in 1527), this last one realised directly from Valla’s. 7 Besides, there will be an analysis of items that until now have been given little attention for being a priori of minor importance and seemingly simple. We are referring to the narrative “settings”, 8 that is, words or phrases that open and close the interventions of the several characters in direct and indirect discourse and that Thucydides inserts into the narrative line of his history. We will focus in particular on the settings of (pre-)battle speeches, which usually involve translation difficulties that, in many cases, have more to do with the complex formalisation process the settings have undergone throughout the centuries than with the proverbial oscuritas of the Athenian historian. 9 2 The typology of the pre-battle speeches and their level of formalisation In the Thucydidean work, we can find examples of the four types of pre- battle speech that were common in Greco-Roman historiography: the speech to army commanders and officers; the one pronounced before the troops formed on the battlefield; the words addressed to an assembly of troops; and the epipolesis or troops review. 10 Interestingly, Gracián, as we will see, 6 For more information on Valla’s translation of Thucydides, cf. Besomi-Regoliosi (1984) y Chambers (2008: 11-12). 7 On the importance of Valla’s Latin version to make the Thucydidean work more accessible, forming the starting point of various different translations into the vernacular in the sixteenth century, such as Seyssel’s, cf. Pade (2000: 570 ss.). On the specific case of the French translation, cf. Boone (2000: 570 ss.). 8 Term used by Westlake (1973). Cf. the terms “Umrahmung”, used by Fingerle (1939), and “engarce”, coined by Iglesias Zoido (2006). 9 This oscuritas affects especially the speeches. Cicero complains bitterly about the poor intelligibility of some Thucydidean speeches due to many obscure and difficult sentences (De orat. 9.30). Dionysius of Halicarnassus considers the Thucydidean History archaic, difficult and not very suitable to train rhetorics, whose main virtue is to be clear. Cf. Dion. Thuc. 34 y 39). As evidenced by Huart (1968: pp.30 ss), that oscuritas is derived from a tension between ideas and expression, since those do not usually fit the paratactic style that Thucydides used. 10 These basic types were set by Hansen (1993) and (2001). In the corpus of all the battle speeches of Greco-Roman historiography, Carmona Centeno et alii (2008) added two more in function of the time of pronunciation: during or after the battle. <?page no="87"?> An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides 71 changes his method and way of translating the settings depending on the type of speech, on possible comprehension problems and on the degree of formalisation. 2.1 Pre-battle speeches addressed to army commanders and officers The only example of this type takes place before the invasion of Attica by the Peloponnesian army (Th. 2.10): , ! " # $ % , & ' ( ) * + - , " - " # * % # " . % / . After the whole army was assembled, Archidamus, the King of Lacedaemonians, who led the expedition, having called together the generals of all the states and the chief and most distinguished officers, spoke as follows. The complication in this setting lies in the indefinite expression " ... . % , which refers to the groups of officers to whom Archidamus also addressed his speech, suited to the different circumstances and arrangements of the various Peloponnesian contingents. 11 Valla translates the passage as follows (f. 31v): Quo postquam omnis coactus est exercitus, rex Lacedaemoniorum Archidamus, huius dux expeditionis, conuocatis omnium ciuitatum praetoribus, et in primis qui dignitate praediti forent, maximéque digni qui adessent, hunc in modum disseruit. The Italian humanist, interprets " ... . % as those who had been awarded the highest distinction and the most distinguished ones, to which is added qui adessent, "who were present." Given this almost redundancy, 12 Seyssel, who handles only the Latin version, decides to simplify the passage (f. 35r): Lesquels estans là tous assemblez, Archidamus roy des Lacedemoniens, qui e stoit le chef de l’armee, appela tous les officiers et les principaux de toutes les citez, et leur parla en telle maniere. By tous les officiers et les principaux de toutes les citez, the French translator chooses to reduce and thereby to clarify the groups that adresses Archidamus. 13 Gracián, meanwhile, offers a translation that seems to follow first Seyssel and then Valla or the original Greek: 11 Cf. Marchant (1891). 12 On the quality of this translation and some obvious errors, cf. Alberti (1984: 244-53) and Maurer (1999). 13 Seyssel considered Valla’s translation so dark and difficult (moult obscure et difficile) that he needed the help of Lascaris to solve the most difficult passages, even if we ignore the exact extent of this help. As highlighted by Boone (2000), Seyssel does not al- <?page no="88"?> 72 David Carmona Centeno Y quando todo el exercito fue ayuntado, Archidamo rey de los Lacedemonios, que era ca udillo de toda la hueste, mando llamar los capitanes de todas las ciudades, y principalmente a los mas señalados, y hizo les este razonamiento. The apposition que era caudillo de toda la hueste must come from the French relative clause qui estoit le chef de l’armee. However, mando llamar los capitanes de todas las ciudades, y principalmente a los más señalados does not correspond to the passage offered by Seyssel, nor with Valla’s interpretation, since there are not two additional groups, but only one, probably the second one. We believe that it can not been ruled out that Gracián also handles the Greek text in moments like these, because the expression y principalmente a los más señalados may be a translation of " ( ) . % . However, a counter argument is that the verb that introduces the speech in the three translations (disseruit / parla / hizo les este razonamiento) does not contain the original meaning of ("exhorted" or "harangued"). 2.2 Pre-battle speeches to the troops in formation on the battlefield (without any indication of the general’s movement) As shown before, the setting of a seemingly simple speech addressed by a general to his officers may contain elements that are difficult to be properly translated. What happens in the speeches addressed to the troops that are already prepared for combat on the battlefield is something else, though. Facing the imminent attack of the Illyrians, Brasidas thoroughly arranges his men in the field and delivers them a speech (4.125.2-4): … 3 4 % " 5 & ! 3 ( . % ( . * , 6 7 ! 4 ( , 8 " % , 4 8 % ( 9 - : ; % # ( # % 9 . < . + < . " " : , = > % + ( 9 . [Brasidas] forming his hoplites into a square and placing his light-armed troops in the middle, intended to retreat. Posting his youngest soldiers to sally out upon the enemy wherever the attack might be made, and he himself, with three hundred chosen men, during the march in the rear, planned to sustain the most forward of the assailants, giving battle to them. And before the enemy approached, he encouraged his soldiers, as the shortness of the circunstances permitted, in the following words . ways stay faithful to the Latin version, as, for example, in the dialogue of Melios, because his purpose is to serve military and political training for the king and his advisers, while Valla works like a true philologist. This is why the French translator tends to produce a text that is clearer and more accessible for his readers. <?page no="89"?> An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides 73 On this occasion, it is difficult to interpret the intricate formation of the troops on the battlefield and the plan that designs Brasidas. The continued use of present participles by Thucydides complicates the sentence even more. Although Valla avoids translating some of the participles, he captures the sense of the setting very well (f. 97r): … quadrato ipse agmine, leui armatura in medium accepta, constituerat abscedere: di spositisque, si qua inuaderetur, iunioribus excursoribus, cum delecta ipse trecentorum manu in animo habebat ut postremus discederet, resistendo primis quibusque hostium sese offerentibus et, priusquam illi aduentarent, ut in breui, milites suos ita adortatus est. Seyssel, meanwhile, introduces significant changes (f. 129v): … ordonna son armee en bataille quarree, et enclouït les pietons legerement armez dedans la phalange, puis les feit marcher, à intention de soy retirer ainsi. Et luy auec trois cens des plus ieunes et des plus gaillards, demeura derriere, pour soustenir le choc des co ureurs, et de ceux qui viendroyent ruer sur luy des premiers, p our les entretenir et retarder, tant que les autres marcheroyent tousiours auant, et deliberoit de s’en partir et retirer le dernier. Mais auant la venue des enemis, parla à ses gens à briefs langages, en la maniere que s’ensuit. Firstly, Seyssel does not deem convenient that young soldiers sally out and that Brasidas chooses the best three hundred to be with him. Thus, in Seyssel’s translation, both the youngest (ieunes) and the bravest ones (gaillards) are chosen by Brasidas, and the mention of the arrangement of those soldiers for sallying out is eliminated. Secondly, the French translator tries to explain better, providing additional information, the Spartan general's plan. Gracián, in this case, does not move away from the French translation (112r): … puso en orden su exercito en un esquadron quadrado, y cerro los soldados armados a la ligera, en medio del esquadron, y assi les mando caminar con intencion de se venir retirando, y el con trezientos infantes los mas moços, y valientes de todos se quedo en la retaguarda para sostener el ímpetu delos corredores del campo de los enemigos que viniessen a dar sobrel de los primeros, y los entretener, y retardar mientras que la otra vanda de su exercito caminasse adelante con determinación de seyr retirando a la postre de todos, y antes que los enemigos llegassen hablo a los suyos para les animar, y esforçar con este breue razonamiento. However, as we will see in several examples, Gracián indicates the hortatory character of the speech, unlike Seyssel. While the French translator writes parla à ses gens à briefs langages, en la maniere que s’ensuit, Gracián chooses hablo a los suyos para les animar, y esforçar con este breue razonamiento, which is closer to Valla’s expression ut in breui, milites suos adhoratus est. 14 14 In the setting of another battle exhortation to the troops formed on the battlefield, pronounced by Demosthenes (Th. 4.9.3: ), Gracián also follows Seyssel’s version. <?page no="90"?> 74 David Carmona Centeno 2.3 Pre-battle speeches to an assembly of troops The two analysed examples show that, though Gracián takes the French version as his first model, he does not merely copy it, but also bases his translation on Valla’s and / or on the Greek text when necessary. This attitude persists in the settings of the speeches that are delivered to an assembly of troops (the most common battle exhortation in Thucydides’ work), for example, when the Peloponnesian commanders call their soldiers together to stimulate them (2.86.6): 8 ? ) @ A B # C - % - , ! * ) . # D<- % ! -<) , " 9 # , # 4 # " " > E F ! 4 <+ G + 8 . Then, Cnemus, Brasidas and the other Peloponnesian generals, desiring to bring on a ba ttle as soon as posible, before reinforcements should arrive from Athens, first a ssembled the soldiers and, seeing the most of them cowed and dispirited by the former defeat, exhorted and spoke to them as follows. Indeed, this type of battle speech is marked by , translated correctly by Valla (f. 47r). However, it seems that the Italian author considers (“being discouraged”) redundant, as he had said earlier that they were afraid (perterritos from ). 15 Caeterum Cnemus et Brasidas et alii Peloponnensium duces volentes primo quoque te mpore pugnam committere, priusquam aliquid auxiliorum ab Atheniensibus superueniret, concionem primum militum aduocauerunt, quorum multos priore calamitate perterritos quum animaduerterent, ad eos excitandos, hunc in modum verba fecerunt. In the same sense as Valla, Seyssel does not hesitate to determine the type of speech that is going to be pronounced (f. 62v): En ce temps pendant voyans Cnemus et Brasidas et les autres chefs des Peloponnesiens, que leurs gens estoyent encore estonnez et espouantez pour cause de la desfaite precedente, les firent tous assembler, et leur parlerent en telle maniere. He ignores, however, what he thinks to be less important (the information on the Athenian reinforcements) and simplifies the two verbs into one (parlerent) using the “formula” we saw earlier (parler en telle maniere). Gracián, on the other hand, begins to translate the passage following Seyssel’s version but finishes with Valla’s (f. 52r): 15 Besides, is resolved with a gerundive sentence for the hortatory verb (ad eos excitandos) and a principal sentence for the declarative verb (hunc in modum verba fecerunt). <?page no="91"?> An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides 75 Y estando en esto Cnemon y Brasidas, y los otros capitanes de los Peloponeses como vie ssen a los suyos que aun estauan medrosos y desmayados por la perdida pasada, mandaron los ayuntar: y para animar los les hizieron este razonamiento. Indeed, as usual, he also gets inspired by Valla’s text when translating the verbs that introduce the speech. This is indeed the only possible explanation we can find for para animar los (Valla: ad eos excitandos), a sentence that is not translated by Seyssel. The following fragment reinforces our ideas of the specific translational norms that govern the Latin, French and Spanish texts. Thucydides reports that Phormio, seeing his army dispirited, calls them together and delivers them an exhortation (Th. 2.88.1-3): H I % 3 4 # % # J % K <* & )< # # > F 4 " F ! L , ! + < L M * N < . * H > K 4 ( 8 + O > 9 = 4 H 4 ( )< # L , P 7, & 4 ; , A # L F 4 ( . % + - K NF , - G <- ( G C - % # ; % ( · * H L G5 # 4 " .< L ! + ; * - N < L < ( , " <- 8 . Phormio too, fearing that his men might be frightened, and noticing that they, forming groups, were afraid of the multitude of the enemy’s numbers, desired to call them together in order to encourage them and deliver an exhortation under the present circumstances. Before, he had often told them and predisposed their minds to the idea that there was no numerical superiority of vessels impossible to face in case an attack; and the soldiers the mselves had long assumed that being Athenians they ought no to retire before any quantity of Peloponnesian vessels. At that moment, however, he, seeing them dispirited in the pr esent situation, determined to refresh their drooping confidence; and after assembling the Athenians, he spoke as follows. This setting provides a lot of information related to the mood of the soldiers and the arguments that the general gives to spur them on. However, Valla succesfully translates the setting as follows (f. 36r): Phormio autem, timens et ipse militum pauorem, et animadvertens quod adde nsatis inter se nauibus multitudinem classis hostilis formidabant, uoluit conuocatos eos animare pa rtier, et in praesens tempus admonere. Nam semper antea, quo animos illosque praepararet, negauerat ullam tantam classem cui inuadenti non foret ab eis resistendum. Et ipsi milites iam pridem hanc intra se fiduciam praesumpserant, ut quia Athenienses essent, nulli quamlibet numerosae Peloponnensium classi cederent. Tunc tamen eos cernens praesenti rerum aspectu animo debilitatos statuit audaciae commone faciendos: conuocatisque illis, hoc modo desseruit. Seyssel, as usual, limits his translation to a report of the most important data (f. 63r): <?page no="92"?> 76 David Carmona Centeno De l’austre costé Phormio voyant que ses gens estoyent aussi espouantez pour le grand nombre de nauires qu’ils voyoyent contre eux, les feit pareillement assembler et conforter, pourtant que tousiours les auoit asseurez qu’il ne pourroit venir si grosse armee de mer alencontre d’eux, qu’ils ne fussent pour y resister. Et eux mesmes pourtant qu’ils estoyent Atheniens, auoyent conceu celle presomption en leur entendement, qu’ils ne se reculeroyent iamais deuant armee de mer, qu’ils vissent des Peloponnesiens, pour grosse qu’elle fust. Mais les voyans lors etre espouantez, delibera leur remettre leur cueur. Si leur parla en telle maniere. Firstly, he does not translate the beginning, where Valla mentions that Phormio himself was afraid that his men might be frightened (timens et ipse militum pauorem), perhaps because Seyssel does not consider this to be an appropriate attitude for a commander. Secondly, an expression that translates the syntagma praesenti rerum aspecto is absent. Thirdly, surprisingly, the final reference to the assembly of troops (conuocatisque illis) does not appear, maybe because it had already been announced above (les feit pareillement assembler et conforter). Gracián, as usual, starts translating from the French version and finishes following the Latin one (f. 102v-103r): Por otra parte Phormion viendo su gente amedrentada por el gran numero de naos de los enemigos, que veyan contra ellos, los hizo assi mismo ayuntar: y los conorto, y animo po rque siempre les auia asegurado, que no podria venir tan gran armada de mar contra ellos que no fuesen bastantes para los resistir. Y ellos mesmos por ser Athenienses tenían aquella presumpcion, que no darian la ventaja a ninguna armada de los Peloponeses, por gra nde que fuesse. Mas como entonces los viesse atemorizados queriendo los animar, y poner osadia les mando ayuntar, y les hizo este razonamiento. As Seyssel, he does not mention the fear of Phormio and the critical circumstances, but, on the other hand, he reintroduces the final reference that indicates the type of speech (les mando ayuntar) following convocatisque illis offered by Valla, or, a second option, ! , written by Thucydides. It does not seem, until now, that there are problems to identify the type of battle exhortation announced by the Athenian historian in each setting. However, when the speech addressed to an assembly of soldiers shows a major degree of formalisation in its presentation, interpretation errors and subsequent amendments may occur. In these cases, Gracián usually keeps distance of Seyssel’s version. A significant example is the setting that introduces the Pagondas’ speech (4.91): C 9 K ! % # Q-! # R D < L $ ' S - 4 L ! * - ) O% B : L , # T > * , & % U< * > & , 8 < " @ % " K " D<- . # ( < , % . <?page no="93"?> An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides 77 But Pagondas, son of Aeolidas, one of the two Boeotarchs of Thebes, who was in command at the time together with Ariantidas, son of Lysimachidas, intending to fight and believing that the risk was worth encountering, calling one by one each company to avoid them to leave their positions all at once, exhorted the Boeotians to attack the Athenians and to ha zard battle, speaking as follows. Thucydides says that the Boeotian calls each company one by one and speaks to them individually, because he does not want them to leave their positions all at the same time. Obviously, Pagondas does not repeat exactly the same words to each contingent, nor does Thucydides report all the variations: he simply provides one single speech. Valla has some problems to interpret this setting correctly (f. 90r): Sed Pagondas Thebanus Aeoladi filius, unus e magistratibus cum Arianthide Lysimachi filio, penes quem tunc imperium erat, cupidus ibi pugnae commitendae, quod satius esse arbitrabatur periclitari, hortatus singulas cohortes ne frequentes arma relinquerent, suasit Boeotis ut irent aduersus Athenienses, certamenque commiteret, huiuscemodi oratione . The Italian humanist does not fully understand & % U< * > & , because he relates this fact to Pagondas’ intent of persuading the soldiers to fight against the Athenians. Thus, he interprets as “exhorting” (hortatus) instead of "calling together" or simply "calling". Seyssel, unable to interpret the Latin text correctly, seems to consider that the fragment does not add any important information to the speech pronounced by Pagondas and so suppresses the difficult part (f. 121r): Mais Pagondas fils d’Eoladus de Thebes, qui estoit l’un desdits gouuerneurs, et Arianthides fils de Lysimachus, qui auoit pour lors la charge de celle assemble, furent de co ntraire opinion. 16 Et mesme ledit Pagondas, lequel estimant et iugeant qu’il estoit pour le mieuls esprouuer la fortune par le combat, persuada aux Beotiens son opinión par telles paroles. Gracián, by contrast, provides a translation, at this point, a little more free (f. 103v): Mas Pagondas Thebano hijo de Eolado que era uno de los gouernadores, y Ariantidas hijo de Lysimacho que era el principal aquel ayuntamiento, y caudillo de toda la gente de guerra, fue de contraria opinión, mayormente Pagondas, el qual juzgando que era mejor prouar su fortuna por combate que no esperar, amonesto todas las compañas delos Beocios que no dexassen las armas, sino que fuesen contra los Athenienses, y les offresciessen la batalla, y para ello les hizo el razonamiento siguiente. The Spanish translator seems to follow Seyssel’s version in the beginning when writing fue de contraria opinión, from furent de contraire opinion. Furthermore, he attempts to translate what is not in the French version, which automatically implies he has before his eyes Valla’s version, the Greek text, or even both. Nevertheless, he does not successfully transmit the meaning of 16 He adds furent de contraire opinion to clarify the passage. <?page no="94"?> 78 David Carmona Centeno Thucydides’ words: he interprets that Pagondas exhorts all the companies not to leave their arms, trying to translate Valla’s interpretation (hortatus singulas cohortes ne frequentes arma relinquerent). Besides, he does not translate the attempt of persuasion of Pagondas, offered in the Greek text and in the other versions ( 8 < / suasit / persuada), and he chooses to use his favourite expression to introduce the speech (para ello les hizo el razonamiento siguiente). This attitude of Gracián, who intends to offer, though unsuccessfully, his interpretation, will be accentuated when facing the settings of the epipolesis, which are subjected to a complex formalisation process as was the case in the last example. 3 The formalisation of the epipolesis and its translation The very complex representation of the epipolesis, in which the general exhorts his men while going along the ranks, 17 can be shown in three different ways in the settings: in the first option, the historian says that the general exhorts his men while passing along the army, but nothing is reported about several speeches taking place or about the fact that the general might address himself individually to different groups (“simple epipolesis”). Secondly, the historian might indicate that the general pronounces several exhortations while going along the army addressing himself individually to different groups and providing different speeches (“epipolesis with descomposition of the audience and content”), or, on the contrary, the historian may choose to present the general while addressed himself individually to different groups, but providing one single speech to summarise all the others that presumably have been delivered (“epipolesis with only descomposition of the audience”). There are only examples of the first and third type in Thucydides’ History: The first case of epipolesis takes place in the preliminaries of the battle of Delium between the Athenians and Boeotians. Hippocrates, the Athenian general, speaks to his men while going along the army (4.94.2): 17 In Antiquity, the term was only used to designate the episode of the fourth of the Iliad (4.221 ss.) where Agamemnon, leader of the Achaeans, reviews the troops and delivers several and different speeches depending on the hero to whom he pays visit. Modern scholars such as Albertus (1908), Longo (1982), Keitel (1987), Hansen (1993) and Iglesias Zoido (2006) extend the term not only to other Homeric parainéseis, but also to historiographical speeches given in similar circumstances. This kind of battle exhortation became a type-scene that appeared, with many variations, in almost all survived works of Greco-Roman historians from Thucydides to Ammianus Marcellinus. For further reading on this topic: Carmona Centeno (2009). <?page no="95"?> An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides 79 < 9 % H V - * % , W - - 3 * # D<- % + * 8 . Being ranged in order of battle and upon the point of engaging, Hippocrates, the general, passed along the Athenian army and encouraged them and spoke to them as follows. Then, Thucydides offers a single speech addressed to the Athenian army as a whole, so it is a simple epipolesis. When facing this initial setting, Valla does not capture well the idea that Hippocrates goes along the army to exhort his soldiers (f. 91r): Quum autem in acie starent iamiam concursuri, Hippocrates dux superueniens Atheniensium exercitum his verbis adhortatus est. Indeed, he translates the term 9 as superueniens, i. e., "coming into", "appearing before", meaning that Nicias comes into his army and pronounces a speech without moving before his men formed on the battlefield. 18 However, , as - and - indicate, means “to come into” and, at the same time, “to go along”. Besides, the Italian humanist does not translate 8 , as considering it redundant. In this setting, Seyssel introduces some variations (f. 122r): Estans adonc tous en bataille tant d’un costé que d’autre, prests à combatre, Hippocrates duc des Atheniens, qui estoit survenu quasi en celuy point, parla aux Athéniens en telle maniere. He translates superueniens by a relative clause, qui estoit suruenu, adding quasi en celuy point, with a temporal sense, that is, "almost at that very moment" (when they were about to engage in combat). Moreover, as usual, he uses the same verb to introduce the speech, parla, even if Valla translates adhoratus est. In this case, Gracián translates almost word for word from the French version (f. 104v): Pues estando todos assi puestos en orden de batalla, assi de la una parte como dela otra, esperando la seña para romper, 19 Hipocrates capitan de los Athenienses que sobrevino al mismo punto hablo a los Athenienses desta manera. After the initial setting, Thucydides offers a single speech that begins with a vocative referred to the homogeneity of the audience as a whole (4.96.1: X D<- ( …). But after the speech, the final setting gives more information about the epipolesis: 18 Cf. the previous battle speech of Brasidas (Th. 4.126) and, for example, the one pronounced by Darius, King of the Persians, in Curt. 4.14.9 ss. 19 He introduces a little variation when writing esperando la seña para romper instead of prests à combatre. <?page no="96"?> 80 David Carmona Centeno Y L L W H L <* , H 4 F< , A @ % , F = > % L< C 9 , Z . L *F . Thus Hippocrates delivered his exhortation and had already gone with it over half the a rmy (he could proceed no further), when the Boeotians, to whom Pagondas briefly encouraged a second time, came down upon them from the hill while striking up the paean. Hippocrates’ speech is brief, but well articulated and finishes with a clear epilogue. 20 How to understand, then, the disruption of the general’s action (he cannot go further) and, at the same time, the pronunciation of a battle exhortation that is not interrupted? As Keegan defends, the general would not deliver one single speech for the entire army starting at one extreme and terminating at the other, but repeat it in a similar way, or giving different exhortations depending on the persons he was addressing at every specific moment. 21 Valla understands correctly that Hippocrates goes along the ranks to exhort his soldiers, as his interpretation shows (f. 91r): Talibus hortabundus Hippocrates ad medium vsque peruenerat exercitus, necdum maiorem partem adierat, cum Boeoti, adhortante eos hic quoque Pagonda, perpaucis peana modulati, de colli infesti feruntur… Seyssel, on the other hand, does not translate the sentence necdum maiorem partem adierat considering it redundant or simply unnecessary, and inserts clarifications to make the text more accessible to his readers (f. 122r): Ainsi alloit Hippocrates enhortant ses gens tout de rang, ainsi qu’ils estoyent en b ataille: mais auant qu’il fust au milieu, les Beotiens à l’enhortement de Pagondas, commencerent à donner le signe de la bataille par leur trompettes et buccines, et tout à un coup descend irent de la montagne à grande fureur. As we can see, Seyssel adds information assuring that Hippocrates exhorted his men while going along the whole army, in the position that they were formed to fight. Gracián, in turn, offers a surprising translation that differs quite a lot from the other versions (f. 104v): Con estas razones yua Hippocrates amonestando su gente, rodeandolos assi como yuan puestos en orden, y apercibidos para pelear, hasta que se puso en medio de ellos. Los be ocios por mandado de Pagondas començaron a hazer señal para la batalla tocando sus trompetas y clarines, y de un tropel descendieron todos de la montaña con grande impetu. He also tries to clarify the passage in his own way: on the one hand, he adds rodeandolos, i. e., Hippocrates was going around his men, which, in the end, is similar to going along them; on the other hand, aparecibidos para 20 Th. 4.95. 21 Keegan (1987). <?page no="97"?> An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides 81 pelear, i. e., Hippocrates had just delivered his speech. Thus, the Spanish translator does not understand that the action of Hippocrates had to be interrupted because the Boeotians began the attack - as follows from hasta que se puso en medio de ellos and the pause marked by the point immediately after these words -, or he tries to offer a more comprehensible reading for his audience. The most complicated case is the initial setting of Nicias’ epipolesis because of its complex formalisation (6.67.3): H ( D<- N , [ 8< -, 3 \ , + + . As the Athenians were about to begin the attack, Nicias, from one nation to other, while going along each one and to all in general, addressed them as follows. Although we are told that Nicias pays a visit to each nation, Thucydides only offers one speech, in which the general does not pronounce individual exhortations as could be expected. It is, therefore, an epipolesis with decomposition of the audience, but not of the content. More clearly than in the epipolesis of Hippocrates, we can observe that the general delivers particular exhortations to each nation while passing along them. However, a single speech is offered as a summary of all the different speeches that Nicias might have pronounced. 22 This way, the strange combination of, on the one hand, the mention of the individual speeches passing along each nation ( , ... ) and, on the other, “to all as a whole” ( ) becomes comprehensible. 23 22 Cf. Forster Smith (1913): “passing along the line of battle, as the contingents of the separate states were drawn up (1. 2 ff.). As Hippocrates had done 4.94. § 2, Nicias made addresses of similar purport to the separate divisions, and we have here doubtless a summary of the whole.” 23 It is a formalisation process that has its reference in Homer’s Iliad: in the heat of battle, Hector, while going along the Trojan army, exhorts individually the various allies to fight, but, curiously, only offers one single direct style speech addressed to such allies as a whole (17.215 ff.). First is reported that Hector passes along each ally to exhort them ( ), their names being offered in a mini- catalogue (# $ # < @ / \ / ^ _ ` ). However, before the start of the exhortation, the poet seems to forget the individuality of the heroes he had called by their name before and refers to all of them by the pronoun ( ` ). Then, follows a single exhortation of Hector in which he addresses his allies as an indivisible whole (17.220: ` ` ). Therefore, we have the same structure as in the epipolesis of Nicias: a first element that marks the individuality of the speeches pronounced by the speaker ( / @ + mini-catalogue of heroes), a second element that indicates the grouping of all in one ( / ` ), and a <?page no="98"?> 82 David Carmona Centeno Valla does not understand the formalisation of this setting and decides to translate as follows (f. 133r): Ibi quum Athenienses essent priores inituri prelium, Nicias singulas gentes, 24 ut quanque adibat, 25 talibus verbis adhortabatur. It is noteworthy that he solves the problem by simply ignoring the term . His translation simplifies the passage to a better understanding, but it loses accuracy and the subsequent single speech addressed to the army as a whole becomes less intelligible. As in the previous case, Seyssel chooses a very different path (177r): Estans adonc les batailles ordonnes, pource que les Atheniens deuoyent commencer à ma rcher les premiers, Nicias alloit discourant au long de sa bataille, et à chacun rang parloit en telle maniere. As he follows Valla’s version, he does not translate the term + . However, in a very free version, Seyssel shows Nicias going along the battle line and speaking particularly to each row of soldiers (à chacun rang). 26 Therefore, the reference to the exhortations addressed to the contingents of the separate states that made up the army is also deleted. We face, indeed, a new token of simplification and standardisation of the epipolesis to enable the reader to understand the passage. 27 Gracián distances himself from Valla’s and Seyssel’s versions offering a very sui generis interpretation (f. 153v): Pues estando las hazes ordenadas a punto de batalla, porque los Athenienses eran los primeros que avian de acometer, Nicias su capitan estando en medio de t odos les hablo de esta manera. If he had followed almost literally Seyssel’s interpretation in the epipolesis of Hippocrates, this time, on the contrary, he simplifies the text so that Nicias does not pass along his troops, but is placed in the middle, in single speech in direct style which begins with a vocative including all the allies as a whole ( ` ` / y más adelante # ` ). Cf. also Il. 13.83 ff. 24 Cf. Iust. 11.9.3 (circumuectus suos singulas gentes…). 25 Cf. Tac. Ann.14.35.1-2 (Boudicca curru filas prae se vehens, ut quamque nationem acceserat). 26 Seyssel said above in his translation et si estoit la moitié de l’armee espesse de huit rangs au front, et l’autre moitié qui estoit du costé des pauillõns, d’autant, le tout en carré. 27 Closely related to this is the fact that in the last phase of the setting, Seyssel reuses parler in telle maniere, though in this case the original text and Valla’s version have a single verb, a hortatory one ( / adhortabatur). As we can see, the French translator acts in a very similar way to introduce the battle speeches regardless of the verb used by Valla. <?page no="99"?> An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides 83 front of them (en medio de todos), to deliver the battle speech. 28 This representation made by Gracián is not even an epipolesis anymore. But what the most striking detail in this setting is the mention of “all” (todos), which does not appear in Seyssel’s or Valla’s versions. Most likely, therefore, the Spanish translator had before his eyes the Greek text which includes the term . The third and last setting of epipolesis has a lower complexity. Nicias goes along the Athenian troops, as they move with difficulty to keep the formation, after the heavy defeat suffered in the Bay of Syracuse. In such circumstances, Nicias tries to raise their spirit (7.76): ] # H [ .< L 7 ! Z G , 3 = # ; * % < < ( , ! Z 9 8 T <R ^ ; < ! * = ( % % _F ( . Nicias seeing the army disheartened and greatly altered, while passing along the ranks, encouraged and consoled them as far as possible under the present circumstances, raising his voice still louder as he passed from one to another in his willingness, desiring that the benefit of his words might reach as far as possible . Valla's translation, this time, is quite comprehensible (f. 158v): Quos Nicias cernens tam affectos animos esse, et vehementer abalienatos, adiens exhortabatur ex rerum conditione, consolabaturque: clamore etiam utens magis quam voce, ut ad quosque accedebat, ut illos animos excitarat: et cum vellet, ut qui plurimum posset, prodesse eis ex praesenti quoque rerum statu. Seyssel follows Valla’s version in his own way, even making some mistakes 29 and, in this case, eliminating the epipolesis (f. 210r): Lesquels voyant Nicias ainsi desconfortez et perdus de cueur, les alloit reconfortant, leur remonstrant tout plein de choses seruans au cas, ainsi qu’il les trouuoit assemblez, leur escriant plus à haute voix, que par maniere de harangue ne de remonstrance, pour leur faire reprendre cueur, et pour leur profiter en l’estat qu’ils estoyent, comme il sçauoit bien faire. Si leur disoit telles paroles. The author adds the fact that Nicias found his men gathered (les trouuoit assemblez) and a sentence to introduce the speech (Si leur disoit telles paroles), although this does not appear in Valla’s version, 30 continuing his process of homogenisation in presenting battle speeches. 28 Note that also in the final setting of the first epipolesis, Gracián told us that Hippocrates was situed in the middle (hasta que se puso en medio de ellos). 29 He interprets, for example, tout plein de choses seruans au cas from ex rerum conditione, i. e., “to the extent that circumstances allowed”. 30 The absence of a deictic word in the Thucydidean text (eg. ) has been interpreted by the ancient critics as a sign of emotion. Cf. Longinus, On the Sublime 27. <?page no="100"?> 84 David Carmona Centeno Gracián, in turn, who seems to consider the information of the setting as very long and confused, simplifies it drastically and, as usual, removes all traces of the epipolesis (f. 182r): Entonces viendo los del exercito desmayados como quien bien lo entendia los cono rtaua y consolaua por estas razones. The Spanish translator transmits only the fundamental information of the setting (Nicias tries to console his men) and adds a deictic (por estas razones) to introduce the speech. As in the first case of epipolesis, the final setting also contains information about the movement of the general through his troops (7.78.1): H [ * ` / , 6 7 a- % L % < , b- < - 4 H E ( <' T L N % . While Nicias was making this exhortation, he passed through the army, and wherever he saw it straggling and not marching in his rank, he put it together and set it properly; and Demosthenes did the same, 31 delivering these or similar exhortations. The problem here is the large number of present participles that refer to actions that Nicias (and afterwards also Demosthenes) carried out simultaneously while going along the troops: he exhorted, gathered and put his soldiers in order. For this, we must understand that the adverb belongs to * and not to / . 32 Valla tries to respect the syntax with which Thucydides highlights the confusion of Athenian general and his army (159r): His Nicias adhortationibus milites adibat, sic ubi cernebat eos aut non continenti aut non ordinata serie pergentes, cogendo atque disponendo. Nihilminus Demosthenes haec aut similia apud suos dicebat… Seyssel offers also a good translation and retains, in this case, the idea of the movement along the ranks. Besides, he translates the participles as expanded sentences with conjugated verbs (in the same way as we did). This way, the text does not show the simultaneity so clearly, but it becomes more intelligible to the reader (211r): Telles remonstrances faisoit Nicias par cy et par là aux soldats, qua(n)d il voyoit aucune ba(n)de qui n’alloit pas en bon ordre, ou ne suyuoit pas de pres les autres, et par ce moyen les co(n)traignoit, ou induisoit à marcher ainsi qu’il appartenoit. Les semblances remonstrances faisoit Demosthenes à ses gens… 31 Cf. Forster Smith (1913): “ ! : sc. .” 32 Cf. Forster Smith (1913): “ belongs to { .” <?page no="101"?> An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides 85 Gracián, as usual in this type of settings, offers a free version (f. 182v): Quando Nicias huuo animado con estas razones a los suyos, yua por el exercito de una parte a otra, y si a caso via alguno fuera de la ordenança le metia enella. Lo mismo hazia Demosthenes el otro capitán a los suyos… He simplifies the setting and, interestingly, though he mentions the movement of the general, does not link it with the pronounced speech (i.e., there is no epipolesis anymore). As such, Nicias delivers the speech in the first place and then he starts moving to put the soldiers in order. 4 Conclusions In this paper, we have seen how Valla, without the possibility of following a translation of the Thucydidean history in case of doubt, works as a true philologist, trying to be faithful to the original text, although in some cases, having difficulties to fully understand it. In the case of Seyssel, who follows Valla’s version, he often adds information to the text, and/ or simplifies what can be confusing to the reader. This attitude, as other scholars have shown, serves the purpose that he is looking for: he wants to offer the most comprehensible version as possible to the king and his officers to learn the facts and find a model for rhetorics. With respect to the first Spanish translation, this analysis shows, above all, that the text is certainly not a replica of the French one. It seems clear that Gracián usually works with Seyssel’s and Valla’s versions, but occasionally also consults the original Greek text. More significant, however, is the fact that Gracián’s translational norms seem to depend on the specific kind of battle exhortation: in the settings of battle speeches pronounced before the troops in formation on the battlefield, or before an assembly of soldiers, he usually starts following Seyssel’s version, but then changes and takes Valla’s translation or even the Greek text as his model to mark the hortatory nature of the speech. I n the settings of the epipoléseis, however, whose formalisation is much more complex, making them extremely difficult to understand, Gracián turns out to be more independent: he simplifies the setting utmost, or offers a new interpretation where the specific features that turn the speech into an epipolesis are not retained. As Seyssel, though with a different outcome, the Spanish translator tries to provide the reader of the court a pragmatic and rhetorically usable Thucydidean History, where the importance of the setting passes to the background, favouring the proper content of the discourses. <?page no="102"?> 86 David Carmona Centeno References a) Primary bibliography: Laurentii Vallensis e Graeco in Latinum translatio Thucydidis… (Vat. Lat. 1801) Roma: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana 1452. Gli Otto Libri di Thucydide Atheniese, delle guerre fatte tra i popoli della Morea, et gli Atheniesi, nouvamente dal greco idioma, nella lingua toscana, con ogni diligentia tradotto, per Francesco Soldi Strozzi..., Venecia 1550. Histoire de la Guerre des Peloponnesiens et Atheniens, escripte et divisee en huict livres par Thucydide ... Nouvellement traduicte de grec en françois par Louys Iaussaud, d'Uzes… [Genève] : Iaques Chouet 1600. Historia de Thucydides. Que trata de las guerras entre los Peloponesios y Ath enienses. La cual allende las grandes y notables hazañas por mar y por tierra, de los unos y de los otros, y de sus aliados y confederados, está llena de Oraciones y razonanamientos prudentes y avis ados a proposito de paz y de guerra..., Salamanca: Juan de Canova 1564. L’Histoire de Thucydide Athenien, De la guerre qui fut entre les Peloponnesiens & Atheniens, traslatée de Grec en François par feu Messire Claude de Seyssel... París: Michel de Vascosan 1559. The History of the Grecian War: in eight Books, written by Thucydides. Faithfully translated from the original, by Thomas Hobbes, of Malisbury… Londres 1812. The History writtone by Thucydides the Athenyan of the warre, whiche was b etween the Peloponesians and the Athenyans, traslated oute of the Frenche of Claude de Seyssel, Bishop of Marseilles, into the Englishe language, by Thomas Nicolls, Londres 1550. Thucydidis Atheniensis, De bello Peloponessiaco libri octo e graeco sermone in latinum nova interpretatione conversi… auctore Georgio Acacio Enenckel, Estrasburgo: Lazarus Zetzner 1614. Thucydidis Atheniensis Historiae de bello Peloponnesiaco, Libri octo, et Graeco sermone in Latinam linguam conuersi, a Vito Winsemio Patre… Wittenberge 1580. Thucydidis Olori F. De bello Peloponnesiaco libri octo, iidem Latine, ex interpretatione La urentii Vallae, ab Henrico Stephano iterum recognita… Fráncfort: Claudius Marnio & Iohannes Aubrio 1589. Thucydidis Olori F. De bello Peloponnesiaco libri octo, iidem Latine, ex interpretatione La urentii Vallae, ab Henrico Stephano recognita. Quam Aemilius Portus, Francisci P. Cr. F. paternos commentarios accurate sequutus ab infinita grauissimorum errorum multitudine nouissime repurgauit, magnaque diligentia passim expolium innouauit… Fráncfort: Claudius Marnio & Johannes Aubrio 1594. b) Secondary bibliography: Giovanni Battista Alberti: “Lorenzo Valla traduttore di Tucidide”, in Roberto Cardini et alii (eds.), Tradizione classica e letteratura umanistica. Per Alessandro Perosa , vol. I. Firenze 1984, pp. 243-253. Josef Albertus: Die paraklêtikoí in der griechischen und römischen Literatur (diss.). Strassburg 1908. Ottavio Besomi and Maria Angela Regoliosi: Laurentii Vallae Epistolae. Padua 1984 <?page no="103"?> An approach to Gracián’s translation of Thucydides 87 Rebbeca Boone, “Claude de Seyssel’s Translations of Ancient Historians”, Journal of the History of Ideas 61, 2000, pp. 561-575. David Carmona Centeno, La epipolesis en la historiografía griega y romana (diss.), Cáceres 2009. Mortimer Chambers: Valla’s translation of Thucydides in Vat. lat. 1801: with the reproduction of the codex. Roma 2008. Anton Fingerle: Typik der homerischen Reden (diss.). München 1939. Charles Forster Smith: Thucydides. Books VI-VII, Boston 1913. Francisco García Jurado: “Tucídides y Diego Gracián en las ediciones retrospectivas de 1882 y 1889”, in Valérie Fromentin, Sophie Gotteland and Pascal Payen (eds.), Ombres de Thucydide, La réception de l’historien depuis l’Antiquité jusqu’au début du xxe siècle, Actes des colloques de Bordeaux, les 16-17 mars 2007, de Bordeaux, les 30-31 mai 2008 et de Toulouse, les 23-25 octobre 2008. Bourdeaux 2010, pp. 495- 507. Luis Gil: Panorama social del Humanismo español (1500-1800). Madrid 1981. Mogens Herman Hansen: “The Battle Exhortation in Ancient Historiography: Fact of Fiction? ”, Historia 42, 1993, pp. 161-180. Mogens Herman Hansen: “The Little Grey Horse. Henry V’s Speech at Agincourt and the Battle Exhortation in Ancient Historiography,” ClMed 52, 2001, pp. 95-115. Pierre Huart: Le Vocabulaire de l’analyse psychologique dans l’oeuvre de Thucydide . Paris 1968. Juan Carlos Iglesias Zoido: “El sistema de engarce narrativo de los discursos de Tucídides”, Talia dixit 1, 2006, pp. 1-28. Juan Carlos Iglesias Zoido: El legado de Tucídides en la cultura occidental. Discursos e historia. Coimbra 2011. John Keegan: The Mask of Command. London 1987. Elizabeth Keitel: “Homeric Antecedents to the Cohortatio in the Ancient Historians”, Classical World 80 (3), 1987, pp. 153-172. José Lasso de la Vega: “Traducciones españolas de las Vidas”, Estudios Clásicos 35, 1962, pp. 451-514. Oddone Longo: “I discorsi tucididei: uditorio indiviso e scomposizione d’uditorio”, Museum Criticum 8, 1983, pp. 139-159. Edgar Marchant: Commentary on Thucydides, Book 2. London 1891. Karl Maurer: “Thucydides, Valla and Vat. Lat. 1801”, Latomus 58, 1999, pp. 885-889. Alicia Morales Ortiz: Plutarco en España: Traducciones de Moralia en el s. XVI. Murcia 2000. Marianne Pade: “La fortuna della traduzione di Tucidide di Lorenzo Valla con una edizione delle postille al testo”, in Franco Bonatti and Antonio Manfredi (eds.), Niccolò V nel sesto centenario della nascita. Città del Vaticano 2000, pp. 255-293. Francisco Rodríguez Adrados: Tucídides: Historia de la Guerra del Peloponeso. Madrid 2003. Wilfred Westgate: “The text of Valla’s Translations of Thucydides”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 67, 1936, pp. 240-51. Henry Dickinson Westlake: “The Settings of Thucydidean Speeches”, in Philip Stadter (ed.) The Speeches of Thucydides, Chapel Hill 1973, pp. 80-108. <?page no="105"?> Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala Haggadic episodes in Aljamiado stories. A case from the ’Poem of Yúçuf’ 1 Introduction The renowned figure of Joseph, 1 in his Islamic guise of Y suf, gave rise to a number of key Aljamiado texts both in prose and in verse. Two manuscript verse specimens have come down to us. The more complete of the two, now held in the Spanish National Library, was published by Morf in the late nineteenth century 2 and transcribed in Latin characters by Schmidt a few years later. 3 The second manuscript - acquired by the then Spanish Academy of History from Pascual de Gayangos - is less complete but older; Menéndez Pidal 4 suggested a terminus post quem in the late fourteenth or early fifteenth century, although more recently M. de Epalza has dated it to the second half of the fifteenth century. 5 It was first published by Menéndez Pidal, 6 and reissued fifty years later, with some additions from the hand of the master, by his erstwhile student M. Alvar. 7 Both manuscripts are obviously of crucial importance to the Aljamiado corpus, but are also a valuable contribution to Spanish dialectology, more 1 About the biblical Joseph, see V. Ermoni: “Joseph“. In F. Vigouroux (ed.): Dictionnaire de la Bible. Paris 1912, III: 2, col. 1655-1669. 2 Heinrich Morf: El Poema de José. Leipzig 1883. See F. Guillén Robles: Leyendas de José y de Alejandro Magno. Zaragoza 1888. 3 Schmidt: “Ü ber das altspanisch Poema de José”. Romanische Forschungen XI (1901), pp. 315- 411. 4 Nykl: “A Compendium of Aljamiado Literature”. Revue Hispanique LXXVII (1929), pp. 409-611; J. Saroihandy: “Remarques sur le Poème de Yúçuf”. Bulletin Hispanique VI (1904), pp. 182-194, and R. Menéndez Pidal: Poema de Yúçuf. Materiales para su estudio. Granada 1952, pp. 11-12. See Gerard Wiegers: Islamic Literature in Spanish and Aljamiado. Yça of Segovia (fl. 1450), His Antecedents and Successors. Leiden-New York-Köln 1994, pp. 20-23. 5 Luis F. Bernabé Pons: El cántico islámico del morisco hispanotunecino Taybili. Zaragoza 1988, p. 11. 6 Ramón Menéndez Pidal: “Poema de Yúçuf: materiales para su estudio”. Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos VII-VIII (1902), pp. 91-129, 276-309, and 347-362 (reed. Poema de Yúçuf, and more recently in Textos medievales españoles. Ediciones críticas y estudios. Madrid 1976, pp. 421-519). 7 Menéndez Pidal: Poema de Yúçuf. <?page no="106"?> Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala 90 specifically to the Aragonese dialect, 8 and a uniquely outstanding research into Hispanic literature in general, 9 a literature to which - pace the ‘critical restrictions’ postulated at one stage by certain scholars 10 - this work clearly belongs. 2 The issue in question In thematic terms, the ‘Poem’ belongs to the extensive cycle of Islamic legends concerning Biblical figures 11 that achieved considerable popularity and became a highly-developed feature of Morisco Aljamiado literature, 12 whose sources are both rich and varied, ranging from the Qur ’ n to traditional material, from exegetical works to the Bible and all kinds of rabbinical and Christian texts. 13 The figure of Y suf, as indicated earlier, inspired numerous texts within the Arab-Islamic tradition in general, and within Aljamiado literature in particular; 14 these texts were received, safeguarded, developed and transmitted by the Morisco communities. 15 8 Inés Fernández Ordóñez: “Los orígenes de la dialectología hispánica y Ramón Menéndez Pidal”. In Xulio Viejo (ed.): Cien años de Filoloxía Asturiana (1906-2006). Oviedo 2009, pp. 11-41. 9 Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: “El interés literario en los escritos aljamiado-moriscos”. In A. Galmés de Fuentes (coord.): Actas del Coloquio Internacional sobre Literatura Aljamiada y Morisca. Departamento de Filología Románica de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la Universidad de Oviedo, 10 al 16 de julio de 1972. Madrid 1978, p. 192. 10 Alan D. Deyermond: Historia de la literatura española. 1. La Edad Media. Barcelona 1992 15 (= 1973), p. 215. 11 See the comparative study of qur’ nic rat Y suf by Israel Schapiro: Die haggadischen Elemente im erzählenden Teil des Korans. Leipzig 1907, pp. 13-86. Cf. Gustav Weil: The Bible, the Koran, and the Talmud; or, Biblical Legends of Mussulmans Compiled from Arabic Sources, and Compared with Jewish Traditions. Translated from the German with occasional notes. New York 1846, pp. 97-113. 12 See, for example, the broad range of legend types collected by A. Vespertino Rodríguez: Leyendas aljamiadas y moriscas sobre personajes bíblicos. Madrid 1983. 13 See the examples adduced by Ramón Menéndez Pidal: “Las leyendas moriscas en su relación con las cristianas”. In: R. Menéndez Pidal: Estudios literarios. Madrid 1973 10 , pp. 91-101. On the use of Biblical texts by Muslim authors, see - amongst many others - Hava Lazarus-Yafeh: Intertwined Worlds. Medieval Islam and Bible Criticism. Princeton NJ 1992. 14 See Mª Jesús Viguera, “Introducción”. In Federico Corriente: Relatos píos y profanos del manuscrito aljamiado de Urrea del Jalón. Edición, notas lingüísticas e índices de un manuscrito mudéjar-morisco aragonés. Introducción de Mª J. Viguera Molins. Zaragoza 1990, p. 33 and note 110. 15 An excellent overview has been provided by Leonard P. Harvey: “The Political, Social and Cultural History of the Moriscos”. In Salma Khadra Jayyusi (ed.): The Legacy of Muslim Spain. Leiden-New York-Cologne 1992, pp. 201-234; see also the “Introducción” by M.ª J. Viguera to F. Corriente: Relatos píos y profanos, pp. 9-51, esp. pp. 13-40. <?page no="107"?> Haggadic episodes in Aljamiado stories. A case from the ’Poem of Yúçuf’ 91 A single example of the prose treatment of this figure has come down to us in the form of the ‘Legend of Y suf’, which displays considerable narrative development. 16 This text - like the whole of the Aljamiado corpus - is of great linguistic interest, for the light it throws on dialect-related issues; 17 but it is also, as we have stressed elsewhere, a valuable tool in the search for the primary sources underlying the ‘Arab-Islamic legacy’ that was received and transmitted via Aljamiado writings. In her edition of the ‘Legend’, Ursula Klenk focussed on qur ’ nic verses contained in the text, and their marginal translation. 18 In earlier research, based on the well-known study by Schmidt, she had already identified qur ’ nic and post-qur ’ nic tradition as a literary substrate of the text, noting amongst specific sources the taf s r of al- # abar| and al-Bay $ w| as well as the Qi a al-anbiy of al- % a & lab| and al-Kis ' |; the legends collected in the Qi a al-anbiy were transmitted by the famous Yemeni Jewish convert to Islam, Ka & b b. al-A ( b r. 19 Clearly, the presence of Ka & b al-A ( b r/ al- ) abar (mid-seventh century) 20 in texts belonging to the Islamic tradition points to the need to examine the broad textual spectrum of Jewish sources. The vast amount of Jewish material (isr liyy t) transmitted by Ka & b b. al-A ( b r and other Jewish converts in the early days of Islam is, of course, of immense value in charting the development of the new religion; for the purposes of the present study, it also provides useful information on the type of legends (of varying ideologies: Jewish, Christian, Islamic or other) that eventually made their way into Aljamiado texts. 3 Search parameters Our sole aim here is to trace the sources back to the potential textual origin of a topos preserved in the ‘Poem of Y suf’, and also to be found - in 16 Ursula Klenk: La Leyenda de Y suf, ein Aljamiadotext. Edition und Glossar. Tübingen 1972. 17 See Klenk: “El «tašd|d» en la «Leyenda de Y suf», manuscrito aljamiado”. In A. Galmés de Fuentes (coord.): Actas del Coloquio Internacional sobre Literatura Aljamiada y Morisca, pp. 399-412. 18 Klenk: “Die Koranverse in der Leyenda de Yusuf und die marchinelle Übersetzung”. In Ursula Klenk, Karl H. Körner, Wolf Thümmel (ed.): Variatio Linguarum. Beitrage zu Sprachvergleich und Sprachentwicklung. Festschrift zum 60. Geburstag von Gustav Ineichen. Stuttgart 1989, pp. 135-148. 19 Klenk: La Leyenda de Y suf, pp. VIII - IX . Cf. M. Lidzbarski: De Propheticis, quae dicuntur, legendis arabicis. Leipzig 1893, p. 11. 20 On this character, see Schmidt: “Ka & b al-A ( b r”. In Encyclopédie de l’Islam. Nouvelle Édition, Leyden-París, 1960-, IV, pp. 330-331; B. Chàpira: “Légendes bibliques attribuées a Ka & b El-Ahbar”. Revue des Études Juives LXIX (1919), pp. 86-107, and B. Chàpira: “Légendes bibliques attribuées a Ka & b El-Ahbar”. Revue des Études Juives LXX (1920), pp. 37-43. <?page no="108"?> Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala 92 abridged form - in the ‘Poem of Yúçuf‘. 21 According to Klenk’s transcription, 22 the topos runs as follows: “I y -era šu kamino delloš por la fu w eša de šu madre Ra ( |l. pu w eš la ora ke š’aserko de la fu w eša de šu madre, no š’enšennore’o de lansarše kon ši mišmo dell-an qa, i pušoše ke iba chure’ando šobre šuš chinolloš i šobre šuš pi y edeš fašta que lego a la fu w eša de šu madre Ra ( |l. i pušoše ke š’eš f e regaba šobre la fu w eša de šu madre Rra ( |l, y-el dizi y endo: y madre, y Rra ( |l, ešliga de el nudo dell-arrid i y -alsa tu kabesa de la fu w eša. y mi madre, y Rra ( |l, ši bi y ešeš a mi, ke no abe šobre la kara de l(a) ti y erra ninguno ma abiltado ke yo, p o lorari y aš sobre mi y-api y adart’i y aš de mi. y mi madre , y Rra ( |l, ši beyešeš a tu fi * o Y suf, ya l’an ešpartido ent e r’el I šu padre Ya & qub, p o lorari y aš sobre mi y-api y adart’i y aš de mi. | y mi madre, y Rra ( |l, ši me bi y ešeš a mi! , ya me an dešnudado mi kamiša de šobre mi i de miš ešpaldaš i dešnudo me an deššado, en ell-alchub me an lansado I kon laš pi y edraš m’an echado no an ubido pi y adad de mi. y… mi madre, y Rra ( |l, šobre la maššila de mi kara me an pofete’ado. y mi madre, y Rra ( |l, ši me ubi y ešeš bišto! Ya me deššaron šolo, algaribo, i no kataron ad-All h, ta & l , en mi. y mi madre, y Rra ( |l, ši šubi y ešeš lo k’a še’ido hecho kon tu fi * o Y suf, ke ya a še’ido bendido bendida d’ešk a labo | dešpu w eš de šer ( uro, eng i rillonado y-enkadenado šinše pekado! y mi madre , y Rra ( |l, ši me bi y ešeš komo soy lebado [komo] son lebadoš loš esk a labos I katiboš de billa en pilla! y mi madre, y Rra ( |l, anme bendido I kon el fi y erro me an eng i rillonado i llaš g o rošeraš de laš rropaš m’an beštido, fašta ke an rronpido miš espaldaš, diššo Ka & bu: I oyo Yusuf un g i ritante ke de dezi y a: sufri, ke no eš tu suf e rensi y a šino kon All h, ta & l .” While the ‘Islamic legend of Joseph’, in its several versions, displays evidence of a rich and varied range of sources 23 which clearly had a marked impact on Islam, 24 neither the Qur ' n nor the Bible can be considered the direct source of the motif of the ‘poem’ transcribed above. The notes offered below are intended as a contribution to the search for the source of this particular legend. A key element for this purpose is the ‘fu w eša’ motif (‘foxal’ < fušal in the ’Poem of Yúçuf’). Though mentioned in the ‘history’, there is no reference to it in the Qur ’ n, whilst the Old Testament merely alludes on four occasions to the place where Rachel was buried following her death during the delivery of her son Benjamin (Gn 35,19-20; 48,7; 1 Sam 10,2; Jer 31,15), first referred to as Ben- ' Onî (“Son of my Sorrow”). 25 The motif also appears in Syriac patristic and post-patristic literature, and in Christian Arab exegesis, for 21 Cf. Menéndez Pidal, Poema de Yúçuf, p. 57, §§ 45-48. 22 Cf. Klenk, La Leyenda de Y suf, pp. 21-22, §§ 60-63. 23 See e.g. Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala: “El episodio de la venta de José. Un intento de análisis textual a partir de un fragmento de al- # abar|”. Miscelánea de Estudios Árabes y Hebraicos 44 (1995), pp. 97-119. 24 See Bernhard Heller: “Ginzberg’s Legends of the Jews”. Jewish Quarterly Review XXIV: 4 (1934), p. 397. 25 On Rachel and her tomb, see Lesétre: “Rachel“. In Vigouroux (ed.): Dictionnaire de la Bible, V: 2, col. 925-927. <?page no="109"?> Haggadic episodes in Aljamiado stories. A case from the ’Poem of Yúçuf’ 93 example in the famous ‘Commentary on Genesis’ by the Nestorian author Ibn al- & Abd All h ibn al- # ayyib (d. 1043). 26 Although Gn 35,16-19 and 48,7 - and indeed some scholars - identify the toponym & Efratha ' ( +,./ 0 = ' ) with its homonym in the Bethlehem region ( 123 ,45 06+ +,./ 0 / ' @ ), 27 the data currently available indicate that it is more likely to be located between Ramah and Beth-El. 28 A number of authors have suggested that the two texts quoted from the Book Genesis refer to a place later occupied by a small Islamic-style ‘domus‘, built by Crusaders in the twelfth century on the right of the road that today leads from Jerusalem to the town of Bethlehem. 29 Unlike the early Jewish references to the place, primitive Christian sources such as Eusebius of Caesarea (265-340), the Itinerarium Burdigalense (333) and Saint Jerome (385- 419), and others 30 refer to Rachel’s tomb, which they place on the outskirts of Jerusalem. This suggests that our search should focus not on texts from Qur ’ n or the Old Testament, but on the ‘traditions’, and more specifically on texts belonging to the ‘Jewish tradition’. Possible Arabic sources for the fragment of dialogue transcribed above include the passage inserted by al-Tha & lab| (ninth century) in his wellknown work Qi a al-anbiy . That passage, which is shorter than the Aljamiado text and makes no explicit reference to any transmitter. This is immediately followed by another fragment, which is in turn attributed by the narrator to the Jewish convert Ka & b al-A ( b r. 31 Echoes of this theme are also to be found in the equally famous Qi a alanbiy ’ of al-Kis ' | (twelfth century), which includes a passing reference to the motif, which may be classed as a topos in Jewish, Christian and Islamic texts. 32 Although those Arabic texts are clearly linked to the Aljamiado fragment of the ‘Poem of Yúçuf’, they are not the direct source of that fragment. The 26 Ibn al- # ayyib: Commentaire sur la Genèse. Édité et traduit par J.C.J. Sanders. 2 vols. CSCO, 274-275. Louvain 1967, I, p. 96 (Arabic) and II, p. 84 (French version). 27 See Eusebius: Das Onomastikon der biblischen Ortsnamen. Ed. Erich Klostermann. Hildesheim 1966 (= Leipzig, 1904), pp. 82-83 and 172-173. 28 José María Bover: “El sepulcro de Raquel: ¿Efrata-Belén o Efrata Rama? ”. Estudios Eclesiásticos VII (1928), pp. 226-237. 29 Lombardi: La Tomba di Rahel. H. Fârâh - W. Fârâh presso Anatot. La sua relazione con la Bibbia e la questione della Tomba di Rahel. Jerusalem 1971. 30 For the references to this place, see the compilation included in Enchiridion locorum sanctorum. Documenta S. Evangelio loca respicientia. Collegit atque adnotavit Donatus Balde. Jerusalem 1935, §§ 92; 110,7; 112; 113,4; 117; 130,2; 131,7; 132,2; 133,1; 135,1 -2; 138,1; 140,1; 141,9; 142,6; 144,2; 146,6; 147,1; 148,6; 147,1; 148,1; 150,3; 151,2; 153,5. 31 See al-Tha‘lab|: Qi a al-anbiy al-musamm ar is al-maj lis. Beirut: al-Maktabah al- Thaq fiyyah s.d., p. 103. 32 See al-Kis ' |: Qi a al-anbiy . 2 vol. in 1. London 1992, pp. 160-161. <?page no="110"?> Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala 94 second extract from al-Tha & lab|, albeit attributed to the transmitter Ka & b al- A ( b r, is actually further away from the fragment. As indicated earlier, this monologue is not to be found in the Qur ' n, nor yet in the ‘traditions’, 33 e.g. the taf s r of al-Bay $ w| and Ibn Kath|r (though the latter does contain a wealth of isr liyy t) or other Qi a al-anbiy , such as those of Ibn Kath|r. However, the account does appear amongst the legends collected by Knappert some years ago, 34 although it is evidently not the source of the Aljamiado text. The Aljamiado version of the ‘Legend of Y suf’ belongs to a textual tradition of the ‘History of Joseph’ other than those dealt with above. We have drawn attention elsewhere to the immense value of the Aljamiado corpus as a means of recovering much of the highly-varied Andalusí textual heritage that has not come down to us. 35 The Aljamiado writers, faithful to the Islamic textual and ideological tradition to which they were heir, reproduced the texts exactly as they found them, with such diligence and respect for tradition that the reliability of the transmitted material is often astonishing. All this, of course, is of enormous assistance in reconstructing many texts which, having been received by Andalusí culture, were eventually lost due to the vicissitudes of almost nine centuries of Islamic presence in the Iberian Peninsula. Unsurprisingly, the possible Arabic sources do not exactly match the Aljamiado text. But this does not signify, by any means, that the search ends here. Clearly, in many cases there could have been a textual tradition different to those addressed here, containing a text closer to the fragment under study. And that ‘Arabic source’ would in turn lead us, in all likelihood, to an earlier Jewish source, since the transmitter in this case was a Jewish convert who, as indicated above, introduced a large amount of traditional Jewish material into Islam. 4 A hypothesis regarding the source text In view of the foregoing, and since it has not yet been possible to identify a closer Arabic text as the direct source of the Aljamiado fragment, our only option is to attempt to locate the possible Jewish original - or at least a variant of this hypothetical original - which served as the primary source for the 33 Hence, it is not to be found in the classic work by D. Sidersky: Les origines des légendes musulmanes dans la Coran et dans les vies des prophètes. París 1933, pp. 55-68. 34 See Jan Knappert: Islamic Legends. Histories of the Heroes, Saints and Prophets of Islam. 2 vol. Leiden 1985, I, p. 91. 35 Monferrer-Sala: “Laora ke la olyó murió. Una leyenda oriental sobre la muerte de Moisés en el ms. misceláneo 774 de la BnF. Notas para el estudio de las fuentes musulmanas en la literatura aljamiada”. In VIII Simposio Internacional de Mudejarismo. De mudéjares a moriscos: una conversión forzada (Teruel 15-17 de septiembre de 1999). Teruel 2002, II, pp. 861-873. <?page no="111"?> Haggadic episodes in Aljamiado stories. A case from the ’Poem of Yúçuf’ 95 Arabic text later transmitted by Ka & b al-A ( b r into Islam. It would appear that the search should focus on the vast rabbinical legacy, comprising various types of text, and more specifically on the Haggad h, 36 a corpus containing a rich and varied handling of the history of Joseph, and more particularly the motif of his mother Rachel’s tomb. It is perhaps somewhat surprising, at this stage, that - having put forward possible source texts for certain passages both of the ‘Legend’ and of the ‘Poem’ of Y suf - no mention should be made by scholars of the specific source text for this particular point in the ‘history’. Menéndez Pidal makes constant reference to such a source text for the ‘history’ in general, the Sefer ha-Yašar (“The Book of the Righteous Man”), yet fails to indicate this text as a source for the passage of the ‘Poem’ 37 of which a fragment is transcribed above. The Sefer ha-Yašar, also mentioned in Schmidt’s study, poses certain problems, since though it includes older redactional strata, it is a rather late text to serve as a source for the fragment in question. Also known as Toled t Adam (“The Generations of Adam”), this text - by an unknown author 38 - is generally dated to the eleventh or twelfth century; it was published in Naples in the early sixteenth century, and no manuscript version has yet been found. 39 The Sefer ha-Yašar is an account of the history of the Jewish people from Adam until the flight from Egypt. Its major sources include not only copious material from the Bible, the Talmud and the Midrash, but also certain more specific texts: the Midraš wa-Yissa u, the Sefer Yosipp n and the Dibr hayam m šel Mošeh. It is these that provide the oldest strata of the text. These varied materials, including many texts from the Haggad h, make up the core of the Sefer ha-Yašar. Among them is one particular account, drawn from the Haggad h, which may prove to be the source of our fragment, as can be seen in a passage of that work (ch. 42): 40 “And the men proceeded on the road, and they passed along the road of Ephrath where Rachel was buried. And Joseph reached his mother's grave, and Joseph has- 36 See Louis Ginzberg: The Legends of the Jews. Translated from the German Manuscript by Henrietta Szold, Paul Radin. Index by Bohaz Cohen. 7 vol. Philadelphia 1909-13, 1925, 1928, and 1938, II, pp. 20-21. 37 Menéndez Pidal: Poema de Yúçuf, p. 106. 38 For the most likely proposal, see J. Genot: “Censure idéologique et discours chiffré: Le séfer hayasar œuvre d’un exilé espagnol refugié à Naples”. Revue des Études Juives CXL (1981), pp. 433-451. 39 See Sepher hajaschar - Das Heldenbuch. Ed. Lazarus Goldschmidt. Berlin 1923. Translation have been published in The Book of Yaschar. Translated into English by M. M. Noah. New York 1972 (= 1840), P.L.B. Drach in J.-P. Migne: Dictionnaire des Apocryphes. Paris 1858, II, col. 1070-1310, and or the Book of Jasher. Faitfully translated from the original Hebrew into English. Salt Lake City 1887. 40 or the Book of Jasher, p. 123. Cf. Sepher hajaschar, p. 150 (ed. L. Goldschmidt). <?page no="112"?> Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala 96 tened and ran to his mother's grave, and fell upon the grave and wept. And Joseph cried aloud upon his mother's grave, and he said, O my mother, my mother, O thou who didst give me birth, awake now, and rise and see thy son, how he has been sold for a slave, and no one to pity him. O rise and see thy son, weep with me on account of my troubles, and see the heart of my brethren. Arouse my mother, arouse, awake from thy sleep for me, and direct thy battles against my brethren. O how have they stripped me of my coat, and sold me already twice for a slave, and separated me from my father, and there is no one to pity me. Arouse and lay thy cause against them before God, and see whom God will justify in the judgment, and whom he will condemn. Rise, O my mother, rise, awake from thy sleep and see my father how his soul is with me this day, and comfort him and ease his heart. And Joseph continued to speak these words, and Joseph cried aloud and wept bitterly upon his mother's grave; and he ceased speaking, and from bitterness of heart he became still as a stone upon the grave.” This passage from the Sefer ha-Yašar is almost exactly the same - in terms of the elements comprising the episode - as the Aljamiado text, which merely offers a minimal reworking of certain stretches of dialogue with a view to prolonging the climax of the locus tragicus as narrated in the extract from the Aljamiado text transcribed earlier. This Aljamiado fragment shows every sign of being the recasting of an earlier Arabic text (which underwent several redactions); that text, in turn, draws on an earlier Midrashic account from the Haggad h that eventually found its way into the Sefer ha-Yašar. This does not mean, of course, that the source of the Arabic text that linked the Rabbinical source to the Aljamiado text was in fact the Sefer ha-Yašar. Indeed, it is much more likely that the Arabic text that first received the Rabbinical source (also contained in the Sefer ha-Yašar) drew on an earlier Rabbinical source-text that contained a Midrashic ‘history of Joseph’ which, over time, also found its way into the Sefer ha-Yašar. References Luis F. Bernabé Pons: El cántico islámico del morisco hispanotunecino Taybili. Zaragoza 1988. The Book of Yaschar. Translated into English by M. M. Noah. New York 1972 (= 1840). José María Bover: “El sepulcro de Raquel: ¿Efrata-Belén o Efrata Rama? ”. Estudios Eclesiásticos VII (1928), pp. 226-237. Bernard Chàpira: “Légendes bibliques attribuées a Ka & b El-Ahbar”. Revue des Études Juives LXIX (1919), pp. 86-107. Bernard Chàpira: “Légendes bibliques attribuées a Ka & b El-Ahbar”. Revue des Études Juives LXX (1920), pp. 37-43. Federico Corriente: Relatos píos y profanos del manuscrito aljamiado de Urrea del Jalón. Edición, notas lingüísticas e índices de un manuscrito mudéjar-morisco aragonés. Introducción de Mª J. Viguera Molins. Zaragoza 1990. Alan D. Deyermond: Historia de la literatura española. 1. La Edad Media. Barcelona 1992 15 (= 1973). <?page no="113"?> Haggadic episodes in Aljamiado stories. A case from the ’Poem of Yúçuf’ 97 Dictionnaire des Apocryphes. Ed. J.-P. Migne. Paris 1858, II, cols. 1070-1310 (trad. of Sefer ha-Yašar by P. L. B. Drach). Enchiridion locorum sanctorum. Documenta S. Evangelio loca respicientia . Collegit atque adnotavit Donatus Balde. Jerusalem 1935. Encyclopédie de l’Islam. Nouvelle Édition, Leyden-París, 1960- Vincent Ermoni: “Joseph“. In Fulcran Vigouroux (ed.): Dictionnaire de la Bible, III: 2, col. 1655-1669. Eusebius: Das Onomastikon der biblischen Ortsnamen. Ed. Erich Klostermann. Hildesheim, 1966 (= Leipzig, 1904). Inés Fernández Ordóñez: “Los orígenes de la dialectología hispánica y Ramón Menéndez Pidal”. In Xulio Viejo (ed.): Cien años de Filoloxía Asturiana (1906-2006), pp. 11-41. Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes (coord.): Actas del Coloquio Internacional sobre Literatura Aljamiada y Morisca. Departamento de Filología Románica de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la Universidad de Oviedo, 10 al 16 de julio de 1972. Madrid 1978. Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: “El interés literario en los escritos aljamiado-moriscos”. In Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes (coord.): Actas del Coloquio Internacional sobre Literatura Aljamiada y Morisca, pp. 189-210. Jacqueline Genot: “Censure idéologique et discours chiffré: Le séfer hayasar œuvre d’un exilé espagnol refugié à Naples”. Revue des Études Juives CXL (1981), pp. 433- 451. Louis Ginzberg: The Legends of the Jews. Translated from the German Manuscript by Henrietta Szold, Paul Radin. Index by Bohaz Cohen. 7 vol. Philadelphia 1909 -13. Francisco Guillén Robles: Leyendas de José y de Alejandro Magno. Zaragoza 1888. Leonard P. Harvey: “The Political, Social and Cultural History of the Moriscos”. In Salma Khadra Jayyusi (ed.): The Legacy of Muslim Spain, pp. 201-234. Bernhard Heller: “Ginzberg’s Legends of the Jews”. Jewish Quarterly Review XXIV: 4 (1934), pp. 393-418. Ibn al- # ayyib: Commentaire sur la Genèse. Édité et traduit par J.C.J. Sanders. 2 vol. CSCO, 274-275. Louvain 1967. Al-Kis ' |: Qi a al-anbiy . 2 vol. in 1- London 1992. Salma Khadra Jayyusi (ed.): The Legacy of Muslim Spain. Leiden-New York-Cologne 1992. Ursula Klenk: La Leyenda de Y suf, ein Aljamiadotext. Edition und Glossar. Tübingen 1972. Ursula Klenk: “El «tašd|d» en la «Leyenda de Y suf», manuscrito aljamiado”. In A. Galmés de Fuentes (coord.): Actas del Coloquio Internacional sobre Literatura Aljamiada y Morisca, pp. 399-412. Ursula Klenk: “Die Koranverse in der Leyenda de Yusuf und die marchinelle Übersetzung”. In Ursula Klenk, Karl H. Körner, Wolf Thümmel (ed.): Variatio Linguarum, pp. 135-148. Ursula Klenk, Karl H. Körner, Wolf Thümmel (ed.): Variatio Linguarum. Beitrage zu Sprachvergleich und Sprachentwicklung. Festschrift zum 60 Geburstag von Gustav Ineichen. Stuttgart 1989. Jan Knappert: Islamic Legends. Histories of the Heroes, Saints and Prophets of Islam. 2 vol. Leiden 1985. Henri Lesétre: “Rachel“. In Fulcran Vigouroux (ed.): Dictionnaire de la Bible, V: 2, col. 925-927. <?page no="114"?> Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala 98 Mark Lidzbarski: De Propheticis, quae dicuntur, legendis arabicis. Leipzig 1893. Guido Lombardi: La Tomba di Rahel. H. Fârâh - W. Fârâh presso Anatot. La sua relazione con la Bibbia e la questione della Tomba di Rahel. Jerusalem 1971. Ramón Menéndez Pidal: “Poema de Yúçuf: materiales para su estudio”. Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos VII-VIII (1902), pp. 91-129, 276-309, and 347-362 (reed. Textos medievales españoles. Ediciones críticas y estudios. Madrid 1976, pp. 421-519). Ramón Menéndez Pidal: Poema de Yúçuf. Materiales para su estudio. Granada 1952. Ramón Menéndez Pidal: “Las leyendas moriscas en su relación con las cristianas”. In R. Menéndez Pidal: Estudios literarios, pp. 91-101. Ramón Menéndez Pidal: Estudios literarios. Madrid 1973 10 . Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala: “El episodio de la venta de José. Un intento de análisis textual a partir de un fragmento de al- # abar|”. Miscelánea de Estudios Árabes y Hebraicos 44 (1995), pp. 97-119. Juan Pedro Monferrer-Sala: “Laora ke la olyó murió. Una leyenda oriental sobre la muerte de Moisés en el ms. misceláneo 774 de la BnF. Notas para el estudio de las fuentes musulmanas en la literatura aljamiada”. In VIII Simposio Internacional de Mudejarismo, II, pp. 861-873. Alois R. Nykl: “A Compendium of Aljamiado Literature”. Revue Hispanique LXXVII (1929), pp. 409-611. Jean J. Saroihandy: “Remarques sur le Poème de Yúçuf”. Bulletin Hispanique VI (1904), pp. 182-194. Israel Schapiro: Die haggadischen Elemente im erzählenden Teil des Korans . Leipzig 1907. M. Schmidt: “Über das altspanisch Poema de José”. Romanische Forschungen XI (1901), pp. 315-411. M. Schmidt: “Ka b al-A ( b r”. In Encyclopédie de l’Islam, IV, pp. 330-331. Sepher hajaschar - Das Heldenbuch. Ed. Lazarus Goldschmidt. Berlin 1923. or the Book of Jasher. Faitfully translated from the original Hebrew into English. Salt Lake City 1887. David Sidersky: Les origines des légendes musulmanes dans la Coran et dans les vies des prophètes. Paris 1933. VIII Simposio Internacional de Mudejarismo. De mudéjares a moriscos: una conversión forzada (Teruel 15-17 de septiembre de 1999). 2 vol. Teruel 2002. Al-Tha & lab|: Qi a al-anbiy al-musamm ar is al-maj lis. Beirut: al-Maktabah al- Thaq fiyyah s.d. Antonio Vespertino Rodríguez: Leyendas aljamiadas y moriscas sobre personajes bíblicos. Madrid 1983. Xulio Viejo (ed.): Cien años de Filoloxía Asturiana (1906-2006). Oviedo 2009. Fulcran Vigouroux (ed.): Dictionnaire de la Bible. Paris 1912. Mª Jesús Viguera: “Introducción”. In F. Corriente, Relatos píos y profanos, pp. 9-51. Gustav Weil: The Bible, the Koran, and the Talmud; or, Biblical Legends of Mussulmans Compiled from Arabic Sources, and Compared with Jewish Traditions. Translated from the German with occasional notes. New York 1846. Gerard Wiegers: Islamic Literature in Spanish and Aljamiado. Yça of Segovia (fl. 1450), His Antecedents and Successors. Leiden-New York-Köln 1994. Hava Lazarus-Yafeh: Intertwined Worlds. Medieval Islam and Bible Criticism. Princeton NJ 1992. <?page no="115"?> Carlos Santos Carretero The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization 1 Introduction The Dead Sea Scrolls topic has attracted the general public and researchers since the late forties. Many things have been written about them: papers, PhDs, translations... and not always from the same perspective. Some of them are focused on archaeological and historical issues, while others have tried to elucidate the literary and theological content of this discovery. With such bibliographic wealth, which is the point of this paper? The main objective of this dissertation lies in showing the digitization process suffered by the most ancient existing biblical. While this may be considered a banal act, it is something very deep, for the State of Israel and Google have worked together vividly to show the world these “religious manuscripts”. Texts that have interested people from very different backgrounds for generations. Unfortunately, a part of the scrolls’ notoriety comes from tabloids, which have created a sensationalism aura. There are wild assertions like that of the scrolls having the power to destabilize Church and the Western world, or that in their content is encoded the future of mankind 1 . That is why before talking about the digitization, it is necessary debunking all these theories, more typical of a best-seller book. To do that, the scrolls must be known in their antiquity, content and of course, authorship. Only after that, a non researcher reader can really understand the Dead Sea scrolls and their digitization process. 2 The Qumran discoveries Nowadays, there is no doubt that a few bedouins from the Ta´amireh tribe were the ones who found the scrolls in winter 1946 or spring 1947. This discovery took place in a cave situated in the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, near an old enclave called Khirbet Qumran by bedouin tribes. According to official sources, Mohammed Adh-Dhib, and two other friends found ten jars in that cave. There were three old manuscripts written in Hebrew in 1 Michael Baigent, Leigh Richard: La conspiración del mar Muerto. Martínez Roca. Madrid 2007. <?page no="116"?> 100 Carlos Santos Carretero one of them. They were a copy of the book of Isaiah, a pesher 2 of the book of Habakkuk and an unknown text called The Community Rule. Some days after that, the bedouins came back and found four more scrolls, three of them written in Hebrew and the fourth one in Aramaic. The texts were a fragmentary copy of the book of Isaiah, and apocalyptic scroll called The War Scroll, a hymns scroll (hodayot, in Hebrew), and an apocryphal version of Genesis, written in Aramaic. Trying to earn some money, the bedouins sold the scrolls to two antique dealers from Bethlehem: Khalil Iskander Shahin y Faidi Salahi. In July, four of the scrolls were bought by Mar Atanasio Y. Samuel, archimandrite from Syrian-Orthodox monastery of Saint Mark, in Jerusalem Old City. The price: twenty four pounds. At the end of that year, and after many misadventures due to the unstable political situation in the area, E. L. Sukenik, archaeologist from Hebrew University of Jerusalem, acquired the last three scrolls. In early 1948, the archimandrite contacted Sukenik and John C. Trever from American School of Oriental Research (ASOR) to certify the authenticity of the texts. This was the first time in which the scrolls were photographed. However, during Israel's War of Independence, the scrolls were taken from Jerusalem by Mar Samuel. The archimandrite tried to sell them in the U.S. during 1949-1951 in many art galleries. When he realized his failure, he announced them in The Wall Street Journal: “Biblical Manuscripts dating back to at least 200 BC, are for sale. This would be an ideal gift to an educational or religious institution by and individual or group” 3 . Fortunately, as if destiny was helping researchers, Y. Yadín, professor's Sukenik son, was in the U. S. He managed to buy the scrolls in the name of the State of Israel. Their price was 250.000 dollars. Doing this, he was able to take them back to their birthplace in early 1955. The first seven scrolls were finally together again. To commemorate this achievement, the Israeli Government decided to establish the Shrine of the Book as part of the Israel Museum. This place was created to preserve, study and show the texts to the public. Between 1957 and 1965, the seven scrolls were exhibited in a tiny room near the Administration building of the Hebrew University, but in the end, they were moved to the Shrine of the Book. Its architecture is very original, because it is meant to resemble the jar in which the scrolls were found. During many years, visiting this museum was the only way to see one of the most important archaeological discoveries in History. Until now. 2 A pesher (derived from the Hebrew root .7/ , meaning “to play”) is a Jewish religious text analysis available only to experts. They used to introduce a fragment of Scripture and refer it to present history, subordinating the meaning and original context to an updated meaning. 3 John DeSalvo: Los manuscritos del mar Muerto. Sus secretos revelados. Evergreen. Barcelona 2008, p. 40. <?page no="117"?> The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization 101 However, before forward events, it is necessary to situate ourselves in the late forties: Once Israel's War of Independence ended, and with a better political situation in the area, researchers decided to explore the famous cave found by the bedouins. The region of Judea (including Qumran) was now in Jordan's hands, so the main researchers were G. Lancaster Harding, head of the Antiques Department of Jordan, and Roland de Vaux, a Dominican friar, head of the French Biblical School of Jerusalem. They inspected the place called today “cave 1”. In this expedition, they found nearly six hundred fragments from seventy scrolls, more portions from the seven main scrolls and more than fifty ceramics and cloths used to protect the scrolls. In that moment began a competition between scholars and bedouins to found new caves with other scrolls. Thanks to the efforts of both groups, between 1952 and 1956, ten more caves with different artefacts and documents were found. This new fragments were written in Hebrew, Greek and Aramaic. And also, during this archaeological confrontation, the bedouins finally “beated” the Western scholars 4 , although the main winners were all those interested in coming closer to the Roman Occupation age. In 1952, bedouins found “cave 2 (with fragments from 33 scrolls), “cave 6 (with fragments from 31 scrolls, mainly written in papyrus), and the best find in the whole area: “cave 4 (more than 15.000 fragments from 550 scrolls were found, written in Hebrew, Greek and Aramaic once more). The discoveries finally finished in 1956 with “cave 11 (there were 25 scrolls, some of them almost complete, being the Temple Scroll the most important one of all of them). On the other hand, Western archaeologists, found in 1952 “cave 3 (with fourteen fragmented scrolls and another one almost complete: the Copper Scroll 5 ) and “cave 5 (with twenty five scrolls). During 1953 and 1955 they found the “minor caves”, with very little discoveries: there were nineteen scrolls written in Green in “cave 7, “cave 8 only had five, “cave 9 just a single unknown papyrus. The last one, “cave 10” only contained a ceramic. After years of expeditions, bedouins and archaeologists discover between 1947 and 1957 nearly 850 manuscripts of diverse content, many of them in a very irregular condition, written on different materials, in different languages and scattered in eleven caves near Khirbet Qumran 6 . Despite the 4 The competition between the two expeditions did not focus exclusively on the Qumran area, but throughout the desert region of Judea and Samaria. This fruitful struggle allowed to find other texts outside Qumran, as the Samaria papyri or Daliyeh Wadi (from the Arabic “dry river bed”), Masada manuscripts of Murabb'at, Nahal Hever (“Hever river “ in Hebrew), Wadi Seiyal, Nahal Mishmar and Khirbet Mird. 5 The Copper Scroll is the only Qumran manuscript written on sheets of such material, and details a list of hidden treasures scattered throughout Israel. Obviously, this has aroused the interest of researchers and curious. 6 Except for the seven manuscripts in the hands of the Israeli government, all materials found in the caves between 1952 and 1956 both by bedouins as archaeologists, were deposited in the Palestine Archaeological Museum (later renamed Rockefeller Muse- <?page no="118"?> 102 Carlos Santos Carretero efforts done all those years by both bedouins and archaeologists, since 1956 no other scroll has been found in the area, but other caves with more artefacts have appeared. 3 The autorship of the scrolls When scholars wanted to be completely sure about the authenticity and antiquity of the scrolls, they required to use different dating procedures, which began in 1949 and ended in 1991. After all these years, and thanks to both the Carbon-14 technique ( 14 C) 7 and spectometric dating 8 , it was possible to distinguish three different paleographic ages: Archaic Age (250-150 BC.), Asmonean Age (150-30 BC.) and Herodian Age (30 BC.-70 BCE.). Therefore, doing this, it was possible to establish that the scrolls found in Qumran are from the Second Temple period, also known as Hellenistic- Roman Age (s. III BC.- s. I BCE.). At this point, several questions must be asked to understand the importance of the Qumran discoveries: Who wrote the scrolls? Why were they hidden in caves? Did anyone live in Qumran? And if so: Were the people from Qumran the same ones who wrote and hid the scrolls? Different approaches have been done trying to answer all these questions. The one we are using analyzes the features of the scrolls and the ruins separately, acting as if both discoveries weren’t linked. Doing this, it is easier to avoid that the interpretation of one of them would influence the other 9 . Once the feature of the discoveries is elucidated, comparing the conclusions and seeing if there is relation among them will be the next step. Doing this, it is possible to avoid one of the most common mistakes among scholars: Supposing that there is a link between scrolls and ruins, and after that, hypothesizing. um) in the custody of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, until in 1967, after the Six Day War, the museum was taken over by Israel. Today all the rolls are in possession of the State of Israel except the Copper Scroll and fragments of “Cave 1”, held in Jordan. Other manuscripts scattered throughout the world are in the National Library in Paris, at the Universities of Chicago and Heidelberg, and in the hands of a private collector. 7 Throughout its existence living, your body accumulates 14 C. At death, the deposit of these radioactive atoms ceases and begins a slow process of disintegration. The half life of 14 C is 5730 years. Whenever this time period elapses, 14 C is reduced by half. Thus it is possible to determine the age of an organic material as the amount established 14 C. 8 This technique developed in 1987 exceeded 14 C because the required amount of material to be destroyed for radiocarbon analysis was only carbon of 0,5-1 mm, much smaller than the 14 C. 9 Adolfo Roitman: Sectarios de Qumrán. Vida cotidiana de los esenios. Planeta DeAgostini. Barcelona 2006, p. 36. <?page no="119"?> The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization 103 3.1 The content of the scrolls It is remarkable that the content of the scrolls is very homogenous. The literature of the scrolls is mainly biblical: A quarter of the whole are copies of the Old Testament or commentaries about it. There are also scrolls that cannot be called “biblical” (legal texts, poems, eschatological, apocryphal, astronomical, liturgical, calendars and horoscopes), but their relationship with Jewish religion is very deep. That is why it can not be said that there are scrolls unrelated with the Bible. This religious orienteering is reaffirmed when looking for another kind of literature: there are letters, accounts and contracts, but they are small in number compared to the religious literature mentioned before. This homogeneity leads to the following conclusion: The Dead Sea Scrolls are not part of a storehouse or Genizah (repository for unused books hid in synagogues). In fact, it was a “library” with a very clear purpose. There are not any doubts about the relationship among this “collection” of scrolls, because, all texts from each cave have a similar profile (except the scrolls found in “cave 7”). Biblical scrolls were found together 10 , and the same happens with Apocryphal literature (Tobit 11 , Enoch or Jubilees) and sectarian texts (Commentary on the Habakkuk Scroll o the Community Rule Scroll). The idea of this “library” is also reinforced with the fact that many texts were written by the same hand, although they came from different caves. So, who were the owners of all these texts? Were they a single person or a whole group? The answer is simple: Just looking the enormous amount of scrolls found in the caves, being many of them copies of the same text, the only plausible answer is affirming that this library belonged to a very concrete community. The nature of this community is pretty much defined because almost a third of the scrolls have sectarian features, finding in them a religious law very different than Judaism. Some of the peculiarities are the existence of a solar calendar, completely different from the Second Temple one, and new theological conceptions, such as predestination. The texts also show the existence of a very structured and hierarchical community, convinced that their members were the True Israel, the only ones that deserved to be saved during the Last Judgment. They separated themselves from Judaism and were very hostile to those who did not agree with them 12 . Assuming that the scrolls are linked to a sectarian group allows us to explain why there are not 10 Numerous copies of every book of the Bible were found in Qumran, except for the Book of Esther which is totally absent. Probably, this is caused because Esther is the only book of the biblical canon in which God's name is never mentioned. 11 It should be clarified that certain works, such as the Book of Tobit or Ecclesiastes, are apocryphal to Jews and Protestants, while canonical for Catholics. 12 Adolfo Roitman: Sectarios de Qumrán. Vida cotidiana de los esenios. Planeta DeAgostini. Barcelona 2006, pp. 77-79. <?page no="120"?> 104 Carlos Santos Carretero texts with different religious ideas in this “library”. Sociology has tested that sects are characterized by their lack of tolerance to different principles, laws or beliefs 13 . The sectarian nature of the Qumran community also allows to confirm the antiquity of the apocryphal texts found in the caves (some of them reaching the second century BC), but this doesn't mean that their content would completely match with the mentioned nature. On the contrary, it is possible to find little legal and ideological differences in the texts. An explanation of this could be that there are texts from the first periods of the sect and others from a latter time. Despite this, the theological ideology, the religious calendar and all legal rules have the same root. To sum up, the texts found in Qumran reflect a particular split in Judaism, quite elitist, but with big affinities to Biblical literature, which acts as the base of its community. 3.2 The discovery of the ruins After the discoveries, De Vaux realized that near the caves there were some locations where a community had lived. This comes from the fact that excavations had revealed warehouses, workshops, stables, deposits, meeting rooms, kitchens and canteens. As a matter of fact, around a thousand ceramics were found in the latter ones. At the same time, it was discovered that the cave dwellers had an abnormal fixation with ritual purity 14 . This can be deducted because of the enormous presence of water sources. This also explains the existence of a potter's workshop and furnaces to create ceramics. With these ones, they would prevent outsiders from manipulating their instruments. Keeping distance from strangers would also explain the location, for the whole complex is situated in a lonely area, with only one way to access. This is another proof that this community wanted to have a retired life, avoiding all contact with the rest of the world. This exclusionary feature is reinforced once more with the discovery of a cemetery near the caves, with 1.200 tombs in it. All of them were looking north, and most of the skeletons were males. With all this, it is easy to realize that, the caves from Khirbet Qumran prove that there was a sectarian group living there, with many common points with the content of the scrolls. 13 Andrés Canteras Murillo: Sociología del fenómeno sectario: elementos para su interpretación. Eguzkilore: Cuaderno del Instituto Vasco de Criminología 18, 2004, pp. 173-194. 14 Florentino García Martínez, Julio Trebolle Barrera: Los hombres de Qumrán, literatura, estructura social y concepciones religiosas. Editorial Trotta. Madrid 1997, pp. 165-186. <?page no="121"?> The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization 105 3.3 Conclusion supported by facts According to the information provided by the study of both the scrolls and the ruins, it is time to compare the results to verify the existence of a sectarian religious community. The conclusion of De Vaux and his researchers after synthesizing textual and archaeological data is the accepted one for most members of the academic community nowadays. However, they received several critics because they didn't find any scroll in the places of residence of the community. Luckily, in February 1996, an expedition from University of South Florida found a ceramic with text written on it inside the ruins. According to palaeographers F.M. Cross y E. Eshel, this text is a draft copy of an assignment of property document. The text is about a guy named Honi, who had given his slave Hisdai to Eleazar ben Nahmani, fulfilling his commitment to the community. The name of the community in this ceramic is yahad, the same one found in the scrolls, an elevate name to relate themselves as a chosen group of people. This is deep proof that confirms the relation between “caves/ library” and “ruins/ residence” 15 . At this point, there is only one last question: who was this sectarian group? 3.4 The identity of the community. Different theories There are numerous theories about the identity of the inhabitants of Qumran. It must be remembered that the scrolls are from the late Second Temple period, also known as Hellenistic-Roman age. Considering this fact as the starting point, researchers have taken two completely different approaches. First, there is a theory that says that the sectarians from Qumran were a completely unknown group, because there is no information in History about them until the discovery of the scrolls 16 . That is why, according to Talmon, it would be useless trying to identify this community with other religious groups of that time. However, most researchers have left Talmon's theory, suggesting that both the scrolls and the excavations are linked with the works of old scholars like Flavius Josephus, Pliny the Elder and rabbinic sources. This allows us to situate the sect among one of the Jewish groups from that time, noting the existence of four different religious movements that can be related with the sect. The first group is formed by the Zealots. According to C. Roth (1958) y G. R. Driver (1965), the inhabitants from Qumran belonged to this kind of Judaism, known in The New Testament and historical sources as the fanatics that formed the core of the rebellion against Rome (66-73 BCE). Roth even said 15 Adolfo Roitman: Sectarios de Qumrán. Vida cotidiana de los esenios. Planeta DeAgostini. Barcelona 2006, p. 46. 16 Shemaryahu Talmon: The Calendar Reckoning of the Sect from the Judean Desert. The world of Qumran from within. Jerusalem 1990, pp. 157-185. <?page no="122"?> 106 Carlos Santos Carretero that the mysterious “Master of Justice”, one of the enigmatic characters that appear in the scrolls, was no other than Menahem ben Juda, one of the first zealot leaders during the revolt, and that the “Wicked Priest”, the complete opposite of the “Master of Justice”, was Eleazar ben Hanania, captain of the Temple Guard. Scholars agree that the content of the scrolls is linked to a war against Rome. But later evidence and the old dating of some of this scrolls proved that this theory was impossible. The next theory is from Ch. Rabin (1957) 17 , who identified the sectarians with the Pharisees, a religious group that considered Oral Law 18 as a complement of the Torah. According to Rabin, sectarians’ legal rules were quite similar to the Pharisees, so the community from Qumran would have to be primitive Pharisees. But there is a huge failure in this thesis: Pharisaism has secular elements in its conception, but the sectarians gave a main role to priesthood. Besides of this, Pharisees had a solar-lunar calendar, while the sectarian calendar was exclusively solar. The Sadducee hypothesis 19 , is stronger than the previous ones, mainly because Sadducees had an elitist aura. They were an aristocratic group linked to the priesthood in Jerusalem. North says that Sadducees and the members of the community had the same conservative and priestly spirit. However, classical sources do not show any moment in time in which Sadducees were organized in a sectarian way. It would also be wrong linking Sadducees, who were involved with priesthood in the Second Temple and politics, with the sectarians, who refused traditional Judaism, something that can be easily seen in the scrolls. The last theory is the most accepted one nowadays by academics: Essenes and the sectarians were the same group. Professor Sukenik was the first one writing about the relationship between the two groups, in 1948: “In my opinion, the Genizah belonged to the sect of the Essenes” 20 . This hypothesis is based on the existing relationship between classical sources 21 : Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria [20 BC.? -50 BCE.], Jewish historian Flavius Josephus [37 BC.- 96 BCE.] and Roman naturalist and historian Pliny the Elder [? -78 BCE]. It can not also be forgotten the information provided by the scrolls. The group called itself Yahad, `Edah, “sons of Zadok”, “sons of Light”, “the poor ones”, “the pious ones” or “members of the New Alli- 17 Lincoln Hurst: Did Qumran expect two Messiahs? Bulletin for Biblical Research 9, 1999, pp. 164-188. 18 A complement for Torah, used to clarify ambiguous rules of it. 19 Robert North: The Qumran Sadducees. Catholic Biblical Quaterly 17, pp. 164-188. 1955 20 Adolfo Roitman: Sectarios de Qumrán. Vida cotidiana de los esenios. Planeta DeAgostini. Barcelona 2006, p. 51. 21 John DeSalvo: Los manuscritos del mar Muerto. Sus secretos revelados. Evergreen. Barcelona 2008, pp. 102-104. <?page no="123"?> The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization 107 ance 22 “. All sources show several similarities between both groups. For example, the organization of the community, the important role of priesthood, the admission process, religious doctrines, and even legal details such us the rejection of oil. Despite this, there is not absolute parallelism between classical sources and the content of the scrolls. The existence of the solar calendar or cosmic and psychological dualism is only mentioned in the scrolls. This can be because old scholars did not know all the details about the sect or just because they wanted to omit things because of the Essenes' hermetic character. However, there is a last element that can link both Essenes and the sectarian community from Qumran. Pliny located the Essenes in Engedi, a town situated in northwest area of the Dead Sea, the only place in which several ruins of homes have been found very close to the caves. After this last data, most modern scholars agree with the idea of identifying the Essenes with the inhabitants from Qumran, considering this theory as the strongest one nowadays. 4 The scandal of the publication In the beginning of this paper it was said that the Dead Sea Scrolls generated an enormous controversy since their discovery, and speculations about their mysterious nature have been constant. The main point of all those who think that the scrolls hide secrets that could destroy our civilization is based on the slow editing and publication process. However, conspiracy lovers must be disappointed. Slow editing is due to more mundane factors: several changes on editorial policy, available time for researching, difficulties when deciphering texts... Although until 1967 the rate of publications was quite regular, late seventies and early eighties were an empty period: only the Aramaic fragments of the apocryphal book of Enoch were published 23 , among The Temple Scroll and some Oxford volumes. Why did this happen? In 1967, just after the Six-Day War, the Archaeological Palestinian Museum and all their content (including some of the scrolls) were taken by Israel, and when De Vaux died in 1971, his successor, Professor J. Strugnell, only allowed to study the scrolls to familiar researchers and students. The academic community was very upset by this decision, because only a few chosen ones could photograph and study the scrolls. Criticism appeared in magazines and newspapers in early nineties 24 , demanding the disposal of the texts to the international scientific community. 22 Adolfo Roitman: Sectarios de Qumrán. Vida cotidiana de los esenios. Barcelona 2006, p. 51. 23 Josef Milik: The books of Enoch: Aramaic fragments of Qumran Cave 4. Oxford 1976. 24 Hershel Shanks: A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Ed, Hershel Shanks. Biblical Archaeology Society. EEUU 1991, pp. 66-71. <?page no="124"?> 108 Carlos Santos Carretero This atmosphere founded the first paranoid theories of the scrolls, fed by gutter press all over the world. Thanks to this pressure, the Israel Museum politics finally changed, allowing to photograph the scrolls. Since that moment, they were studied thanks to microfilms (1995), a CD-ROM collection of Oxford University (1997) and a database done by Maxwell Institute of Utah (1999). Despite this, there were not many alternatives to study the scrolls until recent years. 5 The digitization process In late September 2011, the Israel Museum and Google presented a project that would shake the foundations of Biblical Studies. One of the main sponsors of the Shrine of the Book and founder of the Center for Online Judaic Studies (COJS), New Yorker businessman George Blumenhal, suggested the project to both entities. Google agreed with the Israeli Antiques Department to upload the scrolls to Internet (almost nine hundred fragments) within a maximum period of five years. Its cost: $ 3,5 million. During the digitization process, the Israel Museum must capture images in high definition, using multispectral technology developed by NASA. Thanks to this technology, scholars hope to shed light to undetected information to the human eye. Searching the website in which the scrolls are stored, people can see that there are only five texts right now: The Great Isaiah Scroll, the War Scroll, Commentary on the Habakkuk Scroll, the Temple Scroll and the Community Rule Scroll. Why did the museum start with these scrolls? They are not only the best preserved ones but their hidden information can surprise scholars and common readers, introducing the sectarian community to the new public. Thanks to this, it is easier to open a new dimension to the translations, corruptions and interpretations of the existing texts. It can be said that the Dead Sea Scrolls are essential to understand the “present” biblical texts, because they are older versions of the ones known until their discovery (beating the Aleppo Codex, dated in 930 BCE), and their content is more complete, without corruptions and interpretations from later centuries. Besides, the study of the scrolls (not only the biblical ones) allows us to know, with great detail, a turbulent historical context blurred by the “traditional” religious texts, only known with little detail by Josephus and Pliny the Elder. Uploading the scrolls to Internet was a hard work. The head of the Shrine of the Book, Adolfo Roitman, spent six months transcribing them, adding basic information about the discovery, the archaeological expeditions and the theories about the community. This is introduced using audiovisual elements, starting with short videos. They are followed by a more detailed <?page no="125"?> The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization 109 text version (for now there’s only an English version, but other languages are likely to come in the future). The scrolls can be extended to 1200 megapixels. Roitman says that this is only possible thanks to Google technology. This is one of the main reasons why the Israel Museum finally chose this company 25 . While Google engineers developed the online platform for the scrolls, the famous Israeli photographer Ardon Bar-Hama was taking pictures of the scrolls. The digitization of the scrolls allows something unthinkable ten years ago: seeing them in a better way than the originals (in the case of the Great Isaiah Scroll, there can be seen spelling errors, corrections and marginal notes written by the scribe. Before this project, they were almost unseen). However, there were certain disagreements between Google and the Shrine of the Book concerning the visualization of the texts. While Google wanted that the reader would access the scrolls like using Google Earth, Roitman and the scholars of his institution were looking for the feeling of reading a real scroll, and not just a computer screen. They wanted plausibility and realism, reflecting the traditional way of reading a biblical scroll. This concept can seem strange to a non Jewish reader, but Judaism maintains this habit since its beginnings. Finally, Roitman's opinion prevailed, as expected. Google does not only allow the augmentation or diminution of the texts, but also searching any section of the scroll, columns, chapters and even verses (only if the text has a counterpart with a traditional one). But the main obstacle of the project was the language barrier. Hebrew speakers all over the world are eight million, not a very high number, hindering the study of the scrolls to the main public. This is why the Israel Museum thought about the possibility of using translations for all those non Hebrew readers. Thanks to this, when selecting a concrete part of the scroll, there is also an English translation, using the Masoretic (traditional) version of the Hebrew Bible. Unfortunately, this causes another problem: The Masoretic version does not correspond exactly with the content of the scrolls, so the reader would find a distortion of the text and its content. Luckily, thanks to the collaboration of Professor Peter Flint, from Qumran Institute in Western Trinity University of Vancouver, and Professor Eugéne Ulrich from University of Notre Dame, this problem has been solved. Both scholars are now in charge of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection of the University of Oxford. This collection contains the most rigorous edition of the scrolls and their translations. These translations are the ones that can be found in the project, allowing also the possibility of comparing them with the Masoretic ones, realizing their differences. Both versions are confronted 25 As he said at the conference about the digitization of manuscripts held at the Hebrew University of Mexico. <?page no="126"?> 110 Carlos Santos Carretero in the screen, and it is indicated in italics when differences appear. Doing this, even a non Hebrew reader can understand both versions and noticing the differences. Right now, this is only available for the Great Isaiah Scroll, but in the future, all the texts will receive the same treatment. The second part of the project will start when the digitization of all the scrolls is finished, and it will consist of adding translations to other languages, with more explanations about the content of the texts and more photographic material. 6 The impact of digitization and its future The study of the Dead Sea Scrolls is now in an unthinkable situation ten years ago. In a short amount of time, it won't be necessary to go to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, in Givat Ram, the place in which they are kept since 1957, nor consulting microfilms or CD-ROM. Accessing to the most important archaeological discovery of the Twentieth Century is now very easy thanks to Internet. Veteran scholars would certainly think this is science-fiction. Thanks to this project it would be easier to prepare lessons, deepen into new research and see the original images. Besides, this also provides personal advantages because the scrolls have not only a scientific, academic and historical value, but also religious. They can show to religious fanatics that main monotheistic faiths have relationship in their content, joining different religious, so they can be a very good way of trying to achieve dialogue and respect between different factions, something so difficult in the Middle East. One of the consequences of the work done by Google and the Shrine of the Book is showing the true nature of one of the biggest treasures in History, transformed today in a universal icon. Although its “black legend” has contributed to it. References Michael Baigent, Leigh Richard: La conspiración del mar Muerto. Martínez Roca. Madrid 2007. Ardon Bar-Hama: Ardonbarhama.com. <http: / / www.ardonbarhama.com/ > (12-09- 2012). 2012. George Brooke: Qumran Pesher: Toward the Redefinition of a Genre. Revue de Qumran 10, S. 483-503. 1981. Andrés Canteras Murillo: Sociología del fenómeno sectario: elementos para su interpretación. Eguzkilore: Cuaderno del Instituto Vasco de Criminología 18, S. 173-194. 2004. John DeSalvo: Los manuscritos del mar Muerto. Sus secretos revelados. Evergreen. Barcelona 2008. <?page no="127"?> The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and their digitization 111 Greg Doudna: Ostraca KhQ1 and KhQ2 from the Cemetery of Qumran: A New Edition. The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 5. <http: / / www.arts.ualberta.ca/ JHS/ Articles/ article_35.pdf> (12-09-2012). 2004 Peru Egurbide: El Vaticano no teme las revelaciones de los manuscritos del mar Muerto . El País. .<http: / / elpais.com/ diario/ 1994/ 07/ 01/ cultura/ 773013608_850215.html> (12-09-2012). 1994. Peter W. Flint, Eugéne Ulrich: Discoveries in the Judean Desert 32. Oxford 2009. Florentino García Martínez, Julio Trebolle Barrera: Los hombres de Qumrán, literatura, estructura social y concepciones religiosas. Editorial Trotta. Madrid 1997. Susan Hazan: The Dead Sea scrolls online. Taking on a [second] life on their own. Musesphere. <http: / / www.musesphere.com/ images/ DeadSeaScrollsonline.pdf> (12- 09-2012). 2008. Lincoln Hurst: Did Qumran expect two Messiahs? Bulletin for Biblical Research 9, S. 1999, pp. 157-180. Jewish Publication Society: The Holy Scriptures according to the Masoretic Text <http: / / www.sacred-texts.com/ bib/ jps/ index.htm> (12-09-2012) 1917. Timothy H. Lim: The Dead Sea Scrolls Electronic Reference Library, Volume 1: The Dead Sea Scrolls on CD ROM. Ed, Timothy H. Lim. Oxford/ Leiden 1997. Maxwell Institute: Database. <http: / / maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/ > (12-09-2012). 1999. Josef Milik: The books of Enoch: Aramaic fragments of Qumran Cave 4. Oxford 1976. Robert North: The Qumran Sadducees. Catholic Biblical Quaterly 17, S. 1955, pp. 164- 188. Adolfo Roitman: Sectarios de Qumrán. Vida cotidiana de los esenios. Planeta DeAgostini. Barcelona 2006. Adolfo Roitman: Conference about the digitization of the Dead Sea Scrolls. YouTube. <http: / / youtu.be/ fYJ83Ppu4HY> (12-09-2012) 2011. Hershel Shanks: A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Ed, Hershel Shanks. Biblical Archaeology Society. EEUU 1991. Shemaryahu Talmon: The Calendar Reckoning of the Sect from the Judean Desert. The world of Qumran from within. S. 157-185. Jerusalem 1990. The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: Collections <http: / / dss.collections.imj.org.il/ > (12-09- 2012) 2012. <?page no="129"?> Soledad Díaz Alarcón The Elegy written in a country churchyard de Thomas Gray traduite en français par Marie-Joseph Chénier 1 Introduction L’élégie, chanson triste de deuil ou de lamentation, était à l’origine un poème dédié à la mort d’un être cher exprimé en couplet élégiaque, s’étendant à regretter plus tard des malheurs de la famille et les catastrophes des nations, pour exprimer enfin les chagrins, les espoirs et même l’exaltation de l’amour. A partir de cette définition (Coll et Vehí, 1859: 221) il s’ensuit qu’il y a deux types d’élégie: l’une, que l’on appelle héroïque, où l’on déplore les malheurs publics, ainsi que les défaites des armées, l’effondrement des empires ou les grandes catastrophes de la race humaine; et une autre plus intime, plus personnelle, et donc un genre moins élevé, dans laquelle le poète exhale les souffrances de son propre cœur. C’est l’élégie proprement dite. La première permet non seulement la chaleur de la passion, mais la grandeur des images et l’enthousiasme de l’ode. La seconde, selon le même auteur, devrait diriger sa voix au cœur; tout le crédit dépend de l’intensité des sentiments et d’une élégante simplicité de la forme: “La elegía propiamente dicha admite el calor de la pasión, pero no el arrebato del entusiasmo; muestra la languidez y el decaimiento de la pena, pero sin incurrir en bajeza; no luce ingenio ni ostenta saber, porque sería ridícula esta ostentación en una persona que se supone persarosa; mas en medio de su dolor, no exagera su sentimiento (…)”. 1 La tradition gréco-romaine offre, sous la plume de Tibulle, Properce ou Ovide, des élégies dont les thèmes sont l’amour et la douleur, qui ouvrira la voie au Canzoniere de Pétrarque ou à l’expression du Tempus Fugit et à la fragilité de l’être, caractéristiques de la Pléiade (Les Regrets de Du Bellay ou les Élégies, mascarades et bergeries de Ronsard). Luís Vaz de Camões 2 au Portugal, Gabriello Chiabrera en Italie, illustrent ce genre qui se distingue en Angleterre avec Spenser et Milton, (et son élégie 1 José Coll y Vehí: Elementos de Literatura, imprenta y estereotipia de M. Rivadeneyra. Madrid 1859, p. 167. http: / / books.google.es/ books? id. 2 Une collection de l’œuvre de Camoens a été publiée entre 1779 et 1782 en cinq volumes à Lisbonne. On y trouve Los Lusíadas, 301 sonnets, 16 chansons, 12 odes, 4 sextines, 21 <?page no="130"?> Soledad Díaz Alarcón 114 pastorale Lycidas, 1637), permettant ainsi l’établissement des conventions élégiaques modernes: des scènes pastorales, l’appel des Muses, l’union intime avec la nature, la méditation sur le destin et le mal dans le monde, et une conclusion optimiste: la mort est le commencement de la vie. Le XVII e siècle français, à l’exception des élégies de Théophile de Viau et le magnifique exemple de “Elégie aux Nymphes de Vaux” (1661) de La Fontaine, n’apportera pas d’originalité au genre, qui va recouvrer cependant avec la sensualité et l’épicurisme de Parny et Bertin au XVIII e siècle, un ton classique que l’on verra bien raffermi dans les Élégies d’André Chénier. L’élégie de la première moitié du XVIII e siècle est surtout galante, mais elle deviendra funèbre après le Consulat et la Restauration. Avant Parny, Bertin et Chénier, l’on trouve les héroïdes tragiques de Dorat, Gilbert et Colardeau, les cris de Baculard d’Arnaud, les poèmes macabres de Feutry, les rêveries mélancoliques de Léonard ou la religiosité sentimentale de Fontanes. Après la Révolution, la religion, la nature, l’histoire, les émotions de la vie publique et privée font l’objet de l’élégie. L’Angleterre se détache progressivement du goût français imposé sous les Stuarts, retrouvant ainsi sa propre idiosyncrasie morale et intellectuelle. La poésie funèbre d’inspiration religieuse connaît un renouveau après la Révolution de 1688. La montée de la classe moyenne apporte un renouvellement propice à la restauration du puritanisme: sermons populaires, méditations sur la mort ou le journalisme sensationnaliste ont des implications claires dans la poésie, laissant trahir un goût pour le pathétique et le macabre et infusant au lecteur la peur de l’enfer et la damnation éternelle. Young, Hervey, Blair et Gray font preuve d’un sens clair de gravité et de tristesse lorsqu’ils traitent des questions telles que la mort, la religion et la mélancolie, exprimées avec une grande spiritualité. Cette réflexion intérieure de nature pessimiste annonce la mélancolie du mouvement romantique. L’attrait pour la mort, la nuit et l’obscurité est l’un des traits caractéristiques de ces auteurs appelés “les poètes des tombes”, qui constituent “The Graveyard School”. Leurs poèmes sont situés dans des cimetières délabrés ou à côté d’une abbaye en ruine, symboles de ce qui a cessé d’exister, et leurs réflexions sont liées au Memento Mori et à l’ubi sunt, où la fragilité humaine ne peut rien faire contre la puissance écrasante de la mort. Après la mort de sa femme et de ses enfants, Young s’est entouré de fantômes, traînant dans des cimetières, soumis à la méditation. Son œuvre est une nécropole de monuments de style lourd et opulent, pleins d’inscriptions et d’allégories. Le Tourneur traduit Young (1769-1770), Hervey (1770) et le faux Ossian (1777). Les Nuits d’Young passaient de main en main illustrées de spectres, élégies, 15 églogues, 3 comédies, certains rondeaux, des gloses, etc. (Los Lusíadas, poema épico de Luís de Camoens, que tradujo al castellano Don Lamberto Gil. Tomo I, imprenta de D. Miguel de Burgos. Madrid 1818, p. 35). http: / / books.google.es/ books? id. <?page no="131"?> The Elegy written in a country churchyard de Thomas Gray 115 de tombes et de cyprès, et ce goût anglais, lugubre et sombre, parfois lié à la vision de la fin du monde et au jugement final, aura un grand impact sur la société française. En 1770, Colardeau a imité, en vers, les deux premières nuits d’Young; Feutry écrivait sous l’inspiration d’Young des poèmes funéraires comme Le Temple de la Mort publié en 1753; Les Tombeaux, en 1755; ou Les Ruines, en 1767, travail où Feutry se plaint de son “spleen” énumérant les calamités et les vices qui font le malheur de l’homme. 3 L’élégie acquerra une spéciale renommée en Angleterre grâce au célèbre poème de Thomas Gray, “Élégie écrite dans un cimetière de campagne” méditation sur un cimetière de village au crépuscule, inscrit dans la tradition de la “Graveyard School ” où l’on ressent la mélancolie anglaise, sans chercher à atteindre ni la sublimation ni la terreur. Cette élégie est sans aucun doute un chef-d’œuvre de l’école anglaise des cimetières. Écrite entre 1742 et 1750, elle est contemporaine des Nuits d’Young et des Méditations de Hervey. Gray a commencé à l’écrire peu de temps après la mort de son ami Richard West en 1742, mais elle n’a été publiée qu’en 1751. Ainsi, soumis à la souffrance, il expose une réflexion troublante sur la mort et sur la finitude de la vie, questions inévitables dans l’univers du memento mori. Située dans un cadre champêtre, dans cette élégie le poète erre dans un humble cimetière de village et il réfléchit sur la mort toute-puissante, sur les occasions manquées de ceux qui y gisent, dont les noms sont à peine mentionnés dans les inscriptions des pierres éparpillées. Humble sort et sans gloire que celui de ces êtres qui ne se sont jamais fait remarquer ni par des exploits ni par des crimes, mais qui sont comparés à des gemmes et des fleurs cachées dans les océans et les déserts, et dont il célèbre la vertu, car elle n’a pas été corrompue par les tentations des villes ni les cours des rois. Le poète conclut en songeant au jour où les villageois ne le verront plus rêver au pied d’un arbre à l’aube, ni se promener à travers les champs; en revanche, ils verront arriver son modeste convoi, il sera enterré dans ce cimetière et sur l’épitaphe on lira qu’il n’a été qu’un pauvre inconnu, triste et doux. Comme nous venons de voir, le poème situe le spectateur solitaire dans une position privilégiée: c’est dans la solitude absolue que le poète peut parler d’une vérité qu’on ne peut observer qu’individuellement. Et cette solitude même lui permet de mener une réflexion sur la condition humaine, la vanité de l’existence, la futilité de l’ambition et les privilèges. 3 Il faudrait ajouter à ces caractéristiques sinistres, la nouvelle description de la nature fournie par James Thomson dans ses poèmes dédiés à des saisons, The Seasons (1726- 1730), dont la célèbre traductrice en France a été Madame Bontems, bien que l’imitateur le plus célèbre fût Jean-François de Saint-Lambert (Les Saisons, 1760), un travail qui bénéficia d’une influence considérable à son époque, mais qui tomba dans l’oubli. <?page no="132"?> Soledad Díaz Alarcón 116 Cette méditation nocturne et mélancolique face aux tombes, commune à Parnell, Hervey et Blair a acquis un degré significatif d’originalité dans certains aspects: la description poignante d’un lieu simple, ensuite, les réflexions du poète n’ont pas été prises de la religion (sauf le dernier vers de l’épitaphe) et elles n’étaient pas destinées à discourir sur la vie future ou la divinité. Le poète est un savant qui a une grande connaissance de l’antiquité classique -mais pas un prêtre qui prie dans une chaire- qui s’exprime sur le pathétisme de la destinée de l’homme, sans l’intervention de la religion. Des fonctions innovatrices placent l’élégie de Gray à l’avant-garde des romantiques français, les annonçant grâce au ton mélancolique de la poésie, à une atmosphère trouble qui fait penser à Lamartine et à la disparition de la vision macabre de la mort. Cette élégie a été maintes fois traduite dans les langues les plus diverses, 4 du fait de la brièveté qui invitait les admirateurs du genre à rendre possible la traduction et favorisait sa publication. Les premières traductions françaises auxquelles nous nous référons sont celle de Mme Necker, 5 publiée en 1765 et celle de Le Tourneur, en 1771, toutes les deux en prose et très libres. Le reste des traductions que l’on trouve sont en vers: commençant en 1770, elles se multiplient en particulier entre 1788 et 1813, coïncidant avec la mode ossianique. La plupart sont réalisées par des médecins-philosophes comme Cabanis (1797), des écrivains comme Marie-Joseph Chénier (1803), Cournad et Fayolle ou des amateurs comme la duchesse de Luynes (1797). Ces versificateurs adoptent une stance élégiaque proche de l’original et respectent la versification. En 1796, Chateaubriand imprime à Londres dans Le Journal de Peltier 6 Les Tombeaux champêtres, élégie composée de 105 alexandrins imitée de Gray. Il est bien vrai que tous ces travaux ne peuvent pas être considérés comme des traductions de qualité, mais ils ont réussi à émouvoir un public éclairé et ils ont permis aux lecteurs français d’apprécier la mélancolique et sombre fantaisie de Gray, discrètement funèbre, sans être lugubre. Merlin de Douai, en 1788, a publié Imitation de l’Élégie de Gray, sur un cimetière de campagne dans L’Année littéraire, élégie composée de 182 alexandrins et qui est accompagnée d’une épître intitulée A Gray, qui commence par une 4 Clark Sutherland Northup: A bibliography of Thomas Gray. Yale, Univ. Press. New Haven 1917. Outre les traductions françaises, allemandes, portugaises, italiennes, espagnoles, cette élégie a été aussi traduite en danois, suédois, hébreu, latin et hongrois. 5 Madame Susanne Curchod de Nasse Necker. “Élégie écrite sur un cimetière de campagne”, traduite de l’Anglois de M. Gray In La Gazette littéraire, 1765. 6 Poésies Diverses par François-René Chateaubriand (1768-1848). Les Tombeaux champêtres Elégie imitée de Gray. Londres 1796 http: / / blog.amicalien.com/ Mimi3451/ t2110_les- tombeaux-champetres.htm Un extrait de cette œuvre, traduit en espagnol, est disponible dans l’article de Miguel A. García Peinado “La influencia en Francia de la poesía sepulcral inglesa de XVIII: Les Tombeaux (Aimé Feutry), Les Tombeaux champêtres (Chateaubriand), Les Sépultures (Lamartine)”, publié en Hermeneus, Revista de Traducción e Interpretación de la Universidad de Valladolid. Valladolid 2005, pp. 87-114. <?page no="133"?> The Elegy written in a country churchyard de Thomas Gray 117 louange du poète anglais, grâce à l’hommage qu’il rend à l’indigence et au mérite ignoré: “O toi dont la grande âme offrit un pur hommage A la foible indigence, au mérite inconnu (…)” 7 Pour conclure cette section, nous voudrions citer quelques-unes des traductions de cette élégie réalisées à l’aube du XIX e siècle, dont nous soulignons la composition de l’abbé Antoine de Cournand 8 (Le Cimetière et Le Printemps, 1802), celle de Pierre-Joseph Charrin 9 (Cimetière de village, 1808) ou celles des auteurs Jean-Baptiste Hugues Nelson Cottreau 10 (1811), Marie François Joseph Fayolle 11 (Élégie sur un cimetière de campagne, 1812) ou MP Guillory 12 (1813). 2 Analyse traductologique de Cimetière de campagne de Marie- Joseph Chénier Marie-Joseph Chénier (1764-1811) abandonna bientôt la carrière militaire pour se consacrer à la littérature et il a cultivé avec succès différents genres littéraires, en particulier le théâtre, travaux dans lesquels il exprime dans un style noble et énergique sa haine du despotisme et son amour de la liberté. Outre les tragédies, il compose de la poésie lyrique (odes et hymnes), des épîtres, des satires pleines d’inspiration et d’ironie telles que L’Épître à Voltaire, certains ouvrages en prose, parmi lesquels nous tenons à remarquer le Tableau de la littérature française depuis 1789, et une quantité importante de chants patriotiques à l’occasion des fêtes républicaines. Son intérêt pour la traduction est attesté par ses nombreuses versions en vers des auteurs comme Horace (Ars Poétique), Lucrèce, Virgile, l’élégie de Thomas Gray ou l’imitation en vers de la comédie de Lessing, Nathan le Sage. En prose, il traduira la Poétique de l’Arioste et l’œuvre du philosophe latin Salluste. 7 Le Censeur Universel Anglois, ou Revue Hebdomadaire de tout ce qui paroît à Londres , tome 6. Paris: chez Lagrange, 1787 http: / / books.google.es/ books? id. 8 L’Abbé Antoine de Cournand, 1747-1814, Professeur agrégé de Littérature Française au Collège de France. “Élégie faite dans un cimetière de campagne”. In La Décade Philosophique, Littéraire et Politique, An X, no. 30, iv. 182-5. 1802. 9 P. J. Charrin, Lyon. Le cimetière de village, imitation en vers de l’élégie de Gray par P. J. Charrin; suivi de Poésies diverses. Delaunay. Paris 1808. 10 Jean-Baptiste-Hugues Nelson Cottreau. Le bal du bois de Brévannes, poëme, suivi de l’Épître à mon berceau, et d’une traduction du Cimetière de village, de Thomas Gray, par Hugues Nelson Cottreau. Cretté. Paris 1811. 11 Élégie de Thomas Gray, sur un cimetière de campagne, traduite en vers français par F. Fayolle , et suivie d’une traduction en vers italiens par G. Torelli. 12 M. P. Guillory. “Élégie sur un cimetière de campagne. Imitation de Gray”. In Le Moniteur Universel, Dec. 31, 1813, p. 1462. <?page no="134"?> Soledad Díaz Alarcón 118 Dans la préface de Cimetière de campagne. Élégie anglaise de Gray, traduite en vers français 13 (1803), Chénier justifie la méthode suivie dans la réalisation de sa version et il argue les écarts que le lecteur trouvera entre les deux textes, qu’il décida de publier en regard pour faciliter la compréhension au risque d’encourager une inconsciente (ou non) correction de son texte. L’ordre des idées exprimées dans cette préface se présente comme suit: a. Une critique des traductions françaises de l’élégie de Gray antérieures à la sienne, qualifiant les unes de paraphrases, les autres d’approximations et finalement certaines dont il apprécie l’élégance et l’harmonie. b. La publication en regard permettra au lecteur de vérifier les modifications qu’il jugea nécessaires et de discerner si c’est une imitation infidèle ou une traduction servile: “On pourra voir d’un coup d’œil ce que j’ai cru devoir supprimer, changer, ajouter; on jugera si j’ai su garder un juste milieu entre une imitation infidèle et une traduction servile .” Chénier est également conscient que sa version est sensible à une amélioration progressive et il accepte volontiers les opinions d’experts et les critiques des censeurs. c. Avant lui, de nombreux poètes français ont été attirés par la philoso- phie et la littérature anglaise d’auteurs comme Shakespeare ou Pope. Tel est le cas de Voltaire, Delille, Boisjolin ou JF Ducis. Finalement, Chénier encourage d’autres poètes à continuer à traduire les œuvres de Gray (Hymne à l’Adversité, Odes pindariques ou Le Barde) aussi bien que celles d’autres écrivains anglais: Dryden, Prior, Parnell, Addison et Goldsmith. Il conclut que la littérature devrait dépasser les confrontations politiques entre les pays parce qu’ “il existe pour le génie un traité de paix perpétuelle qui doit être religieusement observé” (Chénier 1839: 659). L’Élégie de Gray est composée de 128 vers, dont 12 appartiennent à l’épitaphe finale, structurés en 32 “heroic couplets“ 14 ou strophes de quatre pentamètres iambiques de dix syllabes. La rime est croisée ABAB. Chénier, quant à lui, réduit le nombre de lignes à 122 tout en conservant la structure de l’épitaphe (12 vers). Sa composition n’est pas divisée en quatrains, mais en strophes inégales. Le poème est construit en alexandrins, établissant une césure régulière après la sixième syllabe. La rime est plate, avec une alternance de rime masculine et féminine et elle est habituellement riche. 13 Oeuvres de J.F. Ducis suivies des oeuvres de M.J. de Chénier, Paris, Ledentu, Libraire- Éditeur, 1839, p. 659 (préface) http: / / books.google.es/ books? id. 14 Le “heroic couplet” est la forme traditionnelle de la poésie épique, narrative ou de scriptive en anglais. Ces poèmes sont construits sur une succession de pentamètres iambiques à rime masculine. William Shakespeare et John Dryden ont été parmi les premiers auteurs à utiliser la forme de cette strophe. Étant donné la célébrité de l’élégie de Thomas Gray, des écrivains et des critiques ont commencé à la nommer “elegiac stanza”. <?page no="135"?> The Elegy written in a country churchyard de Thomas Gray 119 Le poème expose les réflexions d’un observateur au moment où il passe par le cimetière de Stoke Poges (Buckinghamshire, Angleterre). Il s’arrête et commence à se souvenir des étrangers qui y sont enfouis. L’idée de la mort enveloppe le narrateur qui nous la présente, dans les cinq premières strophes de Gray, à travers la métaphore du coucher du soleil: l’obscurité de la nuit tombante, le triste gémissement du bétail, la quiétude de l’air ou l’ululement nocturne de la chouette. Des éléments qui décrivent une atmosphère propice à une funeste méditation qui commence par une mémoire des ancêtres. De ces 12 vers de Gray, Chénier omet le 6 e et le 7 e où l’auteur anglais décrit le bourdonnement du vol d’un escarbot (“Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight”) et le tintement somnolent des clochettes accrochées au cou des bovins (“And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds”). En revanche, Chénier crée une introduction fermée qui commence par “le Jour fuit” et conclut par “l’empire à la nuit consacré”, antithèse qui accélère le passage du jour à la nuit, de la vie à la mort. Malgré la coïncidence dans les deux poèmes des éléments qui soutiennent la métaphore, nous trouvons cependant quelques différences: d’abord, le tintement de la cloche est introduit dans le texte source (TS) par le mot “tolls”, mais dans le texte français ou texte cible (TC) à travers une métonymie “accents de l’airain”. Par ailleurs, les deux premiers vers du TS présentent deux idées indépendantes, tandis que le TC particularise l’idée que la sonnerie des cloches n’annonce que le retour du bétail et non celui des villageois. Ainsi, le TC omet la deuxième partie du 2 e vers anglais (“wind slowly o’er the lea”). Dans le 3 e vers, le complément “his weary way” est omis dans le texte français, mais Chénier réalise une compensation avec l’adjectif “weary”, qui, qualifiant dans l’original le substantif “way”, qualifie à son tour l’agriculteur dans le texte français, permettant donc la création d’une hypallage. D’autre part, le 4 e vers anglais (“And leaves the world to darkness and to me”) souffre une mutation dans le TC: Gray constate qu’après le jour, le monde appartient à la nuit et au narrateur, mais Chénier néglige cette idée et fait du 4 e vers une amplification mettant l’accent sur la perte de lumière, la solitude et le silence: (“du soleil expirant la tremblante lumière / délaisse par degrés les monts silencieux”). Les vers suivants (6 e , 7 e et 8 e) remplacent le mot “stillness” par son sens métonymique (“un calme”) et le substantif “the air” par la métaphore “les cieux”. Il s’est aussi produit une amplification de l’hyperonyme de “owl”, “sinistres oiseaux”, grâce au complément de manière “par un cri monotone”. Cet hyperonyme dont on a changé le nombre (du singulier au pluriel) produit ainsi une transposition. Le complément de lieu “near her secret bow’r” a été également remplacé par “dans sa route” et on a hyperbolisé le substantif “reing” le transformant en “l’empire”, mais on l’a démuni des adjectifs qualificatifs “ancient solitary”. <?page no="136"?> Soledad Díaz Alarcón 120 Le quatrain français suivant, où l’on nous décrit que dans ce cimetière reposent les ancêtres des villageois, est en grande partie conforme à l’original, à l’exception de l’ordre des vers: le 14 e vers du TS correspond au 15 e du TC. Quant au 15e vers du TS, où l’on indique l’emplacement de chaque individu d’après chacune des tombes, dans le texte français, Chénier a généralisé cette idée en insistant sur une description ténébreuse du paysage: tout le cimetière est “deuil” et “ombre”. Le quatrain suivant du TS (vers 17-20) résume l’idée que le jour reviendra avec ses odeurs, ses bruits, mais pas pour les morts. Ce jugement est très clair dans l’esprit du lecteur du TC par l’anaphore de la conjonction négative “ni” au long des lignes 16, 17 et 18, qui précisent le moral emphatique contenu dans le 15 e vers. Dans le TS ce vers occupe la 20 e place et ferme le quatrain en guise de conclusion. Tout au long de ce quatrain, Chénier emploie également les techniques de traduction suivantes: il généralise la personnification de l’expression “Morn”, qui perd toute sa valeur et n’apparaît que comme un bref aperçu dans le complément “le cor matinal”. Il a également effectué une omission du 18 e vers du TS et a amplifié les deux compléments qui composent le 19 e vers (“the cock’s shrill clarion, or the echoing horn”) qui, dans le TC se déroulent dans les vers 16 et 17 (“ni le clairon du coq annonçant la lumière / ni du cor matinal l’appel accoutumé”). Le 18 e vers du TC intègre de nouvelles informations “ni la voix du printemps au souffle parfumé”, dans le but de ratifier le champ sémantique des sons du matin, remplaçant ainsi la personnification de la brise du matin par la métaphore “la voix du printemps”. Enfin, l’adjectif “lowly” du 20 e vers qui introduit l’idée de la simplicité de la tombe est remplacé par le terme “dernière” qui met l’accent sur l’irrévocabilité de la mort. Dans les deux strophes suivantes du TS (vers 21-28), Gray nous rapproche de la vie quotidienne des villageois à travers leurs liens familiaux et leur travail aux champs. Toutefois la description détaillée, par une succession de négations, de la quotidienneté laborale et familiale du paysan vient confirmer l’idée que la perte est irréfutable: il ne pourra plus jamais profiter des caresses de sa femme ou de ses enfants, ni labourer les champs. Tout ce bonheur a été écourté par la mort. La première différence que l’on trouve entre ces vers anglais et français concerne la structure: le quatrain anglais a été traduit en français par un quintil. En outre, on constate aussi un changement syntaxique: la poésie anglaise est basée sur trois phrases simples introduites par trois sujets différents (“hearth, housewife, children”) présentés par hyperbates. Cependant la strophe française est construite sur un seul sujet “des enfants” et les autres agents “mère-père” impliqués dans la scène sont introduits par des compléments de nom. Le vers 21 du TC a souffert une amplification: Chénier recrée l’image du baiser de bienvenue que l’enfant donne à son père de retour à la maison, donc “the envied kiss” (vers 24 TS) devient “le baiser du <?page no="137"?> The Elegy written in a country churchyard de Thomas Gray 121 retour, objet de leur désir”. Pour culminer cette strophe, il est nécessaire de détacher deux changements importants qui ont eu lieu dans le TC: le premier consiste à l’omission du vers 21 du TS, qui a été remplacé par les vers 22 et 23 du TC, dans lesquels le traducteur décrit la scène intime de la réunion, à la fin de la journée, de toute la famille partageant un repas humble, mais qui pour eux est tout un banquet (“et le soir, au banquet, la coupe du plaisir / n’ira plus à la ronde égayer la famille”). Ce sentiment joyeux est évident dans tous les termes positifs concentrés dans cette strophe, qui mettent également l’accent sur les notions de communauté, de célébration et de famille: “partager, ronde, retour, désir, banquet, coupe, plaisir, égayer, enfants, bras de la mère, genoux du père, baiser, famille”. Le second changement fait référence au vers 22, où Gray décrit l’amour de la femme envers le paysan, tandis que dans le TC, la femme a changé son rôle pour devenir “mère”, alors, ce sont ses enfants qui deviennent le but de ses soins (“Des enfants, réunis dans les bras de leur mère”). Les quatre lignes suivantes présentent une forme et un contenu similaires au TS: Chénier voulait garder la mention de toutes les tâches que réalisait le paysan aux champs qui étaient spécifiées dans le TS et que le traducteur a rendues explicites par le biais des allitérations en / f/ et en / s/ : ceci nous fait penser au bruit des outils de travail ainsi qu’à la joie qu’il éprouve à les utiliser. Cette manifestation de joie est mise en valeur dans les deux strophes grâce aux vers exclamatifs et aux parallélismes syntaxiques entre les premières lignes de TC (24- 25). C’est pour cette raison que Chénier, dans le but de généraliser la notion de bonheur, préfère remplacer la joie avec laquelle l’agriculteur dirigeait les attelages (“How jocund did they drive their team afield! ”) par les chansons heureuses qu’il chantait en travaillant (“comme au sein des travaux leurs chants étaient joyeux,”). Dans les quatre strophes suivantes du TS (vers 29-44), Gray exhorte à “Ambition” et “Grandeur” de respecter la vie humble du villageois, de lui reconnaître ses efforts, la simplicité des joies au foyer et de ne pas rire de l’humilité des histoires de pauvres. Cette exhortation est justifiée par un argument puissant: la gloire, la pompe, le pouvoir, la beauté, comme l’humilité et la pauvreté ont le même sort péremptoire: la mort. C’est ainsi que Gray demande quel sens peuvent avoir les épitaphes célèbres, les cryptes solennelles ou la musique d’orgue s’il n’est pas possible d’échapper à la mort. Si nous analysons la traduction de Chénier, on s’aperçoit qu’il respecte d’abord le contenu sémantique de chaque strophe, mais non pas la structure, car il réduit le deuxième quatrain à un tercet. Voyons alors comment Chénier imprime sa touche personnelle: d’abord il supprime les personnifications de “Ambition, Grandeur, Mem’ry, Death”, cependant il réévalue l’idée de respect pour l’homme simple moyennant des vers exhortatifs. Il effectue aussi une compression et une généralisation des valeurs de la vie comme “toil, joys, destiny”, que Chénier resume dans “tombes”, métaphore <?page no="138"?> Soledad Díaz Alarcón 122 de la vie des villageois, ce qui reste d’eux. Notre auteur introduit aussi des métaphores telles que “l’heureux fils du sort”, se référant à la fortune, et “le sourire altier”, à la vanité; l’antithèse “grandeur-candeur” à la fin du vers ; des verbes négatifs (“déposant, expire”) liés à l’idée de grandeur et de vanité et un verbe positif (“respecte”) lié à l’idée de candeur. De plus, il a précipité le rythme des vers 32-34: toutes les valeurs qui représentent le respect social sont exposées par une énumération rapide des notions séparées par des virgules et se terminant dans l’hyperbole “empire”, résumée immédiatement dans le vers suivant dans le sujet “tout”, avec lequel Chénier revient encore à l’idée du memento mori. Le 34 e vers, qui conclut en réaffirmant l’idée ci- dessus, commence par une exclamation sublime, “O gloire! ” pour ramener à nouveau à l’idée de la mort, “au cercueil”. Dans la strophe suivante, Gray s’adresse aux personnes hautaines afin de préciser que les riches cryptes ne vont pas ébranler l’imperturbable mort. Le pathétisme de ce message est accentué par les interrogations rhétoriques qui occupent le quatrain tout entier. Ces mêmes questions sont répétées dans la version de Chénier, mais le pathos est mis en évidence au moyen d’un ensemble d’adjectifs antithétiques structurés en parallélismes syntaxiques, soulignant ainsi la futilité de l’honneur et de la richesse (vers 35, 38 et 41). La succession de quatrains qui comprend les vers 45 à 76 de l’élégie de Gray est réduite à une seule strophe dans la version de Chénier. L’axe sémantique défini dans ces vers est basé sur une hypothèse: le poète suppose que beaucoup des hommes ignorés et enterrés dans ce cimetière avaient été dotés par la nature d’un grand potentiel. S’ils avaient eu la possibilité de grandir dans la ville, ces pouvoirs auraient pu être développés par l’éducation et ils seraient devenus des sages, des poètes ou des citoyens illustres. Ainsi, il ajoute qu’il y a des trésors cachés dans les abysses et dans les profondeurs de la terre, et des fleurs dont le parfum est exhalé dans la solitude des forêts et des déserts. Mais si ces agriculteurs n’ont pas été connus ni applaudis, ils ont pu cependant consacrer toute leur vie paisible à accomplir un travail utile. Une lecture superficielle de cette strophe peut donner l’impression que l’auteur favorise la louange des classes inférieures, en soulignant leurs vertus simples. Toutefois, Gray soutient plutôt l’idée que tout le monde, riches et pauvres, a la possibilité de trouver le même but, car nous sommes tous égaux devant la mort. Si Gray réitère la force morale des vertus des pauvres c’est parce que la société les a oubliées et on ne connaît plus que celles des riches, voilà pourquoi l’auteur anglais les omet. L’une des preuves qui met en évidence l’impartialité du poème sur les différentes classes sociales peut-être le fait que Gray reconnaît que la formation leur donne la possibilité de développer leur excellence morale, mais elle risque aussi de les conduire à la corruption. Il conclut alors que bien que la société glorifie les riches et le poète les pauvres, à la fin “le sentier ne conduit qu’au cercueil”. <?page no="139"?> The Elegy written in a country churchyard de Thomas Gray 123 Considérons donc les techniques de traduction que Chénier a effectuées dans la traduction de ces vers: concentration du premier quatrain anglais (vv. 45-48), qui devient un tercet, de sorte que les idées présentées dans les vers 47 et 48 du texte anglais sont exposées dans les deux hémistiches du vers 44 français (“des mains dignes du sceptre, ou dignes de la lyre”) qui sont syntaxiquement parallèles. Cette répétition de la structure et du lexique attire l’attention du lecteur vers les deux éléments sémantiques de base: “sceptre-lyre”, le pouvoir du roi et le don de l’artiste, de telle manière que le vers qui commence la strophe anglaise est celui qui ferme la strophe française. Avec ce changement on aperçoit plus clairement la gradation descendante fondée sur la perte de vigueur des notions telles que la force, la puissance, la dignité, le pouvoir et l’art se voyant dépéries dans le verbe “languissent”. Nous soulignons également la façon dont Chénier enrichit la description que Gray fait du cimetière, “neglected spot”, grâce à la métaphore “dans ce lieu par la mort habité” et la force qu’il confère au début de la strophe suivante moyennant le vocatif “Grands hommes inconnus! ” (v. 46) absent dans le TS. En ce qui concerne les concepts “Knowledge”, “Penury”, Chénier conserve les personnifications et les situe en fin de vers, créant ainsi une succession d’enjambements qui accélère le rythme de la strophe, configurée dans ce cas comme un quintil par l’amplification effectuée au vers 50. On y trouve aussi une amplification expressive du syntagme “ample page” (v. 49 TS) qui constitue un vers tout entier dans la version de Chénier: “le livre où la nature imprima ses secrets” (v. 50). La strophe 14 subit un changement radical dans la version de Chénier: les verbes qui impliquent les actions dans le TS entraînent un ton négatif, “bear”, “waste”. Toutefois, dans le texte français il a été remplacé par un ton positif et mélioratif (“recèle”, “décore”). En outre, l’auteur français enrichit (“on the desert air”) grâce à l’hyperbole “parfume un désert”. Les sujets souffrent également une modulation: “full many gems”est remplacé par “Océan” et “full many a flow’r” par “calice”. L’hyponyme “des diamants” qui traduit le terme anglais “gems ” et qui est détaché dans la version française par un rejet, a été aussi amplifié avec l’apostrophe hyperbolique “orgueil des mines de Golconde”, (tenant compte du fait que cette ville était l’un des centres diamantifères mondiaux entre le XV e et le XIX e siècles). Soulignons également l’enrichissement des vers 53-54 du texte français: le premier au travers d’une anastrophe “des plus brillantes fleurs le calice entr’ouvert” et le second par l’introduction d’une nouvelle idée explicitée dans le premier hémistiche (“décore un précipice ou parfume un désert”) absent dans le TS (“and waste its sweetness on the desert air”). La prochaine série de vers est modulée par une phrase dubitative introduite par “peut-être”, mais avec une valeur de possibilité. Nous voyons aussi que l’action “sommeille un Hampden”est anticipée par rapport au TS. L’hyponyme “son humbre héritage”, avec lequel Chénier remplace le terme <?page no="140"?> Soledad Díaz Alarcón 124 “fields”, suggère l’idée de familiers ancêtres, de racines. Quant aux personnages Milton et Cromwell, ils sont présentés dans le même vers dans la version de Chénier (vers 57) tandis que dans le TS, ils sont décrits dans deux vers différents (vv. 59-60) constituant un parallélisme et une anaphore. Les seize vers anglais suivants sont réduits à quatorze dans la version française. Chénier renforce le lien entre ces lignes en introduisant une clause conditionnelle “s’ils n’ont pas des destins affrontés”, qui s’étend au long des lignes 60-62 et qui comprend de nouvelles notions avancées par les participes passés. La réponse à ces vers est exposée aux vers 63-70 où Chénier justifie la privation de connaissance, de célébrité par la paix de l’esprit et de la conscience qu’offre une vie humble. Le prix à payer pour ces “plaisirs sublimes” n’est autre que “l’épée, ivre de sang humain” et “les crimes”. L’intensité du rythme augmente dans une gradation ascendante qui, liée à la sonorité (l’assonance du son / i/ ou l’allitération en / r/ ) s’élève à un point culminant (“n’a des pudiques soeurs prostitué l’encens”), après lequel le calme revient exprimé par la métaphore “leurs modestes jours (…) coulèrent sans orage au vallon de la vie” où la vie fertile (“au vallon de la vie”) coule comme l’eau calme (“coulèrent”) comme une douce brise (“sans orage”). Dans les dernières strophes de l’élégie, Gray imagine qu’un jeune ami des pauvres (lui-même) se promenait tout seul aux abords du cimetière en méditant sur les rives d’un cours d’eau ou dans la forêt, mais un jour, la mort est survenue et on l’a enterré près de ces paysans qu’il avait si appréciés et célébrés dans des vers oubliés et qui lui ont composé une épitaphe. La suite de vers comprise entre le 73 e et le 78 e du TC montrent une grande intensité par la simplification effectuée par Chénier, du fait qu’il a réduit deux quatrains anglais à six vers. Il a sacrifié le contenu sémantique du vers 77 du TS, où l’auteur anglais décrit le but et la signification des tombes et des pierres tombales. Cependant, la modification de l’ordre des vers et la concentration des éléments qui forment le champ lexical de la mort privilégient le pathétisme de la strophe. Dans cette suite de vers, les deux auteurs reproduisent une réflexion sur la fin dernière à partir de composants purement physiques, tout en appelant les sentiments du lecteur pour qu’il ait de la pitié envers ces pauvres âmes et leur offre un soupir. La question rhétorique qui structure la strophe 22 introduite par le sujet “who” est divisée en deux dans le TC, particularisée par les personnifications “quelle âme” et “quel œil” et gardant le parallélisme syntaxique. Chénier lie la strophe suivante par le vocatif “Nature” à partir duquel l’auteur engage un dialogue direct avec le Créateur, cette force qui anime même les morts et leur donne envie d’être dans le souvenir de ceux qui sont encore en vie. Cette richesse sémantique est renforcée par les antithèses “chez les morts ta voix se fait entendre” et “ta flamme dans la tombe anime notre cendre”. L’assonance en / u/ et l’allitération dans / n/ imprègnent le vers 86 <?page no="141"?> The Elegy written in a country churchyard de Thomas Gray 125 du TC, “nous voulons nous survivre en un doux souvenir”, d’un ton lugubre, opposé à l’espoir qui inspirent les termes “survivre” et “souvenir”. Quant aux six strophes antérieures à l’épitaphe, Chénier les a reprises en une seule strophe. Dans cette partie du poème Gray attire l’attention sur lui- même, il se consacre donc à l’idée d’être commémoré comme ces pauvres villageois et il finit par composer l’épitaphe avec laquelle ils lui rendront hommage. La première technique de traduction que nous percevons est une modulation: dans le TS, le poète préoccupé par la mort peut connaître ces villageois à travers ces vers, de sorte que son attitude est passive, en revanche dans le TC le poète est le sujet actif qui chante la “simple histoire” des pauvres avec un but précis, “venger la probité sans gloire”. Il s’agit non seulement d’une vengeance pour ceux qui se trouvent là-bas oubliés, mais aussi pour le sort du poète. C’est la raison pour laquelle il y a une profusion de pronoms personnels et de possessifs (“toi, tes vers, du tien, ton sort”). Enfin on met en évidence les termes qui composent la rime de ce quatrain: “sans gloire-simple histoire / la mort-ton sort”. Avec eux, Chénier établit une relation de synonymie, ce qui suggère la vie du poète (“sans gloire- simple histoire”) et comment elle va finir (“la mort-ton sort”). Tout au long des vers qui décrivent l’attitude du poète, son mode de vie, trois domaines sont configurés comme des piliers sémantiques de ces strophes: le paysage campagnard, le temps et les sentiments du poète. Stances auxquelles Chénier, avec la technique de l’amplification, ajoute trois nouveaux vers (v. 97, 99, 101). D’autre part on constate la mutation des vers 107-108 du TS, résumés tous les deux au vers 102 du TC. Dans cette mutation, le TC a perdu l’intensité avec laquelle Gray décrit la tristesse du poète, dont il nous suggère les causes dans une énumération rapide: “mutt’ring his wayward francies he would rove/ now drooping, woeful wan, like one forlorn / or craz’d with care, or cross’d in hopeless love.” Cette explication du TS est simplifiée par Chénier dans le substantif “pleurs”. Dans les vers qui concluent ces strophes, nous pouvons voir un changement d’actant : les pronoms sujets à la 1 e personne “I miss’d”, “we saw” qui véhiculent les actions, sont mis en évidence dans le texte français par l’anaphore du sujet “je”, réitéré quatre fois. D’un autre côté, l’angoisse de l’absence du poète dans des strophes de Gray est exprimée par l’utilisation répétée de la négation “nor”; en revanche, Chénier préfère exprimer ce sentiment au moyen de l’accélération du rythme moyennant des phrases juxtaposées et des verbes au passé simple qui illustrent l’action conclue: “Je cherchai, je vins, je ne le trouvai pas, j’aperçus”. Nous ne pouvons pas conclure le commentaire de ces vers sans faire référence au changement radical du ton dans les deux textes: Gray prend un vif plaisir à décrire la solitude de la nature, mais Chénier imprègne ses vers d’une atmosphère lugubre, en se concentrant sur la description du convoi. Finalement, nous remarquons la modulation créée par Chénier pour exhor- <?page no="142"?> Soledad Díaz Alarcón 126 ter le lecteur à lire l’épitaphe. À cet effet, il concentre dans le deuxième hémistiche du vers 109 une succession vertigineuse d’impératifs: “regarde, approche et lis”; alors que dans le TS, Gray invite le lecteur simplement à lire, parce que la vie lui donne encore la possibilité de le faire: “Approach and read (for thou canst read) the lay”. Une épitaphe 15 conclut l’élégie où Gray développe les vertus pour lesquelles il souhaite être rappelé. L’épitaphe révèle que ce poète était inconnu (v. 118) et sombre (v. 120), qu’il n’a pas pu rejoindre les questions d’intérêt commun de la vie, qu’il n’a pas connu la fortune ni la gloire et malgré son érudition, les circonstances l’ont empêché de devenir quelqu’un de réputé. La structure des strophes des épitaphes anglaises et françaises coïncident (trois quatrains). Dans la première, la formule classique qui démarre ce type de composition “here rests” a été remplacée dans le texte français par une amplification: “sous ce froid monument” et le complément circonstanciel “upon the lap of Earth” a été élidé. Ainsi Chénier décrit une atmosphère plus froide, puisqu’il fait allusion à la pierre nue sous laquelle gît le poète, en contrepartie Gray décrit ce lieu de repos d’un ton chaleureux, personnifiant la terre en lui attribuant les attributs d’une mère accueillante. On apprécie en plus la compensation du substantif “youth ”, qui qualifie “reliques” dans le texte français. Les références à “Science” et “Melancoly” sont présentes dans les deux textes, mais dans un ordre différent: “Science”, traduit par “savoir” est déplacé du 3 e au 4 e vers et “Melancoly”, traduit en français par une compensation, qualifie le substantif “traits mélancoliques”. Avec cette compensation, Chénier donne la priorité au sentiment de tristesse comme la cause de la mélancolie, alors que pour Gray, la mélancolie définit le caractère du poète. Dans le vers 119 du TS, la personnification de la science nous fait comprendre que notre poète était l’un des rares pauvres qui a eu accès à la connaissance. Chénier, quant à lui, a changé ce vers pour présenter deux qualités du poète: la pudeur et l’innocence. Dans le quatrain suivant, Gray chante la générosité et la sincérité du poète, alors que Chénier opte pour la juste appréciation que les “pauvres” lui confèrent par cet hommage, que le poète leur a donné sous la forme d’une élégie. Ce fait sera également récompensé par le Ciel, qui, sous le regard de Gray, semble se rapprocher, cependant Chénier le montre plus hautain. Les deux derniers vers de ce quatrain sont structurés en deux parallélismes syntaxiques: “he gave to Mis’ry all he had, a tear, / he gain’d from Heav’n (…) a friend”. Cette composition syntaxique est indiquée dans le texte français par le schéma verbe transitif + complément d’objet direct + apostrophe. Ce parallélisme souligne l’antithèse des noyaux parallèles ver- 15 Dans le schéma de l’élégie funeraire, un panégyrique du défunt conclut normalement le poème où l’on fait l’éloge de ses qualités, réelles ou imaginaires et où l’on espère que le Ciel lui récompensera les mérites. <?page no="143"?> The Elegy written in a country churchyard de Thomas Gray 127 baux “donner-obtenir”: Gray spécifie que ce qu’il souhaitait (“wish’d”) il l’avait obtenu du ciel (“Heav’n”), mais Chénier omet la provenance d’une concession considérée non pas comme un souhait mais comme un besoin (v. 118). Ce fait est répété dans le vers précédent, où Chénier crée un hyperonyme “pleurs” dans son interprétation de “a tear”. En ce qui concerne les techniques de traduction du dernier quatrain, on doit mettre en évidence la particularisation des vers 125-126 du TS, qui se concentrent sur les deux hémistiches d’un seul vers (v. 119). Ce fait provoque l’omission du complément circonstanciel de lieu “from their dread adobe” et permet à l’auteur de faire une déclaration à ce visiteur du cimetière: ceux qui reposent n’appartiennent plus au monde des vivants, la seule loi qui les protège est celle de Dieu. Une modulation ferme l’épitaphe française: Chénier change le sujet pluriel “they” par un sujet singulier “il”, qui n’est autre que le poète. Il y repose maintenant embrassé par l’amour d’un père et parrainé par la loi d’un dieu. Cette dernière généralisation s’éloigne de l’expression de possession du texte anglais “his God”. 3 Conclusions À l’issue de cette l’analyse et en conclusion, nous pouvons dire que Chénier conserve à juste titre le macrocosme linguistique et rhétorique du texte original. Le traducteur prend comme norme initiale des critères sémantiques et poétiques dans le but de reproduire le sens originel, mais en ne tenant pas compte de la structure strophique. Les changements identifiés dans l’analyse sont bien compris par le récepteur grâce au langage simple et clair. Bien que le vers ne soit pas l’unité de traduction maintenue par Chénier dans l’ensemble du poème, l’on perçoit cependant l’inquiétude de dessiner une équivalence harmonieuse et équilibrée de la structure profonde du poème dans son ensemble et, dans un sens, la structure superficielle, ce qui nous permet d’affirmer que le texte français respecte les axes sémantiques et les notions qui structurent le poème de Gray. Nous notons également dans la version de Chénier des nuances de musicalité et de contraste, une capacité descriptive et un ton lyrique typiques de la poésie des tombes européenne. Tout en évitant une simple évaluation du travail de Chénier en le considérant comme une traduction, une version ou comme lui-même suggère dans la préface, une “imitation infidèle ou traduction servile” et en dépit des omissions, des ajouts ou des modifications que nous avons trouvés, on ne veut pas conclure sans reconnaître que la recréation de Chénier semble juste pour les raisons suivantes: - Pour la sonorité, la cadence et la musicalité atteintes grâce au rythme et aux différentes ressources phonético-phonologiques employées. <?page no="144"?> Soledad Díaz Alarcón 128 - Pour la pertinence dans la correspondance métrique adaptée à un lecteur de langue française. - Pour la précision du lexique, son adaptation aux différents axes sémantiques et la compétence dans l’utilisation des tropes, des figures de construction ou de répétition. - Pour nous avoir transmis non seulement les différents messages exposés dans le texte original, mais aussi les sensations, les nuances et les sentiments qui y sont suggérés. Références bibliographiques José Coll y Vehí: Elementos de Literatura, imprenta y estereotipia de M. Rivadeneyra. Madrid 1856 http: / / books.google.es/ books? id Béatrice Didier: Littérature française: Le XVIIIe siècle, 1778-1820: Vol. 11; vol. 13. Arthaud. Paris 1979. Miguel Angel García Peinado y Mercedes Vella Ramírez: Una modalidad singular del lirismo inglés en el siglo XVIII: “The Graveyard School” (Antología Bilingüe). Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Córdoba. Córdoba 2007. Miguel Angel García Peinado y Mercedes Vella Ramírez: “La influencia en Francia de la poesía sepulcral inglesa de XVIII: Les Tombeaux (Aimé Feutry), Les Tombeaux champêtres (Chateaubriand), Les Sépultures (Lamartine)”, publié en Hermeneus, Revista de Traducción e Interpretación de la Universidad de Valladolid. Valladolid 2005, pp. 87-114. James D. Garrison: A Dangerous Liberty: Translating Gray’s Elegy. University of Delaware Press 2009 http: / / books.google.es/ books? id Henir Potez: L’élégie en France avant le romantisme: de Parny à Lamartine, 1778-1820. Calmann Lévy, éditeur. Paris 1898. Paul Van Tieghem: La poésie de la nuit et des tombeaux en europe au XVIII e siècle. Paris 1922 (Genève, Slatkine Reprins, 1970). John Young: A Criticism on the Elegy written in a country church-yard being a continuation of Dr. Johnson’s Criticismo on the poems of Gray. The second edition John Ballantyne and Co. Edinburgh 1810 http: / / books.google.es/ books? id <?page no="145"?> Ángeles García Calderón Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception and Translation into Spanish 1 Introduction In the evolving context of eighteenth century Spanish poetry the ‘illustrated’ poetry, far from being a genuinely new style, it originates and grows in the aesthetic stream of Neoclassicism. Nonetheless, some deep ideological shifts can be traced that account for differences between both currents: the new poetry is committed to the new ideas now prevailing in society, a fact that demands a slight modification of the topics and certain formal shifts in the neoclassical style. In that sense, we may argue that we are facing a new concept of poetry and the poet himself. It is from the 50s of that century when we may trace some ‘illustrated’ topics which become increasingly relevant during the kingdom of Charles III of Spain. However, in the 70s we can ascertain that such kind of poetry becomes prevalent in Spain. Later in the century we notice the rise of another kind of poetry that reveals a new sensibility, where sad overtones and unusual vocabulary foretell coming changes. Lastly, in the last third of the century a complex panorama comes up where different poetic currents are intertwined, fostered by the novel ideas that now surface. In the development of poetic style e must remember some important hallmarks. It certainly comes to mind the task of the reformist and traveller Olavide, who gathered the most progressive people of the aristocracy and the arts in his stately house in Madrid. In his French-style house many literary gatherings were held and many comedies and dramas of French playwrights were performed in his theatre, many of which had been translated by himself. This learned activity went on later in the palace he built in the town of La Carolina, in the province of Jaén, during the colonization of Sierra Morena. Then during the period when he was superintendent of the govern in Andalucia he gathered the Seville intellectuals in the historical building of the Alcázar itself. Needless to say, the meetings were the source of spreading of new illustrated ideas that undoubtedly nourished the arts in Spain at the time. <?page no="146"?> Ángeles García Calderón 130 This is the cultural atmosphere that was met by Candido Maria Trigueros and Melchor Gaspar de Jovellanos, who would later become the main promoters of the ‘enlightened’ poetry. Jovellanos’ response to a letter written by Trigueros is illustrative enough. Trigueros had told him that he intended to write a poem on Spain, drawing his inspiration from garden poetry and agriculturalist tone that proved a great success at the time in France (Delille, Roucher, Rosset, Lemierre, etc.) Trigueros commented to Jovellanos, a propos of the poetry written by their common friends from Salamanca: “I relieve it regretful that such wits should not lay attention to the great, the sublime, the useful…While philosophy devotes time and effort in unveiling truths, poetry should make them pleasant, in fixing them to our memory…Not everything must be love; there are more worthy things for a poet. Homer, Virgil, Pope, Milton, Thomson, Voltaire and Klopstok are greater poets than Anacreonte, Propertius, Garcilaso and Villegas, though not so sweet”. 1 Pastoral poetry had a notable development in that period. As is well known, all our major poets were members of “poetic Arcadias” where they and their lovers were disguised under shepherds’ names. The old inspiration for country life was still in full swing under the surface of a purely literary game. Sometimes the topic was linked to the rococo tradition, embodied in pastoral dances and open air games. But we can also notice how the pastoral became tainted with enlightened thought. In such cases town life is really despised and the primitive and virtuous life of countrymen and shepherds is praised, or at other times one sought refuge of one’s troubles in nature. In the treatment of pastoral common places many shades of meaning should be distinguished which range from the common and trivial to the most ideologically enlightened, characteristic of the ensuing period. The eighteenth century bucolic genre normally takes two directions represented in the eclogue and the idyll: they refer to the revaluation of the classic models (Virgil and Garcilaso) and the modern (Thomson and Gessner). The eclogue implies the revival of classic and renaissance roots while rescuing the traditional contrastive concepts, namely, the countryman/ virtue vs the town dweller/ vice. Whereas the town dwellers fall easy victims to their taste, and their moral principles are repeatedly broken by deceit, envy, greed and hate, the countrymen live in a state of primitive innocence, the time of the golden age yearned by the classics. The other version of the pastoral spirit became apparent in the idylls. The classic tradition of Theocrite had revived in the poetry of the Gessner. The idyll became fashionable in Europe in mid-eighteenth century. We should add the names of Fontanelle and Methastasius to that of Gessner, no less 1 Quoted in Francisco Aguilar Piñal, Poesía y teatro del siglo XVIII, Madrid: La Muralla, 1973, pp. 30-31. (my trans) <?page no="147"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 131 than James Thomson for his interesting portrait of nature, and lastly his imitator Saint-Lambert. In Spain, like in the whole Europe, the French influence is overriding, and it brought about a wave of galophilia as well as another of galophobia. A massive influx of French books, even those listed as prohibited, crossed the national boundaries. Reason is the dominant concept (Voltaire), though few years later another trend arosed which was based on feeling (Rousseau and his Nouvelle Héloïse), both being the two opposite poles that single out the Enlightment. In England the typical classic trend is founded on the contemplation of beauty, to the extent that emotion cannot interrupt such contemplation. This is quite apparent in English authors like Pope, Young, Gray, Ossian…, and Caldalso in Spain, all of them living in the pre-romantic period. As regards style, the concept of beauty prevails in the arts, a concept that is, moreover, timeless. Accordingly, what is worth imitating is the beautiful in Nature regardless of time, the ideal being the cannon of Greek beauty. Such norms can be found in ancient models that had reached the summit of art. Now the same works are reproduced and updated with the help of the same characters. Around the decades 1730-40, when classicism was still in full swing, a different movement arises in England, in sharp contrast with the established literary modality, which seeks to again acceptance and which paved the way to Romanticism. The goals of this new trend can be summed up: Nature as an aesthetic motif, moral sentimentality, the philanthropic and religious spirit, as general features, and love for the countryside and natural feelings in England. According then to all these trends we argue that the forerunners of English and European Romanticism are Thomson, Young and Gray. 2 Reception and imitation of The Seasons in the eighteenth century The poem Winter (1726) by the Scottish poet James Thomson marks the starting point of a new type of poetry, since ever since the date of its publication a wealth of new poems were written that reflected a closer contact with Nature. Thed complete work, The Seasons (1726-30), is a descriptive poem of 5.422 lines of blank verse which presents a picture of landscape following the annual rotation where alternate distinct circumstances of life. With the poem the true sentiment for Nature comes up for the first time in modern poetry, and in all the seasons it is vividly and sincerely described. Thomson contributed to his contemporary poetry with elements that had never been dreamt of in his time. In France he was directly imitated by Mme <?page no="148"?> Ángeles García Calderón 132 Bontems, Saint-Lambert, Roucher, Delille, Léonard, Chénier and almost all the poets of the second half of the eighteenth century, in a more or less direct way. In Spain in turn Thomson was translated by Benito Gómez Romero, 2 imitated by Mor de Fuentes in his Las estaciones (1819), 3 and became a inspiring source for Meléndez Valdés and Cienfuegos. Contemporary publications showed how the reception of that important work took place, giving us also details about translations and imitations, especially in the first half of the nineteenth century. It was the time of the reaction against the excess of intellectualism of the official poetry, whereof Pope was the most celebrated master. 4 Thomson followed that trend and paid no heed to the contemporary strong influence of English classicism, quite on the contrary, he was more daring than any of his predecessors by writing a great poem where Nature was the main topic, 5 and which consisted of concrete and realists scenes of the physical world. The success of the work was outstanding and its effects were felt, from the start, in the world of literature both in England and in the rest of Europe. Translated into German and French round the middle of that century, The Seasons became a powerful poetic stimulus for European literature. Thomson’s French biographer argued in this respect: 2 James Thomson: Las estaciones del año, poema de Jayme Thompson [sic], translated by D. Benito Gómez Romero, Madrid, Imprenta Real, 1801, 2 vols. 3 His real name was José Mor y Pano (1762-1848) was born in Monzón and he died there in abject poverty, He studied Arts in Zaragoza and Vergara He became a military man and an hydraulic engineer, and retired from the army in 1796. He was an admirer of the French Revolution but he later wrote against Napoleon when he invaded Spain. He was given command of the army in Zaragoza, taken later by General Palafox. He was the director of the liberal newspapers El Patriota y La Gazeta. He was exiled in Toulouse in 1823, and came back three years later. He translated Horace and Salustius, Goethe and Rousseau. He was a playwrite and a poet and wrote a famous autobiography, later unearthed by Azorín (El Bosquejillo, 1836), His novel La Serafina was edited three times in 1797 y reedited in 1802 y 1807. He uselessly dreamt of Spain as a nation “gallarda, pundonorosa e independiente”. 4 We don’t intend to argue that Thomson alone arose the feeling for Nature in English poetry, as this is a permanent feeling of the Anglo-Saxon spirit which arise from one period to the next throughout the centuries. We find it also in Thomson’s work. Before Thomson we can find it in John Philip and Ambrose Philip, in John Gay and the Scottish Alan Ramsey and other minor poets who had written poems ‘soaked in earthy flavour’. 5 In a long series of evocative scenes of the sky, the land and the sea, swept by the wind, washed by the rain, and heated by the sun, the poet presents Nature to his readers in all her splendour and variety. Thus, he creates not the expected poetic description, but rather, the descriptive poem. Admittedly, he can be accused of filling his descriptions with philosophical and moral reflections, often expressed with flamboyant words; but his contemporary readers, very keen on moralizing literature, considered it a great merit what we ironically think it wasn’t but a notable blemish in a poem. <?page no="149"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 133 “Il est peu d’œuvres qui aient eu sur la littérature de l’Angleterre une influence plus puissante que les Saisons; il n’en est pas peut-être qui en ait eu à l’étranger une aussi grande”. 6 In Spain Thomson’s influence can be traced in the poet from Extremadura, Meléndez Valdés, who wrote a great amount of good anachreontic poetry, a very common verse along the eighteenth century. It was a sort of poetry of the senses and love inspired in Greco-Latin classic models and located in an idealized, kind, common place sort of Nature; his Odas anacreónticas are actually the best examples of the kind. The vision of Nature evolves in such compositions from the merely descriptive contemplation to the melancholic and sentimental interpretation of his Elegías morales where he anticipates the romantic positions. This trend became consolidated on reaching maturity, as it is apparent in his late poems. 7 Coming down to some examples where he gives expression to the influence of poetry of eighteenth century English Nature we find the beautiful ballad of “the fallen tree”, where he addresses the tree as if was a human being “trodden, horrendous, dead” and where the retreat in the country, far from vanities and honours, is perfectly expressed in his silva VII entitled “Mi vuelta al campo”. There Meléndez Valdés gathers the melancholic aspects where Nature, far from being content with the role of backdrop to the emotions of the poet, she feels quite closely linked to those emotions, which eventually should trigger the solitary meditation and which will soon be involved in the nostalgic themes of pre-Romanticism. In an ode that has Nature as central theme (“La noche de invierno” (winter night)) Anne Finch’s influence in “A Pindaric Poem upon the Hurricane in November 1703” seems quite clear, where she describes tempest, the lightening, the forsakenness. But the clearest example of imitation of all with referente to Thomson is his Odas filosóficas y sagradas, where the prevailing topics are Nature, the philosophial meditation, and feeling of God; we can notice again Thomson’s direct influence on the poet from Extremadura, if we compare the starting stanzas of Winter and his first philosophical and sacred ode “El invierno es el tiempo de la meditación” (winter is time for meditation): 6 León Morel: James Thomson, sa vie et ses œuvres, Paris, Hachette, 1895, p. 192. 7 Meléndez Valdés’s library reveals relevant data concerning foreign influence in his life. It had 352 titles and 1237 volumes, among which we may find the following English authors: Addison, Chambers’ Enciclopaedia, Clarke, and, most importantly, Milton, Shakespeare, Thomson (The Seasons, 1744 edition) and Young, all in first editions; also Pope, whom he admires in a bilingual English-French edition; the English text of Young’s Nights together with Le Tourneur’s version of the work. He also reads thinkers and historians such as Ferguson, Gibbon, Hume, Hutcheson, Robertson, Adam Smith; finally, he is also interested in reading Richardson (Clarissa Harlowe), in a French translation. <?page no="150"?> Ángeles García Calderón 134 Salud, lúgubres días, horrorosos Aquilones, salud. El triste invierno En ceñudo semblante Y entre velos nublosos Ya el mundo rinde a su áspero gobierno Con mano asoladora: el sol radiante Del hielo penetrante Huye, que embarga con su punta aguda A mis nervios la acción, mientras la tierra Yerta enmudece, y déjala desnuda Del cierzo alado la implacable guerra. Falsos deseos, júbilos mentidos, Lejos, lejos de mí: cansada el alma De ansiaros días tantos Entre dolor perdidos Halló al cabo feliz su dulce calma. A la penada queja y largos llantos Los olvidados cantos Suceden; y la mente que no vía Sino sueños fantásticos, ahincada Corre a ti, o celestial filosofía, Y en el retiro y soledad se agrada. As regards literary publications, periodicals and dailies that include book reviews or information about literature we can find some references from this period, although the greater part of the opinions on English literary influence are traceable from the beginning of the nineteenth century. One early example is the following of 1785: Origen, progreso y estado actual de toda la literatura. It was written in Italian by the abbé D. Juan Andrés, who was a member of the Royal Academy of Florence, and the Sciences and Belles Lettres of Mantua, and was translated into Spanish by D. Carlos Andrés, also a member of the Royal Academy of Florence and of the Spanish Legal Academy. Vols III, Madrid: Antonio de Sancha, 1785. In its pages an anonymous article writer expresses the following opinion about English poetry of eighteenth century and Thomson in particular: “Después de estas tan celebradas composiciones de Pope, ¿qué poeta didascálico podía tener esperanza de merecer alguna atención? En efecto los más ilustres ingleses antes han procurado abrirse nuevos caminos, que correr los que ya había hollado gloriosamente el verdadero maestro de la poesía inglesa. Thomson, dotado de genio original, pensó en formar un nuevo género de poesía, que puede llamarse descriptiva, pero que más pertenece a la didascálica que a otra alguna, y dio a luz un poema sin doctrina ni preceptos, como lo hacían los otros didascálicos, y solo con las descripciones del invierno y de las otras estaciones. El festivo y ameno Swift, siguiendo un gusto enteramente suyo, había hecho algunas brevísimas descripciones de la lluvia y de la mañana, en las cuales, mirando aquellos asuntos bajo un aspecto singular, no como se consideran comúnmente, y reuniendo solo las circunstancias jocosas, que suelen acaecer en tales ocasiones, <?page no="151"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 135 forma unos poemas muy cortos no menos festivos que agradables; pero estos no son más que ligeros ensayos e ingeniosos caprichos de la extraña imaginación de Swift, y no forman una nueva especie de poesía , como la han formado después las Estaciones de Thomson. Este se pone a considerar la primavera y las otras estaciones, y describiendo varios fenómenos de la naturaleza, que en tales tiempos se ven en el cielo y en la tierra, y los usos y costumbres de los hombres en aquellas estaciones, introduciendo episodios, y dando movimiento y variedad con algunas digresiones y rodeos, forma el poema De las Estaciones, acomodando su canto a cada una de las cuatro. Yo no puedo aprobar mucho esta nueva poesía, que me parece fría e inanimada por herir poco el corazón, y ocupar únicamente la fantasía: pero ella, sea la que fuese, ha tenido la suerte de gustar a varios poetas, y de ser posteriormente seguida de muchos. El francés Lambert ha compuesto sus Estaciones, tomando varios pensamientos de Thomson, y añadiendo otros suyos. Roucher ha formado en doce cantos un poema De los Meses sobre el mismo gusto. Los alemanes, más que todos los otros, manifiestan genio particular para estas composiciones: la flema de ir pasando de objeto en objeto para examinar individualmente la naturaleza en varios aspectos, que no es muy compatible con el fuego de los otros poetas, parece ser mas conforme a la índole pausada de los alemanes; y así Kleist en La Primavera, Zacarías en Las cuatro partes del día y en la Edad de las Mujeres, y otros poetas didascálicos de este género en otras composiciones se han deleitado mucho en descripciones continuas e individuales; y además de estos los otros poetas no didascálicos Wielland, Haller, Gesner y casi todos los demás mezclan fácilmente largos rasgos de poesía descriptiva en otras especies de composiciones, con las que son aun menos compatibles”. 8 3 Reception, translation and imitation in the eighteenth century The opinions on James Thomson’s poem The Seasons became quite common in the nineteenth century, and the translation of the priest Gómez Romero, not too much appreciated by the critics, became also common. Next, we shall mention chronologically the translations and some opinions on the poem and imitations of the Scottish poet. 1801- Las Estaciones del año, poema de Jayme Thomson traducido por D. Benito Gómez Romero, presbítero, 2 tomos, Madrid. Imprenta Real, 1801. In the first volume the translator includes a thirteenth page “Prologue” whereof we cite some relative to Thomson’s work and his own translation: 8 Op. cit., pp. 400-403. For a better comprehension of the text, we chose to transcribe them according to modern usage: tus, we changed j for g, x for s, c for q, c for z, etc., we deleted accents in a, e, o, ú, and the rest of monosyllables, while adding other lacking accents (también, más) etc. The rest of the text, punctuation, phrases, fixed expressions, archaisms, capital letters etc has been left as they were. Those passages that refer to the excellence of Thomson’s work, those that point to its flaws and other passages that we consider relevant are given in italics. <?page no="152"?> Ángeles García Calderón 136 “Aunque todo lo dicho en general acerca de las obras de este grande ingenio pudiera bastar para dar una idea del mérito de las Estaciones, juzgo no estará de más contraerme particularmente a expresar de intento con la brevedad posible, el que encierra este Poema tan filosófico y descriptivo, como agradable y pintoresco. En él no solamente se halla retratada la Naturaleza por todos los diversos aspectos que representa su curso vario y progresivo, sino que en vuelos rápidos y oportunos, en descripciones sabias y geográficas, se da noticia de los parajes más interesantes del globo terráqueo, de las influencias de sus climas, y de las costumbres de sus habitantes. Los reinos mineral, vegetal y animal están presentados tan al vivo, que parece no dejan que desear; notándose también en la esfera celeste las metamorfosis periódicas y efectos de sus astros. Es cierto carece a veces de transiciones y de un orden refinado: que suele también repetirse, y ser difuso sin necesidad: y que no fue el más feliz en las imitaciones que hizo de Virgilio; pero esta profusión, este desorden inimitable dado solo a los grandes Poetas, parece no puede contenerse, ni caminar con la escrupulosidad propia de los que escriben sin estar penetrados de aquel feliz entusiasmo que hace reanimar sus palabras. En contraposición de estos descuidos, acreedores a la indulgencia, ¿cuántas bellezas no se encierran en la profusión pomposa de tantas imágenes, en la verdad de sus coloridos, en la valentía del pincel que las anima, en la magnificencia, en la fuerza de su expresión? Las obligaciones del hombre social, las del patriota, del ciudadano, del político, y aun del labrador que cultiva la tierra, se hallan sabiamente demarcadas, y cada uno según su estado, sus ideas y carácter, encontrará en toda la extensión de este gran cuadro imágenes acomodadas a su gusto, y lecciones peculiares a su genio y profesión. Si es mirado por el aspecto de las escenas agradables del campo, ¿cuánta variedad de ellas no se encuentra, y cuánto placer no resulta en ver las maravillas de la Naturaleza? Si por el de las artes, la industria, el comercio, la navegación, las ciencias, la moral..., ¿cuántas noticias interesantes, cuánta variedad y delicadeza de pensamientos, cuánta riqueza de imágenes sencillas y naturales? Si por el de la ficción entusiasta, ¿qué acopio de pinturas fuertes atrevidas, y cuántos rasgos hijos de una sensibilidad profunda? Mas sobre todo, la sana doctrina que en una multitud de máximas morales y de reflexiones filosóficas y sentimentales va oportunamente sembrada por toda esta obra, es la que mas debe recomendarla: ¡Qué gratitud y respeto no inspiran hacia el supremo Criador! ¡Qué imágenes tan enérgicas aquellas que ostentan. el esplendor de su gloria! ¡Qué trozos tan admirables los que demuestran su poder inmenso, y tantos prodigios de su omnipotencia en la creación! ¡Qué rasgos tan sublimes aquellos que cantan sus dignas alabanzas, y celebran el mérito de algunos mortales virtuosos! ¡Qué amor no infunden a la virtud, qué horror al vicio, y qué admiración al heroísmo! Sería no acabar: el lector la examinará en todas sus partes, y quedará convencido de que esta es una de aquellas obras cuya apología debe ser tan digna como su objeto: conocerá que, como ha dicho un escritor, ella es el verdadero intérprete del espectáculo de la Naturaleza; y cuántos hayan hallado a esta madre universal muda, por no haber aprendido a conocerla, descubrirán con tal guía un sinnúmero de bellezas que antes habían ignorado. Resta solo decir algo acerca de mi traducción, y confesar de buena fe que muy luego que la hube empezado, tropecé con las grandes dificultades que ofrecía una empresa tal, y me desengañé de lo imposible que era darla literal en todas sus partes, sin que dejasen de quedar desfiguradas muchas de sus principales bellezas. Esta verdad me hizo retraer de aquel método, y no adoptar otro que el <?page no="153"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 137 de ser exacto en los pensamientos de mi autor, fiel en conservar sus imágenes y figuras en cuanto me fuese posible; pero evitando todo lo que mirase a nimia servidumbre; y tan lejos de hacer sacrificio de la elegancia de nuestra lengua (como asegura haberlo hecho de la suya el autor de la traducción francesa en prosa, que he tenido a la vista, por el placer, según añade, de dar literalmente la energía y fuerza a los pensamientos y epítetos del original), la he dejado brillar libremente, aun exornando ciertas imágenes y lugares, según lo permitía su carácter gramatical, con pensamientos propios de cada objeto, que no desdiciendo, ni oponiéndose a las ideas de mi Poeta, y corriendo al nivel de los suyos, lejos de desfigurarlas, contribuyesen a dejar concluidos los cuadros, sonando mejor a nuestros oídos. Mis sabios lectores, que no deben ignorar las dificultades que se tocan en traducir un Poeta, conservándole toda su propiedad posible, bien conocerán lo necesaria que es esta clase de libertad, principalmente en verso, para que sin faltar á la exactitud y claridad de los pensamientos de un autor, brille también la riqueza y elegancia del idioma en que se traducen. Pero aun no quedarían vencidas con ella sola todas las grandes dificultades que se ofrecen para traducir con la justa propiedad el Poema de las Estaciones que escribió Thompson: mil veces me hubiera visto perdido entre una infinidad de pasajes obscuros e incoherentes, a no haber recurrido al grande original de la misma Naturaleza, que precisamente no debió perder de vista el autor para escribirlas. A la continua observación de esta puedo asegurar haber debido tanto como a la copia, para no desmayar y concluir la mía: a pesar de que he procurado identificarme, por decirlo así, con el espíritu y los pensamientos de mi autor, no me desdeño asegurar, que al paso han ido siendo confrontados con la Naturaleza que pintan, y que en algunos pasajes, según ha convenido, he preferido ser más bien imitador libre que exacto copiante : por fortuna he presenciado las más de las escenas campestres que describe: he ejercitado aun algunas, como la pesca, la caza, y otras: he visto borrascas, naufragios &c., y a mayor abundamiento he indagado las noticias que he podido de cada práctico en varias otras materias que se tocan, sin omitir tampoco la inquisición de muchos términos y voces técnicas, para contribuir por mi parte a la mayor propiedad; y cuando o me han faltado estos auxilios, o no han podido ser suficientes, he consultado en la Historia y Geografía los lugares que han sido necesarios, todo a fin de no faltar a la verdad, que hace la basa principal de esta obra. Finalmente, conociendo que aun los pensamientos más sublimes como que pierden el todo de su valor cuando no se hallan expresados con elevación y claridad, he puesto no menor cuidado en que estas dos cualidades tan apreciables vayan unidas en todos los que comprenden esta obra; cuyas principales bellezas se indican de pronto en el índice alfabético, que de intento he formado, de los cuadros, imágenes, descripciones, y cosas más notables que en ella se contienen, y va dividido por partes al frente de las de este Poema tan interesante, cuanto digno de estar en nuestra lengua, como de las extranjeras en que se ha traducido”. 9 The Spanish priest makes an interesting and insightful reflection on translation, though he pays little heed to them in the practice. In actuality, if we take Thomson’s Winter as model, included by Gómez Romero in his 9 Op. cit. pp. XIX-XXI. <?page no="154"?> Ángeles García Calderón 138 second volume, we notice that the original poem has 1069 lines whereas the Spanish translation has 2309. This can be explained because the priest does not translate Thomson but the French version in prose by Mme Bontemps, 10 whom she follows faithfully, except for a slight licence in one paragraph. In sum, if Mme Bontemps has 41 paragraphs in her work, “her translator” splits number 35 into two, thus writing a total of 42 stanzas, of unequal length, after his own model. In conclusion, he does not have a French version in prose ‘in sight’, but rather he translates slavishly from “that” French version. 11 We may see this in a sample of the first stanza of Winter, then we give the French translation by Mme Bontems, and the imitation of it by Gómez Romero: W INTER (James Thomson, 1726) See, Winter comes to rule the varied year, Sullen and sad, with all his rising train— Vapours, and clouds, and storms. Be these my theme; These, that exalt the soul to solemn thought And heavenly musing. Welcome, kindred glooms! Cogenial horrors, hail! With frequent foot, Pleased have I, in my cheerful morn of life, When nursed by careless solitude I lived And sung of Nature with unceasing joy, Pleased have I wandered through your rough domain; Trod the pure virgin-snows, myself as pure; Heard the winds roar, and the big torrent burst; Or seen the deep-fermenting tempest brewed In the grim evening-sky. Thus passed the time, Till through the lucid chambers of the south Looked out the joyous Spring—looked out and smiled. 12 10 This has been stressed by critics in their commentaries of the original work and the translation by Gómez Romero. 11 This is not unusual, since it was quite common in the nineteenth century to translate English Works into Spanish from previous French versions. In any case, Gómez Romero does not seem to follow Capmany’s advice in his Arte de Traducir (Madrid: Antonio de Sancha, 1776), where he insists that the perfection of a version lays on the perfect knowledge of the nation’s character of the original; little could the translator know that if he translated indirectly from another language. 12 The edition we used for the transcription was the last revised by the author in 1746, that has 1069 lines (the four “Seasons” and the “Hymn” has actually 5541): The Works of James Thomson with his last corrections and improvements, London, Printed for J. Millar, MDCCLXVI . The first edition of Winter, March 1726, had 405 lines; the second edition, June 1726 had 463; the next edition is that of 1730 with 781 lines, to which six lines were added that same year; the last revision that augmented the lines was published in 1744. <?page no="155"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 139 L'H IVER (Mme Bontems, 1759) L'Hiver vient terminer le cercle varié des saisons; il arrive triste, sombre, accompagné de sa suite lugubre, les vapeurs, les nuages & les tempêtes. Soyez l'objet de mes chants, vous qui élevez l'âme aux vastes pensées, & aux méditations célestes. Salut, ténèbres amicales, horreurs agréables, salut. Pendant les beaux jours de ma vie, nourri dans une solitude négligée, plein d'ardeur & de joie, je me plaisais à chanter la Nature. Je parcourais fréquemment vos âpres & sauvages domaines; j'errais sur les neiges pures comme les vierges, & j'étais moi même aussi pur. J'écoutais le rugissement des vents & la chute des torrents; je voyais la fermentation des tempêtes se préparer dans les foirées d'un firmament troublé. Ainsi paissaient mes jours, jusqu'au temps où le gai Printemps commençait à sourire à travers les portiques brillants du midi. E L INVIERNO (Benito Gómez Romero, 1801) Llega en fin a cerrar el variado Circulo estacional, el crudo Invierno: Triste aparece, fúnebre y sombrío, Acompañado por el tren horrendo De su tremenda pavorosa corte Las borrascas, relámpagos y truenos. Sed hoy el caro objeto de mis cantos, ¡O vosotros, que a grandes pensamientos Y a las meditaciones celestiales Eleváis el espíritu en silencio! Salve, tinieblas lúgubres amigas, Horrores agradables aunque fieros, Salve... Durante la mañana alegre De mi florida juventud, inquieto En dulce soledad, que no apreciaba, Alimentado fui: de fuego lleno Y de vivo placer me deleitaba En cantar de Natura los misterios Y sus beneficencias soberanas: Recorría también vuestros inmensos Sacrosantos espacios y dominios: Vagaba por las nieves de contento, Cual las cándidas vírgenes tan puras, Y yo tan puro como el puro hielo: Escuchaba el silbido de los aires Y el resbalar de los torrentes gruesos: La gran fermentación también veía De tempestades turbias con imperio Prepararse al principio de las noches, Y encapotar los vastos hemisferios. <?page no="156"?> Ángeles García Calderón 140 Así pasaron mis tempranos días Hasta llegar el plácido momento Que entre alboradas mil la Primavera Sus dulces gracias y matices bellos En los brillantes pórticos fogosos Del medio día desplegó riendo. 13 1802- Memorial Literario o Biblioteca periódica de Ciencias y Artes. Volume III, second year, Madrid: Imprenta de la Calle de Capellanes, 1802. “L AS E STACIONES DEL AÑO , Poema de Jayme Thompson, traducido por Don Benito Gómez Romero, Presbítero: dos tomos en 8. Librería de Escribano, calle de las Carretas y de Carsi, calle de la Sartén. Jayme Thompson, poeta inglés, y autor del admirable poema de las estaciones del año, y otras varias composiciones poéticas de mérito casi igual al de este poema, siguió sus estudios en la Universidad de Edimburgo, bajo la dirección de maestros hábiles, entre los cuales fue su Catedrático de Teología el célebre Mr. Hamilton; por encargo del cual compuso una paráfrasis, e ilustración del salmo en que se celebra el poder y majestad de Dios, en un estilo tan sumamente poético, que sorprendió a todo el auditorio. Concluida, como se suele decir, la carrera, pasó a Londres, en fuerza de las repetidas instancias que le hizo una Señora de alguna distinción, amiga de su matare. No tardaron en conocerse en esta Capital los grandes talentos y apreciables prendas de su alma, principalmente después que publicó, en Marzo de 1726 la Estación del invierno; poema que al principio solo fue admirado de los hombres conocedores de las obras de un mérito verdadero; pero después generalmente aplaudido por las vivas v animadas pinturas y descripciones de que abunda, brillando más particularmente, según el sentir de Blair, en las que hace de las lluvias de primavera, mañanas de verano, y del hombre que perece en la nieve en el invierno. 13 We may see a more faithful version (the only one so far), than the retranslation by Gómez Romero: I NVIERNO Mira, llega el invierno domando al voluble año, / melancólico y triste, con su visible boato: / nieblas, nubes, tormentas ¡Qué sean mi inspiración, / que excitan en el alma solemnes pensamientos, / divinas reflexiones! ¡Salve, amenas, tristezas, / salve, amables horrores! Frecuentemente a pie, / y contento, en mi alegre alborear de la vida, / cuando vivía criado en libre soledad / y Natura cantaba con alegría incesante, / contento he caminado por tus campos indómitos; / pisado nieves vírgenes, tan puras como yo; / he oído soplar al viento, bramar al gran torrente; / o visto la tormenta desafiante incubarse / en el atardecer lúgubre. Así pasaba el tiempo, / hasta que por las salas luminosas del sur, / miraba a la gozosa Primavera y sonreía. (James Thomson: Winter. Edición, introducción, estudio y traducción versificada a cargo de Ángeles García Calderón, Almería 2007). <?page no="157"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 141 Alentado por la buena acogida que su primer trabajo había tenido del público, continuó el plan que tenía ideado, de componer y publicar las tres restantes estaciones; las cuales aparecieron por este orden: la del Verano, en 1717: la de la Primavera, a principios del año siguiente; y la del Otoño, en 1730; llenando completamente las esperanzas que los sabios habían concebido del talento y gracia del autor del poema de la estación del invierno. Compuso, además de esta obra, la Sofonisba, tragedia escrita y representada con aplauso en 1729; y por mandato del Príncipe de Gales, la tragedia de Eduardo y Leonor, el drama titulado la Máscara de Alfredo, y el Tancredo y Segismunda. El poema a la memoria del Señor Isaac Newton, publicado en 1727, es un elogio digno de este hombre incomparable, y el del Castillo de la indolencia, que fue la última composición que dio al público, está dividido en dos cantos, llenos de excelentes lecciones de moral y poesía la más exquisita y delicada. Estando disponiendo para el teatro la tragedia del Coriolano, le arrebató la muerte el día 27 de agosto de 1748, a los cuarenta y ocho de edad. Fue llorado de todos amargamente: de los que le conocieron y tuvieron la dicha de tratarle, porque perdieron en él un amigo fiel; y de los que no le conocieron más que por sus escritos, por, verse privados para siempre de un hombre de talento portentoso, cuyas obras pudieran servir de modelo a cuantos tuviesen la noble ambición de igualar el mérito de sus composiciones. La prontitud con que se ha traducido el poema de las estaciones a las lenguas de las diferentes naciones de Europa, prueba muy bien el aprecio que los sabios han hecho de esta obra inmortal. Los Españoles somos casi los únicos que carecemos de una lectura tan deliciosa: digo que carecemos, porque aunque el traductor de que aquí vamos a hablar, con el más vivo deseo de hacer un gran servicio a su nación, ha querido en la presente ofrecer una obra cuya lectura embelesase, ya por la sublimidad y grandeza de los pensamientos, ya también por hacer brillar, según dice el mismo, la riqueza y elegancia de la lengua castellana, ha logrado todo lo contrario que se proponía; porque aunque parece que los pensamientos son grandes y sublimes en el original; pero como el lenguaje de la traducción es mestizo e impropio, el estilo arrastrado, y los versos miserables y prosaicos, han perdido tanto de su grandeza, como los cuadros de pintores originales y de grande imaginación, copiados por otros que tienen la imaginación helada, y que dan un colorido feo: en estas copias se reconoce, es verdad, en algunos rasgos aunque desfigurados al autor; pero ¿para qué? para dolerse uno de que obras tan maravillosas hayan caído en tan malas manos, y al mismo tiempo atrevidas, que sin reparar en las grandes dificultades que hay que vencer, atropellan por todo, y solo atienden a contentar su amor propio, que les abulta excesivamente sus fuerzas. Esto es cabalmente lo que creemos del traductor y su traducción, quien antes de ponerse a traducir uno de los primeros poemas de la Inglaterra, debió tener presente, para desistir de empresa tan ardua, aquel dicho de Delille, “que solo deben traducir a los grandes poetas aquellos que sean capaces de competirles” como lo ha comprobado el mismo con su ejemplo. Pero la traducción presente, no manifiesta, a la verdad, que el traductor sea del número de los que requiere Delille; pues sin saber el inglés, a lo que parece, teniendo únicamente a la vista una mala <?page no="158"?> Ángeles García Calderón 142 traducción francesa y en prosa, y sin poseer el castellano cual se requiere para traducir y traducir en verso a Thompson, se ha metido en un trabajo que no pueden soportar sus débiles fuerzas. En vista de un arrojo tan temerario nadie extrañará que en el párrafo 12. pág. 12. tom. 1. hablando de la primavera diga: No desmayéis activos labradores, De sí arrojad la angustiadora pena; Pues los crueles silvadores vientos Que resoplaran, 14 no en vano influyeran 15 Desterrando a lo lejos las neblinas Sobrecargadas de agua que vinieran Del atlántico mar en abundancia; Y el calor extinguido habrían ellas Del ardoroso estío, y penetrados Hubiéramos quedado de tristeza Al malogrados ver sin ser maduros, Los frutos que ofrecía la cosecha. ¿Es esto poesía, prosa, o palabras ensartarlas y puestas por casualidad unas tras otras en renglones cortos y largos? ineptos traductores, de si arrojad, o deponed el temerario intento de tomar a vuestro cargo empresas tan difíciles, y haréis un servicio infinitamente más grato a la Nación, no estropeando la lengua Castellana, ni tampoco agraviareis a los autores, dándolos a conocer, no como son en sí, sino tan alterados y desmejorados, que si se leyesen en la traducción no solo no se conocerían, pero se irritarían de que su obra hubiese caído en manos tan inhábiles. Aunque cuando leí la estación de la Primavera, que es la única que he tenido paciencia de leer, noté los párrafos 11, 12, 18 y 40, para ponerlos en este juicio por muestra de una de las cosas más malas de poesía, me he contentado con trasladar el 12, por haberme sucedido después, lo que sucederá a cualquiera que tome y abra este libro, que en cuantas partes me puse a leer algunos pasajes de las demás estaciones, en todas ellas encontré párrafos que no desmentían la mano que había traducido la de la primavera. F. E”. (pp. 202-205). The version to which the harsh critic F. E. makes reference appeared in France in 1759 dedicated to “L’Ami des Hommes” 16 . The translator, Mme Bontems, out of sheer admiration for the English poet, sets out to do the task of letting the French readers know that work through her translation. She 14 As there is no signal of accent in th”e last syllable nor in the one befote last, we don’t know if this tense is future, or past imperfect of subjunctive. 15 The same can be said of this Spanish tense as in the previous note. 16 This is the first complete version of the work in French, which appeared anonymously in Paris in 1759. It was done by Mme Bontems and dedicated to “A l'Ami des Hommes”; it was reedited in 1760 (Berlin and Amsterdam), in 1761, 1779, 1788, 1795, 1813, 1815, 1816 y 1818. Marie Jeanne de Chatillon -Mme Bontems- (1718-1768) was married to Pierre Henri Bontemps, an old treasurer of war; she also translated Milton and Gay. <?page no="159"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 143 wanted to be faithfully literal, though it seems as if the translator does not capture the subtle nuances of the language used by the Scottish poet. What Mme Bontems seem to be at fault is not only her inadequate comprehension of the poet’s excellence but also her frequent misunderstandings, perhaps due to her sheer lack of enough knowledge of the poetic sense expressed in the poem. 17 1803- El Diario de Madrid, Saturday, January 1st, 1803, in the section devoted to literature: “Las estaciones del año: poema del Inglés Jayme Thomson, traducido en verso castellano, y dedicado a S. A. R. el Príncipe de Asturias nuestro Señor, por D. Benito Gómez Romero, Presbítero. Esta obra una de las producciones más sublimes y más interesantes en su especie de la literatura moderna, y cuyo mérito ha sido en todos tiempos conocido y elogiado por los literatos y personas de buen gusto, ha merecido al público español honrosa acogida, así por la multitud y viveza de sus pinturas, variedad de imágenes y descripciones-, como por la sana moral, filosofía, noble patriotismo, y sentimiento religioso de que abunda toda ella”. 18 1804- Mercurio de España, tomo 4, Madrid: Imprenta Real, 1804. “Las estaciones del año: poema Inglés de Jayme Thompson, traducida en verso castellano, y dedicada a S. A. R. el Príncipe nuestro Señor, por el Presbítero Don Benito Gómez Romero. Esta obra, mirada como una de las producciones más sublimes e interesantes en su especie, y cuyo fondo es la pintura de la naturaleza, presenta cuatro grandes cuadros igualmente variados por el objeto, que por el estilo. Toda ella se ve animada: la pintura de las costumbres va de acuerdo con los objetos que se describen; de estas descripciones, que recorren los diversos fenómenos de la naturaleza, nacen unos rasgos de moral sublime: sus bellezas, sacadas de la misma naturaleza, son independientes de los usos y de las costumbres, de las diversas opiniones y de las ideas mitológicas. La honrosa acogida que ha merecido en nuestra península es la mejor prueba del mérito de esta obra. Se hallará, en 2 tomos en 12.0, con el retrato de S. A., y las 4 viñetas alusivas a las estaciones del año, en las librerías de Barco y de Ranz calle de la Cruz“. (pp. 430-431). 1815- Compendio de las Lecciones sobre la Retórica y Bellas Letras de Hugo Blair, por D. José Luis Munárriz, Madrid: Imprenta de Ibarra, 1815. “CAPÍTULO XIII. Poesía descriptiva Pocas poesías hay de alguna extensión que puedan llamarse puramente descriptivas: pues suelen también emplear la narración, la acción, u el sentimiento moral: y la descripción es generalmente un adorno, más bien que asunto de una 17 There are some curious omissions; for instance, in Autumn the description of the death of the fox in the hunt and the hunters’ dinner have been cut out; no doubt, Bontems was very sensitive about the brutal scenes. 18 Op. cit., p. 142. <?page no="160"?> Ángeles García Calderón 144 obra regular. Pero tampoco hay poesía, en que la descripción no entre á ocupar un lugar muy distinguido: y por lo tanto pide esta una atención no pequeña. La descripción es la piedra de toque de la imaginación del poeta. Cuando un escritor de segundo orden se pone a describir la naturaleza, la encuentra agotada por los que le han precedido: nada ve de nuevo: sus nociones son vagas y genéricas, y débiles sus expresiones. Pero el poeta dotado de una imaginación grande nos hace ver la naturaleza con nuestros ojos: la presenta con las facciones, que la distinguen: le da un colorido de vida y de verdad: y la coloca bajo un punto de vista que pudiera guiar al pintor, si tratara de copiarla. El arte de la descripción pintoresca está en elegir circunstancias, que no sean vulgares; que particularicen el objeto, y lo denoten fuertemente; y que sean uniformes, o de un mismo carácter. Si describimos un objeto grande, todas las circunstancias deben caminar a engrandecerlo; y si alegre y placentero, deben ayudar á hermosearlo. En fin estas deben expresarse con sencillez y concisión: pues cuando exageramos, o amplificamos mucho una cosa, debilitamos la impresión que tratábamos de hacer. Es digno de atención, que describiendo el poeta objetos inanimados debe para animar la descripción introducir en ella seres vivientes. Esto es bien sabido de todo pintor, maestro en su arte. Pocas veces se ha dibujado un buen país, sin representar en el lienzo algún ser humano mirando la escena, o interesado en ella… Lo patético está en ponernos a la vista el interés de dos amantes en esta escena, y en presentar por este medio al corazón todas las bellezas del terreno. La belleza de la poesía descriptiva depende en gran parte de la buena elección de los epítetos. Frecuentemente los emplean los poetas solo para llenar el verso, o por pedirlos el consonante: y si son solo palabras expletivas, o ripios, en lugar de dar nueva gracia o fuerza a la descripción, la ofuscan y la enervan. Entre estos pueden contarse el Iiquidi fontes de Virgilio, y el prata canis albicant pruinis de Horacio: porque denotar por un epíteto, que el agua es líquida, y la nieve blanca, es solo una verbosidad insulsa. Así todo epíteto debe añadir alguna nueva idea a la palabra, que califica; o servir al menos para darla mas realce. Hay también ciertos epítetos generales; que en fuerza de ser ya trillados en el lenguaje poético son enteramente insípidos… CAPÍTULO XIV. Poetas descriptivos De todas las composiciones abiertamente descriptivas la más larga y completa es el poema de las Estaciones del inglés Thompson. Su estilo es espléndido y enérgico; pero a veces duro y oscuro. Mas Thompson es un pintor bello: porque tenía un corazón sensible, y una imaginación ardiente. Estudió y copió con esmero la naturaleza. Enamorado de sus bellezas las describió con propiedad, y con una sensibilidad enérgica; tanto que ningún hombre de gusto leerá una de sus estaciones, sin que se le recuerden con viveza las ideas y los sentimientos propios de la misma. Son ejemplo de una descripción bellísima la de la lluvia en la primavera, de la mañana en el verano, y del hombre que perece en la nieve en el invierno. El cuento del ermitaño, del inglés Parnell, es también notable por la belleza de la narración descriptiva. Sus pinturas son finísimas, tocadas con un pincel ligero y delicado, de un colorido fresquísimo; y que presentan con viveza <?page no="161"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 145 los objetos. Pero de todos los poemas ingleses de esta clase los más ricos y sobresalientes son el Alegro, y el Penseroso de Milton. La colección de imágenes alegres y melancólicas, que hay en estos dos poemitas inimitablemente finos es la más exquisita que se puede concebir”. 19 1819- Las Estaciones. Poema por D. José Mor de Fuentes, Lérida: Imprenta de Corominas, 1819. 20 Mor de Fuentes was a well known poet and translator. His work has 99 pages, and he claims that he attempts to write twelve Songs, a Preface and a general Conclusion, although he eventually did the three Songs included in the book. In his “notes to the first Song” we find Mor de Fuentes’s opinion about Thomson’s poem, his negative assessment of Gómez Romero’s translation (1801), as well as of the Scottish poet’s French imitators. “Mi paisano Gracián fue, según mis noticias, el primero que compuso expresamente a las Estaciones un poema, con el título de Selvas al año. Su estilo es generalmente burlesco... Pero el Ingenio de primera jerarquía en esta carrera, el Estacionista por excelencia, es el célebre Thomson, uno de los timbres de la Literatura moderna . Ante todo es de advertir, que la Poesía inglesa, y aun la misma prosa, goza una pujanza constitutiva, y sobre todo una gallardía de metáforas, inasequible en los demás idiomas vulgares; y así es que sus Autores, por inclinación y por hábitos profundísimos, señoreándose sobre arcanos hasta ahora inaccesibles al hombre, desentrañan y retratan con igual maestría y con figuración casi palpable los móviles más tenues y las sublimidades más extremadas de la naturaleza y del Arte. Tal es el carácter distintivo de la Poesía inglesa, que, a mi parecer, sobresale con particularidad en Thomson, como se puede ver en la felicidad de la vida doméstica al fin de la Primavera; en la formación de los planetas y el baño de Musidora en el estío; en el arte de almibarar las frutas, la danza, el bordado &c. Es innegable que su poema adolece de varios defectos, pues muchas veces la locución es absolutamente prosaica y sin asomo de cadencia métrica, usa epítetos impropios y aun extravagantes, alarga, o más bien estira (desacuerdo ya notado por los Críticos en Ovidio) interminablemente algunas descripciones, de las cuales la que trae, por ejemplo, de una borrachera en el Otoño, es chocante, soez y aun asquerosa; pero ¿Qué suponen todos estos lunares, o sean tachas, en parangón de sus imponderables excelencias? El diluvio en la Primavera, todo el arranque del Estío, y en el Invierno el hombre helado entre la nieve &c. &c. no tienen igual en la Literatura antigua ni moderna. Con este motivo, no puedo menos de referir lo que sucedió acerca de la traducción castellana, que se imprimió años pasados con aseo y casi con lujo. Su autor, bisoño en poesía y absolutamente forastero en el inglés, se valió de una versión francesa en prosa, 19 Op. cit., pp. 350-354. 20 Jesús Cáseda Teresa in Vida y obra de D. José Mor de Fuentes (Monzón, Centro de Estudios de Monzón y Cinca Medio, 1994) is the most complete essay about Mor de Fuentes. It is an insightful work of bio-bibliographical research on an author who has been lately revaluated for his relevance in his time. <?page no="162"?> Ángeles García Calderón 146 para ir versificando a duras penas, y como a destajo, su lánguida y descaminada retraducción, pero antes de publicarla me trajo el manuscrito del Estío, encargándome mucho, como se acostumbra, le manifestase sin rebozo mi dictamen. Llevó a Cienfuegos no sé qué otra parte de su obra, y ambos estuvimos acordes en desengañarle, mostrándole palpablemente que allí no quedaba rastro del ardor, del empuje, de la grandiosidad, en una palabra de la poesía del original. Por el pronto aparentó darse por convencido, pero luego, consultando con sujetos más condescendientes y menos verídicos, salió a luz con su aborto, que desde entonces mereció el total menosprecio, en que ahora yace, de los inteligentes ”. 21 Uno de los pasajes que mereció los elogios de Mor de Fuentes es el siguiente de W INTER : As thus the snows arise, and, foul and fierce, All Winter drives along the darkened air, In his own loose-revolving fields the swain Disastered stands; sees other hills ascend, Of unknown joyless brow; and other scenes, Of horrid prospect, shag the trackless plain; Nor finds the river nor the forest, hid Beneath the formless wild; but wanders on From hill to dale, still more and more astray— Impatient flouncing through the drifted heaps, Stung with the thoughts of home: the thoughts of home Rush on his nerves and call their vigour forth In many a vain attempt. How sinks his soul! What black despair, what horror fills his heart, When, for the dusky spot which fancy feigned His tufted cottage rising through the snow, He meets the roughness of the middle waste, Far from the track and blest abode of man; While round him night resistless closes fast, And every tempest, howling o'er his head, Renders the savage wilderness more wild. Then throng the busy shapes into his mind Of covered pits, unfathomably deep, A dire descent! beyond the power of frost; Of faithless bogs; of precipices huge, Smoothed up with snow; and (what is land unknown, What water) of the still unfrozen spring, In the loose marsh or solitary lake, Where the fresh fountain from the bottom boils. These check his fearful steps; and down he sinks Beneath the shelter of the shapeless drift, Thing o'er all the bitterness of death, Mixed with the tender anguish nature shoots Through the wrung bosom of the dying man— 21 Op. cit., pp. 28-28. <?page no="163"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 147 His wife, his children, and his friends unseen. In vain for him the officious wife prepares The fire fair-blazing and the vestment warm; In vain his little children, peeping out Into the mingling storm, demand their sire With tears of artless innocence. Alas! Nor wife nor children more shall he behold, Nor friends, nor sacred home. On every nerve The deadly Winter seizes, shuts up sense, And o'er his inmost vitals creeping cold, Lays him along the snows a stiffened corse, Stretched out, and bleaching in the northern blast. (vv. 276-321) 22 1845- Historia de las literaturas española, francesa, inglesa e italiana en el siglo XVIII. Lecciones pronunciadas en el Ateneo de Madrid por Don Antonio Alcalá Galiano, redactadas tipográficamente por Don Nemesio Fernández Cuesta y corregidas por el autor, Madrid: Imprenta de la Sociedad Literaria y Tipográfica, 1845. In “Lección vigésimatercera”, when approaching the English writers, he mentions Thomson, yet only incidentally, when dealing with Cowper, Milton and Pope: 22 Our Spanish translation runs as follows: Y así vienen las nieves, y terrible y airado / todo el invierno fluye por el aire sombrío: / en sus campos cambiantes por ciclos, el pastor / permanece abatido; ve ascender otras lomas, / de ignotas cimas lúgubres; y otros muchos parajes / de deleznable aspecto, que agitan la llanura: / no encuentra el río ni el bosque, escondido debajo / del terreno abrupto; mas recorre el sendero / de la montaña al valle, sin tener rumbo alguno.— / Enojado e impaciente, pasa por la hojarasca, / por el recuerdo urgido de casa; la nostalgia / se introduce en sus nervios y el vigor estimula / en intentos fallidos ¡Cómo decae su alma! , / ¡qué honda desesperanza! , qué horror colma su pecho / cuando, al buscar un sitio sombrío donde creía / que había una cabaña en medio de la nieve, / choca con la rudeza de la baldía llanura, / distante de la senda del santo hogar del hombre; / mientras se cierne en torno a él la noche imparable, / y cada tempestad, rugiendo en su mente, / traza el salvaje páramo aún mucho más bravío. / Se agolpan luego múltiples figuras en su mente, / de pozos soterrados, insondablemente hondos, / ¡Un terrible descenso, más allá de los hielos! ; / de ciénagas increíbles, de inmensos precipicios / por la nieve alisados; (donde no existe tierra, / ni el agua de las fuentes que aún no han deshelado), / en las charcas perdidas o el lago solitario, / donde la montaña húmeda emerge desde el fondo. / Frenan sus temerosos pasos; y allí se hunde / bajo el cobijo el flujo informe que lo arrastra, / reflexionando sobre la aflicción de la muerte; / mezclada con la tierna angustia natura ábrese / por el seno oprimido del hombre moribundo, / su esposa, hijos y amigos lejos ya de su vista. / Para él prepara en vano su dominante esposa, / el fuego acogedor y las cálidas prendas; / sus pequeñas criaturas, en vano escrutando / miedosos la tormenta, por su padre implorando, / con lágrimas de una ingenua inocencia ¡Ay! / la esposa ni los hijos se mirarán ya más, / ni amigos, ni hogar sacro. Por cada poro entra / el mortífero Invierno; oscurece el sentido, / y en sus hondas entrañas el frío penetrante, / lo deja yerto sobre la nieve, un cuerpo rígido, / tendido e inerte en el vendaval del norte. <?page no="164"?> Ángeles García Calderón 148 “Corrían hasta entonces con gran boga en Inglaterra, y aun fuera de ella eran citadas por algunos como obras maestras las versiones de la ÍIiada y de la Odisea, hechas por Pope y especialmente la primera. No cabe, sin embargo, un gusto más diferente del original que el que se nota en estas traducciones afamadas, trabajo de un poeta de especie muy diversa de aquel cuyas obras ponía en su idioma patrio. Pope, terso, elegante, poeta de sociedad, aunque de los buenos en su línea, atiende sobre todo á dar corrección y belleza a su frase y versificación, y para ello se descuida de empaparse en el espíritu de su texto. Así, abunda en perífrasis, aunque no las lleva al punto que los franceses de fines del siglo XVIII, por ser el gusto inglés menos melindroso que vino a serlo el de sus vecinos. Añádese a esto que Pope puso sus versiones en versos pareados y con consonantes, de donde hubo de seguirse que el mecanismo de esta composición le obligó a dar cierta forma acompasada a sus pensamientos, diversa de lo que la soltura del hexámetro griego permite. Cowper, adoptando el verso suelto para su traducción, tropezó con otro inconveniente. Bien es verdad que la lengua inglesa admite bien esta clase de metro; que en ella escribió Milton sus inmortales poemas; que es la usada en las tragedias de la misma nación, manejándola a veces con sin par belleza el insigne Shakespeare; y que en la misma están las Estaciones de Thompson; pero, a pesar de esto, todavía en una composición larga para oídos modernos, el verso, sin ayuda de consonante, suele cansar, a no ser que le sostenga y realce un cierto mecanismo hábil y un estilo constantemente brioso”. (pp. 394-395). 1845-1847- Alexander von Humboldt: Cosmos: ensayo de una descripción física del mundo (Madrid: Los Libros de la Catarata, 2011). 23 “Si en Shakespeare la fuerza interior de los sentimientos y la noble elección del lenguaje dan interés tan vivo a los pocos rasgos con que representa la naturaleza sin describirla, en Milton, las escenas descriptivas tienen más pompa que realidad. Y así debía de ser tratándose de un poema como el Paraíso perdido, en el cual han sido prodigadas todas las riquezas de la imaginación y de la poesía para figurar la naturaleza encantadora del paraíso terrenal; pero en esta obra, como en el bellísimo poema de Thomson sobre las Estaciones, la vegetación no podía ser pintada sino en sus rasgos generales y con indecisos contornos . Según el juicio de los que mejor conocen la poesía india, Kalidasa es un poema sobre el mismo asunto, titulado Ritushanara y anterior en más de 15 siglos al de Thomson, ha hecho una descripción llena de la poderosa naturaleza de los trópicos; en cambio no hay que 23 Kosmos (“Cosmos”) is Alexander von Humboldt’s second work of some importance. Begun when he was already 76 years old, it constitutes the summit of his whole work. The first two chapters were written between 1845 and 1847. The source of it was his desire to communicate a graphic description of the physical world observed and studies by him during almost half a century. This idea took shape in his mid for the first time after a series of conferences he delivered at the University of Berlin in the winter of 1827-1828. The most complete edition of Cosmos in Spanish was done by Bernardo Giner and it consists of four volumes; the last remained unfinished when Humboldt died in 1859 and it was not published in Germany till 1862. The above cited edition is the first ever published in Spanish as a complete edition, as hitherto the fifth volume had not been translated into that language. Thus, the readers are offered Humboldt’s important work, together with a preliminary study by Sandra Rebok and an epilogue by the German scholar Ottmar Ette. <?page no="165"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 149 buscar en él aquella gracia que Thomson manifiesta en la variedad y contrate de las estaciones, más determinado siempre en las regiones septentrionales. El poeta inglés, en efecto, ha sacado partido felizmente del paso del fecundo otoño al invierno y del invierno a la primavera, regeneradora de la naturaleza. Ha pintado también con gran interés las diversas ocupaciones del hombre, más reposadas o más activas, según las diferentes épocas del año”. (pp. 227-228). 1847- Curso elemental de retórica y poética (Retórica de Hugo Blair, Poética de Sánchez), Madrid: Imprenta de la Publicidad a cargo de Rivadeneyra, 1847. In Chapter VII, dealing with didactic and descriptive poetry, we may read the following as he approached the latter: “POESÍA DESCRIPTIVA O PINTORESCA“ La poesía descriptiva es más bien un adorno de todas las especies de poesía que una composición particular, puesto que el poeta apenas describe sin emplear como fundamento de su obra alguna acción o sentimiento. Como quiera que sea, sus reglas son las mismas que para las descripciones. Estas serán nuevas o manejadas con novedad, para herir la imaginación y despertar la atención, concisas, para no debilitar la impresión que se intenta hacer, y análogas al carácter del poema: es decir, que si el objeto que se describe es triste, serán tristes; si risueño, risueñas; si grande, grandes; si campestre, campestres, etc. ( BLAIR ) Además de los autores citados en el poema didáctico, se pueden leer los Fastos de Ovidio, la Astronomía de Manilio, el Praedium rusticum de Vanière, el Hymenceus plantarum, el Arte de vidriero, la Higiene, la Agricultura, la Pintura, etc. Para el descriptivo las Estaciones de Thomson, las de Saint-Lambert, el poema de las Plantas, etc. Los Meses, de Roucher, están escritos con mal gusto, abundan de ideas bajas, inexactas y falsas, de figuras forzadas, impropiedad de términos y lenguaje arrastrado, el plan es defectuoso, porque muchos meses son entre sí muy semejantes. Mejor le hubiera estado dividir su obra en cuatro grandes cuadros, esto es, en las cuatro estaciones del año. (Véase su crítica en el tomo VIII del Curso de literatura por La Harpe.) No hago mención de nuestros poemas didácticos, porque por desgracia son muy malos”. (pp. 184-185). 1853- Boletín oficial del Ministerio de Fomento, Tomo VII, Madrid: Imprenta del Ministerio de Fomento, 1853. Sección: La economía rural en Inglaterra. It is a series of essays by M. de Lavergne, inserted in the Revue des Deux Mondes, where we can read in essay VIII, “amor de los ingleses a la vida del campo”, the following: “La literatura nacional, expresión de las costumbres, lleva también el sello de este rasgo distintivo del carácter inglés. Inglaterra es el país de la poesía descriptiva; casi todos sus poetas han vivido en los campos y cantado los campos. Aun en el tiempo en que la poesía inglesa seguía las inspiraciones de la nuestra, Pope escribía composiciones pastoriles y celebraba la selva de Windsor, su estilo era rústico como sus objetos. Antes de él, Spencer y Shakespeare habían lucido admirables rasgos de poesía campestre; siglos han pasado, y el canto de la alondra y del ruiseñor resuena aún en la sublime despedida de Julieta y Romeo. Milton, el sectario Milton, ha consagrado sus mejores versos a la pintura del primer jardín, y en medio de las revoluciones y de los negocios, sus sueños lo <?page no="166"?> Ángeles García Calderón 150 llevaban al campo ideal del Paraíso perdido. Pero después de lo revolución de 1688, cuando Inglaterra, constituida en libertad, pudo mostrarse tal como era, fue cuando el amor a la vida del campo penetra profundamente en todos los escritores. Entonces aparecen Gray y Thomson. El primero, en sus célebres elegías, y entre otras, en el Cementerio de la aldea, el segundo en su poema de las Estaciones, hacen resonar deliciosamente esta cuerda favorita de la lira británica. Las Estaciones abundan en descripciones admirables: baste citar las de la siega, la recolección, el esquileo, que ya en tiempo de Thomson era una faena considerable en Inglaterra, y entre los placeres campestres, la pesca de truchas. Los miembros actuales del club de pe scadores pueden hallar en este lindo cuadro todos los pormenores de su querido arte. Siéntese en él la impresión viva y espontánea, el entusiasmo vivo y profundo por los encantos de la naturaleza y los goces del trabajo. Thompson une a esto esa dulce exaltación religiosa que acompaña casi siempre a la vida solitaria y laboriosa en presencia del prodigio eterno de la vegetación. Todo su poema está impregnado de este sentimiento, sobre todo en la elocuente conclusión donde asimila el despertar del alma humana después de la muerte al despertar de la naturaleza después del invierno”. (Volumen 7, pp. 279-280). 1853- Enciclopedia Moderna: Diccionario Universal de Literatura, Ciencias y Artes. Agricultura, Industria y Comercio, publicada por D. Francisco de P. Mellado, tomo 21, Madrid: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Mellado, 1853. “Las estaciones de Thompson, compuestas de grandes cuadros, hacen época en la historia de la poesía. No bien hubo aparecido el Invierno que produjo una extraordinaria sensación, el Verano no logró menos feliz éxito; en una palabra, el poema entero se atrajo la pública admiración. Los críticos, a la verdad, no dejaron de notar en la ejecución vaguedad, énfasis, lujo de adornos y profusión de colorido; pero posee Thompson en grado eminente lo que constituye al poeta, la inspiración. Sobremanera original en sus pensamientos y estilo, ofrecen sus descripciones el doble mérito de la magnificencia y la exactitud; se ve en su modo de pintar que es amante de la campiña y que rebosa en sus encantos. Sublimes, apasionados o risueños los episodios sembrados en su obra, guardan intima relación con el sujeto. Un pudor, una inocencia muy raras entre los antiguos, dan al cuadro de Muñidora sorprendida en el baño por su amante, un encanto indescifrable, y otras veces ha llevado lo sublime, lo patético y el terror a su más alto grado en las imponentes escenas del invierno en las regiones hiperbóreas. No es posible dejar de estremecerse con las narraciones de Thompson, en que él mismo se muestra conmovido de tan profunda piedad por el hombre extraviado en medio de un Océano de nieves y hielos. Un mérito más hace también recomendables las Estaciones de Thompson. Todas las grandes reputaciones de virtud y libertad en lo antiguo, y todos los héroes de Inglaterra reciben del poeta un tributo de respeto y entusiasmo y experimenta raptos de éxtasis al interpolar las glorias de otro tiempo con los laureles de su patria. Poseemos una traducción da esta obra en verso castellano de bastante mérito. Posteriormente a Thompson, pero en esfera muy inferior, se cita entre los ingleses con aceptación a Bloomfield, mero aprendiz de zapatero, el cual desde el rincón de una tienda miserable produjo un poema titulado El mozo de cortijo, y en el cual forman las también cuatro estaciones cuatro cantos. A fines del siglo XVIII es cuando Londres leía con admiración los versos elegantes, armoniosos, pintorescos y llenos de expresión, compuestos por un joven rodeado de artesanos como él. La obra respiraba ante todo una positiva <?page no="167"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 151 pasión por el campo, aunque no haya en Francia un competidor de Thompson, se hallan, no obstante, vestigios de poesía geórgica en Du Bartas, que lanzó brillantes rasgos de genio en medio de grandes e intolerables defectos. Saint Lambert, poeta bastante mediano, pero celebrado por toda la escuela filosófica, cuya bandera enarboló, compuso sobre las estaciones un poema frío y descolorido, cuya sabia y punzante critica ha hecho Diderot con su habitual sagacidad y sentimiento de artista. Con todo, algunos trozos de esta obra han alcanzado la celebridad y no perecerán”. (pp. 372-373). 1855- Compendio Doctrinal de la Historia Universal hasta 1852, originally written in German by Dr. Gregorio Weber, Professor of World History at the University of Heidelberg, augmented with relation to Spain by Dr. Julian Sanz del Río, Professor of History of Philosophy at the University of Madrid, Volume III, Madrid: Imprenta Nacional, 1855. “El siglo XVIII se inclinaba más a la filosofía que a la poesía. Pope, 1688-1744, poeta correcto y regular más que genial, traductor de Homero en verso libre y autor feliz de sátiras (la Dunciada, contra los libreros y los críticos), obras didácticas (ensayo sobre el hombre, en cuatro cartas; ensayo sobre la crítica) epopeyas cómicas (El robo de los bucles) y otros géneros, era más filósofo que poeta: su carta de Eloísa a Abelardo es una bella composición. Sólo las Estaciones de Thompson, 1700-1748, contienen descripciones poéticas de la naturaleza por un espíritu tierno e impresionable”. (p. 278). 1861- Sumarios de las lecciones de un curso de literatura general, y principalmente española de José V. Fillol, Valencia: Imprenta de Don Ignacio Boix, 1861. In lesson XLII, devoted to descriptive poetry, Fillol writes: “Nuestro Gracián, en el siglo XVI, nos dio un poema culterano, titulado Selvas del año, en la realidad descriptivo, pero tan malo, que de ningún modo puede servir para colocarlo como originario en este género. Débese, pues, reservar este honor á los ingleses, entre los que Thompson con el suyo de las Estaciones puede decirse que dio el modelo que luego después perfeccionó entre los franceses Saint- Lambert. La preceptiva, pues, en este género data de una fecha harto reciente, mas no por ello, sin embargo, merece escasa importancia, por cuanto no solo debe tenerse presente para la formación de poemas exclusivamente descriptivas, sino que también en general para toda descripción. Redúcese a las reglas siguientes: I. El poeta debe llamar la atención sobre las grandes escenas de la naturaleza, ora sublimes, como desiertos y soledades, ora grandes y majestuosas, como los mares y los montes, ora, finalmente, bellas y alegres, como prados y florestas. II. Estas escenas deben engrandecerse, con toda su sublimidad; embellecerse con todos los recursos de lo bello, y hacerse interesantes individualizándolas y animándolas. III. Las descripciones deben ser determinadas y conocidas, y no vagas, indeterminadas y desconocidas. El Cantar de los Cantares y la mayoría de la poesía hebraica, bajo este concepto es un constante modelo; pues tomándolo todo de los objetos de aquellos más conocidos, como los cedros del Líbano, las rosas de Jericó, etc., todo adquiere una animación y un interés extraordinario. <?page no="168"?> Ángeles García Calderón 152 IV. El anterior precepto no se opone a que puedan ser las descripciones generalizadas o particularizadas, según las distingue Muratori, pues las primeras son aquellas en que con pocas pinceladas características se individualiza particularmente el objeto, como el Pino de Polifemo, o el equitare inultos, de Horacio, que cita el Sr. Lista, y las cuales son altamente ventajosas para la expresión del sublime. V. En las particularizadas debe ponerse mucho esmero en la elección del lado más ventajoso, propio y conveniente para el intento, que es lo que patentiza con principalidad la fuerza de imaginación poética. El no efectuarlo así hace las descripciones cansadas y fastidiosas, como sucede con el Faetón de Oviedo, chamuscando una por una todas las constelaciones. VI. Toda descripción se ha de contrastar para evitar el indicado fastidio, lo cual no quita que dentro de cada escena todo sea homólogo. VII. La buena elección en los epítetos es parte muy esencial en toda descripción, pues los vagos y redundantes solo tienden á hacer esta pomposa é hinchada, pero de ningún interés. El fabulosas Hidaspes de Homero para designarnos lo romántico de aquel rio, se ha celebrado por los críticos por uno de los epítetos más felices y oportunos para hacer resaltar con él solo una vivísima descripción. Dicho queda que el genio reflexivo y meditabundo de los ingleses es altamente a propósito para la contemplación de las escenas de la naturaleza; y al ocuparse de esta, preciso era que luciese con notable acierto y perfección. Así, con efecto, ha sucedido, y su poema de las Estaciones, de Thompson, lo demuestra. Aunque inferior al que sobre el mismo asunto poseen los franceses, pues Thompson, a pesar de los desmedidos elogios de Jonhson es un tanto duro, cansado, falto de gusto, y dado a repeticiones frecuentes, sin embargo está lleno de buenas imágenes tomadas con notable fuerza y fantasía, y de rasgos preciosos de descripción, algunos de los cuales hasta llamarse pueden sublimes”. (pp. 212-213). 4 Conclusion We have shown here a wide display of opinions, frequently coincident, on Thomson’s work, as well as the ‘translation’ carried out by the priest Gómez Romero in 1801. As we argued above, the source text for this version was not Thomson’s work but the Mme Bontems’s prose translation of it. In actuality, she had been the first translator ever of the Scottish poet’s work. Cultural and educational circumstances account for a closer relationship between Spain and France than between Spain and England in that period, partly due to the closeness of language; hence the understandable fact many English works enter Spain through French translations. However that does not seem to be the reason why some critics, especially that signing with F.M. in El Memorial Literario o Biblioteca periódica de Ciencias y Artes, and Mor de Fuentes, wrote merciless against Thomson’s translator, but rather they criticised the fact that he dared “retranslate” such relevant and widely influential work as The Seasons, as time confirmed years later. <?page no="169"?> Thomson’s The Seasons in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Reception 153 Another noteworthy fact in the transcribed opinions on the poem is that some critics attach more importance to Thomson’s best French translator, Saint-Lambert, than to his real source of inspiration. That is not sound strange as Saint-Lambert enjoyed an unmerited reputation for many decades. Today he is actually an almost forgotten poet, his only merit being that he had spread Thomson’s influence through France, Spain and other European countries. Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo’s balanced and sensible opinion saw things in its right terms, giving each of them their due importance: “Pero los poetas predilectos fueron, aquí como en Francia, los filósofos, descriptivos, sentimentales y didácticos: Pope, Thomson, Young y el suizo- alemán Gessner”. 24 References a) Primary sources: Origen, progreso y estado actual de toda la literatura. Obra escrita en italiano por el abate D. Juan Andrés, individuo de las Reales Academias florentina, y de las ciencias y buenas letras de Mantua, y traducida al castellano por D. Carlos Andrés, individuo de las Reales Academias florentina, y del derecho español y público matritense.Tomo III, Madrid: Antonio de Sancha, 1785. James Thomson: Las estaciones del año, poema de Jayme Thompson [sic], traducido por D. Benito Gómez Romero, presbítero, 2 vols., Madrid, Imprenta Real, 1801. Memorial Literario o Biblioteca periódica de Ciencias y Artes. Tomo III, año segundo, Madrid: Imprenta de la Calle de Capellanes, 1802. El Diario de Madrid, sábado, 1 de enero de 1803 (sección de Literatura). Compendio de las Lecciones sobre la Retórica y Bellas Letras de Hugo Blair, por D. José Luis Munárriz, Madrid: Imprenta de Ibarra, 1815. Las Estaciones. Poema por D. José Mor de Fuentes , Lérida: Imprenta de Corominas, 1819. Historia de las literaturas española, francesa, inglesa e italiana en el siglo XVIII. Lecciones pronunciadas en el Ateneo de Madrid por Don Antonio Alcalá Galiano, redactadas tipográficamente por Don Nemesio Fernández Cuesta y corregidas por el autor, Madrid: Imprenta de la Sociedad Literaria y Tipográfica, 1845. Alexander von Humboldt: Cosmos: ensayo de una descripción física del mundo, 1845-47 (Madrid: Los Libros de la Catarata, 2011). Curso elemental de retórica y poética (Retórica de Hugo Blair, Poética de Sánchez), Madrid: Imprenta de la Publicidad a cargo de Rivadeneyra, 1847. Boletín oficial del Ministerio de Fomento, Tomo VII, Madrid: Imprenta del Ministerio de Fomento, 1853. 24 Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo: Historia de las ideas estéticas en España, Madrid: 1883- 1889, vol. I, p. 1372. <?page no="170"?> Ángeles García Calderón 154 Enciclopedia Moderna: Diccionario Universal de Literatura, Ciencias y Artes. Agricultura, Industria y Comercio, publicada por D. Francisco de P. Mellado, tomo 21, Madrid: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Mellado, 1853. Compendio Doctrinal de la Historia Universal hasta 1852, escrito en alemán por el Dr. Gregorio Weber, Catedrático de Historia Universal en la Universidad de Heidelberg, ampliado en general y en relación a España por el Dr. D. Julián Sanz del Río, Catedrático de Historia de la Filosofía en la Universidad de Madrid, tomo III, Madrid: Imprenta Nacional, 1855. Sumarios de las lecciones de un curso de literatura general, y principalmente española de José V. Fillol, Valencia: Imprenta de Don Ignacio Boix, 1861. b) Secondary sources: Francisco Aguilar Piñal: Poesía y teatro del siglo XVIII, Madrid 1973. Antonioo de Capmany: Arte de traducir el idioma francés al castellano. Con el vocabulario lógico y figurado de la frase comparada de ambas lenguas. Madrid 1776. Jesús Cáseda Teresa: Vida y obra de D. José Mor de Fuentes. Monzón 1994. García Calderón, Ángeles: James Thomson: Winter. Edición, introducción, estudio y traducción versificada a cargo de Ángeles García Calderón. Almería 2007. Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo: Historia de las ideas estéticas en España. Madrid 1883- 1889 (Madrid, CSIC, 1962). Mme Bontems: Les Saisons de Thomson. Paris 1759. León Morel: James Thomson, sa vie et ses œuvres. Paris 1895. José Antonio Sabio Pinilla (ed.): La traducción en la época ilustrada (Panorámicas de la traducción en el Siglo XVIII). Granada 2009. <?page no="171"?> Cristina Huertas Abril The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature: Gilbert White’s Letters translated into Spanish 1 The flourishing of the epistolary genre in the eighteenth century It is commonly acknowledged that over the course of the eighteenth century the epistolary literary world of England underwent a period of unprecedented expansion. New societies and literary circles began to develop following the models of the French salons littéraires. Undoubtedly, the literary salons are among the truly original institutions of French culture. Even though no other country ever established the salons as an own tradition, most European nations knew some degree of this kind of intellectual activity in the Enlightementperiod. So powerful was the influence of that culture that epistolary literature began to arise. The most important intellectual figures exchanged letters that present an extraordinary literary value. The desire to communicate and to exchange knowledge can be noted in writers like Walpole and Johnson, among others. Letters may have different purposes, but the following consideration by Gómez Hermosilla nevertheless applies: “El estilo ha de ser natural y sencillo en “el más alto grado posible”; porque la afectación y el nimio adorno vienen tan mal en una carta, como en la conversación ordinaria. Esta naturalidad y sencillez no excluyen “los pensamientos ingeniosos y profundos”; al contrario, las hacen graciosas e interesantes, si las aguzdezas no son estudiadas, y las sentencias no se prodigan con exceso”. 1 In this context, somewhat apart from the more famous letter-writers stood a vicar who might be considered as the author of the first classic manual of Natural History: Gilbert White. His correspondence is full of interest in the vibrant literary atmosphere of the time. 2 White’s long-life attachment to the charms of rural scenery Gilbert White, vicar devoted to the parish of Selborne, had no biographer to record all the details of his quiet life. He was not recognized until the publication of his letters in 1789, which raised him as a nature observer and ex- 1 Josef Gómez Hermosilla: Arte de hablar en prosa y verso. Parte 2. Madrid 1826, p. 103. <?page no="172"?> Cristina Huertas Abril 156 pert. From that moment onwards, the continuous editions of the letters are indeed worthy of our acknowledgement. As Jardine the editor of the 1853 version - explained: “It is only since they [the letters] have been edited and re-edited that every source has been ransacked, with the hope of finding some memoranda of the worthy vicar and naturalist”. 2 Nevertheless, the most faithful source to know about White is the outline written in 1802 by his brother John as a prologue to his work. This sketch is the only truly memorial of his life and, although it is very short, it includes some relevant descriptions of White’s personality and works: “I am not aware that any opinion has been handed down of his powers as a preacher; but if we may judge from the letters, his sermons would probably possess that simplicity of language and straightforwardness of truth which would impress and render them acceptable to the minds of his hearers. The letters, though simply written, show both the poet and the scholar; and the mass of facts which they contain in relation to our native animals, formed the main foundation to some of the principal zoological works of that time”. 3 Gilbert White was born in Selborne in 1720, the eldest son of a well-off family. His parents were John White of Selborne, Esq. and Anne, the daughter of Thomas Holt, rector of Streatham (Surrey), so he received his early school education at Basingstoke, under the Rev. Thomas Warton, vicar of that town. He was nineteen when he was admitted at Oriel College, and four years later took his degree of Bachelor of Arts. White learnt soon how to promote himself in the academic world, and he was elected fellow of his college in 1744 and two years later he become Master of Arts. A sign of his interest in the university sphere was his admittance as a senior protector in 1752. Nevertheless, his brother John remarked, “Being of an unambitious temper and strongly attached to the charms of rural scenery, he early fixed his residence in his native village, where he spent the greater part of his life in literary occupations, and especially in the study of nature”. 4 White was offered in several occasions settling upon a university living, but he could never be persuaded to leave his beloved town, which was indeed located in a magnificent environment for an observer. There he led a quiet 2 William Jardine: “Introductory Observartions“, in Gilbert White: The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, with Observations on Various Parts of Nature, and the Natura list’s Calendar, by the Late Rev. Gilbert White. London 1853, p. vii. 3 William Jardine: “Introductory Observartions“, in Gilbert White: The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, with Observations on Various Parts of Nature, and the Natura list’s Calendar, by the Late Rev. Gilbert White. London 1853, p. ix. 4 William Jardine: “Introductory Observartions“, in Gilbert White: The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, with Observations on Various Parts of Nature, and the Natura list’s Calendar, by the Late Rev. Gilbert White. London 1853, p. viif. <?page no="173"?> The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature 157 life, and he could develop his profession as a vicar and member of society until his death at a mature age in 1793. In a review published in the Quaterly 5 , specifically in a note to the article “The Honey-Bee”, 6 White is described as “a man the power of whose writings has immortalised an obscure village and a tortoise, for who has not heard of Timothy as long as the English language lives”. Selborne may be considered as an “obscure village”, but it is located among fields that provided White with all the resources for his research and natural observations on zoology, particularly on the daily rhythm and behaviour of local species. The publication of White’s Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne achieved an immediate success, both for the general public and the scholarnaturalists. Moreover, White is considered as one of the first ecologists who defended the idea that all organisms play an essential role in their biological communities. He stated in a letter dated May 20, 1777 that even the most despicable creatures, in his view, are needed in the food chain and to maintain the smooth ecological running of the ecosystem: “The most insignificant insects and reptiles are of much more consequence, and have much more influence in the economy of Nature that the incurious are aware of, and are mighty in their effect, from their minuteness, which renders them less an object of attention, and from their numbers and fecundity. Earth-worms, though in appearance a small and despicable link in the chain of Nature, yet, if lost, would make a lamentable chasm”. 7 3 The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne White’s Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, published in 1789, occupies a unique position in English literature since it is the only classical work on natural history. The mentionable success that this manual had is not easy to explain: the Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne is not systematic or logical arranged, but a precious record of a field work based on direct obser- 5 The Quarterly Review was a literary and political journal founded in 1809 to act as a counterbalance to the Edinburgh Review. This publication, which had a conservative slant, was founded by renowned figures such as Canning (later Prime Minister), Scott and Southey. It soon became one of the nineteenth century’s most influential periodicals. 6 The history of Timothy is narrated in White’s letters, as well as in the letter to Miss Hecky Mulso dated August 31, 1784 written by the naturalist on behalf of the tortoise. This American reptile was born in 1734 and tells the story of his great-greatgrandfather’s death in the 160 th year of his age. From a zoologist perspective, Bennet described this species as T. Whitei after the observer who immortalised it, although other experts defended that this kind of tortoise is not American, but a North-African variety of testudo marginata. 7 James C. McKusick: Green Writing. Romanticism and Ecology. New York 2000, p. 26. <?page no="174"?> Cristina Huertas Abril 158 vation of nature. White explained everything that happened in Selborne related to its natural life and ecosystem. It should be highlighted that the writer’s enthusiasm can be easily imbibed by the reader because of his evident interest in the results he obtained. White wrote for approximately twenty years numerous letters from 1767 to 1787 to Daines Barrington 8 and Thomas Pennant 9 with detailed descriptions of his direct observations of the habits of animals and different plant species, as well as of natural phenomena in Selborne. The author asked his correspondents questions about his notes, while Barrington and Pennant made some observations as scholars in zoology and natural history. Nonetheless, part of the critics considers that the two experts learnt much more from the vicar that he in turn learnt from them. Barrington’s and White’s friendship seems to have begun at the end of 1767, although the first letter that was published in The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne is dated June 1769. One year later, in 1770, Barrington suggests White the publication of his observations, but White although he liked this advice was reluctant: “I ought to have begun it twenty years ago.—If I was to attempt anything, it should be somewhat of a Natural History of my native parish, an Annus Historio-Naturalis, comprising a journal for one whole year, and illustrated with large notes and observations”. 10 White stated humbly that he just wanted to stir up the interest in the flora and fauna observation in the several parishes of the United Kingdom, and he finally prepared his notes and materials for the press in 1788 (although 8 Daines Barrington was a lawyer, naturalist, and antiquary. He inmatriculated at the University of Oxford, but he never graduated due to the fact that the same year - 1745 he was admitted as a lawyer to the Inner Temple, and five years later he was called to the bar. Members of different legal offices considered him an indifferent judge, but his work Observations on the Statutes, chiefly the more ancient, from Magna Charta to 21 st James I (1766) led him to acquire a high reputation among constitutional antiquaries and historians, Together with Barrington’s interest in natural history two of his more unusual of his papers are “Experiments and Observations on the Singing of Birds” and “Essays on the Language of Birds” -, his passion was travel writing, and in 1775 published his Tracts on the Probability of reaching the North Pole. Many of the papers written as a member of the Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries were collected in his Miscellanies on various Subjects (1781). 9 Thomas Pennant is considered one of the most important zoologists of the British history. Pennant began his early education at Wrexham Grammar School, before moving to Fulham and later to the Oxford University. His passion was natural history, and as a result of this interest Pennant published the first part of his British Zoology in 1766. He published in 1771 his Synopsis of Quadrupeds, which was expanded into History of Quadrupeds. Moreover, he was also interested in travel writing, and he wrote A Tour of Scotland in 1769 (1771), Tour in Wales (1778), Journey to Snowdon (1781 and 1783), and Journey from Chester to London (1782). 10 In Henry B. Wheatley: “Letter-Writers”, in Adolphus William Ward and Alfred Rayney Waller (eds.): The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 volumes. Vol. X: The Age of Johnson. New York and Cambridge 1914, p. 270. <?page no="175"?> The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature 159 the edition suffered a new delay and it could not be published until one year later). It should be highlighted that White, in the “Advertisement” to the first edition 11 explains that he has not altered the original letters the slightest bit, although in further editions several notes and illustrations especially engravings - have been added to The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne: “Of the authenticity of the documents above-mentioned there can be no doubt, since they consist of the identical deeds and records that were removed to the College from the Priory at the time of its dissolution; and, being carefully copied on the spot, may be depended on as genuine”. 12 Before the twentieth century scientific knowledge tended to stay within the intellectual circles 13 due to population’s illiteracy. In this point, no other work of similar scope or characteristics can be compared to The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne in completeness and accuracy and even in number of editions since its publication. All these editions have allowed a profound study of White’s work, although his observations and reflections have not been altered, as Jardine said, “without embellishment except as received from truth, and without allowing the imagination to ramble and assume conclusions the exactness of which it had not proved”. 14 4 Translation of White’s Letters 15 L ETTER I To Thomas Pennant, Esquire The parish of Selborne lies in the extreme eastern corner of the county of Hampshire, bordering on the county of Sussex, and not far from the county of Surrey; about fifty miles south-west of London, in latitude 51, and near midway between the towns of Alton and Petersfield. [Being] Very large and extensive, it abuts on twelve parishes, two of which are in Sussex, viz., Trotton and Rogate. If 11 This prologue has been maintained in further editions. 12 Gilbert White: The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, in the County of Southamp-ton: with Engravings and an Appendix. London 1789, p. iv. 13 Part of the critics considered that the first step in the spreading of knowledge was the publication of the Encyclopédie because it provided a wide coverage of the mechanical arts, but this enormous work is best acknowledged for the presentation of Enlightenment ideas. 14 Jardine: “Introductory Observartions“, in Gilbert White: The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, with Observations on Various Parts of Nature, and the Naturalist’s Calendar, by the Late Rev. Gilbert White. London 1853, p. vi. 15 We transcribe Jardine‘s edition, published in 1853. It has been contrasted and compared with the first edition (1789) and no differences were observed in the letters, although Jardine’s edition can be more clearly read and the numerous notes included are very useful for our study. <?page no="176"?> Cristina Huertas Abril 160 you begin from the south and proceed westward, the adjacent parishes are Emshot, Newton Valence, Faringdon, Harteley Mauduit, Great Ward le ham, Kingsley, Hedleigh, Bramshot, Trotton, Rogate, Lysse, and Greatham. (…) Our wells, at an average, run to about sixty-three feet, and when sunk to that depth seldom fail; but produce a fine limpid water, soft to the taste, and much commended by those who drink the pure element, but which does not lather well with soap. To the north-west, north and east of the village, is a range of fair enclosures, consisting of what is called a white malm, a sort of rotten or rubble stone, which, when turned up to the frost and rain, moulders to pieces, and becomes manure to itself. Still on to the north-east, and a step lower, is a kind of white land, neither chalk nor clay, neither fit for pasture nor for the plough, yet kindly for hops, which root deep into the freestone, and have their poles and wood for charcoal growing just at hand. This white soil produces the brightest hops. As the parish still inclines down towards Wolmer-forest, at the juncture of the clays and sand the soil becomes a wet, sandy loam, remarkable for timber, and infamous for roads. The oaks of Temple and Blackmoor stand high in the estimation of purveyors, and have furnished much naval timber; while the trees on the fre estone grow large, but are what workmen call shakey, and so brittle as often to fall to pieces in sawing. Beyond the sandy loam the soil becomes a hungry lean sand, till it mingles with the forest; and will produce little without the assistance of lime and turnips. C ARTA I 16 Al Ilmo. Sr. Thomas Pennant: La parroquia de Selborne se encuentra en el extremo oriental del condado de Hampshire, lindando con el condado de Sussex y no lejos del condado de Surrey; se encuentra aproximadamente a cincuenta millas al suroeste de Londres, en la latitud 51, y a medio camino entre las poblaciones de Alton y Petersfield. Al ser muy grande y extensa, limita con doce parroquias, dos de las cuales se encuentran en Sussex, a saber: Trotton y Rogate. Si comenzáis por el sur y os dirigís hacia el oeste, las parroquias adyacentes son Emshot, Newton Valence, Faringdon, Harteley Mauduit, Great Ward le ham, Kingsley, Hedleigh, Bramshot, Trotton, Rogate, Lysse y Greatham. (…) Nuestros pozos, como media, se prolongan aproximadamente sesenta y tres pies, de modo que cuando se horada a dicha profundidad a menudo se hunden; pero producen un agua fina y límpida, suave al paladar y muy alabada por aquellos que beben el elemento puro, si bien no hace espuma con el jabón. Al noroeste, norte y este del pueblo hay un conjunto de buenos cercados compuestos de lo que se denomina malm blanco, una suerte de piedra podrida o de escombros que cuando se encuentra expuesta a las heladas y a la lluvia se descompone, y se convierte por sí misma en abono. 17 16 All the translations in this paper are our own. 17 Edition footnote: “Esta tierra produce buen trigo y tréboles“. <?page no="177"?> The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature 161 Todavía en el noreste, y un poco más abajo, hay un tipo de terreno blanco, que no es ni caliza ni arcilla, y no es apto ni para pastos ni para arado, pero sí es muy bueno para el sector del lúpulo, que se arraiga profundamente en la piedra suelta, y tiene sus polos y madera para el carbón a mano. Esta tierra blanca produce los lúpulos más sobresalientes. Puesto que la parroquia desciende hacia el bosque Wolmer, en la confluencia de las arcillas y la arena, la tierra se torna húmeda, franca y arenosa, muy provechosa para la producción de madera pero pésima para los caminos. Los robles de Temple y Blackmoor son muy estimados por los abastecedores y han aportado mucha madera para el sector naval, mientras que los árboles de piedra tallada crecen mucho, pero es lo que los obreros denominan “shakey”: es tan frágil que a menudo se desgarra durante el aserrado. Más allá del suelo franco y arenoso se extiende un terreno de arena fina hasta que se mezcla con el bosque; y se producirá poco sin la ayuda de la cal y de los nabos. L ETTER XIII Selborne, Jan. 22nd, 1768. Sir, — As in one of your former letters you expressed the more satisfaction from my correspondence on account of my living in the most southerly county, so now I may return the compliment, and expect to have my curiosity gratified by your living much more to the North. For many years past I have observed that towards Christmas vast flocks of chaffinches have appeared in the fields; many more, I used to think, than could be hatched in any one neighbourhood. But, when I came to observe them more narrowly, I was amazed to find that they seemed to me to be almost all hens. I communicated my suspicions to some intelligent neighbours, who, after taking pains about the matter, declared that they also thought them mostly females—at least fifty to one. This extraordinary occurrence brought to my mind the remark of Linnæus, that “before winter all their hen chaffinches migrate through Holland into Italy.” Now I want to know, from some curious person in the north, whether there are any large flocks of these finches with them in the winter, and of which sex they mostly consist? For from such intelligence, one might be able to judge whether our female flocks migrate from the other end of the island, or whether they come over to us from the continent. We have, in the winter, vast flocks of the common linnets; more, I think, than can be bred in any one district. These, I o bserve, when the spring advances, assemble on some tree in the sunshine, and join all in a gentle sort of chirping, as if they were about to break up their winter quarters and betake themselves to their proper summer homes. It is well known, at least, that the swallows and the fieldfares do congregate with a gentle twittering before they make their respective departure. (…) We have had a very severe frost and deep snow this month. My thermometer was one day fourteen degrees and a half below the freezing-point, within doors. The tender evergreens were injured pretty much. It was very providential that the air was still, and the ground well covered with snow, else vegetation in general must have suffered prodigiously. There is reason to believe that some days were more severe than any since the year 1739-40. I am, etc., etc. <?page no="178"?> Cristina Huertas Abril 162 C ARTA XIII Selborne, 22 de enero de 1768. Señor: como en una de sus anteriores cartas me expresabais la mayor complacencia por mi correspondencia en la que os explico mis vivencias en el condado situado más al sur, os devuelvo ahora los cumplidos y espero que se satisfaga mi curiosidad por vuestras vivencias mucho más al norte. Desde hace muchos años he observado que, en torno a Navidad, aparecen grandes bandadas de pinzones en los campos; muchos más, solía pensar, de los que podían ser empollados en una única comunidad. Pero cuando llegué a observarlos de manera más cercana, me sorprendí al descubrir que parecía que casi todos eran hembras. Comuniqué mis sospechas a algunos vecinos inteligentes, quienes tras numerosos quebraderos de cabeza afirmaron que también pensaban que la mayoría eran hembras -al menos cincuenta por cada macho-. Este hecho extraordinario trajo a mi mente la observación de Linnæus, quien afirmó que “antes del invierno, todos los pinzones hembra migran cruzando Holanda en dirección a Italia”. Ahora me gustaría saber, por parte de alguna persona curiosa del norte, si existen grandes bandadas de estos pinzones allí en invierno y cuál es el sexo predominante. Pues con tal conocimiento, uno podría ser capaz de juzgar si nuestros pinzones hembra migran desde un extremo al otro de la isla o bien si vienen desde el continente. Tenemos durante el invierno grandes bandadas de pardillos comunes; además, pienso que pueden ser criados en cualquier zona. Observo que estos, cuando la primavera se acerca, se posan en algún árbol bajo el sol y se unen todos en una especie de suave gorjeo, como si estuvieran a punto de destruir sus refugios de invierno y dirigirse hacia sus casas adecuadas para el verano. Es bien sabido, al menos, que las golondrinas y los zorzales reales se agrupan con un suave gorjeo antes de hacer sus respectivas salidas. (…) Hemos tenido unas nevadas muy severas y profundas durante este mes. Mi termómetro marcó un día catorce grados y medio por debajo del punto de congelación estando a cubierto. Los tiernos brotes verdes quedaron realmente dañados y los árboles más tiernos de hoja perenne quedaron muy dañados. Fue providencial que el viento fuera suave y que el suelo estuviera cubierto de nieve; de lo contrario, la vegetación en general habría sufrido muchísimo. Hay motivos para pensar que algunos días fueron los más severos desde el invierno de 1739 y 1740. Siempre suyo, etc., etc. L ETTER XIX Selborne, August 17th, 1768 To the same. Dear Sir,—I have now, past dispute, made out three distinct species of the willow-wrens (motacillæ trochili) 18 which constantly and invariably use distinct notes. But at the same time I am obliged to confess that I know nothing of your willow- 18 The current scientific name of this bird is Phylloscopus trochiloides, a member of the Phylloscopidae family, although Linneo included it in 1758 in the Motacillae. <?page no="179"?> The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature 163 lark 19 . In my letter of April 18th, I had told you peremptorily that I knew your willow-lark, but had not seen it then; but when I came to procure it, it proved in all respects a very motacilla trochilus, only that it is a size larger than the two other, and the yellow-green of the whole upper part of the body is more vivid, and the belly of a clearer white. I have specimens of the three sorts now lying before me, and can discern that there are three gradations of sizes, and that the least has black legs, and the other two flesh-coloured ones. The yellowest bird is considerably the largest, and has its quill-feathers and secondary feathers tipped with white, which the others have not. This last haunts only the tops of trees in high beechen woods, and makes a sibilous grasshopper-like noise, now and then, at short intervals, shivering a little with its wings when it sings; and is, I make no doubt now, the regulus non cristatus of Ray 20 , which he says “cantat voce stridulâ locustæ.” Yet this great ornithologist never suspected that there were three species. C ARTA XIX Selborne, 17 de agosto de 1768 Al mismo. Estimado señor: he descubierto ahora, superada la disputa, tres especies distintas de mosquitero troquiloide (motacillae trochili) que de forma constante e invariable usan notas distintas. Pero, al mismo tiempo, me veo obligado a confesarle que no tengo nada de vuestro carricerín común. En mi carta de 18 de abril os dije terminantemente que conocía a vuestro carricerín común, pero no lo había visto entonces; cuando conseguí verlo, resultó ser a todos los efectos un motacilla trochilus, solo que de mayor tamaño que los otros dos y con el color amarillo verdoso de la parte superior del cuerpo más vivo, mientras que el vientre es de un blanco más claro. Tengo especímenes de tres tipos ahora mismo yaciendo delante de mí y puedo discernir que hay tres gradaciones de tamaño y que el más pequeño tiene las patas negras, mientras que los otros dos las tienen de color carne. El pájaro más amarillo es con diferencia el más grande, y tiene las plumas coberteras y las secundarias de color blanco, que los otros no tienen. Este último caza solo por las copas de los árboles, en las ramas altas de las hayas, y hace un ruido sibilante c omo un saltamontes, ahora sí y ahora no, en intervalos cortos, agitando un poco sus alas mientras canta; y es ahora, no me queda duda alguna, el regulus non aristatus de Ray, que afirma “cantat voce stidulâ locustae”. Sin embargo, este gran ornitólogo nunca sospechó que hubiera tres especies. 19 This bird is a member of the Sylviidae family, and it is also known as Acrocephalus schoenobaenus. 20 John Ray is frequently considered as the father of Natural History in England. He published a number of works on botany and natural theology, such as the Catalogue of Cambridge Plants (1660) or The Wisdom of God (1691), as well as on zoology, among which ornithology could be highlighted due to his Willughby’s Ornithologia (1676) that entailed the foundation of scientific ornithology. <?page no="180"?> Cristina Huertas Abril 164 4.1 Analysis of the translation White’s epistles clearly reflect the wide thematic diversity covered by eighteenth-century letter-writers. The contents of his letters are by no means conventional, since they are a genuine essay on the environment, flora and animal behaviour in the parish of Selborne. The Natural History of Selborne, as mentioned before, is a collection of letters that compiles White’s personal witness in his natural context. These vivid experiences tend to cause a double difficulty in the translation into Spanish: on the one hand, the inherent complexity of literary translation; on the other, the compelling need for literature and references search, and for appropriate terminology in order to produce an accurate translation of the scientific names for the different species that occur in this text. The translation method used is necessarily conditioned by this binomial. Therefore, we should highlight from a general perspective that the method employed in the transfer of the chosen letters into Spanish has been the philological approach, according to the following definition by Hurtado Albir: “Método traductor que se caracterizaba porque se añaden a la traducción notas con comentarios filológicos, históricos, etc. El original se convierte en objeto de estudio, dirigiéndose a un público erudito o a estudiantes (traducciones anotadas con fines didácticos; pueden ser ediciones bilingües)”. 21 Furthermore, together with the philological method, it has been very interesting for our analysis the use of the interpretative-communicative approach, which aims at maintaining the source text function and textual genre in the target text. This second method is especially applicable to the analysis of this particular text. For his reason, and considering that these methods are not independent, we combine both approaches according to the following diagram: Translation method Philological (erudite and critical translation) Interpretative-communicative (functional translation) Our proposal for the analysis of this text is divided into four main parts: formal linguistic and typological, morphosyntactic, semantic and pragmatic elements, to ensure the proper structure of sentences, correct usage of terminology and conventions of letter-writing. 22 Nevertheless, White relies on several poetic licenses in the use of greetings and he even omits them in some letters. This is the case of “Letter I” in which White includes the addressee and then he begins the body of the letter - describing the parish where he would spend the rest of his life -, avoiding 21 Amparo Hurtado Albir: Traducción y Traductología. Madrid 2011, p. 252. 22 Cfr. Josef Gómez Hermosilla: Arte de hablar en prosa y verso. Parte 2. Madrid 1826. P I <?page no="181"?> The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature 165 any kind of greeting. This omission, however, is not a constant feature in White’s letters, as in the other two letters chosen we find “Sir, - ” (“Letter XIII”) and “Dear Sir, - ” (“Letter XIX”). These have been translated following the target culture conventions (Señor: and Estimado Señor: , respectively), by means of the adaptation strategy. 23 We also find omissions in the case of farewells, as they are not included in “Letter I” or in “Letter XIX”, but White uses the following in “Letter XIII”: “I am, etc., etc.”, that we have translated with the adaptation “Siempre vuestro, etc., etc.” Moreover, we consider that the formal level of this non-fictional genre is closely bound to the cultures in contact, bearing in mind that their conventions do not usually coincide. As regards the morphosyntactic level, there is an abundant use of relative clauses, both defining (“it was very providential that the air was still” - Letter XIII -, translated “fue providencial que el viento fuera suave”), and non-defining (“I communicated my suspicions to some intelligent neighbours, who, after taking pains about the matter, declared…” - Letter XIII - , translated as “comuniqué mis sospechas a algunos vecinos inteligentes quienes, tras numerosos quebraderos de cabeza, afirmaron…”). It is also interesting to note the use of very long, complex sentences; but considering this an element of the author’s style, we have preferred to maintain them in our translation: ST TT The parish of Selborne lies in the extreme eastern corner of the county of Hampshire, bordering on the county of Sussex, and not far from the county of Surrey; is about fifty miles south-west of London, in latitude 51, and near midway between the towns of Alton and Peters field (Letter I) La parroquia de Selborne se encuentra en el extremo oriental del condado de Hampshire, lindando con el condado de Sussex y no lejos del condado de Surrey; se encuentra aproximadamente a cincuenta millas al suroeste de Londres, en la latitud 51, y a medio camino entre las poblaciones de Alton y Petersfield. In my letter of April 18th, I had told you peremptorily that I knew your willow-lark, but had not seen it then; but when I came to procure it, it proved in all respects a very motacilla trochilus, only that it is a size larger than the two other, and the yellowgreen of the whole upper part of the body is more vivid, and the belly of a clearer white (Letter XIX) En mi carta de 18 de abril os dije terminantemente que conocía a vuestro carricerín común, pero no lo había visto entonces; cuando conseguí verlo, resultó ser a todos los efectos un motacilla trochilus, solo que de mayor tamaño que los otros dos y el color amarillo verdoso de la parte superior del cuerpo es más vivo, mientras que el vientre es de un blanco más claro. 23 Also known as cultural substitution or cultural equivalent, the adaptation consists of replacing an element of the source culture by another in the target culture. <?page no="182"?> Cristina Huertas Abril 166 The lexical-semantic level is probably one of the most remarkable aspects of White’s letters: the author employs the most accurate terminology to describe all the elements and species, such as “chaffinches”, “common linnets” and “fieldfares”, among others. In constrast, the translation process found an obstacle in a seemingly simple term: “willow-wrens (motacillae trochili)”. At first glance, it could be logical to think that the search of the Latin scientific name would lead us to know the equivalent in the target language, although this process proved to be unproductive. Thus, we studied the complete family of this species and, together with visual materials and White’s descriptions, we discovered a change in the normalized name. Despite Linneo’s classification under the family of Motacillae, nowadays it is considered as a member of the Phylloscopidae. As a result of our research, we tend to think that this bird could be a Phylloscopus trochiloides, whose common name in Spanish is “mosquitero troquiloide”. The translation of “willow-lark” was easier, due to this species, member of the family Sylviidae and whose scientific name is Acrocephalus schoenobaenus, which is a “carricerín común” in Spanish. Moreover, the species descriptions increase the value of White’s letters: despite being based on direct observations, the letter writer did not disdained the use of specialized terms. This would be the case of “quill feathers” (in Spanish “plumas coberteras”) that contrast with “feathers” (in Spanish “plumas secundarias”). White also describes the lands of Selborne, and especially the different types of ground. The main obstacle was the term “malm”, for which we did not find an exact equivalents in the target language. Nevertheless, the context depicts accurately the type of soil, hence we use the foreign terms: ST TT To the north-west, north and east of the village, is a range of fair enclosures, consisting of what is called a white malm, a sort of rotten or rubble stone, which, when turned up to the frost and rain, moulders to pieces, and becomes manure to itself. (Letter I) Al noroeste, norte y este del pueblo hay un conjunto de buenos cercados que consisten en lo que se denomina malm blanco, una suerte de piedra podrida o de escombros que cuando se encuentra expuesta a las heladas y a la lluvia se descompone, y se convierte por sí misma en abono. When translating other kinds of soil, we did not find translation problems because of their respective functional equivalents. This would be the case of “the soil becomes a wet, sandy loam, remarkable for timber, and infamous for roads” (in Spanish, “la tierra se torna húmeda, franca y arenosa, muy provechosa para la producción de madera, pero pésima para los caminos”). To complete this translation analysis, we study the pragmatic-cultural level. Some extra-textual references may arise - and not just for the transla- <?page no="183"?> The Spreading of Scientific Knowledge from Epistolary Literature 167 tor but also for the common reader-. Most of them are explained in the footnotes to the different editions. We would still highlight an example taken from the Letter XIII: “There is reason to believe that some days were more severe than any since the year 1739-40” (in Spanish “Hay motivos para pensar que algunos días fueron los más severos desde el invierno de 1739 y 1740”). That winter, from November to May, was one of the most severe in British history since the beginning of weather records in the eighteenth century. Consequently, it is a cultural reference used by White to compare those days of 1768, when he wrote the translated letter, to the months when one of the British weather milestones occurred. 5 Conclusion White’s Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne occupies a unique position in English literature, since it is the only classic work on natural history. This collection of letters, which compiles his vivid experiences, is a clear example of the wide thematic diversity covered by eighteenth-century letter-writers. We are aware, however, of the difficulties inherent in the translation of the texts analysed, which have clearly shown the bonds between literary and scientific languages. A proper knowledge of specialized terminology and linguistic structures in the two languages is not an easy task to tackle, especially because of the cultural elements implied and the changes necessary for the normalization of scientific names. The source and target texts were analysed both at the textual and extratextual levels. With reference to the analysis at the textual level, different aspects of form, lexis and syntax were examined. Also, letter conventions were studied considering the cultural differences between the source language and the target language. Furthermore, directness, plausibility and clarity are some of the most important features of letter-writing, and they must be maintained in the target text. The analysis of the three translated letters led us to conclude that the translator must be familiar not only with the author’s work, but also with the scientific knowledge and research in the field of natural-history in the eighteenth century. Consequently, the translator must be familiar with all types of genre conventions and must be aware of the implications of nonfiction literature. References Josef Gómez Hermosilla: Arte de hablar en prosa y verso. Parte 2. Madrid 1826. Amparo Hurtado Albir: Traducción y Traductología. Madrid 2011. <?page no="184"?> Cristina Huertas Abril 168 William Jardine: “Introductory Observations”, in Gilbert White: The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, with Observations on Various Parts of Nature, and the Na turalist’s Calendar, by the Late Rev. Gilbert White, A. M. A New Edition Edited, with Notes, by Sir William Jardine, Bart. F. R. S. E. F. L. S. & c. Completely Illustrated with about Seventy Engravings, comprising subjects from Natural History, and Views of Se lborne, its Vicinity and Antiquities, Sketched from Nature expressly for this Edition. London 1853, pp. v-xiv. Ronald B. McKerrow: An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students . Oxford 1995. James C. McKusick: Green Writing. Romanticism and Ecology. New York 2000. Adolphus William Ward and Alfred Rayney Waller (eds.): The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 volumes. New York and Cambridge 1914. Henry B. Wheatley: “Letter-Writers”, in Adolphus William Ward and Alfred Rayney Waller (eds.): The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 volumes. Vol. X: The Age of Johnson. New York and Cambridge 1914, pp. 242-271. Gilbert White: The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, in the County of Southampton: with Engravings and an Appendix. London 1789. Gilbert White: The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, with Observations on Various Parts of Nature, and the Naturalist’s Calendar, by the Late Rev. Gilbert White, A. M. A New Edition Edited, with Notes, by Sir William Jardine, Bart. F. R. S. E. F. L. S. & c. Completely Illustrated with about Seventy Engravings, comprising subjects from Natural History, and Views of Selborne, its Vicinity and Antiquities, Sketched from Nature expressly for this Edition. London 1853. <?page no="185"?> Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez Einige Bemerkungen zur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings durch Hartzenbusch Die überragende Rolle Gotthold Ephraim Lessings (1729-1781) als Dramatiker, Essayist (ensayista) und Literaturtheoretiker hat in gewisser Weise den Blick für sein Schaffen im Bereich anderer literarischer Gattungenverstellt, in denen er ebenfalls Hervorragendes leistete, sodass er heute vor allem als Autor von Dramen wie Emilia Galotti (1772) oderNathan der Weise (1779) und von theoretischen Schriften wie Laokoon (1766) oder der Hamburgischen Dramaturgie (1769) bekannt ist. Im besonderen Fall Spaniens ist die Wahrnehmung Lessings noch eingeschränkter. So ist er beispielsweise in den Lehrbüchern des Faches Weltliteratur (Literatura Universal) der gymnasialen Oberstufe, in dem die Schülermit literarischen Strömungen und Werken vor allem der westlichen Welt bekannt gemacht werden sollen, kaum mehr als ein Name unter anderen auf der Liste der Aufklärer, der bei der überproportionalen Bedeutung, die den französischen Autoren zugemessen wird, kaum wahrzunehmen ist und oft nicht einmal in seiner Eigenschaft als Dramatiker erwähnt wird. 1 Übersetzungsgeschichtlich ist interessant, dass, soweit uns bekannt, die erste spanische Übersetzung eines dramatischen oder theoretischen repräsentativen Werks Lessings erst im Jahre 1869 erscheint.Es handelt sich um Emilia Galotti in der Übersetzung von Cayetano Vidal y Valenciano, erschienen in Barcelona im Verlagshaus von Salvador Manero, eine Übersetzung, die heute nur noch einen kulturarchäologischen Wert besitzt. Schon zwei Jahre darauf wird ein scheinbar zweitrangiges Werk ins Spanische übersetzt, Lessings Fabeln. Drey Bücher (1759-1777), das bis heute in Spanien verbreitet und geschätzt ist, und zwar aufgrund der Tatsache, dass der Übersetzer kein Geringerer als Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch (1806-1880) ist, einer der bedeutendsten Autoren der spanischen Romantik. Diese Übersetzung, die den Gegenstand unserer Untersuchung bildet, erschien unter 1 So etwa in dem Lehrbuch von B. Arévalo et al., in dem er nur als Autor des Laokoon erscheint und in folgenden dürren Worten charakterisiert wird, die aber auch durch ihre offensichtliche Falschheit überraschen: “En Alemania el espíritu ilustrado lleva a los intelectuales a buscar un deseo de perfección y a plantearse las reglas que rigen la creación. En este sentido, las normas neoclásicas son superadas por figuras como Gothold [sic] Lessing (1729-1781), que en obras como Laoconte ataca el concepto clásico de los géneros literarios” (B. Arévalo et al.: Literatura Universal. Barcelona: Editorial Casals 2009, S. 194). <?page no="186"?> Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez 170 dem Titel Fábulas de Gotoldo Efrain Lessing, divididas en tres libros. Traducción directa del alemán por don Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch (1871). 1 Gründe für die Übersetzung Auf den ersten Blick scheint es erstaunlich, dass ein romantischer Autor wie Hartzenbusch es unternimmt, Lessings Fabeln zu übersetzen und dies zu einem Zeitpunkt, an dem die Hochzeit der Gattung Fabel in Spanien bereits vorbei ist, deren bedeutendste Vertreter, Félix María Samaniego (1745-1801) und Tomás de Iriarte (1750-1791), bereits gestorben waren und seit der Veröffentlichung und dem darauffolgenden beträchtlichen Erfolg ihrer Werke - den Fábulas morales (1781) von Samaniego und den Fábulas literarias (1782) von Iriarte - bereits viele Jahrzehnte vergangen waren. Obgleich das Interesse der spanischen Romantik anderen Themen galt und nicht neoklassischen Überlegungen mit ihren unvermeidlichen theoretischen Reflexionen über das Wesen der Gattung Fabel (wie dies Boileau, Gottsched, aber auch der Spanier Ignacio de Luzán getran hatten), so darf doch nicht vergessen werden, dass “Con todo, el género tuvo su importancia dentro de la vertiente costumbrista de la nueva estética -en la medida en que aquélla se centraba en los hábitos y comportamientos sociales de las clases, fundamentalmente, populares-, y la nómina de fabulistas siguió siendo significativa”. 2 Tatsächlich gibt es eine recht große Anzahl von Autoren, die die Fabel kultivieren, sodass ein anonymer Rezensent im Jahre 1790 in der Zeitung Correo de Madrid ironisch überspitzt, doch recht illustrativ für die Lage, sich dazu wie folgt äußert: “No parece sino que la joroba de Esopo ha esperado a reventar en nuestra nación y en nuestro siglo, que de ella ha salido una camada de Esopillos, para llenarnos de apólogos, y no dejar que corra sentencia moral, política ni literaria que no tenga su fábula al canto”. 3 Obgleich die Fabel als Gattung ihren Höhepunkt in der Aufklärung hatte - die, wie erwähnt, nicht müde wurde, diese Gattung und deren normative Poetologie zu diskutieren -, so ist es in der beschriebenen Situation verständlich, dass auch ein Autor der spanischen Romantik wie Hartzenbusch sich für die Fabel interessierte und seine eigene Sammlung, die Fábulas (1888), herausbrachte. Neu ist bei Hartzenbusch, dass er sich, bedingt durch 2 Francisco Manuel Mariño: La Estatua de Bronce. Las fábulas en prosa de Lessing y la traducción de Hartzenbusch. Valladolid: Secretariado de Publicaciones e Intercambio Editorial de la Universidad de Valladolid 2007, S. 27. 3 Juan Jiménez Corbo: “Introducción” zu Fedro y Samaniego. Antología de fábulas. Salamanca: Kadmos 2001, S. 30. <?page no="187"?> Einige Bemerkungen zur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings 171 seine deutsche Abstammung, bei seinen Quellen nicht auf den allgegenwärtigen La Fontaine beschränkte, wie dies bei der Mehrzahl der übrigen spanischen Autoren der Fall war, sondern dass er auch die deutsche Tradition mit einbezog, nicht nur Lessing, sondern auch andere Autoren und Werke, die vom modernen Herausgeber der Fábulas Hartzenbuschs in der Einführung zitiert werden: “En primer lugar, el más importante de todos, Christian F. Gellert, cuyas Fabeln und Erzählungen (1746-48) contienen una acertada observación de la naturaleza y la vida urbana, sobresaliendo por las sátiras políticas y antifemeninas. A su lado, Gottlich [sic] K. Pfeffel 4 , que sedestaca en sus Fabeln (1783) por lo elevado de su doctrina moral y filosófica. Y en menos escala, Friedrich von Hagedorn, autor de un Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzählungen (1738); Gottfried Lichtvehr 5 [sic], que revela ingenio en su Die Bücher aesopischer Fabeln (1748); Johann W. L. Gleim, más conocido por sus versos anacreónticos que por sus Fabeln (1756-57), y Karl W. Ramler, traductor y adaptador de los clásicos”. 6 Warum entscheidet sich Hartzenbusch unter diesen Autoren, die er selbst als Quellen für seine eigenen Fabeln benutzt, gerade für eine Übersetzung der Lessingschen Prosafabeln? Was zeichnet Lessings Werk aus, dass Hartzenbusch es für wert hält, es in Spanien bekannt zu machen? 2 Lessing und die Gattung der Fabel Im Unterschied zu Hartzenbusch ist Lessing ein Autor im Deutschland des 18. Jahrhunderts und als solcher kultiviert er die Fabel im Einklang mit seiner Zeit und seiner kulturellen Umgebung; auch die oben genannten anderen bekannten Fabelautoren sind seine Zeitgenossen. Es ist also keineswegs verwunderlich, dass auch er Fabeln schreibt und in der Hochzeit dieser Gattung darüber theoretisiert, auch wenn diese Schriften heute im Schatten seines dramatischen Werks stehen. Seine Auffassung der Gattung und deren Exemplifizierung anhand seiner eigenen Fabeln, vor allem der Fabeln. Drey Bücher, die im Zentrum unseres Interesses stehen, wollen wir nun betrachten. Lessing verfasste zwei Fabelsammlungen, die Fabeln und Erzählungen (1753-1771) und die genannten Fabeln. Drey Bücher (1759-1777), sowie eine theoretische Schrift über die Poetik dieser Gattung, Abhandlungen [über die Fabel] (1759). 7 Von diesen fünf Abhandlungen interessiert in unserem Zu- 4 Hier ist augenscheinlich Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffel (1736-1809) gemeint. 5 Ein weiter Fehler: es handelt sich um den Autor Magnus Gottfried Lichtwehr (1719- 1783). 6 Ricardo Navas Ruiz: “Introducción” zu Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe 1973, S. VI-XXV, hier S. XIV-XV. 7 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Abhandlungen [über die Fabel], in Sämtliche Werke, Band VII, Hg. von K. Lachmann / F. Muncker. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter 1979, S. 413-479. <?page no="188"?> Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez 172 sammenhang insbesondere die vierte mit dem Titel Von dem Vortrage der Fabeln, und zwar aus folgendem Grund: “Como ya hemos dicho, en la cuarta parte de sus Tratados sobre la fábula, que gira en torno al modo de exposición de las mismas, proclamaba Lessing una vuelta a la sencillez y brevedad esópicas, así como a la prosa, frente al verso. Estaba, por tanto, cuestionando no sólo la esencia de la fábula de La Fontaine y la supuesta superioridad de la fábula poética, sino también su propia concepción anterior, aquella que le había llevado a escribir sus propias fábulas en verso. De la teoría pasa a la práctica —o hace ambas cosas a la vez— escribiendo, a partir del mismo año 1759, sus nuevas fábulas en prosa”. 8 Von da an verfasst Lessing seine Fabeln in Prosa unter Benutzung einer Reihe von Quellen, die er entweder frei verwendet oder adaptiert bzw. übersetzt, die er aber niemals verschweigt, vielmehr ausdrücklich unter dem Titel vieler seiner eigenen Texte erwähnt. Diese Quellen sind Aesop (sp. Esopo), Phaedrus (sp. Fedro), Claudius Aelianus (sp. Eliano), Suidas und Antoninus Liberalis (sp. Antonino Liberal), wobei zu beachten ist, dass “Todas estas fuentes antiguas, las únicas que explícitamente cita Lessing, remiten a obras en prosa, salvo el caso de Fedro, a quien, por otra parte, el autor alemán considera un continuador de la fábula esópica pese al uso del verso, ya que, como se ha dicho, muchas de las fábulas del romano son nuevas versiones del griego 9 ; por tanto, queda clara su pretensión de devolver a la fábula la sencillez esencial y original, que él consideraba desvirtuada por el barniz retórico de la versificación impuesta durante años por La Fontaine y su legión de seguidores”. 10 Daher verweisen seine eigenen Fabeln - zumindest einige von ihnen - direkt auf ihre griechischen oder lateinischen Vorläufer. In einigen Fällen, wie z. B. am Beginn der Fabel Der Strauß, wird der antike Referent sogar detailliert auf griechisch zitiert (Aelianus lib. II. c. 26). 11 In anderen Fällen dagegen ist Lessing weniger explizit, beispielsweise in Der Knabe und die Schlange, wo lapidar auf die Quellen verwiesen wird: “Fab. Aesop. 170. Phaedrus lib. IV. Fab. 18.” 12 8 Francisco Manuel Mariño: La Estatua de Bronce…, cit., S. 20. 9 Vgl. dazu Giordana Pisi: Fedro traduttore di Esopo. Firenze: La Nuova Italia 1977. 10 Francisco Manuel Mariño: La Estatua de Bronce…, cit., S. 24. 11 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Fabeln. Drey Bücher, in Sämtliche Werke, Band I, Hg. von K. Lachmann / F. Muncker. Berlin / New York: Walter de Gruyter 1979, S. 193-234, hier S. 202. In Wirklichkeit entspricht die Fabel der von Aelianus mit der Nummer II, 27. 12 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Fabeln. Drey Bücher, cit., S.. 207. <?page no="189"?> Einige Bemerkungen zur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings 173 3 Hartzenbusch und seine Übersetzung Zum einen stellte für Hartzenbusch, der vom Temperament her eher besonnen war, die Einfachheit, die Lessing in seinen Fabeln anstrebte und auf die er auch in den Abhandlungen eingeht, sicher einen großen Anreiz dar: “Según todos los testimonios, Hartzenbusch no fue un romántico exaltado, a la manera de Espronceda, por ejemplo, sino todo lo contrario: a su ascendencia germana se le achaca su temperamento reflexivo, concentrado y observador, que siempre amó a los clásicos por encima de las tendencias impulsivas de su escuela. Este carácter mesurado hizo que el autor madrileño evolucionara hacia un eclecticismo que aunaría las tendencias clasicistas precedentes y las románticas coetáneas, abriendo puertas posteriormente al movimiento realista”. 13 Zum anderen erleichterte natürlich die Tatsache, dass Lessings Fabeln in Prosa verfasst waren, die Übersetzung ins Spanische ungemein. Obgleich das Deutsche für Hartzenbusch keine Schwierigkeit darstellte, da er in väterlicher Linie von Deutschen abstammte, vermied er dadurch doch die beschwerliche Arbeit der Versifizierung und des Reims-Mittel, die er bei seinen ersten Übersetzungen noch einsetzte, sie jedoch später zugunsten der originalen Prosa verwarf. Unter diesen Voraussetzungen unternahm er es also, einen in der spanischsprachigen Welt so gut wie unbekannten Autor ins Spanische zu übersetzen, der zudem auch innnerhalb der Gattung der Fabel ein Unbekannter war. Das Ergebnis dieses Vorhabens erblickte das Licht der Welt im Jahre 1871, als seine Übersetzung der Lessingschen Fabeln im Anhang der Übersetzung der Aesop-Fabeln von Eduardo Mier erschien, was nicht verwundern darf, wenn man bedenkt, dass Lessing - und mit ihm Hartzenbusch - im Sinn hatte, die aesopische Essenz der Fabel in seinen eigenen wieder herzustellen. Hartzenbusch lässt sich von demselben Gedanken leiten ohne jedoch seine Quellen zu verleugnen, denn, wie Navas Ruiz feststellt: “Como otros fabulistas, Hartzenbusch no pretende pasar por absolutamente original. En el prólogo que antecede la edición de sus F ÁBULAS desde 1848 afirma que todo arte, y en especial el de las fábulas, es un trabajo de recomposición: se opera colocando de manera distinta materiales antiguos. En forma humorística lo dice valiéndose de una estrofa calderoniana: Remendaba con sigilo sus calzones un mancebo. Yo que lo acechaba, vilo y pregunté: «¿Qué hay de nuevo? » Y él respondió: «Sólo el hilo.»” 14 13 Francisco Manuel Mariño: La Estatua de Bronce…, cit., S. 30. 14 Ricardo Navas Ruiz: “Introducción”, cit., S. XIII-XIV. <?page no="190"?> Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez 174 Wir gehen nun dazu über, die Besonderheiten der Übersetzung durch Hartzenbusch vorzustellen. In diesem Zusammenhang muss in erster Linie auf die Reihenfolge verwiesen werden, die Hartzenbusch beträchtlich verändert. Die Ausgabe letzter Hand der Lessingschen Fabeln (man erinnere sich, dass sie ursprünglich nicht in einem einzigen Band, sondern über einen Zeitraum von achtzehn Jahren erschienen waren) ist in drei völlig symmetrische Teile oder Bücher unterteilt, worauf auch der Titel hinweist: Fabeln. Drey Bücher); jedes Buch umfasst dreissig Fabeln. In der letzten Ausgabe durchbricht Hartzenbuschs Übersetzung, die erst einmal ebenfalls sukzessive erschien, diese Symmetrie, wie in der Ausgabe von Navas Ruiz ersichtlich. Die ersten beiden Bücher beinhalten jeweils 29 Fabeln, das dritte 32. Dazu kommt eine Änderung der Reihenfolge. Wenn wir die Fabeln durchnummerieren (was übrigens auch Navas Ruiz tut “para facilitar las referencias”), erkennen wir den Grad der Änderung im Vergleich zu Lessings ursprünglicher Reihenfolge: 15 1. Buch 4 >7, 5 > 4, 7 > 9, 9 > 10, 10 > 11, 11 > 12, 12 > III-20, 15 > 18, 16 > 19, 17 > 16, 18 > 20, 19 > 22, 20 > 21, 21 > 23, 22 > III-21, 23 > 24, 24 > 25, 25 > 17, 27 > 28, 28 > 27, 30 > II-3. 2. Buch 5 > 3, 4 > 6, 5 > 7, 6 > 10, 7 > 8, 8 > 9, 9 > 18, 10 > 4, 15 > I,15, 16 > III-29, 17 > 15, 18 > 16, 19 > 20, 20 > 21, 21 > 22, 22 > 17, 16 > 19, 28 > 26, 29 > 28, 30 > 29. 3. Buch 3 > I-5, 4 > 5, 5 > 4, 11 > 3, 12 > 24, 13-14 > 22-23, 15 > 18, 16-22 > 11-17, 23 > 26, 24 > 25, 25 > 27, 26 > 28, 27 >19, 28 > 30, 29 > 31, 30 > 32. Neben dieser - durchaus nicht erklärbaren - Neuerung gegenüber dem Original nimmt Hartzenbusch weitere Änderungen vor, die die Struktur des Textes, den Diskurs und die Semantik betreffen und die wir im folgenden, aus Platzgründen nur an einigen wenigen Beispielen, darstellen wollen: Änderung der Quellenangaben Es fällt auf, dass Hartzenbusch einen Großteil der Hinweise auf die Quellen streicht, immerhin bei 31 Fabeln.Wie im Ausgleich dazu wird im Falle der Fabeln El león y la liebre (Der Löwe und der Hase [I, 3]), La Culebra de agua (Die Wasserschlange [II, 13]), La Zorra y la Máscara (Der Fuchs und die Larve [I, 14]), El Cuervo y la Zorra (Der Rabe und der Fuchs [II, 15]), El Avaro (Der Geizige [II, 16]), El racimo (Die Traube [II, 21]) y La Zarza (Der Dornstrauch [II, 27]) jedoch in einer Fußnote “Imitación de Esopo” angemerkt, eine Erläuterung, die im deutschen Original fehlt. Dies erklärt sich dadurch, dass Hartzenbusch zwi- 15 Francisco Manuel Mariño: La Estatua de Bronce…, cit., S. 38. Die römischen Ziffern beziehen sich auf die Bücher, die arabischen auf die Fabeln. <?page no="191"?> Einige Bemerkungen zur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings 175 schen der eigentlichen Imitation Aesops durch Lessing in den genannten Fabeln auf der einen Seite und dem Einfluss Aesops, Phaedros’ und Aelianus auf der anderen Seiteunterscheidet, der es Lessing durchaus erlaubte, neue originale Fabeln zu schreiben, die von der Lektüre der genannten Autoren inspiriert sind. Dies ist der Fall bei Der Löwe und der Hase (I, 3), wo unter dem Titel “Aelianus de natura animalium libr. I. cap. 38” auf griechisch zitiert wird (“Der Elefant hat Angst vor dem gehörnten Widder und vor dem Grunzen des Schweins.”), gefolgt von einem weiteren Zusatz “Idem li. III. cap. 31”, wo ebenfalls ein griechisches Zitat erscheint (“Vor dem Krähen des Hahns flieht der Löwe“). Lessings Fabel handelt von einem Gespräch zwischen einem Hasen und einem Löwen, der auf die Fragen des Hasen ausdrücklich die Behauptungen Aelianus’ bestätigt, und dies wiederum führt den Hasen dazu, seine Angst vor Hunden zu rechtfertigen. Lessings Fabel basiert auf der Ironie, dass ein schwächeres Tier (der Hase) sich einem stärkeren (dem Löwen), das ihn ängstigt, überlegen fühlt durch den Vergleich mit dem Elefanten, der das Schwein, oder dem Löwen, der den Hahn fürchtet. Lessing imitiert hier also offensichtlich nicht Aelianus, sondern nimmt dessen Fabel nur als Ausgangspunkt für seine eigene. Direkte Hinweise dieser Art auf das Vorbild erscheinen Hartzenbusch anscheinend in seiner Übersetzung überflüssig, während er andererseits die Anmerkung “imitación de Esopo” neu einführt, wenn es sich um eine Imitiation handelt, auch wenn im Original kein Hinweis darauf steht.Hier sei noch einmal daran erinnert, dass Hartzenbuschs Übersetzung im Anhang der Ausgabe der Fabeln von Aesop durch Eduardo Mier erscheint. Lessing mit Aesop in Beziehung zu setzen, stellt daher eine wichtige Rechtfertigung dafür dar, dass beide Autoren im selben Band veröffentlicht werden. Veränderung der Textstruktur Recht oft modifiziert Hartzenbusch die Aufteilung in Absätze der Originalfabeln. Entweder reduziert er die Anzahl der Abschnitte, wie in folgenden Fällen: 16 Originaltitel Absatz Titel in der Übersetzung Absatz Die Nachtigall und der Habicht (199) 2 El Ruiseñor y el Buitre (252) 1 Der Phönix (200) 2 El Fénix (253) 1 16 Die Zahlen in Klammern verweisen auf die jeweiligen Seitenzahlen. <?page no="192"?> Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez 176 Der Rabe und der Fuchs (212) 5 El Cuervo y la Zorra (253-254) 4 Der Geizige (213) 3 El Avaro (285-286) 1 Die Ziegen (216) 4 Las cabras (270-271) 3 Der Rangstreit der Tiere,4 (222) 3 La contienda sobre jerarquía animal, 4 (278) 2 Oder er erhöht deren Anzahl, wie aus der folgenden Darstellung ersichtlich ist: Originaltitel Absatz Titel in der Übersetzung Absatz Die Erscheinung (195) 4 La aparición (247-248) 5 Der Esel und das Jagdpferd (196) 2 El Burro y el Caballo (250-251) 3 Die Grille und die Nachtigall (199) 2 El Grillo y el Ruiseñor (252) 3 Die Wespen (201) 2 Las avispas (255) 3 Die junge Schwalbe (203- 204) 4 La Golondrinita (257-258) 5 Der Stier und der Hirsch (205) 2 El Toro y el Ciervo (259) 3 Die Wasserschlange (211- 212) 3 La Culebra de agua (266) 4 Der Fuchs und der Tiger (214) 4 La Zorra y el Tigre (268-269) 5 Die Nachtigall und die Lerche (219) 1 El Ruiseñor y la Calandria (274- 275) 3 Das Geschenk der Feen (220) 4 El regalo de las hadas (275-276) 5 <?page no="193"?> Einige Bemerkungen zur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings 177 Die Geschichte des alten Wolfs, 6 (227) 5 La historia del Lobo viejo, 6 (281) 6 Der Schäfer und die Nachtigall (229-230) 4 El Pastor y el Ruiseñor (286-287) 6 Diese Modifizierungen streben eine größere Klarheit in der Darstellung an, indem die Brechung des Textes in kleinere Abschnitte beispielsweise die Dialogstruktur hervorhebt, die im Original komprimiert erscheint, oder die beschreibenden Textteile werden dadurch von den Dialogen abgesetzt. Auch die Moral am Schluss erscheint häufig in einem separaten Absatz am Ende der sie illustrierenden Geschichte. Als Beispiel mag Der Esel und das Jagdpferd (= El Burro y el Caballo) dienen, wo die Übersetzung aus zwei Abschnitten drei macht, indem sie die direkte Rede von der Beschreibung abtrennt: “Ein Esel vermaß sich, mit einem Jagdpferde um die Wette zu laufen. Die Probe fiel erbärmlich aus, und der Esel ward ausgelacht. Ich merke nun wohl, sagte der Esel, woran es gelegen hat; ich trat mir vor einigen Monaten einen Dorn in den Fuß, und der schmerzt mich noch. Entschuldigen Sie mich, sagte der Kanzelredner Liederhold, wenn meine heutige Predigt so gründlich und erbaulich nicht gewesen, als man sie von dem glücklichen Nachahmer eines Mosheims erwartet hätte; ich habe, wie Sie hören, einen heischern Hals, und den schon seit acht Tagen. 17 Con un buen Caballo apostó a correr un Borrico: perdió lastimosamente la apuesta, y se burlaron del jumento. —Ahora echo de ver, dijo éste, en qué ha consistido: me clavé, meses ha, una espina en un pie, que todavía me está doliendo. —Perdónenme ustedes, decía el predicador Liederhold, si no ha sido mi sermón de hoy tan sólido y edificante como era de esperar del feliz imitador de Mosheim: estoy ronco, según ven ustedes, y hace ya ocho días que pillé la ronquera”. 18 Hier wird, wie ersichtlich, die direkte Rede durch einen Gedankenstrich (spanisch raya) markiert, wie dies im Spanischen üblich ist. Im Original ist die direkte Rede dagegen gar nicht gekennzeichnet. Das Zusammenfügen von Abschnitten dagegen soll gedankliche Einheit auch optisch vermitteln, ebenfalls im Dienste einer größeren typografischen Klarheit. Als Beispiel sei Die Nachtigall und der Habicht (= El Ruiseñor y el Buitre) herangezogen: “Ein Habicht schoß auf eine singende Nachtigall. Da du so lieblich singst, sprach er, wie vortrefflich wirst du schmecken! 17 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Fabeln. Drey Bücher, cit., S 196. 18 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit.. S. 250-251. <?page no="194"?> Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez 178 War es höhnische Bosheit, oder war es Einfalt, was der Habicht sagte? Ich weiß nicht. Aber gestern hört ich sagen: dieses Frauenzimmer, das so unvergleichlich dichtet, muß es nicht ein allerliebstes Frauenzimmer sein! Und das war gewiß Einfalt! 19 Cogió un Buitre a un Ruiseñor canoro, y dijo: —Tú, que tan dulcemente cantas, dulce bocadito serás. —Si fue burlona malignidad o simpleza del Buitre, yo no lo sé; pero ayer oí decir: —Esa señorita, que tan admirablemente compone versos, debe ser la mujer más amable; —y aquello, sí, era una necedad”. 20 Unabhängig von dem Gesagten und wie aus den obigen Tabellen ersichtlich, geht die Tendenz allgemein zu einer Vermehrung der Absätze in der Übersetzung. Dies kann möglicherweise mit der Tendenz zu einer mehr analytischen Formulierung des Spanischen gegenüber der synthetischen Ausdrucksweise des Deutschen zusammenhängen. 21 Semantische Veränderungen Was die semantischen Änderungen betrifft, die Hartzenbusch in seiner Übersetzung einführt, stehen an erster Stelle diejenigen, die im Dienste einer kulturellen Adaptierung stehen, 22 durch die der oftmals unterschiedlichen materiellen Kultur im Bereich der Ausgangs- und Zielsprache Rechnung getragen wird. Für dieses Phänomen führen wir nun folgende Beispiele an: - In Der Hamster und die Ameise (I, 2) übersetzt Hartzenbusch das deutsche Hamster durch ratón campesino (wörtlich: “Landmaus“). 23 Eine gerechtfertigte Entscheidung, wie wir meinen, die vielleicht heute nicht mehr so leicht zu verstehen ist, da das Wort Hamster mittlerweile als hámster Eingang ins Spanische gefunden hat (vgl. Pons - Großwörterbuch Spanisch- Deutsche / Deutsch-Spanisch, wo Hamsterdurch hámsterwiedergegeben wird 24 ). Das Wort ist im spanischen relativ neu, die Königliche Akademie der Sprache nimmt das Wort erst 1989 25 in ihr Wörterbuch auf und definiert es aktu- 19 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Fabeln. Drey Bücher, cit., S.. 199. 20 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S. 252. 21 Man vergleiche dazu Juan Carlos Moreno Cabrera: “Síntesis y análisis en las lenguas. Crítica de la tipología morfológica clásica y de algunas de sus aplicaciones sincrónicas y diacrónicas”, ELUA, 17, 2003, S. 465-504. 22 Dazu Anna Wierzbicka: Understanding Cultures through their Key Words: English, Russian, Polish, German, and Japanese. New York / Oxford: Oxford University Press USA 1997. 23 Juan Eugenio Hatzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S. 248. 24 Pons - Großwörterbuch Spanisch-Deutsch / Deutsch-Spanisch. Barcelona: Ernst Klett Sprachen 2005. 25 Real Academia de la Lengua: Diccionario manual e ilustrado de la lengua española. Cuarta edición revisada. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe 1989. <?page no="195"?> Einige Bemerkungen zur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings 179 ell so: “Roedor de pequeño tamaño, semejante al ratón, que se emplea como animal de laboratorio y de compañía”. 26 Das ist tatsächliche die Definition, die wohl für jeden Spanier heute gültig ist. Nicht so jedoch im deutschen Kulturraum. Der Dudenist genauer in der Beschreibung des Tiers und betont nicht, wie das spanische Wörterbuch, dass es sich um ein Haustier handelt: “(in mehreren Arten vorkommendes) kleines Nagetier mit gedrungenem Körper, meist stummelartigem Schwanz u. großen Backentaschen, mit deren Hilfe es Nahrungsvorräte für den Winterschlaf in einem unterirdischen Bau zusammenträgt”. 27 Nicht umsonst ist der Hamster im Deutschen das Symbol für die Anlage von Vorräten (vgl. hamstern, Hamsterkäufe). - Die Fabel Der Wolf und der Schäfer (I, 8) beinhaltet zwei in der germanischen Kultur verwurzelte Termini, die in der spanischen Kultur kein Äquivalent besitzen. Im ersten Fall handelt es sich um den Eigennamen “Isegrim”, mit dem sich der Schäfer an den Wolf wendet: “Habe Dank, Meister Isegrim; versetzte der Schäfer. Ich sehe, du hast ein sehr mitleidiges Herz”. 28 Bekanntlich ist dieser Name (der auch in der dritten Fabel innerhalb der Geschichte des alten Wolfs in sieben Fabeln verwendet wird; III, 18) derjenige, der dem Wolf eigen ist, “en la tradición literaria alemana relacionada con la historia del zorro Reinhard (Reinhart Fuchs, c. 1180; Reinke de Vos, 1498), que sigue el ciclo narrativo del Roman de Renart francés (s. XII), pero que tiene también como fuente el Ysengrinus (1148-1149) del clérigo flamenco Nirvardo.” 29 Hartzenbusch, dem bewusst ist, dass der spanische Leser mit diesem Namen und seinen traditionellen Konnotationen nicht vertraut ist, ersetzt ihn durch den einfachen Gattungsnamen, sodass “Meister Isegrim” in dieser Fabel zu “maese Lobo” wird. 30 Interessanterweise sieht in der Geschichte des alten Wolfs die übersetzerische Lösung anders aus: “alter Isegrim” 31 wird zu “abuelito Carpanta” 32 , und zwar mittlels der metonymischen Verwendung desprotoypischen gierigen Hungers des Wolfs, die ja auch Gegenstand der Fabel ist. Das Wort carpanta (“voz jergal de origen incierto” 33 , wörtlich “Argotwort unbekannter Herkunft”) taucht, nach Joan Corominas, um 1840 auf, also nicht lange, bevor Hartzenbuschs Übersetzung erscheint, und ist laut dem Diccionario der Königlichen Akademie der 26 Real Academia de la Lengua: Diccionario de la lengua española. Vigésima segunda edición. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe 2001. 27 Duden. Deutsches Universal-Wörterbuch. Mannheim: Dudenverlag 2007 6 . 28 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Fabeln. Drey Bücher, cit., S.. 198. 29 Francisco Manuel Mariño: La Estatua de Bronce…, cit., S.. 203. 30 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S.. 251. 31 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Fabeln. Drey Bücher, cit., S.. 225. 32 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S. 280. 33 Joan Corominas: Breve Diccionario Etimológico de la Lengua Castellana. Madrid: Gredos 1976 3 . <?page no="196"?> Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez 180 Sprache ein familiärer Ausdruck für “gewaltiger Hunger“ (“hambre violenta”). Der zweite Terminus, der in Der Wolf und der Schäfer erscheint, ist Hylax), der, wie wir bereits an anderer Stelle erwähnen, der Name des Hundes in der deutschen Fabelliteratur ist, der z. B. auch bei Friedrich von Hagedorn in der Fabel Die beiden Wölfebenutzt wird. 34 Es handelt sich um einen aus dem Griechischen (gr. hylax , wörtlich “der Beller“) stammenden Namen für den Hund, der durch die Beschäftigung mit Virgil (z. B. Bucolica, 8. Egloge: “nescio quid certe es: et hylax in limine latrat“) in die deutsche gelehrte Tradition Eingang gefunden hat. Da auch dieser Name im spanischen Kulturbereich eher unbekannt ist, ersetzt Hartzenbusch ihn durch “Mastín” 35 (aus vlat. *mansuetinus = doméstico 36 ), die spanische Bezeichnung für die Hunderasse Mastiff, ein in Spanien sehr verbreiteter Hirtenhundrasse. Er gilt in der spanischen Fabeltradition als großer, tapferer und besonders treuer Hund, der, wie gesagt, sehr geeignet ist zum Einsatz bei jeder Art von Vieh, hauptsächlich Rindern. 37 Diese Eigenschaften des Mastiffs und sein grosser Bekanntheitsgrad sind der Grund dafür, dass Hartzenbusch auch den Ausdruck “sein treuer Hund” in der vierten der sieben Fabeln der Geschichte des alten Wolfs (III, 19) durch “su fiel Mastín” übersetzt. 38 - In vielen Fällen ist die Ersetzung von Begriffen durch andere, weit einfachere kulturelle Unterschiede bedingt. So z. B. in der Fabel mit dem Titel Die Nachtigall und der Habicht (I, 11), in der Hartzenbusch den zweiten Vogelnamen durch buitre (dt. “Geier“, statt azor, wie es wörtlich heißen müsste), übersetzt, sodass der Titel zu El Ruiseñor y el Buitre wird. 39 Dies ist deshalb einsichtig, weil der Habicht, also der azor, in der spanischen Kultur mit positiven Konnotationen besetzt ist, nicht jedoch in der deutschen, wo er eher als Hühnerdieb gilt (vgl. Hühnerhabicht). In Spanien wird er dagegen mit der Beizjagd verbunden, eine dem Adel vorbehaltene Beschäftigung, wodurch auch der Habicht als nobles und würdiges Tier gesehen wird (ähnlich dem deutschen Falken), Eigenschaften, die so gar nicht mit dem Sinn der Fabel zusammenpassen, nämlich dass ein starker Vogel einen schwächeren (die Nachtigall) nur deswegen fressen will, weil er gut singt. 40 Dies sind negative Eigenschaften, die in der spanischen Kultur ohne weiteres einem Aasvogel wie dem Geier zugeschrieben werden können, was viel besser dem intendierten Sinn der Fabel entspricht. 34 Francisco Manuel Mariño: La Estatua de Bronce…, cit., S.. 63. 35 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S. 251. 36 Joan Corominas: Breve Diccionario Etimológico de la Lengua Castellana, cit. 37 Vgl. Real Academia de la Lengua : Diccionario de la lengua española, cit. 38 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S.. 280. 39 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S. 252. 40 Vgl. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Fabeln. Drey Bücher, cit., S. 199. <?page no="197"?> Einige Bemerkungen zur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings 181 Ähnlich ist die Motivierung, wenn Hartzenbusch den Titel der Fabel Die Eiche und das Schwein (I, 15) mit La Encina y el Cerdo 41 übersetzt, also die Eiche durch die Steineiche ersetzt. Die ist auch in Die Eiche (III, 15) der Fall, die als La Encina 42 übersetzt ist. In Spanien hat die Steineiche (quercus ilex) eine weitaus größere Verbreitung als andere Eichenarten, die der deutschen Eiche (Stieleiche, quercus robur) ähnlicher sind, da sie im Winter die Blätter verlieren (beide gehören jedoch zur Untergattung quercus). Man denke nur an die großflächigen lichten Steineichenwälder der Provinz Salamanca, der sog. Dehesa salmantina, oder in Extremadura, die zudem mit der Eichelmast des iberischen Landschweins in Verbindung stehen (dass die Eicheln auch in Deutschland als Schweinefutter dienten, ist lange in Vergessenheit geraten). Auch für den Madrider Hartzenbusch mag die Steineiche vertrauter sein als die Eichenarten (roble oder carballo genannt), die eher in Nordspanien, im “grünen” Spanien zu finden sind. Der Inhalt dieser letzten Fabel allein würde diese Adaptierung nicht rechtfertigen. Ein interessanter Fall ist auch Die blinde Henne (II, 9). Hier steht Hartzenbusch vor dem Problem, dass eine wörtliche Übersetzung dem Wortlaut nach identisch wäre mit dem Spiel der gallina ciega, das von Goya auf seinen Teppichentwürfen verewigt worden ist; es entspricht dem deutschen Spiel Blindekuh. Um diese unerwünschte Identifizierung zu verhindern, wählt Hartzenbusch den durch den Inhalt der Fabel gestützten Titel Las dos Gallinas 43 , “Die zwei Hennen”. - Noch ein letztes Beispiel sei genannt: die Fabel Die Nachtigall und die Lerche (III, 2), in welcher Hartzenbusch statt der wörtlichen Übersetzung von Lerche (“alondra“) eine andere Varietät der Lerche wählt, nämlich “calandria“, das auf deutsch die Heidelerche bezeichnet. Der Titel ändert sich dadurch in El Ruiseñor y la Calandria. 44 Im deutschen Raum ist mit Lerche normalerweise die Feldlerche gemeint, Alauda arvensis (zur Gattung der Alauda gehörig, die aus vier Arten besteht), während in Spanien die Gattung der Melanocorypha vorherrscht, vertreten durch die Art calandria común (Melanocorypha calandra), auf deutsch auch “Kalanderlerche“. Da aber beide Arten, sowohl die Feldlerche (gemeinhin einfach “Lerche” genannt), als auch die Kalanderlerche zur Familie der Lerchen oder Alaudidae gehören, ist die Änderung nicht wirklich gravierend, sondern trägt der Tatsache Rechnung, dass calandria im spanischen Kulturraum üblich, bekannt ist und dazu poetisch konnotiert ist. Sie erscheint beispielsweise im berühmten Romance del prisionero, der dem sog. “Romancero Viejo” angehört, wo wie bei Lessing sowohl die Kalanderlerche als auch die Nachtigall vorkommen, 41 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S.. 255. 42 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S. 282. 43 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S.. 268. 44 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas, cit., S. 276. <?page no="198"?> Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez 182 beide als Beispiele für Singvögel. 45 Wir geben den Anfang der Romanze wieder: “Por el mes era de mayo cuando haze la calor, cuando canta la calandria y responde el ruiseñor, […]“ 46 Hartzenbusch tut also nichts anderes, als die stereotypisierte Beziehung zwischen Nachtigall und Kalanderlerche wiederaufzunehmen und so dem Leser die Fabel besonders nahe zu bringen. 4 Schluss Hartzenbuschs Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings ist ein ausgezeichnetes Beispiel für den Respekt vor dem Original, gleichzeitig aber zeigt sie auch exemplarisch, wie ein Text “akklimatisiert”, also der Zielkultur angepasst werden kann, ohne dabei das Originalzu verraten, sodass der Leser das Fremde ohne große Anstrengung als Eigenes erfassen kann. Bis auf wenige Ausnahmen, wo eine Adaptierung nicht möglich ist- vor allem Eigennamen, die aus dem geographischen und sozialen zeitgebundenen deutschen Umfeld Lessings stammen, wie z. B. die Namen Mosheim (I,4) oder Kneller (I, 7)-, weist die Übersetzung kein einziges Element auf, dass wirklich fremd erschiene oder das den Leser in besonderer Weise herausfordern würde. Dies liegt nicht nur an Lessings Prosafassung der Fabeln, die allein schon als solche leichter zu lesen ist als die Versform, sondern es ist der Meisterschaft Hartzenbuschs zu verdanken, dem es gelingt, die Fabeln in allen Einzelas- 45 Über die Verbreitung dieser Romanze schreibt J. Alcina Franch: “El romance debió de gozar de gran popularidad en los siglos XVI y XVII. Correas, en su Vocabulario, recoge la siguiente frase, en que el característico verso del romance se incorpora a la fraseología de la lengua: «En mayo, cuando las grandes calores, los caballos están gordos y los potros corredores». Y Ruiz de Alarcón pudo incorporarlo en la parte de uno de sus personajes de Las paredes oyen: “¿No dice un romance antiguo: Por mayo era, por mayo, cuando los grandes calores, cuando los enamorados a sus damas llevan flores? ” En otra parte señala Menéndez Pidal que versos del romance se incorporan a las marzas, canciones de petición que de casa en casa hacen los mozos o los niños a la entrada de la primavera en Santander y Burgos” (Juan Alcina Franch [ed.]: Romancero Antiguo. Vol. II (= Romances Amorosos y Caballerescos). Barcelona: Editorial Juventud 1971, S. 505). 46 Michelle Débax (ed.): Romancero. Madrid: Alhambra 1982, S.. 329. <?page no="199"?> Einige Bemerkungen zur spanischen Übersetzung der Prosafabeln Lessings 183 pekten und in ihrer Gesamtbedeutungkongenial ins Spanische zu übertragen. Das Resultat schreibt sich ein in den markierten Eklektizismus des Madrider Autors, der im Stande ist,sowohl großes romantisches Drama zu verfassen, wie z. B. Los amantes de Teruel (1837), das Stück, das ihm zu Ruhm verhalf, als auch Sittengemälde in Artikelform oder seine eigenen Fábulas (1888) in Versen. Diese Öffnung hin zum Populären stellt laut José Luis Varela 47 “un freno eficaz al idealismo de la prosa narrativa romántica” dar und kennzeichnet sowohl Lessing als auch seinen spanischen Übersetzer. Wie Luis Alborg treffend bemerkt: “las fábulas de Hartzenbusch son [...] también prosaicas, pero con un prosaísmo consciente y premeditado que levanta a nivel estético las materias más comunes y los más vulgares y humildes objetos”. 48 Literaturverzeichnis Juan Luis Alborg: Historia de la Literatura Española. Tomo IV. Madrid: Gredos 1980. Juan Alcina Franch [ed.]: Romancero Antiguo. Vol. II (= Romances Amorosos y Caballerescos). Barcelona: Editorial Juventud 1971. Beatriz Arévalo et al.: Literatura Universal. Barcelona: Editorial Casals 2009. Juan Jiménez Corbo: “Introducción” zu Fedro y Samaniego. Antología de fábulas. Salamanca: Kadmos 2001. Joan Corominas: Breve Diccionario Etimológico de la Lengua Castellana. Madrid: Gredos 1976 3 . Michelle Débax (ed.): Romancero. Madrid: Alhambra 1982 Duden. Deutsches Universal-Wörterbuch. Mannheim: Dudenverlag 2007 6 . Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Fabeln. Drey Bücher, in Sämtliche Werke, Band I, Hg. von K. Lachmann / F. Muncker. Berlin / New York: Walter de Gruyter 1979, S. 193-234 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Abhandlungen [über die Fabel], in Sämtliche Werke, Band VII, Hg. von K. Lachmann / F. Muncker. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter 1979, S. 413-479. Francisco Manuel Mariño: La Estatua de Bronce. Las fábulas en prosa de Lessing y la traducción de Hartzenbusch. Valladolid: Secretariado de Publicaciones e Intercambio Editorial de la Universidad de Valladolid 2007. Juan Carlos Moreno Cabrera: “Síntesis y análisis en las lenguas. Crítica de la tipología morfológica clásica y de algunas de sus aplicaciones sincrónicas y diacrónicas”, ELUA, 17, 2003, S. 465-504. Real Academia de la Lengua: Diccionario manual e ilustrado de la lengua española. Cuarta edición revisada. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe 1989. Ricardo Navas Ruiz: “Introducción” zu Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch: Fábulas. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe 1973, S. VI-XXV. 47 José Luis Varela: “Introducción” zu El costumbrismo romántico. Madrid: Magisterio Español 1970, S. 7-15, S. 13. 48 Juan Luis Alborg: Historia de la Literatura Española. Tomo IV. Madrid: Gredos 1980, S. 551-552. <?page no="200"?> Francisco Manuel Mariño Gómez 184 Giordana Pisi: Fedro traduttore di Esopo. Firenze: La Nuova Italia 1977. Pons - Großwörterbuch Spanisch-Deutsch / Deutsch-Spanisch. Barcelona: Ernst Klett Sprachen 2005. José Luis Varela: “Introducción” zu El costumbrismo romántico. Madrid: Magisterio Español 1970, S. 7-15. Anna Wierzbicka: Understanding Cultures through their Key Words: English, Russian, Polish, German, and Japanese. New York / Oxford: Oxford University Press USA 1997. <?page no="201"?> Beatriz Martínez Ojeda La Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, de Claude-Joseph Dorat, une héroïde basée sur l’œuvre de Mme de Tencin 1 Introduction De tout le répertoire littéraire de Mme de Tencin, Les Mémoires du Comte de Comminge ont bel et bien été le récit qui reçut l’accueil le plus favorable de la part du public. De nombreuses œuvres s’inspirèrent plus ou moins fidèlement de l’histoire des amants malheureux, espérant ainsi jouir de l’extraordinaire succès de l’œuvre française. La fortune littéraire du roman de la salonnière, dû à son incontestable fécondité, fut l’objet de nombreuses études tant en France qu’à l’étranger, preuve en sont toutes les publications à ce sujet. En France, en 1764, deux suites du récit de Claude-Alexandrine de Guérin parurent cette même année : le drame d’Arnaud de Baculard, intitulé Les amants malheureux, et l’héroïde de Joseph-Claude Dorat, Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère. Ces deux œuvres offrent une certaine continuité au renouveau des valeurs du XVIII ème siècle réclamées par le roman français, dans son exaltation de l’individualisme. Elles présentent cependant des différences marquées : la première se veut moralisante, alors que la seconde, nous le verrons, élude la leçon morale et revendique la rédemption des amants. L’Espagne, elle aussi, s’est fait l’écho de ce phénomène littéraire qui franchissait les frontières et s’adaptait au goût et aux exigences du lecteur de l’époque. À ce sujet García Garrosa remarque: “La historia del Conde de Cominges tuvo una vida literaria de más de un siglo, asistió a los cambios de gusto y la sucesión de tendencias. Fue lectura novelesca, poema exaltado y pieza teatral; pasó de uno a otro con fluidez, adaptándose a las exigencias de cada género. Viajó de Francia a España, conoció cens uras y prohibiciones; llegó aquí tarde, y en ocasiones deformado; pero precisamente por ello es puente de paso obligado para entender el fenómeno complejo de la recepción y la asimilación culturales. La historia del Conde de Cominges es, en suma, un hecho literario multiforme que, más allá de su importancia y valores intrínsecos, se presenta como el ejemplo perfecto para analizar el diferente <?page no="202"?> Beatriz Martínez Ojeda 186 tratamiento que distintos países, géneros y períodos dieron a un mismo asunto literario“. 1 La première traduction espagnole de l’histoire du Comte de Comminge, date de 1791. Cette composition présentée comme un drame et intitulée Los Amantes desgraciados o el Conde de Comminge, drama en tres actos escrito en francés por Mr. D’Arnaud y traducido al castellano por D. Manuel Bellosartes, fut rééditée à trois reprises mais elle n’arriva cependant pas à connaître sur scène le succès de l’œuvre originale, elle alla jusqu’à être censurée en 1801. Au contraire, la traduction espagnole de l’héroïde de Dorat connut, heureusement, un tout autre sort ; publiée pour la première fois à Madrid en 1803, sous le titre de Carta del Conde de Comminge a su madre, escrita en francés por el célebre Dorat y traducida al español por D. M. A. de C., ce fut un best-seller d’où ses trois rééditions successives. Notre étude consiste fondamentalement à confronter l’héroïde de Dorat et la traduction en espagnol à laquelle nous venons de nous référer. Auparavant, nous analyserons brièvement la vie et l’œuvre de l’auteur français et offrirons une analyse contrastive du binôme texte original-texte traduit. 2 Dorat : le personnage et son œuvre littéraire Descendant d’une famille de haute lignée, Claude-Joseph Dorat (1734-1780), grandit au sein de la haute société parisienne dans l’entourage de laquelle il forge sa personnalité et cultive son goût pour la duplicité et la variété littéraire. Sa vocation littéraire et son esprit curieux l’amenèrent à pratiquer la plupart des genres littéraires, en particulier les genres mineurs : ceci explique qu’on lui ait donné une ample réputation de créateur d’amusantes bagatelles et de poète de vétilles spirituelles. Il est l’auteur de nombreuses héroïdes - lettres en vers d’un héros ou d’un personnage célèbre -, d’épîtres (à Mlle Clairon, à Catherine II, etc.) et de contes en vers à caractère érotique tels que Les Dévirgineurs, Les cerises ou La Double Méprise. Ses héroïdes s’inspirent des succès littéraires de l’époque : Abélard à Héloïse (1758), réponse à la lettre d’Héloïse, composée par Pope et Colardeau, ainsi que la Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère (1764) inspirée du roman de Mme de Tencin. Lettre de Valcourt à Zéila (1764) et Lettre d’une Chanoinesse de Lisbonne à Melcour (1770) nous renvoient de toute évidence à Lettres portugaises, traduction française de Claude Babin et à Lettres d’une Péruvienne, de Françoise de Grafigny. De même, des titres tels que Bagatelles (1766) ou Mes fantaisies (1768 semblent corroborer son penchant pour les sujets futiles. 1 María Jesús García Garrosa en “El Conde de Comminge: fortuna literaria de un mito dieciochesco en Francia y en España”, publicado en la revista Epos. Revista de Filología. Nº 8. Madrid: Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, 1992, p. 353. <?page no="203"?> La Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, de Claude-Joseph Dorat 187 La Déclamation théâtrale (1758-1767) est une composition de plus grande envergure, qui appartient au genre descriptif. Elle se compose de quatre lettres successives consacrées à la tragédie, la comédie, l’opéra et la danse et qui, parfois, nous rappellent certaines théories dramatiques de Diderot. Sa dévotion pour Diderot n’est cependant pas complète et fidèle car, dans Sélim et Sélima (1769) dont l’analogie avec Lettres sur les aveugles est évidente, Dorat contredit l’athéisme prôné par l’encyclopédiste français. Une des raisons pour lesquelles Dorat pratique avec une certaine prédilection la « poésie légère » fut son désir de répondre aux attentes de la société. Dans le « Discours sur la poésie en général et en particulier sur les pièces fugitives » qui introduit son œuvre Mes fantaisies, il loue l’art de saisir le moment et de savourer l’existence, libre des préjugés et des dogmes sociaux. Quant au théâtre, tout homme de lettres du XVIII e siècle se devait à ce genre. Dorat situa la scène de ses tragédies dans l’Antiquité romaine (Regulus, 1765), en Grèce (Théagène, 1766), en Russie (Pierre le Grand, 1779), dans la France carolingienne (Les Deux Reines, 1770), ceci sans recevoir la reconnaissance d’un public qui préférait nettement ses comédies. Citons, dans le genre dramatique, Le Célibataire (1776) et Le Malheureux imaginaire (1777), qui rappellent les portraits sociaux de Molière, et Les Prôneurs ou le Tartuffe littéraire (1777), qui stigmatise l’amitié et la vengeance. À en juger par les discours préliminaires de certaines de ses compositions, il est évident que Dorat était pleinement conscient des problèmes que soulevait le théâtre : la crise du classicisme. Sa notion de « drame héroïque » va de pair avec les multiples efforts faits, à l’époque, pour renouveler la scène. Ses romans font la lumière sur le pôle totalement opposé de la dualité littéraire de Dorat qui offre là une facette tout à fait contraire à sa solide réputation d’écrivain de banalités. Sacrifices de l’amour (1771) et Malheurs de l’inconstance (1772) sont dignes d’un mérite bien fondé et reconnu par tous. Ces deux romans décrivent le drame que génèrent l’incertitude du cœur et les tentations libertines ; la critique n’a pas hésité à comparer Malheurs de l’inconstance aux Liaisons dangereuses publiées dix ans plus tard par Pierre Choderlos de Laclos. L’indécision du héros de ces romans reflète fidèlement le dilemme littéraire de Dorat, qui se débat entre la mondanité et la philosophie, entre le libertinage et le moralisme. Cette alternative est tacitement impliquée dans la personnalité de Dorat, fluctuant toujours entre les grands genres et les genres mineurs, entre la séduction de la mode et le souci de durabilité, entre le moment et l’histoire. <?page no="204"?> Beatriz Martínez Ojeda 188 3 Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, de Dorat Claude-Joseph Dorat a puisé son inspiration dans la matière littéraire du roman de Mme de Tencin, qui récupérait l’éternel mythe des amants malheureux. Cependant, cette fois, la composition en vers de 1764 offrait une nouvelle perspective du roman qui conservait certes le dramatisme de celui de la salonnière, mais qui, en même temps, était imprégné d’une sensation de paix et de sérénité qui le rendait différent. L’œuvre de Dorat ne s’inspire pas de l’histoire complète de Mémoires du Comte de Comminge ; elle débute plutôt d’un passage concret qu’elle développe en mélangeant à plusieurs reprises les événements du roman de Mme de Tencin. Dans cette héroïde doratienne que l’on peut qualifier d’analepse, le Comte remémore fugacement les événements vécus par les amants malheureux et exprime la douloureuse nostalgie pour la perte de sa bien-aimée, morte dix ans auparavant. “Dorat se fijó en la última parte, en la estancia durante años de los amantes en la Trapa sin tratarse. En el poema de Dorat, Comminges se dirige a su madre para confiarle su amor, su angustia, su vida en el claustro aprendiendo a morir, sus recuerdos de Adelaïde…“ 2 La mère du Comte est la destinataire de cette longue épître ; c’est à elle que sont adressées les lamentations pour la perte d’Adélaïde. Cependant, l’exaltation de la haine, du remords et du sentiment de culpabilité ainsi que les préceptes moralisants 3 du roman original ont fait place à l’attente impatiente de la rencontre des deux amants dans l’au-delà. Comminge ne peut vivre qu’en souffrant ; cette douleur prendra fin après la mort du Comte, lorsque les deux amants seront enfin réunis et c’est cette fin proche qui comble de paix l’auteur de la lettre. “No hay sentimiento de culpa, ni, por tanto, remordimientos, y menos aún arrepentimiento. Ni siquiera la pasión parece tan feroz y desgarradora. Amor, aquí, es sinónimo de paz. La paz que el odio paterno arrancó a los amantes y que Comminge fue a buscar a la soledad de la Trapa, que encontró al fin, que Adelaida al morir le arrebató de nuevo y que ella misma le promete más allá de la muerte. Por eso el poema, más profundo, más intenso sin duda que la novela en los sentimientos, resulta a la vez más sereno en la descripción del dolor y del 2 Alfonso Saura: Las Heroidas francesas y su recepción en España: Estudio y Antología. Murcia: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad, 2003. 3 Note du traducteur, D. Manuel Bellosartes, dans El Conde de Comminge. Drama en tres actos de M. d’Arnaud (1764), résumant l’intention instructive de l’œuvre: “La primera obligación de los hijos es la obediencia a sus padres, pero esta no debe considerarse tan escrupulosa y rígidamente, que en ciertas ocasiones no se pueda y deba quebrantar, pues de lo contrario se siguen muy malas consecuencias…” (p. 230). <?page no="205"?> La Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, de Claude-Joseph Dorat 189 amor imposible, a pesar de que Dorat se recrea en las imágenes fúnebres, los adjetivos sombríos y los ríos de lágrimas“. 4 Malgré les différences marquées existant entre le roman de Mme de Tencin et la lettre de Dorat, il existe quand même un certain point commun entre les deux compositions tel qu’en conclut la citation précédente : ce sont les traits lugubres et la ténébrosité du cadre où se déroulent les deux récits. “No disminuyen, por esto, los efectos melancólicos y pesimistas en el poema de Dorat. Incluso la presencia de láminas en las ediciones de Dorat, como en las de Baculard d'Arnaud también, subraya la tenebrosidad de la historia. Las escenas representadas son nocturnas u oscuras: un sótano con una cruz y calaveras; una monja (Adelaida) a punto de expirar; el conde al lado del hoyo que prepara para su propio entierro“. 5 Nous concluons donc que le roman de Mme de Tencin, qui prêche l’exaltation de la passion amoureuse amenant à la fin tragique des amants, a inspiré une nouvelle version convertie en une héroïde qui amoindrit l’intention moralisante du roman original, tout en conservant les traits lugubres et funestes du cadre ambiant et dans laquelle la souffrance est la seule possibilité existentielle. Cependant, la composition en vers de Dorat, plus proche du roman que de la tragédie, défend et soutient l’idée selon laquelle le héros reçoit le réconfort que donne la sérénité de savoir que la mort rédemptrice signifie la fin de son tourment. 4 La traduction espagnole anonyme de 1837 : analyse comparative Cette version espagnole du Comte de Comminge de Dorat, s’intitule Historia del Conde de Comminge seguida de una carta del Conde a su madre y un drama en tres actos 6 . Tel qu’il apparaît sur la page de titre de l’œuvre, il s’agit de la 4 El Conde de Comminge: fortuna literaria de un mito dieciochesco en Francia y en España” de María Jesús García Garrosa. Madrid: 1992, p. 362. 5 “Lo gótico, lo funeral y lo macabro en la cultura española y europea del siglo XVIII” de Nigel Glendinning. 6 L’auteur de cette édition de 1837, dont on ne connaît que les sigles M. S., justifie dans la préface de l’œuvre la raison qui l’a poussé à réaliser sa triple version (les fautes d’orthographe ont été corrigées): “Dedicado desde mi infancia a lecturas tétricas y sombrías, en ellas me recreo la mayor parte de mis ocios. Había leído en mi niñez la carta de Comminge, y siempre me quedó el deseo de saber más a fondo la historia de aquel desgraciado personaje; así que nunca me he cansado hasta adquirir más datos sobre la vida de un hombre que tanto ha dado que hablar por sus desgracias e infortunios a los amantes de ambos sexos, felices y desventurados. He conseguido pues el objeto; he hallado la vida de Comminge, la carta a su madre y un drama de su historia, que es lo que doy a luz, y feliz la época en que he podido reunirlos y publicarlos, pues que con el gobierno absoluto que lo tenía prohibido todo, no hubiere sido fácil rendir este homenaje a las almas sensibles, que no podrán menos de <?page no="206"?> Beatriz Martínez Ojeda 190 deuxième édition, publiée à Barcelone chez l’imprimeur et libraire D. Manuel Sauri, la première édition datant de 1836. Cette œuvre fait partie d’un volume qui comprend trois versions espagnoles différentes. La première, Historia del Conde de Comminge, est une traduction espagnole anonyme du roman de Mme de Tencin. La seconde, Carta del Conde de Comminge a su madre. Por el célebre Dorat. , est l’héroïde objet de notre étude. Et finalement, la troisième s’intitule El Conde de Comminge, drama en tres actos; escrito en francés por Mr. D’Arnaud, y traducido al castellano por D. Manuel Bellosartes. L’édition s’achève sur une liste de “Notas del traductor”, concernant exclusivement la traduction de la version de Dorat. Si l’on s’en tient à ce qu’écrit Alfonso Saura dans sa monographie, Las Heroidas Francesas y su recepción en España. Estudio y Antología, l’édition de 1857 est analogue, jusqu’aux notes du traducteur, à celle de 1803, publiée à Madrid sous le titre de carta de Conde de Comminge a su madre, escrita en francés por el célebre Dorat y traducida al español por D. M. A. de C. C’est pour cela que nous en avons déduit que l’auteur de la traduction de cette triade est probablement le même que celui de l’édition de 1803, c’est-à-dire D. M. A. de C. dont on ne connaît que l’acrostiche du surnom. La section de cette triple édition consacrée à la traduction de l’héroïde de Dorat ne contient cependant pas l’ « Extrait des Mémoires du Comte de Comminge », antérieur à la composition en vers du Français. Ledit « Extrait » consiste en une longue préface où l’auteur prétend « mettre sur le champ le lecteur au fait et lui épargner la peine de recourir à l’Ouvrage même, qu’on ne trouve point séparé ». L’analyse de la traduction 7 révèle que le traducteur adopte une attitude délibérément tolérante et flexible en ce qui concerne le transfert de la distribution strophique du texte français 8 : il ajoute à maintes reprises une inforderramar lágrimas al leer la historia de estos amantes verdaderamente desgraciados […]”. 7 Nous n’avons pas pu obtenir l’édition de 1803 ; cependant, tenant compte des nombreuses descriptions de ladite édition, nous avons constaté qu’elle est identique à la traduction portant le même titre et publiée à Barcelone en 1814. Dans le paragraphe préliminaire « Advertencia », le traducteur D.M. A. de C. apporte des explications concernant sa version en espagnol, selon lesquelles il tente d’excuser les divergences que les lecteurs de son œuvre pourraient rencontrer : “Este es mi primer ensayo en la literatura; y por consiguiente sus errores deben ser perdonados. En cuanto al fondo de la historia del Conde de Cominges, y sus amores con Adelayda, que es objeto de esta Cartita, no deja de estar algo viciado, aunque sin embargo no se altera el orden de los sucesos, ni se añadan cosas exentas de verosimilitud; es decir, que el lance o argumento es conteste en general con la verdad histórica: pero sin embargo varía algo en los incidentes o episodios: cuando esto se verifique; lo insinuaré en una nota para mayor claridad […]” 8 Nous avons consulté l’édition française de 1764, dont le titre complet est Lettre du Comte de Comminges à sa mère, suivie d’une lettre de Philomele à Progné, publiée à Paris chez l’imprimeur Sébastien Jorry. <?page no="207"?> La Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, de Claude-Joseph Dorat 191 mation supplémentaire qui allonge le texte cible, allant jusqu’à doubler le nombre des vers français du texte original. La caractéristique la plus marquante de la traduction est donc sa longueur anormale. Une telle anomalie se voit également renforcée par la modification du schéma métrique français qui a été transféré en hendécasyllabes dans la langue cible. La synthèse expressive de la langue française implique l’emploi d’un plus grand nombre de vocables en espagnol ; ce fait combiné à la réduction de la métrique choisie par le traducteur, favorise également et dans une large mesure, la longueur du texte cible. Tel que l’affirme Alfonso Saura : “Nuestro joven traductor sigue el texto francés, pero su sujeción no impide cierta creatividad. Los versos alejandrinos franceses son vertidos en una larga serie de endecasílabos asonantados en los versos pares que conocemos como romance heroico […] la musicalidad se consigue con el ritmo que marcan los acentos y queda espacio para que se exprese el ingenio del poeta. Aquí los 374 alejandrinos del original se convierten en 768 endecasílabos, casi todos italianos. La razón del alargamiento es doble: por un lado, la incapacidad de concentrar la expresión; por otro, las pequeñas aclaraciones del traductor […]“ (p. 43). Après avoir minutieusement confronté le texte français et sa traduction, en en comparant le contenu, établissant ainsi les équivalences sémantiques - tâche difficile compte tenu des différences ci-dessus mentionnées- nous ne pouvons que souligner l’impression générale de désordre permanent que nous inspire la version de D. M. A. de C.; rien d’étonnant à ce que le lecteur n’établisse aucun lien entre les deux compositions malgré une vague ressemblance. Outre la différence de longueur, l’analogie entre le texte original et le texte traduit est tacitement discutable, tel qu’il apparaît dans les exemples suivants : “Tout est mort & sourd au fond de mes déserts Et toi seule à ton fils restes dans l’Univers“. “Todo está sordo y mudo en los desiertos, el valle, el prado, el cristalino río, todo descansa, y a mi mente nada se ofrece lisonjero ni atractivo. Para mí no hay consuelo, no hay placeres: solo pensar en ti y en tu cariño es lo que ocupa mi angustiada mente y es el objeto de mi ansiar continuo“. Nous observons que cette versión espagnole transgresse un principe considéré par García Yebra comme faisant partie des critères fondamentaux d’une bonne traduction et qui consiste à ne jamais altérer le texte original. En effet, le texte cible est truffé d’altérations lexico-sémantiques qui, parfois, éloignent de manière significative le sens du contenu de la traduction du <?page no="208"?> Beatriz Martínez Ojeda 192 contenu du texte original. Voici quelques vers du texte français, aves leurs traductions respectives que nous présentons ci-dessous, à titre d’exemples illustratifs de cette particularité traductive. “Quand mes Frères lassés de leurs pieux travaux, Endorment leurs tourmens au sein d’un doux repos; Moi seul je veille encore dans cet asyle sombre: La timide infortune aime à gémir dans l’ombre“. “Cuando mis compañeros fatigados de sus trabajos y cuidados píos, se entregan al descanso apetecible del sueño, fin de su cruel martirio; Comminges es el único que vela en tan obscuro y venerable asilo“. Nous observons des altérations commises dans la traduction des termes ‘frères’ (compañeros) et ‘doux’ (apetecible) ; dans ce cas-là, l’inexactitude sémantique n’est pas un obstacle à la compréhension du texte français ni n’en dénature le ‘skopos’ ; cependant, ce passage met en évidence un phénomène d’une incidence particulière dans la version en espagnol, qui donne généralement lieu à des altérations injustifiées de la part du traducteur ; comme par exemple, l’hendiadys, qui est une figure de rhétorique consistant à remplacer la subordination ou la détermination qui solidarise deux mots, par une relation de coordination ou tout autre dissociation syntaxique : ‘trabajos y cuidados píos’ et ‘obscuro y venerable asilo’. Tel que nous le signalons au début de notre analyse, la traduction en question ajoute constamment une information qui n’est pas présente dans l’original et qui ne traduit aucune idée ni ne rend aucun concept du texte français. Ainsi donc, par le biais de l’amplification, le traducteur prend la liberté d’incorporer certains ajouts qui n’apportent aucun éclaircissement au contenu du texte de Dorat. Il est évident que D. M. A. de C. entend renvoyer le lecteur à l’histoire du Comte de Comminge, de Mme de Tencin. Pour illustrer cette détermination traductologique que contrevient à la maxime de García Yebra de « no decir nada que el original no diga » (1984 : 43), c’est-à-dire, « de ne rien dire qui ne soit dit dans l’original », nous citons les extraits suivants : “Un jour, ce souvenir m’occupera sans cesse, Parcourant ce portrait, si cher à ma tendresse, Au feu de mes regards il parût s’animer: Ce que je ressentois, il parût l’exprimer“. “Un día (este suceso a mi memoria siempre estará presente y siempre vivo) yo observaba el retrato de mi amada, y al contemplarlo estaba enardecido, fuera casi de mí, y arrebatado, <?page no="209"?> La Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, de Claude-Joseph Dorat 193 y todo mi cuidado embebido. De mis miradas rápidas al fuego pareció se animaba el dueño mío, y que se condolía de mis males, pues yacía bastante entristecido“. L’inclusion de nombreux ajouts dans la version en espagnol n’est pas un obstacle à ce que le traducteur prenne l’habitude de passer outre à l’information contenue dans le texte français ; il enfreint, de cette façon, le troisième principe recommandé par Yebra : « debe decir todo lo que dice el original » (1984 : 43), c’est-à-dire, que le traducteur « doit dire tout ce que dit l’original ». Tel que le montrent les binômes suivants, le traducteur a supprimé le deuxième vers de l’extrait original, sans pour cela essayer de compenser d’une quelconque manière la partie sémantique qu’implique cette omission. “J’aimois Adelaïle, Adelaïde! … Ah! Dieux! ... Ce trésor, qu’à la Terre avoient montré les Cieux. Et c’est cet amour même, ombre à jamais chérie“. “Yo amaba tiernamente a una belleza, a mi Adelayda, a aquel dueño querido…“ En outre, la version espagnole présente de très nombreuses variations syntaxiques dont les plus fréquentes consistent à remplacer les interrogations directes et les exclamations par des propositions affirmatives ; d’où une certaine atténuation de la chaleur et de l’expressivité dans le texte cible, ce que le traducteur réussit à compenser par l’emploi réitératif d’adjectifs. Cette particularité apparaît nettement reflétée dans les binômes textuels suivants : “C’est de tous les Mortels le plus infortuné, De tous les Malheureux le plus abandonné, C’est ton Fils qui t’écrit: peux-tu le méconnoître? Ton Fils! Depuis long-temps tu l’as pleuré peut-être […]“ “El mas (sic) triste de todos los mortales, el mas (sic) abandonado y afligido es quien te escribe de pesares lleno: bien le conocerás… yo soy tu hijo. Tu hijo… sí, Comminges, aquel Conde que en otros tiempos tu consuelo ha sido […]“ De l’exemple ci-dessus, nous pouvons également déduire que dans la langue d’arrivée, la graphie n’a pas été respectée dans certains cas puisque la majuscule initiale des mots ‘Mortels’, ‘Malheureux’ et ’Fils’ a disparu. Le traducteur a opté pour ne pas faire de différences, en mettant sur un même plan tous les éléments constituant les différentes propositions qui forment la strophe. <?page no="210"?> Beatriz Martínez Ojeda 194 Finalement, nous tenons à souligner que, malgré la transgression faite aux trois principes fondamentaux déterminant la qualité d’une bonne traduction, D. M. A. de C. nous offre une composition faisant preuve d’une excellente capacité interprétative, d’une sensibilité exquise et d’une maîtrise de la métrique remarquable, qui dotent le texte cible d’un naturel linguistique incontestable. L’habileté du traducteur est tacitement présente dans les vers que nous citons ci-dessous ; s’ils ne contrevenaient pas à la maxime traductive de fidélité au texte original, ces vers offriraient vraiment un exemple digne d’imitation. “Pálido, tembloroso y asustado, sin poder casi hablar, descolorido corrió a apoyarse en los robustos robles que del profundo lago eran vecinos. Confuso y triste me miraba atento, me volvía a mirar, y mil suspiros de lo íntimo del pecho despidiendo, vino a abrazarme; pero contenido en sus deseos, huye, y me abandona, dejándome en mil dudas sumergido“. 5 Conclusion Malgré son thème bien connu et amplement traité, l’œuvre de Mme de Tencin, Mémoires du Comte de Comminge, est devenu un véritable phénomène littéraire, parce qu’il a su franchir les barrières linguistiques et s’adapter à maintes reprises aux tendances littéraires de la culture réceptrice. Son succès explique la prolifération de récits qui adoptèrent, telle une devise littéraire, le sujet des amants malheureux et dont beaucoup furent traduits en espagnol. C’est le cas de l’héroïde de Dorat, Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, dont la première traduction, libre, fut réalisée par D. M. A. de C. en 1803. On devrait plutôt qualifier de paraphrase 9 le texte de D. M. A. de C. car cet auteur a réalisé une « belle infidèle » puisqu’il n’a pas suivi les trois critères fondamentaux qui garantissent une bonne traduction, à savoir : « Ne pas ajouter, ne pas supprimer et ne pas modifier ». De même, le texte cible, caractérisé par des amplifications linguistiques récurrentes, unies à une certaine tendance à la réduction métrique de la part du traducteur, est d’une longueur considérable, comparé au texte original. Malgré ces maladresses traductologiques, reconnaissons à D. M. A. de C. le mérite d’avoir été le premier à traduire le Comte de Comminge de 9 Si nous nous reportons au triple classement prôné par John Dryden dans la préface de Ovid’s Epistles (1776) : métaphrase, paraphrase et imitation. <?page no="211"?> La Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, de Claude-Joseph Dorat 195 Claude-Joseph Dorat ; la chaleur humaine et le naturel linguistique de sa traduction font oublier en partie ses inexactitudes car, tel qu’il déclare lui- même dans la préface de sa version : « c’est mon premier essai littéraire, alors, il faut m’en pardonner les erreurs ». Références bibliographiques Anonyme: Historia del Conde de Comminge seguida de una carta del Conde a su madre y un drama en tres actos. Barcelona: Librería D. Manuel Saurí, 1837. Jean Pierre Beaumarchais, et alii: Dictionnaire des littératures de langue française. Paris: Bordas, 1994. Baculard D’Arnaud: Les Amans malheureux, ou le Comte de Comminge, drame en 3 actes et en vers, précédé d'un discours préliminaire et suivi des Mémoires du comte de Comminge (par Baculard d'Arnaud). Paris: L’Esclapart, 1764. Claude-Joseph Dorat: Lettre du Comte de Comminge à sa mère, suivie d’une lettre de Philomele à Progné. Paris. Imprimerie Sébastien Jorry, 1764. John Dryden: Ovid’s Epistles: With his Amours. Translated into English Verse, by the most Eminent Hands. London 1776. María Jesús García Garrosa: “El conde de Comminge: fortuna literaria de un mito dieciochesco en Francia y en España”. In Epos. Revista de Filología. Nº 8. Madrid: Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, 1992, pp. 353-376. Valentín García Yebra: Teoría y práctica de la Traducción. Madrid: Gredos, 1984. Nigel Glendinning: “Lo gótico, lo funeral y lo macabro en la cultura española y europea del siglo XVIII. In: Anales de literatura española. Nº 10. Alicante 1994, pp.101-116 Antoine François Prévost: ”Le Pour et Contre”. V. 20, t. VII. Paris: Chez Didot, 1733- 40, pp. 73-82. Alfonso Saura: Las Heroidas francesas y su recepción en España: Estudio y Antología . Murcia: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad, 2003. Mme de Tencin: Mémoires du Comte de Comminges. La Haye : Chez J. Neaulme, Libraire, 1735. <?page no="213"?> María del Mar Rivas Carmona Charles Dickens’s Hard Times: a pragmatic- cognitive approach to its translation into Spanish 1 Introduction From the 1850s onward, realism became one of the dominant aesthetics of the Victorian period, together with the competing doctrine of idealism. As Armstrong pointed out: “readers read with a standard in mind based on the fidelity of language to visual evidence”. 1 As a consequence, many authors adapted their style to the new artistic vision that defined itself as opposed to the Romantic conventions, even if it was still far from the experimental novels of the later part of the century. Dickens, it seems apparent, submitted to the demands and precepts of the realistic tendency, though with a very personal and somewhat paradoxical interpretation which can be considered a reflection of the self- contradictions of mid-Victorian realism itself. He endeavoured to portray pictures of real ordinary people and events, but, at the same time, drew unrealistic and stereotypical characters. In Vanfasse‘s words: “Dickens depicted many characters rather too perfect to be realistic, and consequently, more in keeping with Bulwer Lytton’s theory that art was not aimed at imitating but at exalting nature, than with the canons of realism. ” 2 A clear contradiction in mid-Victorian conventions was that it was supposed to reflect the whole of reality, whilst it mainly complied with the rules of the respectable middle class. This would explain why, in spite of the fact that Dickens’s novels show his efforts to reflect real social problems and events of the time, some of his lower class characters exhibit a level of discourse which is far from in keeping with their social background. Nevertheless, Dickens did not feel as comfortable within the bounds of realism as most of his contemporaries, and thus he set out to explore the limits, without actually transgressing them. 3 1 Nancy Armstrong: Fiction in the Age of Photography: the Legacy of British Realism. Cambridge (MA) 1999, p. 10. 2 Nathalie Vanfasse: “Grotesque but not impossible”: Dickens’s Novels and mid- Victorian Realism“, in: E-rea, 2 (1), 2004. 3 George Levine: The Realistic Imagination: English Fiction from Frankenstein to Lady Chatterley. London and Chicago 1981. <?page no="214"?> María del Mar Rivas Carmona 198 If realist writing tended to be associated by the Victorians with photography and its mechanical reproduction of reality, Dickens’s novels would seem nearer to a “fanciful photograph” 4 which combined reality and imagination, or, better, to a ‘fanciful painting’. As a result, his ‘exploratory’ pictures presented characters which were “grotesque and wild but not impossible companions”. 5 The exploitation to a maximum of the limits of realistic discourse even leads to instances of what Hollington terms “verbal grotesqueries” 6 . What Dickens tried to achieve with this exploitation of the peculiar verbal features of the characters was to draw unique personalities that were characterised by “appropriate language”. 7 He was particularly interested in the way each individual spoke, that is, in each particular ‘act of expression’, and used to associate a certain way of thinking with a corresponding way of speaking, emphasizing not only the characters’ actions but also their words. That is the reason why Dickens has often been accused of drawing types instead of characters. 8 Actually, the author was highly influenced by the Jonsonian ‘comedy of humours’ in which each character had a predominant ruling passion or behaviour (as, for instance, the braggart soldier, so similar in many aspects to Mr. Bounderby in Hard Times, or as the greedy ‘cuckold’, the witty servant…) which were the inheritance of the Classical tradition of Plautus and Terence. This technique of individuation is understandable, as the novel was firstly intended to be serialized and the author had to look for an easy recognition on the side of the reader; also, because he himself had actually been a reporter and short-hand writer and, thus, he was used to paying special attention to speech. Dickens aimed at a fitness to type, since the language of a character individualizes him or her as unique. According to Norman Page 9 , “it is probably no exaggeration to say that the speech of any individual is as unique as his fingerprints” and, indeed, Dickens makes a special exploitation of register variation in order to perform this individuation. For this purpose, he combines lexical and phonetic choices (habitual words and expressions, idiosyncrasies of pronunciation, intonation or any other special characteristic). 4 As Vanfasse pointed out in “Grotesque but not impossible”, 2004, Dickens himself used this expression in a letter to a friend. (See Madeline House and Graham Storey (eds.): Letters of Charles Dickens. 11 vols. Oxford 1965-99, 8, p. 669). 5 Charles Dickens: The Old Curiosity Shop. Preface to the first edition. London 1840-1841. 6 Michael Hollington: Dickens and the Grotesque. Totowa (NJ) 1984. 7 According to W.P. Frith, quoted by R. Quirk in Charles Dickens and Appropriate Language, Durham, University of Durham, 1959, even when he attended specific events like a party, Dickens wanted to address the cook in “his appropriate language”. 8 See, for instance, George Gissing: Charles Dickens. A Critical Study. Whitefish (MT) [1898] 2004. 9 See the chapter “Speech and character: idiolect”, in Norman Page: Speech in the English Novel. London 1973, p. 90. <?page no="215"?> Charles Dickens’s Hard Times: a pragmatic-cognitive approach 199 These variations, not only but most specifically the phonetic ones, are particularly difficult to translate into another language, if one has to combine both the preservation of meaning and, in cognitive terms, the specific contextual effects 10 intended by the writer. Attempting at fitness, Dickens even created ‘special languages’ for certain individuals (idiolects), while some others shared the features characterizing a group (dialects). In Hard Times 11 there are instances of both. On the one hand, the most obvious exponents of dialectal language in the novel are Stephen Blackpool and Rachael, who have a broad Lancashire accent. On the other hand, several characters are individualized thanks to an idiolect made up out of particular features, such as Mr. Sleary, who is characterized by a phonological quality, his lisping pronunciation. Other characters are individualized through the recurring use of fixed words or expressions and other lexical and syntactic devices. Furthermore, specific linguistic choices are “relevantly meaningful” in this novel for language is not only the way to draw the different individualities, but, at the same time, they sustain various thematic antitheses. Language oppositions are woven on various levels and serve to differentiate characters on three grounds, their moral outlook, their social status and age. For all these reasons, our aim in this study is to check how these “relevant” choices have been expressed in one of the most republished translated versions of Hard Times into Spanish, namely, Amando Lázaro Ros’s one 12 , and whether the target choices are adequate to transmit and create similar contextual effects as those intended by the writer in the original. 2 Thematic antitheses triggered by language oppositions The society in Hard Times embodies different ways of living in which social status and moral outlook seem to be interrelated. Thus, for instance, the poor are supposed to be acquainted not only with “elementary instruction”, but also with “the duties enjoined by morality and religion”. 13 10 The term ‘contextual effect‘ is used as meaning the cognitive effects intended by the speaker/ writer while relevantly communicating a given message (Sperber and Wilson Relevance, 1995, 2nd ed) 11 Charles Dickens: Hard Times. Harmondsworth, Middlesex [1854] 1969. 12 Charles Dickens: Tiempos difíciles. Orbis: Barcelona 1982. 13 John Holloway: “Hard Times: A History and a Criticism”, in: John Gross and Gabriel Pearson (eds.) Dickens and the Twentieth Century Reader. London 1962, p. 163. <?page no="216"?> María del Mar Rivas Carmona 200 The basis for the moral problem depicted in the novel lies in the belief or disbelief in the Utilitarian Philosophy 14 which was impregnating the Victorian society. Utilitarianism pursued a totally rationalized society emphasizing materialistic facts at the expense of creation and imagination. In the novel, Dickens satirized its radical, rigorous system of education, as well as the hardening of working conditions. Along the book we can clearly distinguish a number of characters who use a “pragmatic” language which has been defined as ‘language of facts’, in contrast to some other characters, in whom heart prevails over reason, so to say, thus speaking with what may be called a ‘language of feelings’. 2.1 Language of fact For Dickens, Utilitarianism was a fallacy as it repressed all the natural human values such as compassion, love, generosity or creativity, that were to be concealed by the oppression of scientific and statistical reliance. Dickens satirizes this system: “My satire is against those who see figures and averages, and nothing else -the representatives of the wickedest and most enormous vice of this time”. 15 The system operated in two main fields: education and economy, and, accordingly, there are two main representatives of them in the novel, Mr. Gradgrind and Mr. Bounderby. ‘Fact’ is defined by Watts as a “materialistic urge to acquire wealth and power” 16 and the selfishness and oppression which this philosophy bears encounter its parallel in the linguistic expression: Gradgrind’s house is a ‘jail’ for his children (p. 91) 17 , their room is a ‘dark cavern’ (p. 92), the school is a ‘vault’ and a ‘cellar’ (p. 47). Within this strong pragmatism, scientific and mathematical terms are recurrent: ‘facts, square, calculations, arithmetic, figures…’ in sharp contrast to the vivid and lively vocabulary used by the people of the circus. Mr. Gradgrind represents the educational side of the Philosophy of fact which blinds him, although he is, indeed, a decent and coherent man. Grad- 14 The founders of this school of thought were Jeremy Bentham and James Mill (father to political theorist John Stuart Mill’s father). On Dickens’s critical relationship to this theory, see Joan E. Klingel: “Dickens's First Epistle to the Utilitarians”, in Dickens Quarterly 3, 3 (September 1986), pp. 124-128, and Grahame Smith: “‘O reason not the need’: King Lear, Hard Times, and Utilitarian Values”, in: Dickensian 86, 3 (Autumn 1990), pp. 164-170. 15 See the introduction to Hard Times. Oxford [1854] 1982 , p. x. Dickens used his satire against this philosophy, and considered the following as other possible titles for the novel: Two and Two are Four, Simple Arithmetic, A Mere Questions of Figures… 16 Richard Watts: “Hard Times as a written fictional display text”, in The Pragmalinguistic Analysis of Narrative Texts, p. 138. 17 All references of page of the original text belong to the Penguin edition. <?page no="217"?> Charles Dickens’s Hard Times: a pragmatic-cognitive approach 201 grind is “the prophet of the Utilitarian creed” 18 , “a man who proceeds upon the principle that two and two are four” (p. 48); thus, his world of cold facts and calculations, his mathematical materialism and pragmatism affect language and imagery. Even his syntax, as a reflection of this, is “calculated”, for there is a sort of symmetry. (1a) “‘Fact, fact, fact! You are to be in all things regulated and governed by fact… You must discard the word Fancy altogether. You have nothing to do with it. You are not to have, in any object of use or ornament, what would be a contradiction in fact. You don’t walk upon flowers in fact; you cannot be allowed to walk upon flowers in carpets. You don’t find that foreign birds and butterflies come and perch upon your crockery. You never meet with quadrupeds going up and down walls; you must not have quadrupeds represented upon walls. You must use combinations and modifications of mathematical figures which are susceptible of proof and demonstration”. (p. 47) (1b) “¡Lo real, lo real, lo real! Guíate en todas las circunstancias y gobiérnate por lo real. Tenéis que suprimir por completo la palabra imaginación. La imaginación no sirve para nada en la vida. En los objetos de uso o adorno, rechazaréis lo que está en oposición con lo real. En la vida real no camináis pisando flores; pues tampoco caminaréis sobre flores en las alfombras. ¿Habéis visto alguna vez venir a posarse pájaros exóticos y mariposas en vuestros cacharros de porcelana? Pues es intolerable que pintéis en ellos pájaros exóticos y mariposas. No habéis visto jamás a un cuadrúpedo subirse por las paredes; pues no pintéis cuadrúpedos en ellas. Echad mano para todas esas finalidades, de dibujos matemáticos, combinados o modificados, dibujos matemáticos susceptibles de ser probados y demostrados”. (pp. 15-16) As can be seen, Gradgrind’s intervention is characterized by strongly marked features: a) there is a highly rhetorical patterning with an over-emphatic repetition of words: the word fact is repeated 11 times in 6 lines, 14 times in the whole passage, and, most of the times, it appears at the end of the clause, overemphasized in a predominant place that carries the main intonational stress and, thus, the focus of information. It is an obvious reflection of his “devotion” for the doctrine. b) there is a prevailing authoritative tone achieved through the use of sentences with the illocutionary force of directives: You are to…, You must…, You don’t… Most of these sentences are expressed in the declarative syntactic mood but have the indirect force of commands. Gradgrind’s is a language of statements and instructions. c) the prevailing semantic field is that of mathematical terms: regulated, governed, combinations, modifications, proof, demonstration, mathematical figures… 18 See the introduction to the Alhambra Edition. Madrid [1854] 1981, p. 9. <?page no="218"?> María del Mar Rivas Carmona 202 d) there is an intrinsic negation of the world of nature: birds, butterflies, flowers, quadrupeds…, which is substituted by scientific materialism. e) syntax is also structured in an “algebraic” way, with a chain of juxtaposed directives which contributes to an emphatic rhythm. We must not forget that Dickens’s novels are written to be spoken. Although Gradgrind’s ‘rigid’ syntax is not totally present in the translated text, it still preserves much of the intended effects of the original, for the sequence of negative commands is substituted by structures of declarative/ interrogative sentences (Vosotros no (? )…) followed by consecutive clauses (¡Pues no…! ). Nevertheless, the translated version is not able to convey the high amount of connotations portrayed in the other representative of Utilitarism, Mr. Bounderby. Josiah Bounderby is even much more inflexible than Gradgrind and always remains as cold as ice (pp. 262-3). He is the practical reflection of the economical theory of the “laisser faire”, 19 who pretends to be a self-made man, but is nothing but a bullying and fake person whose voice is as “metallic” and “brassy” as money; an inhuman master seeking his own benefit,: “I am Josiah Bounderby of Coketown”. Bounderby is deeply inserted in the world of fact, a world in which the objects completely stand as signifiers: 20 “a man who, when he sees a Post, says ‘that’s a Post’, and when he sees a Pump, says ‘that’s a Pump’ and is not to be got to call a Post a Pump, or a Pump a Post, or either of them a toothpick” (p. 142). His is an absurd rhetoric full of brag. As the Classicals’ and Jonson’s braggart soldier he wants to be noticed and admired; he even creates a fake image of himself, he is cynical and hypocritical. As theirs, his speech is full of oaths and swear words: “Egod! ” (p.210) which recalls the Latin ‘Edepol! ’; “By the Lord! ” (p. 208); “By Lord Harry! ” (euphemistic) (p.178) and his favourite and also euphemistic one: “By George! ” (pp. 76, 114, 69, 197, 208, 221, 263, 271…). He is always boasting about his humble, although made-up, origins and his language is an ally in this deceitful purpose, for, in order to make his pretensions of simplicity believable, he uses a purposely colloquial vocabulary with some touches of substandard: (2a) “Now, they’re not a-going -non of’em- ever to be fed on turtle soup and venison with a gold spoon. …I am a bit of dirty riff-raff, and a genuine scrap of tag, rag, and bobtail”. (p. 160) 19 Dickens satirizes in him the Victorian self-made man. 20 See Steven Connor: Charles Dickens. Oxford 1985, p. 93. <?page no="219"?> Charles Dickens’s Hard Times: a pragmatic-cognitive approach 203 (2b) “Pues bien: ninguno de ellos conseguirá jamás verse alimentado de sopa de tortuga y carne de venado con cuchara de oro… Yo soy un auténtico arrapiezo del arroyo, un andrajo, un hombre de baja ralea”. (p. 152) (3a) “Serve ‘em right for being idle. (To a frightened little girl) … when I was four or five years younger than you, I had worse bruises upon me. I didn’t get ‘em by posture-making, but by being banged about. There was no rope-dancing for me; I danced on the bare ground and was larruped* with the rope”. (p. 69) (3b) “Se lo tienen bien ganado, por vagos. … Cuando yo tenía cuatro o cinco años menos que tú llevaba el cuerpo con magulladuras. Y no me las ganaba adoptando actitudes en el circo, sino saliendo de todas partes a puntapiés. Yo no bailaba en la cuerda floja; bailaba en el duro suelo a cordelazos”. (pp. 38-39) The Spanish target text does not reflect, at any rate, either the non- standard pronunciation or the changeable lexical register of the original, fluctuating between vulgar and refined language. This involves a consequent and utterly relevant loss of contextual effects with the blurring of some of Bounderby’s inherent contradictions which typically identify the character, most particularly the clash between his elevated rhetoric and his highly erratic and sporadic non-standard lexis and pronunciation. The following is a further example of this, where the effect of the alliteration with the voiceless alveolar / / increases Bounderby’s feeling of contempt when addressing Stephen Blackpool: (4a) “You are such a waspish, raspish, ill-conditioned chap…” (p. 182) (4b) “Sois un individuo tan venenoso, tan áspero, tan descontentadizo…” (p. 182) The translated version fails again in its attempt at achieving an effect as scornful as the original. 2.2 The language of feelings In opposition to the world of Gradgrind and Bounderby, Dickens presents a world of fancy and imagination, the world of circus, a world in which people are guided by heart not by reason. Mr Sleary’s circus is a place for amusement and enjoyment, situated in “the neutral around upon the outskirts of the town, which was neither town nor country” (p. 55). The circus people are independent; they neither rely upon anyone nor belong to anyone, and their emblem is Pegasus, a remnant of the classical myth. This world appears in the novel as the solution for the strict but ineffective world of fact: “People muth be amuthed … they can’t be alwayth a working, nor yet they can’t be alwayth a learning” (p. 82; p. 308). With these <?page no="220"?> María del Mar Rivas Carmona 204 ‘maxims’ Sleary is clearly referring to the economic (“a working”) and educational (“a learning”) systems 21 . Yet, he does not demand, but he pleads. The circus world possesses what the system lacks, they have “the only thing needful” which is love and compassion, a “vital human impulse” 22 . The city equals cold pragmatism, reason, facts and artificial reality, whereas, on the other hand, the circus stands for humanity, heart, feelings and fancy. Dickens was accused of idealizing the circus, a place that embodies great values which seem an attack towards the social evils of the time. As can be seen, the circus has its own features, its own goals and, of course, its own language. As Brook 23 pointed out, “each profession tends to develop its own linguistic idiosyncrasies” and the circus people do as well, bearing their own group’s speech habits. Nevertheless, there is something particularly peculiar about them: the language they use to advertise their performances is completely different to the language they use among themselves. 24 When addressing the audience their language is amusingly ‘inflated’: (5) “Miss Josephine Sleary was then inaugurating the entertainments with her graceful equestrian Tyrolean flower-act. … Signor Jupe was to ‘elucidate the diverting accomplishments of his highly trained performing dog Merrylegs’. He was also to exhibit his astounding feat of throwing seventy-five hundred-weight in rapid succession backhanded over his head thus forming a fountain of solid iron in mid-air, a feat never before attempted in this or any other country and which having elicited such rapturous plaudits from enthusiastic throngs it cannot be withdrawn“. (p. 56) This grandiloquent style is characterized by intense premodification (“graceful equestrian Tyrolean flower-act “, “his highly trained performing dog Merrylegs”), suggestive adjectives (“diverting accomplishments”, “astounding feat”, “rapturous plaudits”, “enthusiastic throngs”) and a lively syntax in which long sentences with no pause provide an effect of rhythmic quickness utterly appropriate to the advertiser and appealing to the audience. On the other hand, their back-stage language is completely different; it is free and relaxed, combining a few genuine circus words with common ‘slang’. Good and compassionate Mr Sleary is the most important representative of the world of circus and shares his linguistic features. Besides, he is endowed with a particular idiolect for Dickens individualized him with a distinctive and easily-remembered feature, his curious lisping pronunciation. As he is troubled with asthma, he substitutes the alveolar fricatives / s/ 21 See Richard J. Watts, p. 149. 22 “El circo es el corazón de Dickens”, introduction to the Alhambra Edition, p. 12. 23 See Brook, “Class dialects” in The Language of Dickens, p.87. 24 Dickens asked his friend Mark Lemon in 1854 to tell him about typical circus words and expressions. See introduction to the Alhambra edition, p. 16. <?page no="221"?> Charles Dickens’s Hard Times: a pragmatic-cognitive approach 205 / z/ , the palotalveolar / / / 8 / and the affricate palatoalveolar / t/ by the interdental fricative / / , which corresponds in spelling to ‘th’: (6) “Thethilia my dear, kith me and good-bye! Mith Thquite, to thee you treating of her like a thithter, and a thithter that you trutht and honour with all your heart and more, ith a very pretty thight to me. I hope your brother may live to be better detherving of you, and a greater comfort to you”. (p. 308) Sleary is loquacious and coherent enough in what he does and says. He is the banner of Dickens’s philosophy of amusement and compassion. As the above extract shows, his discourse is typically representative of the language of feelings as opposed to the language of fact; he uses a sweeter tone, a less rigid, less symmetrical and repetitive syntax; and a prevailing use of words pertaining to the semantic field of feelings: “my dear”, “kith me”, “treat like a thithter”, “trutht and honour with all your heart”, “brother”, “detherving”, “comfort”… He combines these features with a substandard pronunciation and the use of slang words, as do his mates. Even though the translated text maintains his lisping, these non- standard pronunciation and lexis are not reflected; what is more, on some occasions the translator omits whole sentences with slang words. The immediate consequence of this is a blurring of the character’s main identifying features and a subsequent loss of contextual effects. (7a) “-‘Thay the word and I’ll make a Jothkin of him, out of the wardrobe, in five minutes.’ said Sleary. -‘I don’t understand’, said Mr. Gradgrid. -‘A Jothkin - a Carter. Make up your mind, Thquire.’” (p. 301) (7b) “-Decid una zola palabra y mi guardarropa dará para tranzformarlo antez de cinco minutoz en un carretero… Rezolveoz, señor…” (p. 337) (8a) “And you recollect Kidderminthter, that wath thought to be rather thweet upon yourthelf? Well. He’th married too. Married a widder. Old enough to be hith mother… They’ve got two children, tho were thtrong in the Fairy bithnith and the Nurthery dodge. If you wath to thee our Children in the wood, with their father and mother both a dyin’ on a horthe -their uncle a retheiving of’em ath his wardth, upon a horthe- themthelvth both a goin’ a blackberryin’ on a horthe- and the Robinth a coming in to cover’em with leavth… And you remember Emma Gordon, my dear, ath wath a´moth a mother to you? Of courthe you do; I needn’t athk. Thee married a thecond time and he’th a Overtheer and makin’ a fortun’.“(p. 297) (8b) “¿Te acuerdaz de Kidderminzter, que noz parecía que andaba enamoradillo de ti? Veráz: se cazó también. Ze cazó con una viuda que podía zer zu madre… Tiene doz hijos, de modo que tenemos perzonal abundante para loz númeroz de hadaz y loz trucoz de crianza de niños. Zi vieraz a nueztroz niños en el bozque, <?page no="222"?> María del Mar Rivas Carmona 206 mientraz zu padre y zu madre ze mueren a caballo, un tío zuyo loz recibe como pupiloz a caballo, y ellos zalen en busca de moraz, a caballo, y loz pechirrojoz que vienen a caballo a cubrirloz de hojaz… ¿Te acuerdaz, querida, de Emma Gordon, que zolía zer para ti como una madre? ¡Naturalmente que te acuerdaz! No hace falta que te lo pregunte. Ella ze cazó por zegunda vez y ahora eztá él de inzpector, haciendo una fortuna.” (pp. 332-333) These small extracts are representative of the translator’s choice to maintain Mr Sleary’s lisping but not necessarily any other linguistic characteristic of the character, which results in an incoherent portrayal of the multidimensional socio-linguistic register features of the circus people. We may summarize those features in the following points: a) The slang word for carter in (7) does not find any equivalence in the target text; what is more, the translator opts for omitting Mr Gradgrind’s intervention in which he inquires about the word’s meaning. b) Mr Sleary’s substandard pronunciation is also ignored: “widder” (widow), “fortun” (fortune), the loss of medial ‘l’ in “a’moth” (almost), the disappearance of [ð] in medial position, generally after consonant (“of’em, cover’em” for ‘of them, cover them’) or the loss of ‘g’ in the -ing endings of the gerund and present participles (“dyin’, goin’, makin’” for ‘dying, going, making’) appear as perfectly standard Spanish pronunciations in the translated version. c) As far as substandard accidence and syntax is concerned, Mr Sleary typically employs the prefix a- with present participles giving them the function of a verbal noun: “both a dyin’ on a horthe -their uncle a retheiving of’em ath his wardth, upon a horthe- themthelvth both a goin’ a blackberryin’ on a horthe- and the Robinth a coming in to cover’em with leavth…”. d) He uses 3 rd person singular ‘was’ instead of 2 nd person singular ‘were’: “If you wath to thee our Children in the wood…”. e) His syntax, which is not as rigid and symmetrical as Mr Bounderby’s, is also characterized by the omission of the auxiliary ‘do’ in questions and the use of ‘as’ as a subordinate relative conjunction instead of ‘that’: “And you remember Emma Gordon, my dear, ath wath a´moth a mother to you? Of courthe you do; I needn’t athk.” f) As well as the colloquial ellipsis of the subject and copular verb ‘to be’: “Married a widder. Old enough to be hith mother…”. All of the above features are ignored and, therefore, lost in the translated version in Spanish. What is more, disregarding the fact that Mr Sleary’s <?page no="223"?> Charles Dickens’s Hard Times: a pragmatic-cognitive approach 207 speech, apart from his remarkable lisping, is also strongly marked by distinguishing dialectal and substandard features, the translator endows his utterances with elevated variants when other more colloquial or, at least, more neutral choices might have been more adequate. It is the case of “de modo que” for “so” (“They’ve got two children, tho…” > “Tiene doz hijoz, de modo que…”,), or “naturalmente” for “of course” (“Of courthe you do” > “Naturalmente que te acuerdaz”). 3 Conclusions The analysis of a selection of extracts representative of the distinguishing speech characteristics of the main personifications of the world of fact and the world of feelings in Hard Times, namely Mr Bounderby and Mr Sleary, leads us to the conclusion that a grammatically correct translation is not enough if one key goal of literary translations is missed. In the original extracts under focus in the present study it is made evident that register variation, in terms of idiolectal, dialectal and substandard features proves utterly ‘relevant’, and that it is precisely these linguistic choices based on sometimes subtle, although most times clearly noticeable social, moral and educational differences what can help readers create a nuanced and dimensional portrait of the characters. When most of the contextual clues of the original text are not present in the target version, as is the case with the characters under study, readers of the translated text may inevitably suffer an impoverishment of contextual effects and, consequently, obtain a flat and simplified impression of these two representatives of two very distinct ways of viewing life. References Nancy Armstrong: Fiction in the Age of Photography: the Legacy of British Realism. Cambridge, MA 1999. Andreew Blake: Reading Victorian Fiction: The Cultural Context and Ideological Content of the Nineteenth-Century Novel. New York 1989. George Lesli Brook: The Language of Dickens. London 1970. Steven Connor: Charles Dickens. Oxford 1985. Charles Dickens: Hard Times. Harmondsworth, Penguin [1854] 1969. Charles Dickens: Hard Times. Madrid, Alhambra [1854] 1981. Charles Dickens: Hard Times. Oxford, OUP [1854] 1982. Charles Dickens: Tiempos difíciles. Barcelona, Orbis 1982. Charles Dickens: The Old Curiosity Shop. Preface to the 1st edition. London, Chapman and Hall, 1840-1841. <?page no="224"?> María del Mar Rivas Carmona 208 Charles Dickens: Letters of Charles Dickens. Eds. Madeline House and Graham Storey. 11 vols. Pilgrim Edition. Oxford 1965-99. Jean Gattégno: Dickens. Collection Microcosme. Écrivains de toujours 99 . Paris 1975. George Gissing: Charles Dickens. A Critical Study. Whitefish (MT) [1898] 2004. Michael Hollington: Dickens and the Grotesque. Totowa, NJ 1984. John Holloway: “Hard Times: A History and a Criticism”, in: Dickens and the Twentieth Century, ed. John Gross and Gabriel Pearson. London 1962, pp. 167-171, 173- 174. Joan E. Klingel: “Dickens's First Epistle to the Utilitarians.” Dickens Quarterly 3, 3 (September 1986), pp. 124-128. George Levine: The Realistic Imagination: English Fiction from Frankenstein to Lady Cha tterley. London and Chicago 1981. Norman Page: “Speech and character: idiolect”, in: Speech in the English Novel. London 1973. Randolph Quirk: Charles Dickens and Appropriate Language. Durham 1959. Paul Schlicke, ed.: Oxford Reader’s Companion to Dickens. Oxford 1999. Grahame Smith: “’O reason not the need’: King Lear, Hard Times, and Utilitarian Values.” Dickensian 86, 3 (Autumn 1990), pp. 164-170. Richard Stan: The Theory of the Novel in England 1850-1870. New York 1959. Nathalie Vanfasse: “’Grotesque but not impossible’: Dickens’s Novels and mid- Victorian Realism”, E-rea, 2.1, 2004 URL : http: / / erea.revues.org/ 500 <?page no="225"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry: the literary career of Alexander Pope 1 Introduction In 2012, Stanley Fish highlighted the value of having knowledge of a writer’s personal history in order to better understand and appreciate their work. He did this by taking up the words that he wrote three years before Archie Burnet, in which he proposes the fundamental importance of context. Both Fish and Burnet advocate an interpretation of texts that links life and work, and shows writing in the light of historical events. Literary translation, as part of a literary career and aside from work of a writer’s authorship, is a specific aspect that helps us to understand what was previously expressed. On the one hand it supposes a certain renouncement of authorship and autonomy, while on the other hand entailing a process of revision. Over the course of the 17th century, London’s literary life was widening its channels. The development of new literary circuits began. The public sphere, to use the terminology of Jürgen Habermas, expanded its radius. During the Puritan Republic Regimen of the 1650s, theatres were closed. The return of the exiled monarch breathed new life into London’s cultural atmosphere. The theatres’ curtains were raised once more and writers responded to the demands of the public, ever eager for new representations and with an ever-changing and fickle appetite that justified the emergence and development of theatre and playwrights. An unprecedented appetite for writing also arose during this time. In the final years of the century, various miscellaneous editions of poetry were published. The printing scene in London accounts for the content of the books and for the interests of the readers. Years after Milton predicted the advantages of spreading ideas through the freedom of the press (Aeropagitica), reams of printed paper were plentiful in the city. Following the studies of McKenzie (2002: 566), Adrian Johns (2011: 51) describes how from the outbreak of the War until the end of the 17th century, London printers produced around a hundred thousand titles, generating between fifty and a hundred volumes. The subject matter follows similar semantic lines: more than a million Bibles, a similar number of catechisms along with two novelties that emerged and <?page no="226"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 210 proliferated in this era, just as they came to define the turn-of-the-century public sphere. The series of papers and the twenty-four thousand editions are equivalent to some twenty million copies. Polemicists and their antagonists print and spread responses to each other, authorities are keen to publish their proclamations, and preachers do their best to profligate their sermons. At the other end of the literary scene, readers educate themselves with books on conduct and learn about their relationship with God. Children form their thoughts and shape their behaviour though the catechisms and, little by little, some members of society acquire news through the burgeoning newspaper trade. 2 From Dryden to Pope In the literary scene there was a co-existence of aristocratic writers who express their intellect on paper as a form of pastime; and other writers who see their artistic work as a possible source of economic income. Throughout his literary life, John Dryden embodies the political and social changes of the age to perfection. John Dryden created a number verses in honour of Milton, which are published alongside the portrait of a Republican in Johnson’s edition. This edition contains Milton’s masterpiece and dates from 1688. The semantics of the piece outlines the superiority of Homer and the elevated status of Virgil, as well as the skill of the English author. In turn, the homage that Dryden pays - amongst equals - highlights the consciousness that occupies that space left by the Puritan poet. “Three poets, in three distant ages born, Greece, Italy, and England, did adorn. The first in loftiness of thought surpassed, The next in majesty, in both the last: The force of Nature could no farther go; To make a third she join’d the former two” . In England another type of literature of a commercial nature emerged (in keeping with the changing demands of the market) which sustains itself in sales through subscription. It emerged in opposition to the literary advertising coming from the elite aristocracy. During the second half of the 17th century and the first third of the 18th century some English poets of noble lineage co-existed with others from a working class social background. The commercial practice in London at the end of the 17th century protected and justified the rights that the author exercised over his work, in which the bookseller and the printer also participated. In both Dryden’s work and Pope’s legacy we see the cultivation of a satirical methodology based on the geography of the city, which is put to the service of parody, morality and ethics. Samuel Johnson also created a poem <?page no="227"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 211 entitled “London”, whose tempo-spatial coordinates are based on the third satire of Juvenal. “London” serves as a means of political denunciation. We should bear in mind that Mac Flecknoe, or A satyr upon the True-Blew- Protestant Poet, T.S., is a scathing satire against Shadwell. Mac Flecknoe (1682) begins with a majestic and heroic style that places the reader before an epic: “All human things are subject to decay / And, when Fate summons, monarchs must obey”. As the reading continues it must be understood that it is about an ennobled, derisory and exalted topic also in the form of the “heroic couplet”. The 217 verses indicate brevity. The work is written around 1675 and is read in manuscript form for years. In short, Mac Flecknoe criticises literary mediocrity and is contrived to be the first “mock-epic” poem in England (Blackley & Crowley, 2010: 65). The mock-heroic channel of the work will be cultivated afterwards by Alexander Pope in The Dunciad and by Charles Churchill in The Rosciad which satirises the theatre culture of his time. Dryden writes against what we can refer to as literary prostitution. It is no wonder that a chronotope of prostitution settles in the central theme of the work, located specifically in the Roman tower “The Barbican”. It radiates an offensive vocabulary containing images such as Pissing Alley and Bun Hill, both related to the growing book industry, its phonetics and semantics implying a link between writing and excrement, between poetry and urine. The metropolis that Pope creates is the setting in which literature is destroyed at the hands of a mob of principal characters, as appropriate to the author in one version or another, by Theobald or Colley Cibber. The communicative vessels of this literature of the city immediately travel from Mac Flecknoe to Dryden. Both Dryden and Pope turn to the classical tradition in order to select their works for translation. Dryden’s work centres around Virgil, Pope’s around Homer. Greco-Latin teachers allowed for recreations of these neoclassic poets, which were introduced into the commercial distribution of instalments by subscription, arising out of print. “A little learning is a dangerous thing” and “to err is human, to forgive, divine” are two established aphorisms of the English literary world, both coming from the work of Alexander Pope. The value and the content of these two Popean statements do not explain the creative talent and the literary stature of the poet about which this chapter is dedicated. If John Dryden is a man of letters, Alexander Pope is another. If Dryden is at the forefront of the period going from 1660 to 1700, Pope is the predominant figure of the following period, from 1700 up to 1744. John Dryden and Alexander Pope collect in their literary works the most illustrative examples of English neoclassicism and together comprise a tandem effort and a milestone that would come to symbolise the beginning of a new literary era. <?page no="228"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 212 3 Pope’s background Alexander Pope is born in May 1688, during the annus mirabilis that commenced a new political era in England and dashed the hopes of the Catholics. His father was a London businessman of Catholic faith who retired from business in 1688 and moved to Binfield, close to Windsor forest and not far from Moor Park, where Swift was living with Sir William Temple during the time of Pope’s childhood. Pope spent some 27 years immersed in the beatus ille of Binfield. His youth was spent in this atmosphere, with the love and affection of his parents. Another loving figure of his childhood is his step-sister on his father’s side, and a caregiver, who lived with them for many years and died in 1725. She gave him the name “the little Nightingale” on account of his pleasant tone of voice. The intolerance and strict legislation of the time forced Catholics to live a confined existence. They were considered rarae aves, and were prohibited from public positions and from participating in social life. They were required to pay double taxes and were prohibited from acquiring assets. Another consequence of the family’s beliefs was the deprivation of a normal education, since Catholics were forbidden to attend school. Pope was educated by the family pastor and later through his learning in Twyford, where his parents managed to enrol him, as well as at another London school. At the age of twelve, he found himself at home enjoying reading and demonstrating his precocious talent. 4 First poetic phase Pope’s main ambition was to be a poet. This is asserted by Samuel Johnson in the beginning of his biography. The use of the first person seen in his poem of Chaucerian origin (2009: 349) The Temple of Fame 1 presents a healthy self-affirmation of the writer. This desire is similar to that which Dryden pursues throughout his life. Amongst the readings that Pope does of the English poets, the study of Dryden stands out as being a model for the brilliant writer. The predilection, the valuation and the appreciation that Pope professes for his work and for Dryden as a person is such that he goes to visit him in Will’s Coffehouse. From this meeting, in the northern part of Russell Street, Covent Garden, we are left with the image of an affable Dryden who takes in the young Pope as a pupil to be taught. The year 1709 marks the beginning of the publication of Pope’s work. The Pastorals mark the beginning of his literary career, published in the sixth volume of Tonson’s Poetical Miscellanies. The miscellaneous volume opens 1 As is deduced in a letter he sends to Martha Blount in 1714, this poem was written in 1711. <?page no="229"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 213 with the eclogues of Ambrose Philips and ends with those of Pope. The bucolic opening links it to Milton and Cowley. Pope writes these verses about his childhood and they are read in manuscript until Tonson offers to publish them. Two years later, in May, he published An Essay on Criticism. This first section also included both The Rape of the Lock and Windsor Forest. The “Ode on Solitude”, written before his twelfth birthday, predicts a direction for part of his future career, praising the rural life, withdrawn from chaos, full of satisfaction and delight. The poetic voice emulates the simplicity of agriculture, of a countryman who makes a living from his farm labour, content with his routine and helping himself to the abundant bounty of the nature surrounding him: “Happy the man, whose wish and care A few paternal acres bound, Content to breathe his native air, In his own ground. Whose herds with milk, whose fields with bread, Whose flocks supply him with attire, Whose trees in summer yield him shade, In winter fire. Blest! who can unconcern’dly find Hours, days, and years slide soft away, In health of body, peace of mind, Quiet by day, Sound sleep by night; study and ease Together mix’d; sweet recreation, And innocence, which most does please, With meditation. Thus let me live, unseen, unknown; Thus unlamented let me dye; Steal from the world, and not a stone Tell where I lye”. Although the physical fitness of the subject of the poem does not conform with that of the writer (who suffered from Pott’s disease) there are many similarities, from the absence of family in the life of the poet who remained a bachelor, to the quietness of his natural surroundings, and his coming to terms with the circumstances of his own life. What the poet cannot accept is his literary fame and his economic benefits (Thus let me live, unseen, unknown). Neither does he directly show any desire for success. An Essay on Criticism (1711) stands out as a milestone in English literature in that it is a didactic poem, following the neoclassical model, adding to the early product of the criticism of English literature. Pope directs his voice to the debate on topical issues of his time such as the nature of poetry, the value of artificiality, the legacy of the classics, the preponderance of rules, the role and function of taste or the relationship between poetry and painting, <?page no="230"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 214 among other themes. In the beginning he echoes the prejudice held by some impartial critics towards the literary Republic (1-8): “‘Tis hard to say, if greater Want of Skill Appear in Writing or in Judging ill, But, of the two, less dang’rous is th’ Offence, To tire our Patience, than mis-lead our Sense Some few in that, but Numbers err in this, Ten Censure wrong for one who Writes amiss; A Fool might once himself alone expose, Now One in Verse makes many more in Prose”. The application of the rules of art is one of the central themes of the work. In the following section (88-91) the importance of rules is observed - a theme previously dealt with by Aristotle, Horace and by his French predecessor in literary criticism Boileau (Ars Poétique, 1674). Pope’s didacticism 2 is demonstrated when comparing verse control with the reins and skill that the rider leads his horse with (Pegaso, on the line 86). Here there are concepts of balance and measure which hold a prominent position in neoclassical poetry: “Those rules of old discovered, not devised, Are Nature still, but Nature methodized: Nature, like liberty, is but restrained By the same laws which first herself ordained” . The poet delves into relevant concepts of his time, such as the definition of wit which, in the hands of Augustan poets, consisted not of a display of originality or the search for inspiration but rather in precision, exactitude and measured control of the content of the verse (II, 297-399) “True wit is Nature to advantage dressed, What oft was thought, but ne’er so well expressed; Something whose truth convinced at sight we find, That gives back the image of our mind” . Pope articulates a discourse which links the poet to the critic. With these rhyming couplets he emerges as a literary critic, as a writer who reflects on creation, as an author who also delves into literary theory. Pope is aware of the existence of good and praiseworthy critics, while he also recognises the presence of a poorer literary quality in his time. Likewise, in this work the existence of two clearly differentiated creative bands is evident, the Ancient 2 An example of the educational aspect to this work can be seen in verses 215-218, from the second part, when Pope postulates: A little learning is a dangerous thing, / Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring / There shallow draughts intoxícate the brain, / And drinking largely sobers us again. In this piece the metaphors are used as a vehicle for instruction and the concept of ‘docere’ is established as a precept. <?page no="231"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 215 and the Modern 3 . The work is translated into French by Hamilton and Resnel. The Rape of the Lock has its origins in a minor event, specifically in the cutting of a lock of hair of Mrs Arabella Fermor by Mr Petre, which escalades to the point where the two families fall out. Mr Caryl, who is a courteous lover of literature, entrusts Pope with the writing of the poem about the event that estranges the Fermor and Petre families, precisely with the aim of rebuilding the friendship. Caryl’s mission becomes reality in 1711, by means of the mock-epic poem. Once Arabella Fermor received it, it circulates amongst friends and the author sent it to press in order to avoid non-authorized publications which might be disseminated. The following year the work appears with three cantos in a miscellany of Barnaby Lintot. The poet expands the work turning it into five cantos in the definitive version of 1714. The composition, therefore, is based on a real-life occurrence that is sublimated in the poem to such a point that the reader becomes caught up in an epic adventure. At the outset, the writer petitions the help of the Muses for his endeavour in which even divinities intervene. The work maintains an epic touch of the classical tradition through some common elements. For example, the typical invocation of poetical inspiration is here not designated to the Muses, but to Pope’s friend John Caryll. The great volume of the works of Homer and Virgil are here contained in some 600 verses. The usual depiction of the preparation of soldiers for battle is reduced to the dressing room of the protagonist, Belinda, who adorns herself with all sorts of ornamental and aesthetical details. The heroic acts are distorted and appear as the success in a game of cards. The typical epic journey finds its analogy in a walk along the Thames. And to give another example, the deities of the Greco-Latin works are changed to English figures as supernatural beings. The Rape of the Lock introduces the ‘mock-heroic’ genre to English literature. This way of writing had been cultivated in Le Lutrin (1674-1683), from the French author Boileau-Despreaux, and in Mac Flecknoe, whose two hundred verses were composed by Dryden around 1675. Dryden’s poem is a criticism of mediocre literature, while Pope’s has a different purpose. Nevertheless, the comic-epic form is the same that Dryden cultivated and is the same that will be applied by Pope in his Dunciad. At another level of meaning, the work of Pope evinces social customs of the 18th century. The third canto shows the commercial and economic peak of the time (III, 19-24), as is read in these verses: “Mean while, declining from the noon of day, The sun obliquely shoots his burning ray; The hungry Judges soon the sentence sign, 3 The subject of literary struggles and the positioning of each will stand out in one of his mature works, The Dunciad, without being dismissive of other poems. <?page no="232"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 216 And wretches hang that jury-men may dine; The merchant from th’Exchange returns in peace, And the long labours of the toilet cease”. The reference to the commercial exchange is not tainted with negative connotations because the composition of the work preceded “The South Sea Bubble” (1720), which saw the bankruptcy of the anonymous society that, since 1711, exploited its monopoly on trade with South America which had been created to alleviate national debt. References to trade in Pope’s early work harbour a double meaning, on one hand, regarding the businessmen who profited from the commercial process of their transactions and the poets who, like Pope, see their work as a possible source of income. The description of the room and dressing room of Belinda is used as an opportunity for social satire. The third canto is especially satirical against the aristocracy who parade around the living room where the violation of the lock of hair takes place, and appear comfortably seated on the three piece suite playing cards. Petre is a twenty-year old Catholic man who is entranced by the beauty of Arabella Fermor, and who steals a lock of hair from her head, symbolising the materialism of her beauty and glitz or artificiality of her appearance. The new literary atmosphere that develops in the 18th century is reflected in the recipients of the work. It is worth noting the reference that Pope makes in his final canto when he establishes that the idea of the poem is ‘intended only to divert a few Young Ladies’. The emergence of new readers explains the proliferation of novel writers and, and the same time, justifies the founding of the “Scriblerus Club” around 1713, in order to satirize ignorance and pedantry. Besides Pope, Jonathan Swift, Lord Oxford, John Arbuthnot, William Congreve, John Gay, Thomas Parnell and Francis Atterbury also belonged to this group of writers. Their work can be read in Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus whose eponymous main character embodies false knowledge. Martinus Scriblerus boasts knowledge of all the arts and sciences but really is clueless about them all. The second volume of the work of Pope (Works, 1741) contains the story, coming mostly from the mind of Arbuthnot. On occasion, the name of the character served as a pseudonym for Pope. Windsor Forest is a rural, local and political poem. Modelled on the generic qualities of Cooper’s Hill by John Denham, Windsor Forest (1713) is a topographical poem 4 , which employs geographical places to the end of triggering reflections of historical-political events. The composition reflects the life of the poet in London and establishes, as did The Rape of the Lock, a new literary 4 In previous works partial precedents are traced, as in the case of Spenser’s fourth book, The Faerie Queene, specifically in his eleventh canto, in which he describes English rivers. <?page no="233"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 217 genre in English literature. The first half of the poem (up to line 290) which reflects a Pastoral tonality in keeping with his first eclogues, was written at the beginning of the century. References to the Peace of Utrecht contained in the second part (291-434) confirm that its composition occurred at a later date. This thematic index pays homage to his Tory friend and designer of the treaty, Lord Bolingbroke. It instils a celebratory patriotism, similar to the content of a eulogy. The legislation brought against Catholics by the new monarchs William and Mary forced his father to close his business in international trade and - as previously mentioned - the family changed its residence, abandoning Lombard Street to live in Binfield, in the middle of Windsor Forest. Those who had worked in the importation of linen from Flanders for sale in their own country and in the overseas colonies during the sixties and seventies after the Glorious Revolution were forced to change their livelihood. 5 Translations The full English version of The Iliad came out in 1720, followed by The Odyssey in 1726. Pope began to translate The Iliad in 1712. This undertaking gave a notable prestige to the poet in his time. The efforts of the writer must have been constant, considering the number of verses that came out. He was not the first to pour over the work of Homer verse by verse, since at the time the work in Latin hexameters of Eobanus Hesssus was available (1540). Four decades later, La Valterie translated Homer into French and in the brief period between 1699 y 1711, Anne Dacier 5 produced another version in 1719 (L’Iliade d’Homere). In the English tradition there were also Homeric translations, for example Chapman’s 6 from 1611, another in 1676 by Hobbes and a third published in the year of the Restoration of Charles II by John Ogilby. It is safe to assume that Pope would have consulted these previous versions. The rich annotation 7 which Pope added are in fact indebted to the comments of the Byzantine Eustace of Thessalonica, as Johnson confirms. Tracing this work, it is deduced that he had outside help from various experts such as William Broome, who read the commentaries of the Archbishop of 5 A study on the female responses to the work of Pope is carried out by Claudia N. Thomas in her book from 1994, in the section “Women’s Responses to Pope’s Appeals”. To take a closer look at the comments of Dacier, see pages 48-50. 6 It has been documented that in August of 1720 Atterbury was making Chapman’s translation available, thought to be the translation of Homer, in order to send it to Pope. 7 The explanation that Broome includes after Odyssey’s notes makes it clear that ‘I have sometimes used Madam Dacier as she has done others, in transcribing some of her Remarks without particularizing them; but indeed it was through inadvertency only that her name is sometimes omitted at the bottom of the note’. <?page no="234"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 218 Thessalonica and expressed them in English; John Jortin, Dancastle or Thomas Parnell 8 , who offers him a summarised account of Homer’s life. Another source that Pope made use of is that which is produced by Dacier and he expresses this by means of an excusatio non petita included in the final part of the work, to give acknowledgement of authorship. This outside support explains how in five years Pope was able to complete his annotated version of the Iliad, in this way finishing his groundbreaking work by the end of the second decade of the century. Pope referred to this task as ‘my long labour’ 9 . The translation that Dryden published of Virgil’s epic work premiered the practice of sales by subscription in English literature. With the printer William Bowyer, Pope prepared the preliminary page with the list of subscribers “The Names of the Subscribers”. Steele, with his regular deliveries of The Tatler, cultivated this new system which was the same as that applied by Pope to the six quarto volumes. This is the first renowned work published completely in English and in quarto format. Chaucer and Shakespeare’s Works were published in folio. The price of each delivery, in quarto, was six guineas 10 . So, the edition of his first translation was sold by subscription at the rate of one volume a year, over the course of six years, amassing along with the editor Bernand Lintot a remarkable sum for this time and unheard of in that day and age as the results of a literary effort carried out in verse. There were 575 subscribers and 660 copies. The fixed fees that Pope receives for every volume reached 210 pounds, to which the 5,300 that the subscribers gave him must be added. The first deliveries appeared in 1715, the last in 1720. The fixed amount received for every volume, as part of the rights of the author, is not insignificant for this time, marking a turning point in the history of literary publication and translation in English literature. The recreation of the Homeric work adapts to it audience of English readers of the 18th century and even considers the emerging readership of the female public. The tone and the style are adjusted to a new horizon of expectations (using Jauss’ term). Claudia N. Thomas (1994: 25) explains that Pope put the Iliad on the coffee table. The techniques that he applies in the adaptation result in deviation from the source text: for example, the relation- 8 In the poem “To Mr. Pope”, Parnell praises Pope’s skills in the musicality and naturalness of his translation. See Hester Jones ’ article (1998: 55-68) “Pope’s Homer: The Shadow of Friendship” published in Proceedings of the British Academy, 1998, The British Academy, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 9 He wrote the date in a letter to William Broome, dated 16 th of Febrary 1719. 10 In his workshop of graphical arts, Bernard Lintot, creates a lower quality edition, with lower weighing paper, which allows him to offer each delivery at a lower price. In this way 250 copies are printed in folio and 1000 in small folio of all the volumes, except the first which was made into 1750 copies. <?page no="235"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 219 ship between Hector and Andromaca is presented in such a way that a new sentimental dimension appears in the plot with the intention of winning over and charming a new line-up of female readers. Despite the fact that in the Times Literary Supplement it is noted that Pope translated for ‘educated cognosciendi’ (Tomlinson, 2003: 173), the energy of the text refutes the assertion. Charles Tomlinson points out the attack of Achilles in the Scamander river, matching the effect brought by the use of dynamic verbs and the agility of the rhyming couplets that intensify the fire and the spirit of the protagonist (XXI, 263-276): “Now bursting on his Head with thund’ring Sound, The falling Deluge whelms the Hero round: His loaded Shield bends to the rushing Tide; His Feet, upborn, scarce the strong Flood divide, Slidd’ring, and stagg’ring. On the Border stood A spreading Elm, that overhung the Flood; He seiz’d a bending Bough, his Steps to stay; The Plant uprooted to his weight gave way, Heaving the Bank, and undermining all; Loud flash the Waters to the rushing Fall Of the thick Foliage. The large Thunk display’d Bridg’d the rough Flood across: The Hero stay’d On this his Weight, and rais’d upon his Hand, Leap’d from the Chanel, and regain’d the Land”. The study carried out by Cronin and Doyle (1960: 40) notes the mastery and the fine touches that Pope applies to his work, adding ‘tenderness and poetry’, as opposed to Dryden’s 11 colder and less poetical versions. Cronin and Doyle reveal Melmoth’s words. Melmoth studies the new response achieved in the work, bringing it to new generations of readers who accepted the Homeric values set within Pope’s recreation and the moralistic purpose that it contains, relatable to the neoclassical didacticism that distinguishes the eighteenth century. The collection of notes is best explained through this neoclassical and Augustan paradigm. The light reflected from his time delves into the grandeur that is bestowed on Jupiter, with clear resonances of Paradise Lost. Thus, Normal Nicholson (1975) states that Pope reduces Homer to ‘porcelain and cameos’, an assertion that sustains itself in the climate of the time that the translator carried out his work, and which allows Tomlinson to praise Pope’s final work for his mastery in the translation and for his fidelity to the original. 11 It refers to Melmoth’s study on Pope’s translations which Cronin and Doyle take up again in Pope’s Iliad: An Examination by William Melmoth (Washington, D. C.: Catholic University Press, 1960: 40). In relation to Dryden, Melmoth states that his work is cold and carries ‘unpoetical fidelity to the mere letter of the original’, while Pope’s efforts ‘by heightening the piece with a few judicious touches, has wrought it up in all the a ffecting spirit of tenderness and poetry’. <?page no="236"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 220 The aforementioned French translator Dacier pointed out the excessive majesty of the Popean characterizations that are compared to biblical heroes in his, “Reflexions sur la premiere Partie de la Preface de m. Pope” 12 (1719: 10- 11). In a clarification Pope implied his disdain for the French translator Madame Dacier, whose idealisation of Greek civilisation is notable. In this sense, Pope is aware of the simplicity of the Homeric language and, as Matthew Arnold 13 says, of the ambiguity inherent in some of his words. The proof of this (Tomlinson, 2003: 175) is the speech of Telemachus in the Odyssey (XXII, 495-502), where he expresses how Penelope’s maids must be hanged by means of semantics devoid of feeling and affection: “Then thus the Prince. To these shall we afford A fate so pure, as by the martial sword? To these, the nightly prostitutes to shame, And base revilers of our house and name? Thus speaking, on the circling wall he strung A ship’s tough cable, from a column hung; Near the high top he strain’d is strongly round, Whence no contending foot could reach the ground”. The changes to be noted in the style, when translating the Homeric text, are in keeping with the modus operandi of other Popean works, since a modernisation of the Chaucerian text is also seen. When Chaucer writes, ‘And folwed ay his bodily delyt / On wommen, there-as was his appetyt’, the neoclassical poet presents, ‘Yet let astray by Venus’ soft delights, / He scarce cou’d rule some idle appetites’. It doesn’t achieve the same effect as William Cooper, half a decade later, when he raises the tone with a touch of Milton- esque resonances. Therefore, this adaptation of language; the maintenance of a simple register and the inclusion or absence of sentimentalism as best fits the plot are some of the achievements of Alexander Pope. The classic study of Sutherland (1948: 90-91) about the period highlights the value of the writer in adapting Chaucer’s verse with naturalness, just as is seen in these textual pairs, the first being verses of the medieval author and the second of the Augustan: “And folwed ay his didily delyt On women, there-as was his appetyt- Yet let astray by venus’s soft delights, He scarce cou’d rule some idle appetites. Now wolde God that it were waxen night, And that the night wolde lasten evermo! 12 Contained in L’Iliada d’Homere, traduit en François, avec des remarques. Specifically in the first of the three volumes. 13 His article “On Translating Homer” may be consulted, gathered together in this sense by Tomlinson on his page 175. <?page no="237"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 221 Retless he sate, invoking eve’ry pow’r To speed his bliss, and haste the happy hour”. But let us not ignore the opinion of L.G. Kelly, in The Interpreter (1979), who noted the Baroque declamation apparent in Pope’s version, to which Tomlinson (2003: 174) bestows a certain value when he states that “Pope, one must begin by admitting, had trouble with the simplicities of Homer and some of the ‘lower’ vocabulary, since his own diction is often extremely elevated and not easy to descend from”. When he turned his focus towards translation, Pope may have been suffering from a certain creative sterility (Quennell, 1969: 168), or a personal crisis. This lack of first-hand inspiration was the root of his dedication to literary translation which was itself another manifestation of his literary energy. Another reason, which we can presume as having had more impact, was the desire to assess his small fortune, which he had been estimating since the publication of the Iliad. The endeavour was no small undertaking and in order to complete the project he enlisted assistance, namely from the Reverend William Broome and Elijah Fenton. Through these sales Pope achieved economic independence, having enjoyed to this point not the sponsorship of external patrons, but rather the patronage of his family. This marked a decisive moment in the life of the writer. An indication of the healthy sales of his translations is his new residence in Twickenham 14 , which he acquired in 1719. This was the playground of the writer, and became famous for its grotto and its gardens laced with meandering rivers, to the great delight of all who visited. The setting was a rural one, connected to London by both land and water. His love for mythology radiated from the design and decoration that he chose. As his friend Edward Blount wrote, the only thing missing to complete his work of art were nymphs. 1726 was another key date in the history of English editing, being the year that his translation of the Odyssey appeared. Pope produced twelve books of his own creation, along with others from different authors. Eight were written by Broome and four by Fenton. As much as this co-authorship might have dulled his emergent and established literary fame, the economic profits did not lessen. The mention that Pope makes of his assistants is noteworthy. In the translation of Homer’s epic he makes mention of his work using the verb ‘translated’, in the version of the epic poem he describes the work using the verb ‘undertaken’ tangentially mentioning ‘two friends of his’. The profession of translation was beginning to acquire a collective importance, for 14 For more information on this living and recreational place, see the seventh chapter of Peter Quennell’s book (1968), particularly pages 127-133. <?page no="238"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 222 groups and society. It is, in the words of Sherburn (1934: 269), the ethics of collaboration. In Broome and Fenton one can also note the desire of the two versifiers to gain through their revisions a source of economic income and a promise of fame. The new literary panorama also included the new reading public, opened to new segments of society. In this sense, Dryden is a precedent in translating the Aeneid the pages of which are enjoyed not only by the minority of the more knowledgeable elite of period, but also by wealthy businessmen, professionals and female readers. The Tatler and The Spectator 15 played an important role in this social and cultural movement, educating readers in literary taste, broadcasting new principles of literary criticism and advocating the incorporation of women in the enjoyment of works of verbal art. Pope’s works, it can be measured, were received by a significant number of women. Johnson stated that he had 575 subscribers, having printed about 660 copies. According to Pat Rogers, the translation of the Iliad was received by a segment of the female public: to be more specific women made up almost a tenth of the readers. Amongst the subscribers of Pope’s Odyssey, more than a tenth were female readers. So, translation went beyond the use of auctoritas in other space-time coordinates. The changes made by the translator had a positive connotation, associated with originality. This was considered an achievement of the creator who was not totally beholden to the source, stricto sensu, and who prefered to defend his own creation (Hammond, 1997: 19-47, Davis, 2008: 246). The author changed the tone of his objectives, just as can be seen in his subsequent work entitled Imitations of Horace (1733-1738) in which he recreated verses of the Latin poet, modernizing them with resonances of the translator’s own epoch. This was another opportunity to fight against the corruption of the time of George II, personified in the character of Walpole, by means of employing a literary weaponry. When Kilburn (1938: 104-124) referred to the translations of Homer in his classic study of the poet, he underlined the ‘true spirit’ of the source text that stands out in the target text. In the prologue, Pope circumscribes some ideas about the translation process and specifies that he is following a path midway between complete freedom of ‘paraphase’ and the servile approach of following the original work ad literam pedem, which rather makes us think of an original creation that reinvents and rewrites Homer’s images in a new linguistic and cultural setting. Pope preferred to sublimate the Homeric episode by means of precise adornment. This is demonstrated by a reading 15 In number 142 a series of love letters are incorporated coming from the character of Steele to his wife. It is an example of the new characters that are populating the pages of the literary works. Claudia N. Thomas (1994: 26) points out two previous works which illuminate this new tendency in the audience of the works: Love’s Last Shift (1696) by Colley Cibber and Jane Shore (1713) by Nicholas Rowe. <?page no="239"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 223 of the famous extract of the end of the sixth book of the Iliad when he portrays the episode between Hector and his son. In a decade, as Hammond (2005: 33) concluded, Pope created little of his own invention, yet managed to amass a personal fortune through his work and to make himself into the ‘cultural broker’ of his time. At the age of 34, Pope allowed himself to move from being a poet to a translator and from a translator to an editor. Pope wanted to be a man of the arts, dedicated to the flawless business of literature. At the same time he devoted himself to the task of cultivating his garden at Twickenham, and he flourished and improved physically thanks to this work. He also imbued his poetical translations with similar verdure. 6 The Business of Editions The Iliad published by Lintot suffered from treacherous competition from a Dutch printer who made an edition in duodecimo size, importing and selling it on the black market. This interference causes Lintot to carry out another smaller edition, improving on the illegal version by moving the notes from the final part of the book to the foot of the page, which allowed for speedier consultation by the reader. More than 7,000 copies were printed in a matter of weeks. The cost of this edition was less and it did not generate great economic benefits. 1717 is another landmark in the history of editing, being the date that Pope finished a volume entitled Works. It contained a translation of Chaucer, a new version of his previous poem The House of Fame, an ode to music clearly influenced by Dryden (“Ode for Music on St Cecilia’s Day”) along with two love poems, “Eloisa to Abelard” and “Elegy to the Memory of an unfortunate Lady”. The business of editing grew in Pope’s hands, filling him with enthusiasm to pursue other business adventures. In fact, in May of 1722 an advertisement appeared in the The Evening Post looking for translations of Shakespearean works to be sent to the editor Jacob Tonson. More specifically it read ‘if any person has any editions of Tempest, Macbeth, Julius Caesar, Timos of Athens, King John, and Henry VIII, printed before the year 1620’ (Quennell, 1969: 169). A heavy volume entitled Works, under the authorship of Buckingham, was the next of Pope’s work, which he prepared in February. The courtier John Sheffield, third Earl of Mulgrave and first Duke of Buckingham, was a man of letters who composed both verse and prose, for example his Essay on Satire, Essay on Poetry, a version of Julius Caesar and a book of a historiographical nature entitled Account of the Revolution. It was Sheffield’s third wife, the illegitimate daughter of James II, whom Pope entrusted with the <?page no="240"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 224 edition of the works of her late husband. In this case, the edition suffered from the critical gaze of the Whig government, forcing the suppression of some passages favouring the Stuart house. In January 1723 the government halted the circulation of Buckingham’s work, which is understood to have been a blow to the eager man of letters. In early 1724 the Odyssey was in press and Fenton strove to find a bookseller that was interested in the work, as we read in the letter that Fenton sent to Broome on the 9 th of January (Sherburn, 1934: 253): “Tonson does not care to contract for the copy, and application has been made to Lintot, upon which he exerts the true spirit of a scoundrel, believing that he has Pope entirely at his mercy”. In January of 1725 newspapers advertised for works on Shakespeare and Homer (the Odyssey) looking for subscribers, marking the importance of both businesses. This is evident both in a publication and in another collaboration with various authors, as has been suggested 16 . The collaborators (Fenton, Broome, Jortin, Dancastle, Parnell) achieved a certain literary fame as well as the economic benefits, and discover this new form of working in groups. It is worth mentioning the contract of the publication of the Odyssey which is preserved in the British Museum. Its date is the 18 th of February 1723 and stipulates some conditions worthy of attention. The document which Lintot signs with Pope, along with representatives of the author (Bickford y Fortescue), states that upon signing it 52.10 pounds is to be paid to him, and that before publishing the three first volumes the writer will be owed the amount of 157.10 to which the same amount must be added for the publication of the fourth and fifth volumes. In this way, the sum that Pope received for each one of the volumes is 315 pounds. The difference between these amounts and the ones stated above comes from the profits gained from the decoration of the work and for the subscribers that Lintot manages to attract. The relationship between Pope and Lintot was not without difficulties (Sherburn, 1934: 255), as one reads in a letter that Pope wrote to Broome on 13 February 1725, which he repeats in another the following month. Here is part of the first: “You cannot imagine what a scoundrel Lintot is in all respects; pray send not to him for anything, or on any account correspond with or answer him. I will take care to convey the books for you for your subscribers”. 16 Group work was common in other literary productions, such as that of Captain Smollet, Dumas or Edgar Wallace. Another matter of capital importance is whether the appropriate recognition was given to the employees, or on the contrary, whether their names and their concerns were kept in the dark for the economic benefit of the promoters. <?page no="241"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 225 This translation is news in its time. As has been indicated, on the 25 th January 1725, the Daily Courant paper advertised the sale of the translation of the Odyssey, a proposal from Pope. The following day the Evening Post launched an advertisement from Lintot in which the work is advertised for a better price, the heading of which is expressed as follows: “Proposals by Bernard Lintott for his own Benefit, for Printing a translation of Homer’s Odyssey by Mr. Pope”. In short, Lintot offers each volume for a guinea less than Pope, although the edition which competes with Pope’s did not include the page with the names of the subscribers, although it was ‘in the same Manner, Size and Paper’. The competition comes down to the form of payment and while Pope requires money in advance, Lintot allows for the fourth and fifth volumes to be paid upon delivery. On this matter, Sherburn adduces that Pope’s economic advancement would allow him to compete with the bookseller and therefore allow him to be paid in cash. Another topic which deserves a separate chapter is the profits gained by Fenton and Broome. Fenton, firstly, did not seem particularly interested in his fees. In fact, in December 1724 he wrote to Broome ‘I have seen Pope but twice, in passing, since I came to town. How the great affair goes on I know not, nor am inquisitive’. A year later, their interests change: we read from Broome that he wanted to get up to date with Pope, saying ‘we may settle affairs with Mr. Pope’. Here is Broome writing his thoughts in extenso to Fenton (Sherburn, 1934: 258): “I have, my dear friend, that part to you; at least let those accounts sleep till spring. I fancy Mr. Pope will forgive us for letting the money rest in his hands. But to deal plainly, I expect a breach rather than peace from that treaty. I fear we have hunted with the lion, who, like his predecessor in Phaedrus, will take the first share mercy because he is a lion; the second because he is more brave; the third because he is of most importance; and if either of us shall presume to touch the fourth, woe be to us. This perhaps may not be the case with respect to the lucrative part, but I have strong apprehensions it will happen with regard to our reputations. Be assured Mr. Pope will not let us divide -I fear not give us our due share of honour. He is a Ceasar in Poetry, and will bear no equal”. However, it is known that Pope received the amount of 50 pounds for each volume which he delivered unedited to his collaborators. Fenton received 200 pounds for four books; Broome was paid 500 for eight. Furthermore, other profits arose coming from buyers that Fenton and Broome managed to attract. In order to leave proof of the public recognition we need only read the statement which appears after the notes, signed by Broome, which allows us to deduce that it was dictated by Pope himself. This establishes - among other ideas - the co-authorship of both Fenton and Broome. To the collaborators in the development of the works one must add the payroll of the booksellers and editors who have already been named (Lintot <?page no="242"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 226 and Tonson). Tonson, in fact, supported the new man of letters in the making of a new edition of Shakespeare, which came out in 1725. The regulation of the metre and the mutation in the number of verses was undertaken by the lawyer and writer Lewis Theobald in Shakespeare Restored (1726), where he tries to show up Pope’s work by pointing out a series of errors that he considered worthy of major revision. This scorning suffered by Pope, as a scholar and expert on Shakespeare, is a synergistic incident which will help create the protagonist in another work. In this way Pope was driven to refine his criticism against Theobald in a future work, The Dunciad, in which he records his motivations for choosing the character. 7 Last works In the new version, the first book presents the protagonist, Bays, described as Dullness’ 17 favourite poet, who has an omnipotent capacity and whose lineage dates back to his natural parents (Chaos, Night) personified in the poetic weaving of this form (I, 11-16): “Dulness o’er all possess’d her ancient right, Daughter of Chaos and eternal Night: Fate in their dotage this fair Ideot gave, Gross as her sire, and as her mother grave, Laborious, heavy, busy, bold and blind, She rul’d, in native Anarchy, the mind”. The second section crowns Bays in the presence of Dullness and a whole cohort of figures honouring him and making games to celebrate his high appointment, with an obvious presence of the plots of Homer (Iliad, XXIII) and Virgil (Aeneid, V). The third book is a descent into the underworld. Guided by a spirit he arrives at the Styx, the place where the souls of deceased poets dwell and the state where they await to return to the world in new bodies. The presence of the sixth book of the Roman poet who lived in the first century before Christ is noteworthy. The descent happens as follows (13-20): “And now, on fancy’s easy wing conveyed, The King descending, views th’Elysian shade. A slipshod sibyl led his steps along, In lofty madness meditating song; Her tresses staring from poetic dreams, And never washed, but in Castalia’s streams. 17 To Dulness, in this case as a concept and personal quality, he dedicates a poem that begins like this: Thus Dulness, the safe opiate of the mind, / The last kind refuge weary wit can find, / Fit for all stations and in each content / Is satisfied, secure and innocent. <?page no="243"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 227 Taylor, their better Charon, lends on oar, (Once swam of Thames, though now he sings no more)”. In the fourth extract, Dullness bestows titles and honours on his disciples at the same time as he instructs them how to be mindful of pride, selfishness and ignorance, naming methods to distract the figures of public notoriety. The episodes end with the triumph of stupidity and the arrival of night, which extinguishes the opal light of knowledge, restoring the chaos that existed before creation and in this way generating a universe of infinite blackness (IV, 1-8): “Yet, yet a moment, one dim Ray of Light Indulge, dread Chaos, and eternal Night! Of darkness visible 18 so much be lent, As half to shew, half veil the deep Intent. Ye Pow’rs! whose Mysteries restor’d I sing, To whom Time bears me on his rapid wing, Suspend a while your Force intertly strong, Then take at once the Poet and the Song”. The work also lends itself to a political reading, through the dichotomy of the factions of the Whigs and the Tories. Although Pope’s father was a merchant, with similar aspirations to those advocated by the Whigs in relation to the new economy, his grandfather had been a distinguished realistic Anglican and he seems to have been the political influence which our poet cultivated more, aligning himself with the Tories. Walpole’s Whig regime promoted the growth and the boosting of the emerging financial trading to the detriment of traditional values. This poem alludes to Pope as a public poet, following the same trail that Ben Jonson created and formed with other writers such as Lord Byron. The new financial surge, the political atmosphere and the philosophical drive of Bolingbroke compelled Pope to embark upon the writing of Moral Essays, four poems whose themes revolve around possessions and their material aspects. Epistles to Several Persons, also known as Moral Essays 19 , were published between 1731 and 1735. They consist of four pieces and the inlaid plot revolves around ethics and philosophy. The design of the series arranges the theme in such a way that An Essay on Man occupies first place while “Of the Knowledge and Characters of Men” is second in the order of sequence, although it was composed last. The third block includes “To Burlington”, “To Bathurst” and “Fable of Sir Balaam” while “Of Taste” is the composition that closes the tetralogy, having been published in 1731. The 18 This oxymoron highlights remnants brought directly from verse 63 of the first canto of Paradise Lost. 19 In 1751, Warburton coins this new title for the group of four pieces in his compilation of work. <?page no="244"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 228 collection of poems goes from the attributes of human beings, both in men and women, to the use of riches, the major theme that is consolidated in the second, third and fourth sections. “Of the Knowledge and Character of Men”, directed at Lord Cobham, scrutinizes human behaviour, trying to explain some individual interests showing the explanation of the dominant behaviour as being passion (ruling Passion). This is the case with the character of Clodio who demonstrates his colourful tastes in life spanning from religion to his forays onto the streets in search of pleasures of questionable ethics. He applies his own hypothesis, as will be expressed in the second verse of the second part of Essay on Man: The proper study of Mankind is Man. The appeal of writing for a high class person comes from the Latin tradition of Horatio. The counterpart is “On the Character of Women. To a Lady” 20 , that from a formal point of view is a letter to his friend Martha Blount, who is idealised in the final description of the poem. He presents, however, some depictions of female comportment that contain satirical elements, in the irony of which characteristics already presented in Belinda (The Rape of the Lock) and in other characters of his early work are set. He presents the stereotypical female as irrational and illogical (1-4): “Nothing so true than what you once let fall Most women have no character at all Matter too soft a lasting mark to bear And best distinguished by black, brown or fair“. Another group is headed by “To Burlington”, the opponent of Walpole; involved in a social scandal and centred on a noble figure. In “To Bathurst” - the antithesis of Walpole - he incorporated real names of figures of his time through the use of pseudonyms in order to deliver a verdict and a satire on society of his time, even coming to recreate with remarkable brilliance the death of the Duke of Buckingham. An example of the human models compiled in the work is Man of Ross who is the epitome of moderation and Christian values. “Sir Balaam” 21 raises the cry against waste and ambition, drawing a synecdoche character of the time that begins as being a reputable merchant and ends up being a deplorable social climber, illicitly enriched through the mechanisms that the new mercantile speculation offers him. It is a general crusade against the rising economic prosperity of London 22 and in 20 This poem does not go unnoticed in The English Novel in History 1700-1780, where John Ricketti (London, Routledge, 1999: 198-199) explores the portrayal of the female that is outlined in some segments of the composition (206-218, 199-206). 21 The research of Leavis (1972: 68-96), especially p. 95-96, is enlightening on this story. The analysis that Pilar Hidalgo carries out on the poem in La literatura inglesa en sus textos, Alcoy, Marfil, 1992, is very edifying and enlightening. 22 The Bank of England was founded in 1694, when a new wealthy social class began to proliferate because of speculation in the new commercial system. <?page no="245"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 229 particular, against the new rich. Those who are honoured at the beginning of the story end up being greedy and corrupt as the story progresses. The fourth part of the tetralogy contains the verses, already published in 1731, “Of Taste” adding a third edition with the content of “Of False Taste”, both poems appearing under the title “Of the Use of Riches” in the complete final edition. These fragments stress the value of moderation and restraint and to this end they employ a dozen real names which serve as a model for the writer to adorn his content. Stylistically, some of the verses call to mind An Essay on Criticism. 1733 and 1734 is the composition date of An Essay on Man, which begins its launch through anonymous instalments, becoming a philosophical poem acquiring a life of its own without the need to appear integrated in the expected series. The themes range from the universe, the individual, to society and happiness. The correlation of the Moral Essays is found in the work published almost at the same time, also in verse, entitled An Essay on Man, which was destined, as indicated, to become the first letter of the previous series. An Essay on Man, settled on Bacon and in human nature according to its author, engages perfectly with aims of the Enlightenment and Neoclassicism because of its effort to reform and for the proposal of a more rational society, at the same time that it tries to incorporate Newton’s discoveries (Morrissey, 2008: 296) into ethics. An Essay on Man puts Pope on the same line of a distinguished group of writers that cultivated philosophical poetry or metaphysics, ranging from Lucretius to Dante or from Epicurus to Goëthe. T.S. Eliot himself, despite the fact that it goes beyond his studies 23 on Pope, acknowledged the value of the eighteenth century poet, comparable, according to Eliot, to Blake. In fact, in his 1928 introduction to Ezra Pound (Selected Poems) Eliot confirms that ‘Indeed it might be said in our time that the man who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry’. The ideological perspective of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, is aroused in the aspect cultivated in Pope’s verses. Shaftesbury 24 defends the search for universal harmony from the consideration of the human being as a creature of reason and ethics, inserted into a universal chain of 23 See “Introduction: On the Definition of Metaphysical Poetry”, en T. S. Eliot. The Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry, R. Schuchard (ed.), New York, Harvest, 1993: 43-65, especially page 50. 24 Some of his works are Inquiry concerning Virtue or Merit, A Letter concerning Enthusiasm, Sensus Communis: An Essay on the Freedom of Wit and Humour, The Moralists, Soliloquy, or Advice to an Author. En 1999 Cambridge University Press publishes his Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times (Lawrence E. Klein). In 2006 two books about moralists come out, one by Daniel Carey (Locke, Shaftesbury, and Hutcheson: Contesting Diversity in the Enlightenment and Beyond) and another signed by B. Michael Gill (The British Moralists on Human Nature and the Birth of Secular Ethics), both in the editorial of Cambridge University Press. <?page no="246"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 230 individual and group relationships. The framework of religion, ethics, philosophy and aesthetics also moved Pope who transferred it to his knowledgeable verse with the mind frame of a moralist. If Pope’s literary career began with a work in verse of a theoretical nature, it ended with another work of a more philosophical shade. A literary testament divided into four chapters addressed to the Viscount of Bolingbroke, one of the followers of Locke. Following a rationalist path, the poem shows traces of Milton. In verse 26 of the first book of Paradise Lost we find here copied almost entirely from verse 16 the following words: ‘vindicate the ways of God to man’. The human being cannot nor should he rebel against his position in the ‘great chain of being’ (II, 33-34), but must accept it and apply higher will without questioning (I, 294) ‘Whatever is, is right’, showing a clear resonance of the assertion of St. Augustine of Hippo (Confessions, VII) on ‘Whatever is, is right’. Pope’s theodicy goes like this: “All Nature is but art, unknown to thee; All chance, direction, which thou canst not see; All discord, harmony not understood; All partial evil, universal good: And, spite of pride, in erring reason’s spite, One truth is clear, Whatever is, is right”. These beautiful iambic pentameters are evidence of the concordia discors, from Horace which was influenced by the Pre-Socratic philosophers 25 , indicating that there is indeed a higher order with meticulous craftsmanship. Pope’s optimism, his vision of human beings, of the universe and the cosmic order resound in this work of moral philosophy. At the same time, he poses a system of thought that does not hide his affiliation with Milton’s work. The following year he published another poem in which personal and autobiographical notes stand out alongside a healthy self-portrayal of the author through the use of argumentum ad hominem. An Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot, situated as a portico to Imitations, incorporates laudatio that the poet gives instead of family life, when he leaves behind the tumult of business for the peace and quiet of the forced country retreat. This poem compiles Pope’s literary achievements with references to well-known characters such as Hervey, under the guise of Sporus, or the essayist Addison, who appears dressed as Atticus. These figures are planted in the verses as a synecdoche, pars pro toto, to show symbolically and metaphorically the literary reality of their time. The first letters of the poem band together a set of bad poets guilty of eroding and corrupting the literary republic. 25 Specifically it develops the presentation of elements that Pythagoras, Heraclitus, and Empedocles posed. These Greek philosophers were searching for the origin, the beginning or the ‘ 9 @’, in the same way that Pope tries to find the explanatory origins of human behaviour and the universe itself. <?page no="247"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 231 Let us focus first on Atticus 26 , who is portrayed in the fragment from lines 192 to 214. He represents Addison who wants to command and monopolize literary criticism; hence he is compared to Cato, both being seen as swollen with pride in the everlasting fight to achieve their goals. Furthermore, Cato is the title of a tragedy by Addison (1713) which has a prologue by Pope. The episode highlights the failure in various aspects of the character’s personal life, ranging from the liveliest picture to the moral sphere. At the end the narrator shows his confusion when he does not know whether to laugh or cry (206-214): “A timorous foe, and a suspicious friend; Dreading ev’n fools, by glatterers besieged, And so obliging, that he ne’er obliged; Like Cato, give his title senate laws, And sit attentive to his own applause; While wits and templars every sentence raise, And wonder with a foolish face of praise- Who but must laugh, if such a man there be? Who would not weep, if Atticus were he! ” One of the explanatory reasons for the disdain that Pope shows towards Addison can be found in the review that the critic carries out on the version of the first book of the Iliad. The response of the poet is here, in this portrait of Atticus, whose double voiceless plosive phoneme / t/ maintains a certain phonetical and phonetological relationship with the repetition of the voiced plosive phoneme of Addison, / d/ , which links it with the Roman friend of Cicero, and after, with August to show the necessities of a toga that breaks the ideal of an unbiased and fair censor. From the critic we move on to the employers or sponsors. Bufo is another figure that demands our attention. The first fact that must be noted is the etymology and Latin origin of his name. It comes from the Latin for toad (bufo, bufonis). Therefore he is treated as an amphibian. Bufo represents the defenders of art, helping artists through his financial wealth, as is the case with George Bubb Doddington and the count of Halifax (231- 248): “Proud as Apollo on his forked hill, Sate full-blown Bufo, puffed by every quill; Fed with soft dedication all day long, Horace and he went hand in hand in song. His library (where busts of poets dead And a true Pindar stood without a head) Received of wits and undistinguished race, 26 Let us say now that the choice of Roman names brings the idea of a classical approach and of national character. <?page no="248"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 232 Who first his judgment asked, and then a place: Much they extolled his pictures, much his seat, And flattered every day, and some days eat: Till grown more frugal in his riper days, He paid some bards with port, and some with praise. To some a dry rehearsal was assigned, And others (harder still) he paid in kind. Dryden alone (what wonder? ) came no nigh, Dryden alone escaped this judging eye: Bur still the great have kindness in reserve, He helped to bury whom he helped to starve”. He represents the prototypical person being flattered day after day, who in return pays literally with both money and in kind. He is full of himself, as if he were Apollo himself: pleased to see his name in ink, he is asked first for his acquiescence and then for a place among his protégés. The lexical- semantic plan is disparaging (proud, full-flown, puffed, flatted) and his support is not governed by the models of good taste. Against this background of tinsel and false glamour, Pope prefers to adopt the path of independence, remaining independent of prevailing circles, being - by his own choice - outside the radius of action of patronage and the court (261-270): “Oh let me live my own, and die so too! (To live and die as all I have to do: ) Maintain a poet’s dignity and ease, And see what friends, and read what books I please: Above a patron, though I condescend Sometimes to call a minister my friend: I was not born for courts or great affairs; I pay my debts, believe, and say my prayers; Can sleep without a poem in my head, Nor know, if Dennis be alive or dead”. As has been demonstrated, the present, both socially and politically, and philosophical inquiry are two main themes in the work of Pope. The final work, published in 1738, Universal Prayer 27 continues to show the survival of these two themes. The poem is distributed with An Essay on Man, which makes one think that it has been written as a continuation, taking advantage of the fertility and the drive of the previous poem. Robert W. Rogers makes the case for an earlier date of composition. This is the first of the thirteen verses that comprise Universal Prayer (1-4): 27 Robert W. Rogers is the author of an article entitled “Alexander Pope’s “Universal Prayer”, in The Journal of English and Germanic Philology (54, 4, pp. 612-624) that we consider to be interesting in order to delve into this facet. <?page no="249"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 233 “Father if all! in every age, In every clime adored, By saint, by savage, and by sage, Jehovah, Jove, or Lord! ” On the one hand, Universal Prayer unravels Shaftesbury’s philosophical thread while on the other hand it is replete with religious aspects. As a side issue, it must be noted that some predicaments of this work are consistent with a distancing from religion in this sense, with his family’s Catholicism (Joseph McCabe) 28 . The final stanza (49-52) fits with the vision of the universe previously adduced and without forgetting to look at Nature and the elements of which it is composed, he continues to show a musicality and a euphony that per se emulates the semantics contained in the poem: “To thee, whose temple is all space, Whose altar, earth, sea, skies! One chorus let all being raise! All Nature’s incense rise! ” The poet’s religious background is manifest, therefore, in the above verses. In the statement ‘All discord, harmony not understood’, through the use of the oxymoron, the understanding of the existence of a divine order that governs everything is key, in a living nature that is both unquestionable and inexplicable, and allows for the harmonious functioning of the scala naturae. 8 Conclusion In the literary panorama occupied by Dryden and Pope, a fact of axial relevance takes place that is the peak of a new literature that would mark the stance taken by the writers on one or the other side of the literary spectrum. A literary aspect is the traditional or neoclassical character and is exemplified in Dryden’s work that Swift and Pope perpetuate. The other creative line is more modern and maintains a close relationship with journalism and is the one that Addison and Steele represent. This dualism explains the emergence of literary works such as the The Dunciad and others where the self-representation of the author shines through. Therefore, in the dawn of the 18th century, critics and writers were debating over the quality of writing, subject and style. In 1704, Jonathan Swift published The Battle of the Books, where he contrived and depicted a dispute between the ancient and modern writers. 28 For the religious matter see the 1918 book by McCabe, entitled The Popes and Their Church: A Candid. Another theme that we are not going to deal with here is the affiliation of Pope and the Scriblerous Club to gay tendencies, noted by Martin Greif, in his The Gay Book of Days. <?page no="250"?> Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero 234 Pope and Swift were concerned about the boom that mediocre literature was experiencing, and the false knowledge that it contained. Pope considered it to be governed by mediocrity, by the Goddess Dullness. Swift himself also attacked modern writers in his Battle of the Books. This dichotomy brings to mind the retired diplomat, Sir William Temple, who Swift embraced and defended when he published Of Ancient and Modern Learning at the end of the 17th century. A reference to adversaries is also found in “An Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot” where the fictitious characters created (Atticus, Bufo and Sporus) serve as weapons of attack against the poets of low repute or bad literary practises which Pope considered to be the pillar of the poet to spread and demonstrate their representational aura. A normative historical event that we have to take into account in the proposed work is the “Statute of Anne” which helps to understand the break from the classical system. Its beginnings in criticism, imitation and decorum help the reader to understand it and will later become extinct, giving way to the emergence of another paradigm just like its progressive solidification where singularity, creation, authorship and sales become the new values based on mobility and change. The two great figures that consolidate the professionalization of writing in England are Dryden and Pope, with a line of chronological contiguity between one and the other with common elements. References Michael Alexander: A History of English Literature. New York 2007. Derek Alsop: “Literature 1660-1714”, in A. Chantler & D. Higgins (eds.): Studying English Literature. London 2010, 70-89. Teresa Barnald & Gary Day: “Glossary”, in G. Day & B. Keegan (eds.): The Eighteenth- Century Literature Handbook. London 2009, 201-206. Brian Blackley & Lara M Crowley: “Literary and Cultural Contexts”, in R. C. Evans & E. J. Sterling (eds.): The Seventeenth-Century Literature Handbook. London 2010, 58- 84. Harold Bloom: The Anatomy of Influence. Literature as a Way of Life. Yale 2011. Peter Burke & Po-Chia Hsia (eds): Cultural Translation in Modern Europe. Cambridge 2007. Ashley Chantler & David Higgins (eds.): Studying English Literature. London 2010. Paul Davis: Translation and the Poet’s Life. The Ethics of Translating in English Culture, 1646-1726. Oxford 2008. Bernd Dietz: “El siglo XVII”, in C. Pérez Gállego (ed.): Historia de la Literatura Inglesa I. Madrid 1988, 370-460. Thomas Stearns Eliot: The Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry. New York 1993. Stanley Fish: Versions of Antihumanism. Cambridge 2012. Christine Gerrard: A Companion to Eighteenth-Century Poetry. Oxford 2006. Brean Hammond: Professional Imaginative Writing in England. Oxford 1997. Brean Hammond: Pope amongst the Satirists 1660-1750. Devon 2005. <?page no="251"?> The reader who cannot enjoy Pope as poetry probably understands no poetry 235 Brean Hammond: “London and poetry to 1750”, in L. Manley (ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Literature of London. Cambridge 2011, pp. 67-84. Peter C Hermann: A Short History of Early Modern England. British Literature in Context. Oxford 2011. Jean E. Howard: “London and the early modern stage”, in L. Manley (ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Literature of London. Cambridge 2011, pp. 34-49. Adrian Johns: “London and the early modern book”, in L. Manley (ed): Literature of London. Cambridge 2011, pp. 50-66. Samuel Johnson: “Life of Pope”, Selected Writings. A Tercentenary Celebration. Cambridge 2009, pp. 439-469. Robert Kilburn: The Poetical Career of Alexander Pope. Princeton 1938. Lee Morrissey: “The Restoration and eighteenth century, 1660-1780”, in P. Poplawski (ed.): English Literature in Context. Cambridge 2008, pp. 211-305. Colin Nicholson (ed.): Alexander Pope: Essays for the Tercentenary. Aberdeen 1975. Mark Pattison: Alexander Pope. Selected Works. Oxford 1936. Alexander Pope: Collected Poems. London (1924) 1963. Alexander Pope: An Essay on Criticism. The Rape of the Lock and Epistles to Several Persons (Moral Essays). Plymouth (1973) 1988. Alexander Pope: The Rape of the Lock. Oxford 2007. Alexander Pope: Selected Poetry. Oxford 2008. Alexander Pope: The Dunciad in Four Books. London 2009. Alexander Pope: The Art of Sinking in Poetry. Surrey (2009) 2011. Peter Quennel: Alexander Pope: The Education of Genius 1688-1728. New York 1969. Valerie Rumbold: “Introduction” to A. Pope: The Dunciad in Four Books. New York 2009, pp. 1-19. John Sitter: The Cambridge Introduction to Eighteenth-Century Poetry. Cambridge 2011. Richard Terry: “Key Critical Concepts and Topics”, in G. Day & B. Keegan (eds.): The Eighteenth-Century Literature Handbook. London 2009, pp. 119-133. Claudia N. Thomas : Alexander Pope and His Eighteenth-Century Women Readers. Illinois 1994. Charles Tomlinson: Metamorphoses. Poetry and Translation. Manchester 2003. Juan de Dios Torralbo Caballero: "Lateritiam invenit, marmoream reliquit: the literary career of John Dryden", in V. López-Folgado & M.M. Rivas-Carmona (eds.): Essays on Translation. Multilingual Issues. Hamburg 2012, pp. 55-76. George Sherburn: The Early Career of Alexander Pope. Oxford 1934. James Sutherland: Preface to Eighteenth Century Poetry. Oxford 1948. <?page no="253"?> Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado D. Juan de Escóiquiz’s Spanish version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 1 Introduction Our aims in this paper are first to briefly trace the main features of the time honoured poem by Thomas Gray 1 , Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard within the blending of poetic modes as used by its author, which were in vogue in the Post-Augustan or, for some critics, Pre-Romantic period; and secondly, to examine Don Juan Escóiquiz Morata’s “El Cementerio de Aldea: Elegía de Gray” (1805), while describing some of the translator’s overall technical practice. The “Elegy“, which has been considered as the most representative poem of its age, gained Gray a lasting attention from literary scholarship, when so many 18 th century poets have been scorned by later critique. Reception history has obliterated many names which have contributed significant work to the interpretation of an age of looming social and political changes, thus being relegated to mere relics of an obscure age, thrown out to a corner of standard literary discourse. The celebrated poem under scrutiny seems to be concerned with a memento mori meditation on the inevitable fate of all human beings. Some critics suggest that the poem may have been prompted by the untimely death of his close friend Richard West. Critics also differ in their opinions about the writing stages of the poem; they all would agree, however, on its slow progress and on the place of its conclusion, Stoke Poges 2 ; after its conclusion, the author sent the manuscript to his friend Horace Walpole in a letter dated 12 1 Thomas Gray (1716-1771) attended Eton School in his boyhood, where he was educated in classical literature, which later would become a fruitful resource that he used to embellish his own works. In 1734, he was sent to King’s College, where he was a cquainted with Horace Walpole. He embarked on a “Grand Tour” with him from 1739 to 1741. Not only was this long tour around the old continent, mostly France and Italy, of enormous interest for young students in terms of cultural learning, but it also provided the young poet the opportunity to meet foreign fellow poets and critics and reading about other literary trends. 2 The Manor House of Stoke Poges in Buckinghamshire lies in the ancient village called Stoches, recorded in the Domesday Book in 1086, and held at a later stage by William of Stoke. Two hundred years after William, Amicia of Stoke, heiress of the occupant of the Manor, married Robert Pogeys, who was Knight of the Shire. Hence, the complete name. Thomas Gray, buried in the local churchyard of St Giles’, described the house in the poem “A Long Story”. <?page no="254"?> 238 Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado June 1750 3 . Walpole not only showed admiration for it but spread news to other friends. While the poem is supposed to have been started after a visit to the graveyard at the village of Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire, in 1742, Gray sent it to publish anonimously and in haste in 1751 by Robert Dodsley in the Pall Mall magazine so as to forestall its piratical printing by a minor printer in a well known copyright affair. Its success seemed to have been immediate and overwhelming. The vast knowledge and experience in the field of letters gained over the years were artistically captured in his poetic composition, among which “On the Death of Mr. Richard West”, an intimate friend of his, stands out. Other important poems are “To Adversity”, “On a Distant Prospect of Eton College”, “To Spring” or “Hymn to Ignorance”. However, it was “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” the composition that gave Thomas Gray an undoubtedly privileged place in the history of English literary tradition due to a number of undeniable factors like its genuine blending of poetic modes, the melancholy air the poem breathes and the poet’s sensibility to shape the universal fears of mankind. The “Elegy” was, no doubt, the most acclaimed of his poems, and it went through twelve editions by 1763, while being translated into a number of languages like Greek, Latin, Italian, German and French. In particular, Gray’s “Elegy” travelled widely throughout Europe, thus also influencing several Spanish poets and translators of the early 19 th century. “Refracted texts” are those texts which have been processed for a certain audience or adapted to a certain poetics or a certain ideology. Thus Blake is actually understood in the light of refracted texts by Swinburn and Yeats, who adapted him to their own poetics, while revealing him to a wider audience. Viewed from that particular angle, refracted literature plays a very important part in the development of literary systems and what is perhaps more important, it helps disseminate the work of writers who otherwise would have passed unnoticed. 4 In “Die Aufgabe des Übersetzers” Walter Benjamin (1955: 48) described translation as the “language forest” which is a suitable metaphor that reveals some unarguable facts about this activity: “Die Übersetzung aber sieht sich nicht wie die Dichtung gleichsam im innern Bergwald der Sprache sebst, sondern au erhalb desselben, ihm gegenüber, und 3 Cf. P. Toynbee and L. Whibley (eds.) Correspondence of Thomas Gray, 3 vols. (additions by H. W. Starr). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971 (2nd ed.). Letter 173, vol 1. 4 Translation is a kind of refraction as we can see in the present case. Without translations authors, whose language is a minority language, would not have been so influencial in other cultures. Ibsen, for instance, was introduced to Europe in German not in his Nordic language, whereas Strinberg was introduced in Europe through Paris in French. Cf. Susan Bassnett: Comparative Literature: A Critical Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993. Cf also the contributions in Charles Bernheimer (ed.): Comparative Literature in the Age of Multiculturalism. Baltimore: John Hopkins U. Press, 1995. <?page no="255"?> Escóiquiz’s version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 239 ohne ihn zu betreten, ruft sie das Original hinein, an denjenigen einzigen Ort hinein, wo jeweils das Echo in der eigenen den Wiederhall eines Werkes der fremden Sprache zu geben vermag” . There have been many editions, imitators, and translations of the aforementioned poem since the very day of its publication. As A. Lefevere suggested, “los reescritores 5 adaptan, manipulan, en cierta medida, los originales con los que trabajan para hacer que se ajusten a la o las corrientes ideológicas y poetológicas de su época” (1997: 21) and went on to give us a number of examples of such manipulation, which he split up into several subheadings. One such subheading, and perhaps the most important, was concerned with poetics, i.e. poetry as an institutional system. A praxiology of translation whereby actual versions of a literary work are deemed good or bad is a relative, time-bound notion and cannot be proclaimed a theory, although the so called “canon concept” would attempt to do so. Such concept is based on two essentially Romantic notions: the notion of genius and the notion of the sacred text. If a work of literature is the product of genius, it is admitted to the corpus of a canon, which is used as a model both for future production and evaluation. This makes the text an untouchable, unique, sacred entity which defies all analytical intrusion and tampering. Translation was often conceived of metaphorically an intrusion or unlawful trespassing into a forbidden garden. 6 Indeed, L. Venuti (1998: 31) pointed out: “Translation provokes the fear of inauthenticity, distortion, contamination. Yet insofar as the translator must focus on the linguistic and cultural constituents of the foreign text, translation may also provoke the fear that the foreign author is not the original, but derivative”. According to some extended 19 th century views, the sources of such an approach can be traced in the Platonic-Christian metaphysical underpinnings of the Western culture. In effect, the dichotomy of “original” versus “copy” is deeply entrenched in our Western scholarly thought (Kelly 1971). As a consequence, the literary translator is bound to face a kind of inferiority complex whenever she attempts to render a poetic work from a foreign lan- 5 Lefevere argued that translation is a sort of rewriting, and therefore an outstanding type of manipulation. This notion is firmly based on “Comparative Literature“ where authors draw (borrow from, comment on, interpret, copy) from other authors - texts. 6 In an article we argued that “as it seems apparent that the translator is far from being the originator of the work of art, he cannot be attributed the possession of genius at all. Rather she can only aspire to be considered a secondary craftsman, a mere “scribe“ in the sense of a medieval copy-maker of manuscripts, thus negating the concept of “authorship‘‘ as suggested by L. Venuti in The Scandals of Translation: towards an ethics of difference. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Also Cf. V. López Folgado “Translating as unscathed intrusion“ in : -¢£ ¤¥, ¦¨¤¨ ©-¨-, 2008, p. 199. <?page no="256"?> 240 Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado guage. In the 20 th century, the tendency of translation theorist has been to provide a series of rules — a Procrustian bed of some sort— that would hamper all intuitive reading, rich in sensitive, emotional effects. However, Lefevere (1992) have insisted on the idea of the interpretive author- decentering, taking translation as a rewriting subversion against the cult of the author and the translator as a co-creator of the original text, fighting against his own invisibility (Venuti, 1995). The present translator of the “Elegy”, Juan de Escóiquiz, is an undouted “spirited” translator, in Lefevere’s terms, who dared challenge the formal frame of the original composition, and with it the author’s authority and the possibility of a unique, correct version. However, translation theorists of the 20 th century have been prone to setting objective rules that underline the notion of equivalence when translation “cannot be termed a purely linguistic operation” (Wilss 1982: 65). As Theo Hermans aptly observed, despite their complex terminology elaborated schemes and diagrams which describe and illustrate the mental processes of encoding and decoding messages, “those traditional authors — including many 20 th century theorists — hardly describe the cognitive operations and computations that occur within the human brain” (1985: 9). 2 A blending of Poetic Modes With the lines “The ploughman homeward plods his weary way (…) The rude forefathers of the Hamlet sleep” (Gray 1834: vv. 3, 16), Thomas Gray introduces one of the latent themes throughout the poem “the ruling classes are contrasted with the rural proletariat” (Ellis 1968: 66). While the former is placed in the upper echelons of the social sphere, the latter lives in a non- existent space out of the borders of the court; drawing on this situation, an actual static portrayal of the status quo prevailed in 18 th century society. Both the privileged and the poor are commonly attributed a range of virtues and moral values which characterize and individualize them in terms of an existence / non-existence socio-economic dialectics. On the one hand, qualities like “Grandeur”, “Ambition” and “Honour” establish the voice and power of the court and, on the contrary, “homely joys”, “destiny obscure” or “this neglected spot” describe the silenced rural community of outsiders who are subjugated to endless alienation. Likewise, the distinction between classes is revealed through the memorials and burial customs performed for both parties. A number of traditional emblematic and symbolic items are available to account for the imaginary world — “the Lap of Earth”, “the storied Urn” or “animated Bust”, “the Boast of Heraldry” or “the Pomp of Power” — serve the purpose of depicting those of higher rank, while the short and “Simple Annals of the Poor”, the “Lowly Bed”, the “Fretted Vault”, the “Shapeless Sculpture” signal the impoverished lower ranks. <?page no="257"?> Escóiquiz’s version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 241 Despite this notable and clear-cut dividing line, the poet blurs the metonymic dialectics which enduringly segregates the rustic community by, firstly, reshaping the earthly social micro-cosmos where the homo œconomicus does not longer exist and every man is on the same standard before death; secondly, by the commonly shared desire to overcome death, the great leveler, so that man may be remembered after his worldly departure 7 ; and thirdly, by demystifying the classical notion of gaining immortality through fame and granting plausibility to life after death only through salvation in heaven. By the same token, death is deciphered as a triumph for those freed from ravenous hunger, whose creative powers have been denied and as a defeat for those who have succumbed to covetousness and whose honors have been eclipsed with the passing of time. In broad terms, Gray’s poem is considered as a melting pot of various ingredients, mostly both classical and contemporary poetic modes; moreover, the poem may be entertained as the expression of a blend of feelings: “It establishes general truths and it connects the personal feeling of the poet to this universal feeling [feeling towards the death] of all mankind” (Morris 1964: 66). In his own time, Dr. Johnson placed it among the so-called local or landscape poetry or, as Henry Weinfield points out, topographical poetry “[in which] the description of a particular landscape (…) gives rise to a particular set of reflections” (Weinfield 1991: 43). This is characteristic of the poetic tradition which develops throughout the so-called Age of Sensibility or Post-Augustan Age that took place in the second half of the eighteenth- century literature. 8 Taking all this into account, we would like to stress several points in Gray’s poetry, not all of them agreed upon by all critics, as it happens with multifaceted prism, which can be looked at from a a variety of view points. Firstly, Gray’s poem may be duly classified within the conventional subgenre of “Pastoral Poetry”, which seems to have flourished in the Augustan Age, that is, in the first half of the eighteenth century. 9 However, it subverts 7 “The two classes which were so sharply contrasted are brought together in the universality of man’s desire to be known and remembered” (Ellis, 1968: 66). As the poet briefly remarks, “The paths of glory lead but to the grave” (Gray, 1834: v. 36) 8 The period of English literature “which covers roughly the second half of the eighteenth century is one which has always suffered from not having a clear historical or functional label applied to it. I call it here the age of sensibility (…)” (Northrop Frye, 1956: 144). 9 The notion of “Pastoral poetry’’ recovers the idea of an earthly Arcadia, a utopic spatial and temporal cosmos where the elements of nature and humankind coexist in harmony; that is, an idyllic recess in which hegemony and hierarchy, social division and economic exploitation are unknown to man, for the only principle ruling human relationships is that of communitas. The representative poetic figure par excellence is the shepherd, conceived of as the ideal embodiment of man, gifted with the skills of the classical bard. In other words, this poetic mode relies on the utopic fantasy of eternal <?page no="258"?> 242 Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado the ethos and the aesthetics of such a mode insofar as the representative figure of the shepherd in Theocritus’s Idylls and Virgil’s Eclogues is displaced by a more realistic poetic first person as a voluntary outcast of society. This turn in the focus provides a far more “humanitarian look (…) [and] scientific spirit and artistic realism to the work” (Poggioli 1975: 31). Furthermore, Virgil’s Georgics is an overriding influencial authority, as the verse of the Latin author is pregnant with poignant realistic images that stimulate the poet to rigorously depict the rural environment, which appeals to the senses and feelings of the poet, though freed from the stereotypical bucolic idealization handed down since the Renaissance: “The Curfew tolls the knell of parting day; The lowing herd winds slowly o’er the lea; The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me”. (Th. Gray, “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”, lines 1-4) Nonetheless, Thomas Gray moves from the descriptive passages of the local natural scene to the subjective and reflective mood of the Thomsonian tradition, on account of an inner dialogue with the Supreme Ruler of the natural micro-cosmos “[The Elegy] presents a fine selection of details borrowed from the allied school of Thomsonian nature-realism and from the Classics” (Draper 1967: 310). In this light, the genre “Elegy” may be defined as a neo-platonic and meditative poem which crowns the triumph of Christian faith: “No further seek his merits to disclose, Or draw his frailties from their dread abode; (There they alike in trembling hope repose,) The bosom of his Father and his God”. (Th. Gray, ibidem, lines 125-128) Secondly, the poem “Elegy” borrows its blending of dark and white melancholy mood drawn from the so-termed “Melancholy Poetry” originated formerly in the Greek and Latin Classics, who furnished the term with positive connotations, followed then by the seventeenth-century idea of melancholy as an affliction affecting and degrading body and soul. 10 Moreover, happiness which can be only found in solitude and in the retreat of the bucolic locus amœnus in an imaginary Arcadia. Similarly, it recreates the friendly atmosphere of otium, which shepherds (homo artifex, musicians and poets) indulge in a natural landscape “[it is] the end of history and the problem of history in its negative aspect [i.e. class division]” (Weinfield 1991: 153). 10 White or douce melancholy is defined as one of a naturalist, descriptive-meditative tone in which the locus amœnus of woods, murmuring brooks, the break of dawn or the setting of the sun incites the “poetic I” to contemplate upon existence in pleasant solitude. On the contrary, dark melancholy refers to contemplations upon life and death in the solitary landscape of a locus eremus -the opposite of a locus amoenus- in which “le <?page no="259"?> Escóiquiz’s version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 243 Gray recovers John Milton’s positive attitude towards the nomenclature from his poem “Il Penseroso” when giving a melancholy sidekick to the muse of art and creation: “He (…) provided it [the term] with an original set of connotations, molding it, as a great poet may, to a new use” (Mauzi 1979: 23). Not only does the broad classical literary background supply the poet with the leitmotif of the retirement and the yearning for solitude in the quietness of the natural landscape, necessary for sensual delight and for ennobling spiritual and intellectual faculties 11 , but also with the grim idea of death from which meditations arise that dwell on religious immortality and an unyielding worldly oblivion. Regarding this point, Thomas Gray shades his poem with the pervasive, gloomy tones of the so-called Graveyard School by placing his “poetic I” in a transitory cycle where man is doomed to fateful death unless his prospects lead him to redemption and faith in God. Thirdly, Gray’s poem may be classified within the aesthetics of the “Graveyard School“. 12 This poetic mode breathes airs of nostalgia, sympathy and sentimentalism on the one hand, and on the other it stirs the “poetic I” to reach the inner realms of profound meditations upon gloomy themes like death and the frugality of human existence, revealing that the sole reward for man is to be found in the hereafter as a soul devoted to God. As if by a cathartic effect created by the descriptive-meditative and thematic scheme of the whole poem, the reader is expected to commune with the passions, sensations and inner reflections aroused in the poet’s soul and to be guided by him into the right paths of faith. The echoes of the “Elegy” seem quite evident to modern critique, either unconsciously, because of common inspiration or consciously, borrowed from contemporary authors adscribed to the “Graveyard School“. Thus, Blair’s The Grave (1743), Young’s Night Thoughts (1945), Akenside’s Odes (1745), James Hervey’s Meditations among the Tombs (1946), Joseph Wharton’s Odes (1946) and Thomas Whaton’s The Pleasures of Melancholy (1947), to name the most relevant. After all, literary communication crucially depends upon knowing what it is like to have certain experiences, whether or not coincidental with one’s contemporaries. But it is more likely that the reader is guided by the “spirit of the times”, a common sentiment towards relevant topics of the epoch. The reader is thus cognitively encouraged to seek out the properties of “he leaves the world to darkness and to me’’ (Gray 1834: v. 4) which may not be congruent semantivol des oiseaux sinistres, des cyprès, des tombeaux (…) elle consiste à faire converger toutes les forces de l’âme sur un seul objet et à s’abimer dans cette contemplation, aussi profonde que circonscrite” (Mauzi 1979: 23). 11 “The praise of retirement and learned leisure, of withdrawal into country seclusion from the distractions and corruptions of the city and the court” (Sickels 1969: 19) 12 “une poésie plus intime et plus sérieuse (…) d’un aspect funèbre et mélancolique” (T. van Tieghem 1921: 7). <?page no="260"?> 244 Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado cally, but whose metaphorical, vague effects are certainly evocative. 13 The opening lines of the “Elegy” are presented like a canvas in which the natural setting is dimmed by dusk and embracing darkness. The purpose of accomplishing this effect on the audience should be bringing religious didacticism to fruition. Besides, the plethora of images and sounds foreshadow and solemnize the scene in a manner similar to the tolling bells that announce the eternal sleep of the country labourers; the countrymen bear the metonymic implication of embracing all humankind 14 , as expressed in the rural churchyard and the epitaph which closes up the poem: “Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, And all the air a solemn stillness holds, Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds (Th. Gray, ibidem, lines 5-8) Save that, from yonder ivy-mantled tower, The moping Owl does to the Moon complain Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, Molest her ancient solitary reign. (ibidem, lines 9-12) Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree’s shade, Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap, Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep”. (ibidem, lines 13-16) Fourthly, from the “Funeral elegy” of the seventeenth-century, the present “Elegy” under scrutiny draws two themes: first, that of human vanity and the fleetingness of ephemeral life; and second, that of death and the Day of Judgement; and not only did it take the central topics but also their formal structure. Concerning the structural aspect, Draper (1967: 310) noted, “it has a long, generalized introduction that prepares the reader for the elegiac mood. It follows it with the lament for a melancholy youth; and finally ends (…) with an epitaph”. 13 The inderterminacy at the level of implicatures may be matched with the veiled, vague intentions of the poet which are likely to trigger a wide-range of assumptions in the reader. Cf. D. Sperber and D. Wilson: Relevance: communication and cognition, Oxford: Blackwell, 1995, (2nd ed.) The effects of inexplicit message may lead the reader to wonder inferentially for some time about the precise meaning, a search that is surely cognitively costly, but the end result of which is all the more rewarding. In this sense, cf. V. López Folgado: “Literary translation as a cognitive activity”, in E. Parra- Membrives et al. (eds) Aspects of Literary Translation, Tübingen: Narr Verlag, 2012. 14 As Peter Sacks argues in his study of elegies, “Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard in fact belongs to the kind of elegy for the reason that it is a poem of lament and sympathy for the universal death of humankind and specifically, for the proletariat class, as well as consolation in Christian faith” (Sacks, 1985: 131). <?page no="261"?> Escóiquiz’s version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 245 The “Elegy” then begins with a detailed description of the natural scene in which dusk forebodes darkness, thus announcing the solemn and dismal tone of the ensuing stanzas. The vivid gloomy setting filled with the sight of solitary spots; the sweet, disharmonic and dark sounds of nature; the ruins of the rural tombs and the vestiges of human civilization, all contribute to prompt the “poetic I” to arouse his mind and soul in a rapturous trance. If Gray does not make direct allusion to bodily putrefaction, he does place his pensive “poetic I” in the burial ground in which dry heaps of turf and the shade of elms and yew-trees take the place of commemorative and ornamented sculptures upon the stones of the souls of the rustic labourers. 15 Likewise, this melancholy reign is inhabited by silence, the moon and nocturnal fowl which, perched upon the spire of the abandoned church, hoots at night “to warn her silver counterpart of the presence of some wanderer in her sacred realms”. After this passage, the exiled and brooding “poetic I” succumbs to deep thoughts about parting from worldly existence and the destiny of his soul. Lastly, the reflections of the “poetic I” culminate in the epitaph or panegyric (lacrimæ rerum topic) in memory of an anonymous peasant (symbol of humankind) in which the virtues of the deceased one are extolled and through which the nameless and fameless outcast will attain everlasting glory in afterlife. Gaining a true name in heaven, the seat of God, is regarded as the victory of the innocent country labourers over the corrupted souls of court and city dwellers. Lastly, the poet makes use of the conventions of the “Pastoral Elegy”, thus adding realistic strokes which remind the reader of the actual English countryside. 16 As Anne Williams claims, “Gray’s Elegy is one version of pastoral (…) it is closer to the accents of realism” (Williams 1987: 105). With that aim in mind, Thomas Gray excludes all the paraphernalia of the classi- 15 There is a descriptive inversion of spatial connotations, as suggested by G. Deleuze & F. Guattari in their A Thousand Plateaus. Capitalism and Schizophrenia. London: Continuum, 2004, where smooth spaces are opposed to striated spaces: the former are open, unlimited whereas the latter as closed, limited and determined by a frame. The churchyard is characteristic of an enclosed space -an alien world outside the bounderies of ordinary country life— which enacts the oppresive Gothic atmosphere, as sensed in the precincts of a churchyard. That is remarkable in the Spanish poet, Gustavo A. Bécquer, who in his letters broods over a village cemetery: “en más de una aldea he visto un cementerio chico, abandonado, pobre, cubierto de ortigas y cardos silvestres y me ha causado una impresión siempre melancólica, es verdad, pero mucho más suave, mucho más respetuosa y tierna...En estos escondidos rincones, último albergue de ignorados campesinos, hay una profunda calma...Es imposible ni aun concebir un sitio más agreste, más solitario y más triste, con una agradable tristeza, que aquél“. (G. A. Bécquer: Desde mi celda: cartas literarias. Madrid: Espasa Calpe (Col. Austral), 1985, 8ª ed. (Carta 3). 16 As Eric Smith remarked, “[Though] it is not directly part of the tradition of pastoral elegy going back to Theocritus (…) [it is] a modern equivalent or complement to [classical] pastoral elegy” (Smith 1987: 51). <?page no="262"?> 246 Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado cal mode such as the invocation of the muse, the funereal train of mourners and the flowery embellishment of the tombs; also worth noting is that the loss of the living (famous shepherd-poet) is not mourned by his circle while Nature remains oblivious of the tragic death. Instead, it covers itself with the gloomy strokes of the Graveyard School and the “Funereal Elegy”. In addition, the poet subverts the classical models regarding the identity of the person mourned, that is, Theocritus’s Idylls (first idyll) and Moscus of Siracuse’s The Lament for Bion. The latter work is paramount inasmuch as it consists of a lament for a real person under the guise of the shepherd-poet. In this vein, Gray melts the aforementioned figure with his anonymous country labourer’s class in order to make the lament become a universal one. In addition, Virgil’s Bucolics (fifth and tenth eclogues) are quintessential for the poet to move from the lament to the celebration of the virtues of the dead (shepherd - poet - the peasant class). The post-Augustan poet interpolates the didactic and religious precepts of faith prevailing in this mode ever since the Middle Ages as an aesthetic and moral inheritance from the previous century. In the final analysis, Thomas Gray’s “Elegy” shows clear evidence of the transition from the literary trends and cultural concerns of the Augustan period to those of the Age of Sensibility and Pre-Romanticism. 3 Don Juan Escóiquiz Morata, translator Don Juan de Escóiquiz Morata, direct descendant of a well-known family of the military, was born in Navarra, 1760, and died in exile in Ronda, Málaga, in 1820. As a translator, he is remarkable for translating a number of English poets like Edward Young and his famous The Complaint; or Night Thoughts on Life, Death, and Immortality (1742-1745) under the title Las noches de Young (Madrid, 1797); John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667) as El Paraíso perdido (Madrid, 1812); and Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751) as El Cementerio de Aldea. Elegía de Gray, (traducida libremente del inglés), among other outstanding works. In addition, he wrote several other works, the most remarkable of which are: Tratado de las obligaciones del Hombre (Madrid 1795); Méjico conquistador: un poema heroyco (Madrid, 1812); Los famosos traidores refugiados en Francia (Madrid 1814); and lastly, Idea sencilla de las razones que motivaron el viage del rey don Fernando VII a Bayona en el mes de abril de 1808, dada al público de España y de Europa por el excelentísimo señor don Juan Escóiquiz etc. (para su justificación y la de las demás personas que componían entonces el Consejo privado de S. M. contra las imputaciones vagas de imprudencia ó ligereza divulgada contra ellos por algunos sujetos poco instruidos de las expresadas razones, acompañadas de una <?page no="263"?> Escóiquiz’s version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 247 noticia breve de los sucesos y negociaciones de Valençia, hasta la vuelta de S. M. á España) (Madrid 1815). 17 The title of Escóiquiz Morata’s translation shows, needless to say, that the translator’s purpose was to present a free-translated version of the English “Elegy”. In broad terms, he pays no heed to the verbatim translational process and therefore changes the formal aspects of the source text. None the less, he mainly clings to the meaning and message in Gray’s “Elegy” to the same degree as he upholds congeniality to the English author in terms of the style, the instructive and religious function, and the intentionality implied in the source text. To accomplish this aim, Escóiquiz is not only inclined to preserve the meditative and subjective mood of the poem which emanates from the plentiful descriptions and reflections upon death, fame and celestial life or doom, but he also employs similar literary devices (hyperbole, metaphor, alliteration, epithet, etc.) so as to embellish the scenery description and heighten the meditative stanzas in the “Elegy’s” translation. Likewise, he resorts to adding new lexical elements, expanding them in order to render distorted syntactical structures (mainly order or hyperbaton) which cannot be found in the original text, but which serve to highlight the melancholy, gloomy tone and the message conveyed. By the same token, the translator arranges the target text in the poetic prose genre, in sharp contrast with the stanza and line division of the source text. Hence, the 32 stanzas which comprise Gray’s “Elegy” are reduced to a total of 25 paragraphs. Moreover, Escóiquiz does not clearly sunder the epitaph of the original text from the rest of paragraphs in the translation, but uses italics instead in the lines corresponding to the three last funereal stanzas of the English poem. In spite of this, the reader for whom the Post- Augustan poet’s work is positively unknown will not be able either to discern the epitaph itself or to grasp the enlightening message conveyed in it. Escóiquiz, in sum, steers clear of from the elegiac poetic modes of the “Elegy”. And yet he succeeds, by subordinating the prose to the lyric genre, in presenting a poetic voice which maintains the poetic, rhetorical qualities just as the “subject I” of the original does. Like the lyric genre of the source text, he heightens imagery and emotional-meditative effects, instead of highlighting objective presentation of facts. In contrast, the Spanish version under survey, like most verse translations, differs from the original poem in two important devices, namely, rhyme and metre, which have been utterly disregarded by the translator. With respect to the “initial norm” — a term first coined by G. Toury— of the translation, it seems quite normal that Escóiquiz should refuse to focus his attention on the prosodic features of the original “Elegy”, like rhyme and 17 For further information, see Diccionario histórico ó biografía universal compendiada. Tomo V. Barcelona, 1831. <?page no="264"?> 248 Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado metre, in the process of rendering them into Spanish. The contrasting norms in both languages differ so much that all comparison is useless. Quite on the contrary, he primarily focuses on transferring similar semantic characteristics (relevant message and poetic style of the original) of the text, as well as similar melancholy, pensive tone effects (otherwise called connotations) of Gray’s poem onto the readers. 18 As Pilkington (2000: 180) noted, the reader’s ability to construct the relevant contextual assumptions, on the basis of assumptions stored at the encyclopaedic entries attached to these concepts, depends on the reader’s previous experience and ability to empathise and extend experience. The readers of English poetry know that stress rhythm is all important in the metrics in English: the iambic pentameter is, ever since the Renaissance, the favourite metre for English poets, where five accented feet are measured in a more or less rhythmical regularity. In Spanish, however, poets measure their verse regularly by counting syllables. Different ages and different poets have their own inclinations when choosing their own metres. Metres are formal schemas or structured frames that foresee regularities that are stored as cognitive units. But basically we do not use all the information that may be stored in a schema without challenging it every time it is used relevantly. In other words, the schemas are not unchanging and everlasting, but subject to continuous shifts. 4 A translation study of El Cementerio de Aldea. Elegía de Gray The following study is mostly devoted to the linguistic features that appear in the poem and which have revealed somewhat the comparative coding devices, procedures and conventions used by the translator in his text. 19 18 Nida and Taber’s terms, the prevailing type of equivalence which may be inferred is textual and dynamic, in the sense that what the translators aims at is to covey to his reader the same kinds of effects the original authror intended. Eugene A. Nida and Charles R. Taber define the translational process as a procedure by means of which the message, meaning and style of the SL and ST are repeated in a the TL and TT in a natural and equivalent fashion, “Translation consists of reproducing, by means of natural and accurate equivalence, the message of the original language in the receptor language, first concerning sense and then concerning style” (Eugene Nida and Charles Taber, 1969: 12). This position, however, is far from original, being well known ever since the Classics. Alexander Tytler reproduced it again in his famous treaty, Essays on the Principles of Translation, London: J. M. Dent & Co. 1791. 19 Many authors have devoted hard work to those formal aspects of the texts, ever since J. R. Firth’s disciple, J. C. Catford seminal work: A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Oxford: Oxford U. P., 1965. Some British and German theorists followed this orientation in the 70’s and 80’s, notably B. Hatim and I. Mason, M. Baker among other British theorists, and K. Reiss and J. Vermeer, W. Koller, W. Wilss, A. Neubert and Ch. Nord among the German. For a synopsis Cf. Virgilio Moya: La Selva de la Traducción. Madrid: Cátedra, <?page no="265"?> Escóiquiz’s version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 249 Firstly, as regards the formal layer, the nominal mode prevails over the verbal throughout Escóiquiz’s version where a number of abstracts nouns occur, such as “silencio”, “antigua soledad”, “el tiempo”, “el murmullo”, “la suerte”, “el helado oído de la muerte”, “la fatal hora”, “la riqueza”, “la mundana gloria”, “el sueño eterno”, “los encantadores acentos de la lisonja”, “el silencioso olvido”, “algunas centellas de vida”, etc. all of them furnishing the original poem oozing a meditative mood. As regards adjectives, the epithet is a recurrent literary device that highlights the quality of the following noun. Those loaded with a metaphorical meaning occur with high frequency, like “el confuso zumbido de las alas de los insectos”, and “su lúgubre murmullo”; but also those of a suggestive nature like “su solitaria vida”, and “el triste silencio”; or those emphasising a recurrent collocation, like “las cristalinas aguas”, “celestial incienso”, “sombríos bosques”, and “espantosas tinieblas”. Likewise, some refer to a synesthesia whereby a quality which is not objectively proper of the noun is lumped together with it, like in “sosegada carrera”, “deliciosos valles”, “fúnebres elogios”, “dulce susurro”, etc. On many occasions, however, some of those adjectives do not appear in the translated text, resulting in additional information or in a wrong collocation of the adjective. For instance in the examples: a) “antigua soledad” for “molest her ancient solitary reign’’ instead of “perturbando su antiguo reino solitario’’. Here, the epithet is joined to “soledad” but not to “reino”, “reinado” or “dominio” as we can read in Gray’s text. Also b) “el confuso zumbido de las alas de los insectos”, while in Gray’s text we read: “Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight” meaning in Spanish “salvo el escarabajo que vuela y zumba’’. Here, the epithet makes allusion to the action indicated by the verb “to wheel”. Again c) “Las cristalinas aguas”, “el dulce susurro del arroyuelo”, while in the original we read: “And pore upon the brook that babbles by” instead of “Y contempla el arroyo que cerca murmulla”. This last example Escóiquiz’s makes one of his frequent additions, as he replaces the simple noun “arroyo” by “cristalinas aguas”, when he has the word “arroyuelo” to refer to “brook”. Moreover, the translator adds a new quality to the murmuring waters, namely “dulce”, which is missing in the source text, with a view to underlying the instant at which the melancholy poetic voice commune with the natural landscape and the meditative tone of the passage. Secondly, as regards the verbal mode, Escóiquiz version includes the present (a description of the scenery), past and future tenses (meditations on life-death-afterlife), in accordance with the progression of the poem. The type of syntactical structure commonly used is the complex sentence where subordination and embedding are repetitive. Besides, the use of hyperbaton 2004, and Amparo Hurtado: Traducción y traductología. Introducción a la traductología. Madrid: Cátedra, 2011. <?page no="266"?> 250 Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado in the Spanish version is reiterative, and through it Escóiquiz breaks the logical sequence of the sentence in order to emphasize a specific element. By way of illustration: “Now fades the glimm’ring landscape on the sight, And all the air a solemn stillness holds”. (Th. Gray “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”, lines 5-6) “Vase desvaneciendo de mi vista el brillante aspecto de los prados: por todas partes reyna un triste silencio (…)” (J. Escoiquiz, “El Cementerio de Aldea. Elegía de Gray”, p. 105) “Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire”. (Th. Gray, Ibidem, lines 45-46) “Tal vez reposan baxo de ese montoncillo de tierra corazones que animó un fuego s ublime (…)” (J. Escoiquiz, Ibidem, p. 107) Thirdly, as for the lexical category, we have drawn on Jean Delisle’s (1993) functionalist model, in order to identify the translation procedures followed by the translator, as well as to examine those procedures commonly employed by Escóiquiz. 20 To illustrate this, we have selected the following extracts: “Oigo ya el fúnebre tañido de la campana que me avisa de que se acaba el día. Los b alantes se encaminan con lentos é inciertos pasos ácia sus establos, y el cansado l abrador se dirige á su cabaña dexando el universo todo en espantosas tinieblas, objeto de mis tristes meditaciones”. (J. Escoiquiz, “El Cementerio de Aldea. Elegía de Gray”, p. 105) “Vase desvaneciendo de mi vista el brillante aspecto de los prados: por todas partes reyna un triste silencio, que solo interrumpe el confuso zumbido de las alas de los insectos, que vagan lentamente por el ayre; escuchándose en los campos su lúgubre murmullo, que adormece á los ganados de los lejanos rediles”. (Ibidem, p. 105) “También se percibe el graznido del espantoso búho, el que desde el chapitel de aquella torre, vestida de yedra, se queja a la luna de que yo haya venido á inquietarle en su tan a ntigua soledad, y de que profane sus sombríos bosques”. (Ibidem, p. 105) “El musgo, que el tiempo casi ha reducido á polvo, se eleva en montoncillos baxo los espesos árboles; y aquí baxo los rústicos olmos, y á la sombra de los cipreses, reposan en su estrecha morada los rústicos abuelos de los vecinos de la aldea”. (Ibidem, p. 105) 20 See also his Canadian forerunners Vinay, Jean-Paul, and Jean Darbelnet: Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais. Méthode de traduction. Paris: Didier, 1956. In this connection, see Hurtado, Amparo, and Lucia Molina: “Translation techniques revisited: A dynamic and functionalist approach’’. Meta: Translator’s Journal, 47: 4 (2002): 498-512. <?page no="267"?> Escóiquiz’s version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 251 “Ni la chirriadora golondrina colgada de la casita que de grosero barro construyera, ni el agudo y penetrante canto del gallo, ni la rústica consonancia de los caramillos, no serán poderosos á levantarles de aquel espantable lecho: ya no saldrán á respirar la fr agancia de la mañana que de sus alas derraman los zefirillos. Ya no gozarán en sus hogares de las trémulas y ardientes llamaradas, ni de sus caras esposas les prepararán las rústicas comidas, ni les saldrán al encuentro sus hijuelos pidiéndoles con ansia el beso paternal, ni subirán mas en sus rodillas”. (Ibidem, p. 106) The concept of “discursive creation” should be mentioned at this stage (Delisle 1993) in order to explain the phenomena we encounter in this version: it can be defined as an operation whereby a deviant, non-lexical equivalence is established which, only with the necessary aid of the cognitive context of the reader, can be relevantly interpreted. It is the result, in sum, of a free implicature accessed by inference making: a) “ácia sus establos”: the term “lea” is replaced by “stables”. Escóiquiz associates the setting of the sun with the image of the herd returning to its refuge overlooking the importance of the scenery. Despite the return is expected to happen, it is not even mentioned in the source texts, as Gray’s purpose is to emphasise the very instant at which man and beasts are one with the surroundings which are getting dark as if the natural elements called death and sleep up. b) “profane sus sombríos bosques”: it is read “as wand’ring near her secret bow’r” in the source text. Escóiquiz wilfully plays down the importance of the hidden, solitary reign of the vestiges of time and human civilisation (death and the churchyard). By employing the natural scenery of the gloomy grove, the passing of time and death as themes have been overlooked or emphasised to a lesser extent. c) “escuchándose en los campos su lúgubre murmullo”, while Gray writes, “and drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds”. Firstly, the translator shifts the subject of the sentence “drowsy tinklings” for a direct object; and secondly, the mentioned “drowsy tinklings”, which is the typical sound of the cowbells, is rendered as “lúgubre murmullo”. A further basic concept called “generalization” can also be summoned here to attend to the semantic extension of a word: more specifically, generalization consists of translating a word or a phrase by means of a more general, vague one, which is often the superordinate of a series of hyponyms. d) “las alas de los insectos, que vagan lentamente por el prado”; but in the original we read “the beetle” specifically, whose droning and wheeling is the only sign of life amidst the quiet landscape. Arguably, through such <?page no="268"?> 252 Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado generalisation the quietness of the view and death-like scent of nature seem to be fully deprived of that melancholy tone which foreshadows the eternal sleep. With the term “modulation’’ Vinay and Darbelnet (1956) meant vaguely that a TT message actually kept some resemblance with the ST. They claimed that it ultimately consists of changing points of view. However, viewed in cognitive terms, this vague nomenclature hides out different phenomena: it can be just voicing some implicatures that seem deviant or simply far-fetched. However, this interpretation implies a great deal of effort of processig information (inferential work) when relevance is strenuously sought after (Sperber and Wilson, 1995, 2nd). In that case, the reader is likely to have some trouble finding the precise meaning. The distorsion of the original text is likely to be the result of a daring manipulation of the text on the part of the translator and therefore his own responsibility. The Spanish version under scrutiny offers some twisted sort of texts: e) “rústica consonancia de los caramillos”: in Gray’s text, however, we read “the echoing horn” that together with the cock’s strident clarion makes up a booming melody; this is certainly contrary to the harmonious sound of the horns in Escóiquiz’s version. It seems as if the translator were ignorant of the antithesis between the delightful and the discordant images and sounds in the stanza. f) “yo haya venido á inquietarle” while in the original, we read “Of such, as wand’ring near her secret bow’r”. Escóiquiz interprets there is an intrinsic bond between the indefinite noun and the anonymous identity of the “poetic I”; both identities are overlapped, thus underlining the subjective tone of the whole composition, which began with “que me avisa que se acaba el día” and “Vase desvaneciendo de mi vista”. All this lead us to think that from time to time we may encounter actual errors as Jean Delisle point out. 21 The following examples can be listed as: 1) Misinterpretation: the translator ascribes a wrong meaning to a word or words which betrays the author’s intentions in the ST. a)”triste silencio”: we read in the original “a solemn stillness”. Escóiquiz endows “stillness” with a negative quality which shadows the solemnity of 21 See Delisle, Jean et al: Terminologie de la tradition, Translation Terminology, Terminología de la traducción, Terminologie der Übersetzung. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1999. Also, Jean Delisle: La traduction raisonée: manual d’initiation à la traduction professionnelle de l’anglais vers le français. Ottawa: Les Presses de L’Université d’Ottawa, 1993. <?page no="269"?> Escóiquiz’s version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 253 the descriptive passage, thus leading the reader to an altogether different mood. b) “espantoso búho”: Escóiquiz attributes a negative connotation to the nocturnal fowl, so as to seemingly recreate the sombre nightly atmosphere, but it actually deviates from the “moping owl”, which evokes the melancholy mood of forthcoming meditations upon death. c) “chirriadora golondrina”: in Gray’s text “the swallow twitt’ring” which matches the joyful melody of this specific bird at the crack of dawn. Escóiquiz makes a squeaky bird of his swallow, thus creating an unpleasant effect to the ear instead of a pleasant one and breaking the antithesis of delightful and less beguiling chords and images. 2) Addition: the translator introduces information or stylistic effects which do not occur in the original. However, sometimes such information can be seen as explicatures, either paraphrasis of the same thought or cogent interpretations (conclusions) of the original. Therefore they give rise to new implicatures. a) “objeto de mis tristes meditaciones”: ensuing “espantosas tinieblas”, this utterance reveals the core of the meditations of the “poetic I”, that is, the dark and stealthy nature of death which is coincidental with one of the main themes in Gray’s “Elegy”. b) “chapitel de aquella torre, vestida de yedra”: by making allusion to the pinnacle or steeple of the tower, it is implied that Escóiquiz chooses to stress metaphorically the temporal gap between the present, past and the future. In this sense, the “poetic I” appears spatially placed in a rural landscape which shows the ebb and flow of time interwoven with the transitory passing of the day. c) “que de sus alas derraman los zefirillos”: the utterance found in the “Elegy” makes reference to the mild, pleasant breeze, here interpreted by the wind named after the Greek god of the west wind, Zephyr. Here it is used in plural, as if there were many of them. Seemingly, the translator attempts to underline here the fragrance of the early hours in the morning. d) “El musgo, que el tiempo casi ha reducido (…) á la sombra de los cipreses”: there cannot be found any similar embedded sentences in Gray’s “Elegy”. We are led to think that Escóiquiz strove hard to developing the paragraph with images that, at all extent, recall that death is lurking around <?page no="270"?> 254 Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado the wandering “subject I” and that it was the plight of the rude forefathers of the village and so it will be the plight of all mankind. 5 Conclusion In conclusion, we assume that Escóiquiz presents a refracted, adapted version of Thomas Gray’s “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”, where some traces can be found that fit into the translation procedures characteristic of the so-called oblique translation. The initial norm guiding the translator through the Spanish version is to convey the resembling textual characteristics (meaning, message, poetic style—though somewhat modified) of the source text, as well as similar meditative and melancholy effects upon the reader to the effects the original readers may have felt while reading through it. At the the morphosyntactic level, the nominal mode seems to prevail, which results in a slower flowing and more abstract discourse than the verbal processes, by contrast; this mode provides the effect in the reader’s mind of an action slowly flowing from the present (descriptions of the natural landscape) to the past and future (meditations upon life-death-afterlife). Similarly, complex sentences and hyperbatons reveal the scenery descriptions and the gloomy cogitations of the “poetic I”. Lastly, the lexical-semantic level actually reflect the pensive and melancholy mood of the poem and it does so by means of discursive creations, generalisations, misinterpretations and additions, the latter being regarded as tolerated procedures rather than as faults. All of them add an undoubted distinctive flavour to Escóiquiz’s translation. References Walter Benjamin: Schriften (herausg. Th. W. Adorno). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag 1955, Vol I. Jean Delisle, et al.: Terminologie de la tradition, Translation Terminology, Terminología de la traducción, Terminologie der Übersetzung. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins 1999. Jean Delisle: La traduction raisonnée. Manuel d’initiation à la traduction professionnelle de l’anglais vers le français. Ottawa: Les Presses de L’Université d’Ottawa 1993. John Draper: The Funeral Elegy and the Rise of English Romanticism. New York: Phaeton Press 1967. Frank Ellis: Twentieth Century Interpretations of Gray’s Elegy. Gray’s Elegy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall 1968. <?page no="271"?> Escóiquiz’s version of Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard 255 Juan de Escóiquiz: El Cementerio de Aldea. Elegía de Gray, traducida libremente del inglés. Madrid: Imprenta de Vega y Compañía 1805. Northrop Frye: “Towards Defining an Age of Sensibility”. EHL 23: 2 (1956), pp. 144-152. Morris Golden: Thomas Gray. New York: Grosset and Dunlap 1964. Thomas Gray: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. London: John van Voorst 1834. Theo Hermans (ed.): The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. London: Croom Helm 1985. Theo Hermans: “Translation norms and correct translations” in K. M. van Leuven-Zwart and T. Naaijkens (eds.): Translation Stuides: the State of the Art. Amsterdam & Atlanta: Rodopi 1991. Amparo Hurtado: Traducción y traductología. Introducción a la traductología. Madrid: Ediciones Cátedra 2011. Louis Kelly: The True Interpreter. Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1979. Andre Lefevere: Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. London: Routledge 1992. Also, Spanish versión, Traducción, reescritura y manipulación del canon literario. Salamanca: Ed. Colegio de España 1996. Robert Mauzi: “Les Maladies de l’âme”. L’Idée du Bonheur dans la Littérature et la Pensée Françaises au XVIII e siècle. Genève-Paris: Slatkine Reprints, 1979, pp. 22-28. Virgilio Moya: La Selva de la Traducción. Madrid: Cátedra 2004. Eugene Nida and Charles Taber: The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: Brill, 1969. Spanish version: La Traducción: teoría y práctica. Madrid: Ediciones Cristiandad 1986. Adrian Pilkington: Poetic Effects. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins 2000. Renato Poggioli: The Oaten Flute: Essays on Pastoral Poetry and the Pastoral Ideal. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1975. Amy L. Reed: The Background of Gray’s Elegy: A Study in the Taste for Melancholy Poetry, 1700-1751. Massachussets: Columbia University Press 1924. Peter Sacks: The English Elegy: Studies in the Genre from Spencer to Yeats. Baltimore: John Hopkins University 1985. Eleanor Sickels: The Gloomy Egoist: Moods and Themes of Melancholy from Gray to Keats. New York: Octagon Books 1969. Eric Smith: “Gray: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”. Modern Critical Interpretations: Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987, pp. 51-67. Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson: Relevance: communication and cognition. Oxford: Blackwell 1995, 2 nd ed. Paul van Tieghem: La Poèsie de la Nuit et des Tombeaux en Europe au XVIII e siècle. Paris: Slatkine Reprints 1921. <?page no="272"?> 256 Rosalía Villa Jiménez & Vicente López Folgado Lawrence Venuti: The Translator’s Invisibility. London and New York: Routledge 1995. Lawrence Venuti: The Scandals of Translation. London & New York: Routledge 1998. Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet: Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais.Méthode de traduction. Paris: Didier 1958. Henry Weinfield: “Gray’s Elegy and the Dissolution of the Pastoral”. The Poet without a Name: Gray’s Elegy and the Problem of History: Chicago: Southern Illinois University Press 1991, pp. 150-164. Anne Williams: “Elegy into Lyric: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”. Modern Critical Interpretations: Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. New York: Chelsea House Publishers 1987, pp. 101-119. Wolfram Wilss: The Science of Translation: problems and methods. Tübingen: Narr 1982. <?page no="273"?> Sabine Geck Was ist DDR-Deutsch und wie übersetzt man es? Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm und seiner Übersetzung ins Spanische 1 Der Turm, das Ostalgie-Phänomen und die Wendeliteratur aus der Außenperspektive Im Vorfeld meiner Übersetzungsanalyse möchte ich verschiedene Betrachtungen zum Text und seinem Sitz im Leben anstellen, ohne die eine Übersetzung weder möglich ist noch beurteilt werden kann. Uwe Tellkamps Der Turm 1 erschien 2008 pünktlich zum zwanzigjährigen Jubiläum des Mauerfalls. Der Roman schreibt sich in ein Phänomen ein, das im Alltag als Ostalgie etikettiert wird. Nach Ahbe ist Ostalgie eine “Integrationsstrategie“: “[Sie] weist - mehr oder weniger demonstrativ - darauf hin, dass ein Teil der Ostdeutschen bei ihrer Integration in das vereinigte Deutschland, auf ihre eigenen, von denen der westdeutschen Mehrheit abweichenden Erfahrungen, Erinnerungen und Werte nicht verzichten wollen [sic].“ 2 Es handele sich um einen ungesteuerten “Laien-Diskurs“, dessen Zustandekommen “von unten“ illustriere, “wie wichtig Diskurse zu Geschichte, Traditionen und Kultur einer Bevölkerung für die Identität einzelner Menschen sind.“ 3 In einer ähnlichen Linie und unter Berufung auf Hettlage 4 1 Uwe Tellkamp: Der Turm. Geschichte aus einem versunkenen Land. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag 2008. Auch als suhrkamp taschenbuch 4160, erschienen 2010, sowie als Kindle- Edition 2010, ebenfalls bei Suhrkamp. Diese wurde für diesen Aufsatz von mir benutzt, auf sie beziehen sich auch die Seitenzahlen in Klammern, die jedoch mit der Taschenausgabe übereinstimmen. Spanische Ausgabe: La Torre. Sobre un país desaparecido. Übersetzt von Carmen Gauger. Barcelona: Anagrama 2011. 2 Thomas Ahbe: Ostalgie. Zum Umgang mit der DDR-Vergangenheit in den 1990er Jahren. Erfurt: Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Thüringen 2005, S. 65. 3 Ahbe: op. cit., S. 64. 4 Robert Hettlage: “Identitätsmanagement. Soziale Konstruktionsvorgänge zwischen Rahmung und Brechung“, in: Welttrends 15 (1997), S. 7-23. <?page no="274"?> Sabine Geck 258 unterstreicht Woderich, dass kollektive Identitäten “ein gesellschaftlicher Defininitions- und Konstruktionsvorgang“ 5 seien: “Selbstkonzepte der Mitglieder einer Gruppe werden transparent, indem bestimmte gemeinsame Gruppenmerkmale ausgewählt werden, um sich selbst abzugrenzen und nach außen darzustellen. Charakteristisch ist der symbolische Rekurs auf Gegenstände, Codes und Zeichen, die Verbindendes stiften, sich auf eine gemeinsame Lebensgeschichte beziehen und ein exklusives Wissen der (ostdeutschen) Minderheit erzeugen, das die strukturelle Unterlegenheit in eine virtuelle Überlegenheit verwandelt: die Präferenz für Ostprodukte; das Beharren auf tradierten sprachlichen Formen und Fügungen, der körperliche Gestus; der Rekurs auf alte Filme, Stars, literarische und musikalische Titel; der ironisch spielerische, gleichwohl rituelle Umgang mit den Symbolen und Emblemen der untergegangenen Macht.“ 6 In einem engeren, literarischen Sinn partizipiert Der Turm - neunzehn Jahre nach dem Fall der Mauer - an der sog. Wendeliteratur. M®czka bietet hierfür weitere Erklärungsmuster, die sowohl auf die Ostalgie als auch auf die Wendeliteratur anwendbar sind. Sie rekurriert auf Assmanns 7 Theorie der kollektiven Identitätsbildung, die zwischen dem kommunikativen und dem fundierenden kulturelle, d.h. institutionellen Gedächtnis unterscheidet. Ersteres “ist an alltägliche Kommunikation gebunden und betrifft biographische Erinnerung. Es ist kurzfristig wirksam und macht sich an den individuellen Erinnerungen aus der jüngsten Vergangenheit fest, die sich auf die persönlichen Erfahrungen und auf die Erlebnisse der Gruppenmitglieder stützen.“ 8 M®czka betont den Zusammenhang zwischen Macht und Teilnahme am öffentlichen Diskurs: 9 “Das Machthaben in der Gesellschaft bedeutet daher für Erinnerungsgruppen wie die ostdeutsche, als vollgültiges Mitglied am wirksamen öffentlichen Diskurs teilzunehmen.“ Um dies zu erreichen, würden in erster Linie Literatur und Kunst benutzt, da diese “im Kontrast zur Politik oder Religion traditionell als Disziplinen gesehen [werden], in denen 5 Rudolf Woderich: “Ostdeutsche Identitäten zwischen symbolischer Konstruktion und lebensweltlichem Eigensinn“. Schriftfassung des Referates auf der Konferenz ‚The German Road from Socialism to Capitalism‘, Harvard University, Centre for European Studies, June 18-20, 1999. In: Carsten Förtsch / Frank Berg: Brandenburg-Berliner Institut für sozialwissenschaftliche Studien, BISS e. V. (Webseite) 1999. http: / / www.biss-online.de/ download/ ostdeutsche_identitaeten.pdf [12.7.2012] 6 Ibidem, S. 10. 7 Jan Assmann: Das kulturelle Gedächtnis. Schrift, Erinnerung und politische Identität in frühen Hochkulturen. München: C.H Beck 1997 (erstmals 1992), S. 70ff. 8 Iwona Maria M®czka: Alles Banane? Fiktionale Erinnerung an DDR und Wende in den ersten zwanzig Jahren nach dem Mauerfall. Dissertation, Universiteit Leiden 2010. http: / / media.leidenuniv.nl/ legacy/ alles-banane--omslag-v7.pdf [12.7.2012] 9 Sie stützt sich dabei auf Michel Foucault: L’ordre du discours. Paris: Gallimard 1971. <?page no="275"?> Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm 259 die externen Einschränkungs- und Ausschließungsmechanismen weniger stark auftreten.“ Und weiter: “Als Gegendiskurs zum hegemonialen Diskurs über den Osten fungiert die ostdeutsche Nachwendeliteraur, indem sie einerseits auf den herrschenden Diskurs über den Osten anspielt und diesen andererseits durch dessen Inszenierung in spezifischen (Re)Formulierungen zurückweist.“ 10 Dass Ostalgie und Wendeliteratur auch im Westen Deutschlands auf großes Interesse stoßen (wie der Erfolg des Turms und vieler anderer Romane zeigt), wird seltener thematisiert. Meines Erachtens geht es letztendlich um eine gemeinsame Identitätsfindung von Ost- und Westdeutschen, und zwar aus dem einfachen Grund, den Anke Bächtiger vom Reutlinger Heimatmuseum in Schwaben für den Erfolg einer Ostalgie-Ausstellung angibt: “Viele Menschen aus der Region haben persönliche Bezüge zur DDR, teils weil sie selbst aus der ehemaligen DDR kommen, teils weil sie dort Freunde oder Verwandte haben.“ Nachdem ich nun den Roman im innerdeutschen Diskurs verortet habe, stellt sich die Frage, wie diese komplexen Sachverhalte der (ost-)deutschen Identitätsproblematik im europäischen Ausland, hier: Spanien, aufgenommen werden und wie und ob sie vermittelbar bzw. überhaupt von Interesse sind. Der Kunstkritiker de la Nuez schreibt in seiner Analyse der im Westen beobachtbaren “pasión por el Este de los creadores occidentales“, die auch an Spanien nicht vorbeigegangen sei, über eine Untergattung dieser “Leidenschaft“: “Es el caso de la Ostalgia, en particular la alemana. Esa melancolía - tenue y crítica unas veces, exuberante y laudatoria en otras - por el comunismo como un mundo añorado frente a las adversidades de la reunificación. Ahí están películas como Berlin is in German[y], Good Bye Lenin! o La vida de los otros.” 11 Der Autor stellt das Interesse für die ehemalige DDR in den weiteren Kontext der kulturellen Gattung Eastern (eine Anspielung auf Western): “Entrada la segunda década del siglo XXI, es pertinente hablar de un género cultural nacido de la posguerra fría: y es posible llamarle eastern.” 12 Damit sind alle Kulturprodukte gemeint, auch Filme und Kunstwerke, die die Zeiten des eisernen Vorhangs und des kalten Kriegs heraufbeschwören: “no hay museo o galería española que no tenga ‘su‘ artista del Este; no hay editorial que no tenga su escritor, ni club que no disponga de su futbolista.“ Dabei stehen die mäßigen Bucherfolge, die über Geheimtipps unter Intel- 10 Anne-Laure Daux: “Die ostdeutsche Nachwendeliteratur als Gegendiskurs”, in: Roth / Wienen (Hg.), op. cit., S. 91-114; hier: S. 93. 11 Iván de la Nuez: “Llega el eastern”, in: El País (Babelia), 08.05.2010. http: / / elpais.com/ diario/ 2010/ 05/ 08/ babelia/ 1273277535_850215.html [12.7.2012] Der dritte Film ist Das Leben der anderen. 12 Ibidem. <?page no="276"?> Sabine Geck 260 lektuellen kaum hinausgehen und die wir hier nicht im einzelnen aufzählen können, dem Erfolg der erwähnten Filme gegenüber. Von der spezialisierten Rezeption der Wende und der Wendeliteratur in Spanien zeugen Sammelbände 13 und germanistische Tagungen. 14 2 Die Sprache der DDR Aus innerdeutscher Sicht ist das Phänomen DDR-Sprache reichlich behandelt worden. Neben den unvermeidlichen populären Publikationen stehen eine Reihe wissenschaftlicher Veröffentlichungen, die in den letzten Jahren nicht weniger geworden sind. Ammon, in seinem Standardwerk von 1995, schlägt vor, das DDR-spezifische Deutsch als Staatsvarietät, nicht als nationale Varietät zu bezeichnen, da sich die Bewohner beider deutscher Staaten als zu einer Nation zugehörig verstanden hätten. 15 Der Autor diskutiert die Frage, ob nur die Lexik Träger der nationalen bzw. staatlichen Varietäten sei, oder nicht auch die Grammatik und die Aussprache. Wörter seien besonders gut greifbar und als Schibboleth von großer Bedeutung. 16 Nach Ammon gehört jedoch der institutionelle Wortschatz nicht zur Varietät, da er immer zwingend ist (Varietät setze Wahlmöglichkeit voraus); Ähnliches gelte für Sachspezifika. Was die Unterschiede in der Aussprache betrifft, so seien diese “auch zu beobachten im Gebrauchsstandard, in den ja immer die jeweiligen Dialekte hineinwirkten,“ 17 also (ich ergänze) hauptsächlich das Obersächsische und das Berlinisch-Brandenburgische. 18 Ein sächsischer “Ak- 13 Manuel Maldonado Alemán (Hg.), La narrativa de la unificación alemana. Bern: Peter Lang 2006. Marta Fernández Bueno / Torben Lohmüller (Hg.): 20 Jahre Mauerfall. Diskurse, Rückbauten, Perspektiven. Bern: Peter Lang 2012. Darin auch ein Aufsatz zum “Turm“ von María Loreto Vilar Panella: “Versteckspiel. Die Literaturszene in den letzten Jahren der DDR aus der Sicht Uwe Tellkamps“, S.161-180. 14 Im Jahre 2005 der VI. Congrès de l’Associació de Germanistes de Catalunya “Der ungeteilte Himmel - Visions de la Reunificació quinze anys després”, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, 20- 23.04.2005, dann 2009 der VI. Congreso de la Sociedad Goethe en España “Deutschland 2009: 60 Jahre gemeinsamer und getrennter Geschichte in der Literatur. Zum 80. Geburtstag Christa Wolfs”, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, 23-25.04.2009, und in der Universität Complutense, in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Goethe-Institut und dem Madrider Germanistenverband, die Tagung “20 Jahre Mauerfall - Diskurse, Rückbauten, Perspektiven“, 18.-20.11.2009. 15 Ulrich Ammon: Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Das Problem der nationalen Varietäten. Berlin: de Gruyter 1995. Über DDR-Deutsch besonders S. 385-390, hier: S. 386. 16 Op. cit., S. 387. 17 Op. cit., S. 388. 18 Dazu auch Stephen Barbour / Patrick Stevenson: Variation im Deutschen. Soziolinguistische Perspektiven. Berlin: de Gruyter 1998, S. 189-198, und Sabine Geck: “Dialecto y lenguaje estándar en el ámbito de la lengua alemana”, in: Rosa María Alonso Díaz / Beatriz Coca Méndez / Carlos Moriyón Mojica (Hg.): Actas de las III <?page no="277"?> Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm 261 zent“ ist also auf jeden Fall ein Schibboleth. Ein von Ammon nicht erwähnter Aspekt ist die mit einem partiellen Elitewechsel einhergehende veränderte Sozialstruktur der DDR, 19 die maßgeblich das Kommuniktionsverhalten und die Art der Diskurse bestimmte: “In der Praxis sah das so aus, dass Umgangssprachliches auch in öffentliche Kommunikation Einfang fand.“ 20 Es entstanden besondere “Orte des Kommunizierens“, 21 “für die im Laufe der Zeit entsprechende Traditionen ausgebildet wurden.“ 22 Gerade diese DDR-spezifischen Kommunikationsorte sind im Turm in großer Zahl enthalten. Es sind eben diese Diskurstraditionen, die in den ersten Jahren nach der Vereinigung aufhorchen ließen, wenn eine Person aus der DDR das Wort ergriff. Ein ganzer Sammelband trägt daher auch den Titel “Diskursmauern“. 23 Der treffende Ausdruck von der “unsichtbaren Fremdsprache“ stammt von Peter Schneider. 24 Insgesamt halte ich den Begriff von der DDR als Kommunikationsgemeinschaft für zutreffend. 25 Aus innerdeutscher Perspektive besitzt nach Roth 26 das “Westdeutsche“ bzw. der Westen allgemein einen “Normal-Null-Status“. Der Westen ist das unmarkierte Glied der Opposition West-Ost, im Kulturellen wie im Sprachlichen. 27 Hier liegt ein Prototypeneffekt vor, wie Roth richtig erkennt, ohne dies näher auszuführen. Demnach wäre OSTDEUTSCH ein peripheres Mitglied der Kategorie DEUTSCH, wie dies z.B. in dem Satz Er kommt aus der DDR, aber man merkt es ihm nicht an sichtbar wird. Unabhängig davon, wie man zu der Frage des DDR-Deutschen steht: es ist in jedem Fall als Konzept im Bewusstsein der Deutschen vorhanden, Jornadas Conmemorativas del Día Europeo de las Lenguas. “Esencia y presencia de las lenguas en el nuevo espacio europeo de la educación”. Valladolid, 20 - 21 de octubre de 2005, Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid - IICE (UVa), CD-Rom, 2007, S. 158-171. 19 Wolfdietrich Hartung: “Was die Kommunikation in der DDR prägte. Lebensformen und ihr Einfluss auf Kommunikationspraktiken und Sprache“, in: Reiher / Baumann (Hg.), op. cit., S. 34-47, hier S. 39. 20 Hartung, op. cit., S. 39. 21 Hartung, op. cit., S. 41. 22 Hartung, op. cit., S. 43. 23 Kersten Sven Roth / Markus Wienen (Hg.): Diskursmauern. Aktuelle Aspekte der sprachlichen Verhältnisse in Ost und West. Bremen: Hempen Verlag 2008. 24 Peter Schneider: Der Mauerspringer. Darmstadt: Luchterhand 1984 (= Sammlung Luchterhand 472) (erstmals 1982), S. 36. 25 So z. B. schon Horst Dieter Schlosser: “Notwendige Rückblicke auf eine historisch gewordene Kommunikationsgemeinschaft“, in: ders. (Hg.): Kommunikationsbedingungen und Alltagssprache in der ehemaligen DDR. Ergebnisse einer interdisziplinären Tagung. Hamburg: Buske 1991, S. 7-15. Auch Ruth Reiher: “Dreiraumversus Dreizimmerwohnung. Zum Sprachgebrauch der Ostdeutschen“, in: Der Deutschunterricht 1997, H. 1, S. 42-49, hier S. 45. 26 Kersten Sven Roth: “Der Westen als ‚Normal Null‘, in: Roth / Wienen (Hg.), op. cit., S. 69-89, hier S. 71. 27 Bettina Radeiski / Gerd Antos: “‘Markierter Osten‘. Zur medialen Inszenierung der Vogelgrippe auf Rügen und am Bodensee“, in: Roth / Wienen, op. cit., S. 55-67. <?page no="278"?> Sabine Geck 262 wobei die diachronische Perspektive nicht vergessen werden darf: DDR- Deutsch ist “das, was in der DDR von 1949 bis 1989 bzw. 1990 gesprochen wurde“. 28 Es ist verschwunden und löst sich in einem angenommenen “Ostdeutsch“ auf. 29 Um dieses verschwundene DDR-Deutsch soll es in meinem Beitrag gehen, und zwar so, wie es sich in der literarischen Fiktion in der Rückschau darstellt. 3 DDR-Deutsch aus der Außenperspektive Wie präsentiert sich aber die gerade beschriebene kulturelle und sprachliche Situation aus der Außenperspektive? Der Dialektologe Heinrich Löffler, eingebürgerter Schweizer, an der Universität Basel tätig, schreibt dazu: “ Um die damalige DDR bzw. die heutigen neuen Bundesländer überhaupt wahrzunehmen, braucht man schon ein gehöriges Fernrohr. [...] Für die Wahrnehmung differenzierterer Dinge, wie es sprachliche Angelegenheiten einmal sind, fehlen im Grund Anlass und Voraussetzung.“ 30 Auch von “Nicht-Wahrnehmung oder Kaum-Wahrnehmung“ und von der “vergröbernde[n] Optik durch die Distanz“ ist die Rede. 31 Wenn dies für die Schweiz gilt, wie muss dies dann erst aus einer weiter entfernten sprachlichen und kulturellen Perspektive aussehen! ? Die Übersetzung und nachfolgende Fremd-Rezeption eines für die innerdeutsche Befindlichkeit so signifikativen Textes wie Der Turm muss zwangsläufig sprachliche Varianten einebnen; dies ist natürlich bei jeder Übersetzung der Fall. Auch wenn bspw. das DDR-Wort Kosmonaut (vgl. Abschnitt 4.6), das nur in Relation zu seiner westdeutschen Doublette Astronaut seine volle Bedeutung entfaltet, durch cosmonauta übersetzt wird, so verschwindet der Schibboleth-Effekt im Spanischen völlig. Und: aus der Außenperspektive wurde und wird Deutschland als eine Einheit wahrgenommen, auch sprachlich. Gerade des- 28 “Das Attribut ‘ehemalig’ in der Kennzeichnung ‘ehemalige DDR’ ist überflüssig”, sagt zu Recht Klaus-Dieter Ludwig: “Der ‚Einheitsduden’ oder: Was ist geblieben? “, in: Ruth Reiher / Rüdiger Läzer (Hg.): Von ‚Buschzulage‘ und ‚Ossinachweis‘. Ost-West- Deutsch in der Diskussion. Berlin: Aufbau-Taschenbuch-Verlag 1996, S. 110-134, hier S. 132. 29 Vgl. dazu die Arbeit von Ulrike Kramer: “Gibt es ein Ostdeutsch? “ im Rahmen des Seminars ’Ostdeutsch’, ‘Westdeutsch’, ‘Österreichisch’: Unterschiedliche Kommunikationskulturen oder verschiedene Sprachen? von Prof. Dr. Gerd Antos, Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Wien, WS 2000/ 2001, vor allem S. 4f. http: / / wboe.oeaw. ac.at/ media/ 50-ukGibtEsEinOstdeutsch.pdf [12.7.2012]. 30 Heinrich Löffler: “Sprache der DDR aus der Außenperspektive“, in: Reiher / Baumann (Hg.): Vorwärts und nichts vergessen. Sprache in der DDR: Was war, was ist, was bleibt. Berlin: Aufbau Taschenbuch Verlag 2007, S. 335-345, hier S. 335. 31 Löffler, op. cit., S. 343. <?page no="279"?> Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm 263 wegen wurde die deutsche Teilung von außen als viel traumatischer eingeschätzt, als sie im Bewusstsein der Deutschen selbst war. 32 Die Problematik der geschichtlichen Ferne - die sich mit der geographischen vergleichen lässt - spiegelt sich in einer Anekdote, die der Leiter des Dokumentationszentrums Alltagskultur der DDR in Eisenhüttenstadt referiert. 33 Jugendliche, die in dieses Museum kamen, reagierten auf das Exponat einer DDR-Schreibmaschine mit Verwunderung, weil sie Schreibmaschinen als solche nicht mehr kennen. Junge Deutsche befinden sich also mehr oder weniger in der gleichen Lage wie Spanier: der kulturelle Abstand zur im Text dargestellten kulturellen Wirklichkeit ist in beiden Fällen groß. Mit diesen Vorgaben wende ich mich nun den eigentlichen Übersetzungsproblemen des Textes zu. Ich gehe dabei deskriptiv vor und diskutiere die angewendeten Übersetzungsstrategien. 4 Übersetzungsstrategien Die im Folgenden verwendete Klassifizierung der DDRismen weicht von der oft zitierten Hellmanns ab. 34 Sie ist das Resultat der Analyse des konkreten Textes und gruppiert diejenigen auffallenden sprachlichen Erscheinungen, die im Bewusstsein eines deutschen Muttersprachlers mit der Markierung “DDR“ versehen sind. 35 Ich beginne mit der Ebene der Lexik (4.1 bis 4.8). Hier handelt es sich in praktisch allen Fällen um sog. kulturelle Schlüsselwörter. 36 Dabei beziehe ich ausdrücklich Eigennamen ein, also Marken- und 32 Davon zeugt z. B. die Tatsache, dass man als Westdeutscher von Franzosen und Spaniern zum Fall der Mauer beglückwünscht wurde. Auch die mir in den achtziger Jahren in Spanien gestellte, mir absurd scheinende Frage, ob ich aus West- oder Ostdeutschland käme, gehört in dieses Bild. 33 Ludwig, op. cit., S. 293f. 34 Manfred W. Hellmann: “Deutsche Sprache in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik“, in: Hans Peter Althaus et al. (Hg.): Lexikon der germanistischen Linguistik. Tübingen: Niemeyer 1980, S. 519-527. Eine alternative Klassifizierung bieten Horst Dieter Schlosser, Die deutsche Sprache in der DDR zwischen Stalinismus und Demokratie. Historische, politische und kommunikative Bedingungen. 2., aktualisierte Auflage. Köln: Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik 1999, sowie Helmut Glück: “Westdeutsch + Ostdeutsch = Gesamtdeutsch? Die deutsche Sprache fünf Jahre nach der ‚Wende‘“, in: Sprachwissenschaft 20, 1995, S. 187-206. 35 Zur Diskussion der Markierung in verschiedenen deutschen Wörterbüchern, vgl. Klaus-Dieter Ludwig, “Der ‚Einheitsduden‘ oder Was ist geblieben? “. DDR-spzifischer Wortschatz im DUDEN von 1991, in: Ruth Reiher / Rüdiger Läzer: Von Buschzulage und Ossinachweis. Ost-West-Deutsch in der Diskussion. Berlin: Aufbau Taschenbuch Verlag 1996, S.110-134. 36 Anna Wierzbicka: Understanding Cultures Through Their Key Words: English, Russian, Polish, German, Japanese. New York: Oxford University Press 1997, und Sabine Geck “Kulturelle Schlüsselbegriffe in den spanischen Werther-Übersetzungen“, in: Eva Parra Membrives / Miguel Ángel García Peinado / Albrecht Classen (Hg.): Aspects of Literary <?page no="280"?> Sabine Geck 264 Personennamen, da sie einen hohen Identifikationswert besitzen, sowie Namen von Institutionen. Danach betrachte ich die Ebene des Diskurses (4.9 bis 4.12): Witze, Anspielungen auf im Westen eher unbekannte Themen wie die Arbeiterbewegung und kulturelle Gegebenheiten in anderen sozialistischen Ländern, sowie beispielhaft besondere Diskurstraditionen, wie sie an typischen Kommunikationsorten üblich waren. 4.1 Markennamen Übersetzungsstrategien sind nicht nötig, wenn der Originaltext selbst eine Erläuterung gibt: Dieser Geruch nach Desinfektionsmittel, Wofasept - wie vertraut (122) — Aquel olor a desinfectante, Wofasept: qué familiar (116) Eine elegante Lösung, die die Lesbarkeit nicht beeinträchtigt, ist ein Zusatz im laufenden Text: angelte sich eine Flasche Zubrowka (430) — echó mano de una botella de vodka Zubrovka“ (391) Oder der Markenname wird entfernt und lediglich erklärt: Dederonhemden“ (470) — camisas de fibra (427) 4.2 Namen von Institutionen Gerade bei Institutionen sind etwas ausführlichere Erklärungen nötig. Im Folgenden führe ich einige signifikative Beispiele an. Das Kombinat (7) wird aufgrund seiner lateinisch basierten Gestalt hispanisiert als combinado (13), bedarf aber einer Erklärung: 37 “En los países socialistas se daba este nombre a un gran establecimiento industrial en el que estaban reunidas diversas empresas y ramas de la producción estrechamente relacionadas entre sí.” (13) Im Fall der Reichsbahn wird der Originalname beibehalten und eine Erklärung im Text gegeben, die dem Leser das Verständnis erleichtert, Hintergrundinformation über diesen kuriosen Fall wird jedoch nicht geliefert. 38 Translation. Building Linguistic and Cultural Bridges in Past and Present. Tübingen: Narr 2012, S. 159-176. 37 Inwieweit auch im Spanischen Kubas solche Neubildungen stattgefunden haben und ob sie mit denen in der DDR vielleicht teilweise übereinstimmen, müsste untersucht werden. Hier ziehe ich nur das europäische Spanisch in Betracht. 38 Ich verweise dazu auf den empfehlenswerten Artikel “Deutsche Reichsbahn (1945- 1993)” in der Wikipedia. http: / / de.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Deutsche_Reichsbahn_(1945%E2%80%931993) [2.9.2012] <?page no="281"?> Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm 265 Möglicherweise war die “erlaubte“ Anzahl von Fussnoten von seiten des Verlags begrenzt. Immerhin kann auch ein spanischer Leser stutzig werden, da er durchaus das Wort Reich erkennt, das im Spanischen bekannt ist und allgemein (wenn auch zu Unrecht) mit Deutschland zur Zeit der nationalsozialistischen Herrschaft assoziiert wird: in der Schaffneruniform der deutschen Reichsbahn (430) — en el uniforme de revisor de la Reichsbahn, los Ferrocarriles de Alemania del Este (391) Die häufigere Übersetzung ist: Reichsbahnwaggons (614) — vagones de los Ferrocarriles del Reich (559) Die Organisation der Jungen Pioniere wird in einer Fußnote erklärt. Die fehlende Anschauung beim Leser kompensiert ein eingefügtes Farbadjektiv: ein Pionierhalstuch (186) — un pañuelo rojo de pionero* (173) Ob das spanische confirmación wirklich dem deutschen Konfirmation entspricht, ist fraglich. Gemeinhin wird in Spanien darunter die, gesellschaftlich gesehen, eher sekundäre katholische Firmung verstanden, während bei Tellkamp natürlich die protestantische Segenshandlung gemeint ist, die kein Sakrament darstellt. Hier wäre auch eine Erläuterung notwendig gewesen, wie dies bei Jugendweihe geschieht: Wenn sie Jugendweihe oder Konfirmation hatten (352) — cuando tenían consagración de la juventud* o confirmación (321) 39 Eingaben als ganz besondere Textsorte waren “eine unverzichtbare, staatlich geförderte und von den Bürgern geschätzte Möglichkeit, ihre Interessen zu formulieren und von Fall zu Fall durchzusetzen.“ 40 Auch wenn das Wort im Westen ebenfalls im Wörterbuch stand, so hatte es doch diese besondere Bedeutung nur in der DDR. In der korrekten Übersetzung mit instancia (527) — auch petición wäre vielleicht möglich gewesen — ist davon nichts zu spüren, die Markiertheit des Begriffs wird eingeebnet und ist wahrscheinlich auch nicht zu retten. 4.3 Abkürzungen Dass es in der DDR mehr Abkürzungen gab als in anderen Staaten, ist eher ein subjektiver Eindruck, weil sie besonders hermetisch sind; die Unwissen- 39 Auch die Verbkonstruktion könnte Anlass zur Reflexion geben. Sie ist dieselbe wie bei Geburtstag haben. Ich habe Geburtstag muss korrekterweise mit Es mi cumpleaños übersetzt werden (und nicht tengo cumpleaños). 40 Ursula Wittich: “‘Dann schreibe ich eben an Erich Honecker! ‘ ‚Eingaben‘ und ‚Stellungnahmen‘ im Alltag der DDR“, in: Ruth Reiher / Antje Baumann (Hg.): Vorwärts und nichts vergessen. Sprache in der DDR: Was war, was ist, was bleibt. Berlin: Aufbau Taschenbuch Verlag 2004, S.195-205, hier S. 196. <?page no="282"?> Sabine Geck 266 den bleiben außen vor. Zum einen bedürfen Abkürzungen der “Auflösung“, zum anderen, als Institutionen, einer Erklärung. Die Übersetzerin belässt die Originale (jede andere Lösung wäre falsch, weil sie die Identifizierung verhindern würde), gibt aber entweder in Fussnoten oder im Text Erläuterungen. Sehr ausführliche Erklärungen gibt es beispielsweise für VEB (13), DEFA (329) oder FDJ (183). Im Fall der EOS (153) wird direkt der volle Wortlaut übersetzt. Ob der spanische Leser jedoch mit Instituto Ampliado (143) etwas verbinden kann, sei dahingestellt. Dabei ist die EOS durchaus dem aktuellen spanischen Bachillerato vergleichbar, da sie, zumindest ab 1983, nach acht Jahren allgemeiner Schulpflicht (POS für Polytechnische Oberschule) und nach insgesamt zwölf Schuljahren zum Abitur führte (kein sog. “gegliedertes Schulsystem“ wie in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland). In anderen Fällen wird auf das “Einschmuggeln“ von Information in den Text rekurriert, so z. B. im Fall der SERO, der Sigle von VEB Kombinat Sekundär-Rohstofferfassung: an der SERO-Annahmestelle vorbei (527) —pasando por SERO, 41 la oficina de admisión de materias primas secundarias (479) Ähnlich, aber unzureichend, bei der Abkürzung RIAS: Das hast du aus dem RIAS, das sind Hetzer. (492) — Eso lo has oído en RIAS, en esa emisora todo es demagogia. (448) Hier wird nur darauf hingewiesen, dass es sich um einen Radiosender handelt, der, so kann der Leser vermuten, in irgendeiner Weise gegen das DDR- System agiert, da er als “demagogisch“ eingestuft wird. Es ist der “Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor“, von der amerikanischen Militärverwaltung gegründet, der bis 1990 bestand und in der Nachkriegszeit in Deutschland eine nicht zu unterschätzende kulturelle Vorreiterrolle innehatte. 4.4 Politisch korrekte Sprache Als Beispiel sei werktätig herausgegriffen. Der heutige Duden gibt keine Hinweis, auch nicht Wahrigs Wörterbuch aus der Vorwendezeit. Fündig wird man im online-Universalwörterbuch: 42 “we rk|tä|tig <Adj.> (bes. DDR): arbeitend, einen Beruf ausübend: die -e Bevölkerung, Klasse; Wie sieht nun heute der Kontakt zwischen Theaterschaffenden und ihren -en Zu- 41 Hier wäre ein Artikel zu erwarten gewesen, da der Sprachgebrauch im Deutschen “beim SERO“ (53) war. Zu bemerken ist auch, dass SERO bereits auf Seite 55 als SERO übersetzt wird, aber erst später erläutert wird, vermutlich, um gerade den Anfang des Buches nicht mit Fußnoten zu überlasten. 42 Universallexikon, Academic dictionaries and encyclopedias, Academic 2000-2010 http: / / universal_lexikon.deacademic.com/ [2.9.2012] Die ursprüngliche Quelle, evtl. eine Ausgabe des DDR-Dudens, ist nicht ersichtlich. <?page no="283"?> Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm 267 schauern aus? (Wochenpost 23. 7. 76, 14).“ Es handelt sich um ein zentrales Wort in der marxistisch-leninistischen Ideologie, ein Synonym von Arbeiter und Proletarier, das in seinem besonderen, etwas schwerfälligen Wortlaut zur offiziellen Sprache der DDR gehörte. Im angeführten Beispiel nun wird eine bestimmte Verwendung dieses Wortes gezeigt, nämlich diejenige, einen Parteitreuen mit seinen eigenen Waffen, also mit seinem eigenen Vokabular, zurückzuweisen. Hätte der Satz, vom Denotat her gleichbedeutend, aber neutral formuliert “wir arbeiten“ gelautet, wäre das Argument längst nicht so wirksam gewesen. In der Übersetzung ist die Wiedergabe einer solchen Verwendung nur dann möglich, wenn es in der Zielsprache ähnliche Doubletten gibt: aber wissen Sie, wir sind werktätige Menschen, und haben in der Regel für solche Dinge wenig Zeit (578) — pero mire usted, somos gente que trabaja y por lo general tenemos poco tiempo para esas cosas (526) Diese “uneigentliche“ Art der Verwendung der offiziellenen Sprache mit genau kalkuliertem pragmatischen Ziel, eine Sprachhandlung, war in der DDR mindestens so wichtig wie die ernsthafte Verwendung der offiziellen Terminologie, präsent in Nachrichten, Zeitungen und offiziellen Reden. 43 Ein Wörterbuch kann diesen Gebrauch eines Wortes nur bedingt verzeichnen, es bleibt ein Verdienst der Literatur, ihn deutlich zu machen, da andere Dokumente weitgehend fehlen. Dazu ist ein sehr interessanter metasprachlicher Hinweis im Roman selbst zu finden. Es handelt sich um eine Empfehlung des Vaters an Christian vor einem Verhör. Die Übersetzung ist hier sehr gelungen: Du argumentierst Rotfront. Hast du verstanden? (452) — Tú argumentarás desde la más estricta fidelidad a la línea oficial. ¿Has entendido? (411) 4.5 West-Ost-Doubletten Eine der bekanntesten Doubletten ist das oben bereis diskutierte Kosmonaut (Ost) vs. Astronaut (West), geprägt zur Zeit des “Wettlaufs ins All“ während des Kalten Kriegs, der mit dem Sputnik (1957) und dem Raumflug von Juri Gagarin (1961) begann, wobei die DDR in der Person von Sigmund Jähn (1978) sogar einen eigenen Kosmonauten vorweisen konnte. Kosmonaut (457) wird durchgehend als cosmonauta (415) übersetzt, außer einmal durch astronauta (46; 49). Plast und Plaste sind die östlichen Ensprechungen von Plastik. In beiden Staaten wurde Kunststoff hergestellt, der im Sprachgebrauch der Produktion zwei Bezeichnungen zeitigte. Plaste und Elaste aus Schkopau war eine auch 43 Dieser uneigentliche, unernsthafte, “doppelzüngige” Sprachgebrauch ist in vielen Institutionen festzustellen, wenn es darum geht, Konformität mit einer herrschenden Meinung zu zeigen; er ist immer ein Zeichen für autoritäre oder totalitäre Strukturen. <?page no="284"?> Sabine Geck 268 bei Westlern sehr bekannte Reklame über der DDR-Transit-Autobahn, die anlässlich einer Autofahrt (656) ohne weitere Erklärung auch im Buch erwähnt wird. Korrekt wird hier im Plural übersetzt (der Plural wurde später als Femininum Singular interpretiert, vgl. Plastetüte): “plásticos y elastómeros de Schkopau“ (597). Die sog. B-Promotion entprach der bundesdeutschen Habilitation und ist auf spanisch wörtlich und korrekt als segundo doctorado wiedergegeben. Da in Spanien habilitación (heute acreditación) etwas Ähnliches bedeutet(e), wäre auch dieser Ausdruck angebracht gewesen. Andererseits musste man in Spanien für die habilitación “nur“ eine sog. memoria anfertigen, und keine selbständige Forschungsarbeit liefern wie bei der deutschen Habilitation oder B-Promotion. Das Äquivalent zur westdeutschen Tagesschau war in der DDR die Aktuelle Kamera (548). Die Übersetzung mit telediario (385) ebnet natürlich diesen Unterschied ein, es gibt jedoch keine Möglichkeit im Spanischen zu differenzieren. Das Sandmännchen existierte als Figur der gesamtdeutschen Mythologie in beiden Staaten, entwickelte aber verschiedene Traditionen, vor allem im Fernsehen (äußere Erscheinung der Figur, fünfminütige Sendung um 19 Uhr mit jeweiliger Erkennungsmelodie), sodass man auch hier von einer Doublette sprechen kann. Obwohl die Figur in Spanien gar nicht bekannt ist, erfolgt keine Erklärung; übersetzt wird “el hombre de arena“ (421). Beim zweiten Auftreten gibt es eine Erläuterung im Text: Sandmännchens Abendgruss (675) — el programa infantil del hombre de la arena (615). 4.6 Bekannte Figuren aus Literatur, Fernsehen, Comics und Politik Dieser Bereich der Alltagsmythen ist sehr spezifisch und bewirkte, dass Ost- und West-Kindheitserinnerungen kaum Gemeinsamkeiten zuließen (die Ausnahme ist das bereits erwähnte Sandmännchen). Zu nennen wären Onkel Uhu, Pittiplatsch und Schnatterinchen (50), die als tío Mochuelo, Pittiplatsch und Schnatterinchen der Übersetzerin (und dem Verleger) eine Fussnote wert sind: “Populares figuras de una serie infantil germanooriental“ (52). In ähnlicher Weise sind reale Personen, die durch das Fernsehen in der DDR, und nur da, berühmt wurden, identitätstiftende Figuren geworden. Im Roman wird z. B. ein berühmter Sportjournalist genannt: Heinz Florian Oertel schwelgt in Tüll und Taft — H. F. O. se regodea en el tul y el tafetán (457). Nur Zeitzeugen (auch Westdeutsche) wissen, dass es sich in diesem Zusammenhang bei der Eiskönigin (501) — reina de los hielos (457) um die Eiskunstläuferin Katharina Witt handelt, die 1982 in Sarajevo die Goldmedaille gewann und die damals schon zum gesamtdeutschen Star wurde. Eine Erklärung wird nicht gegeben. <?page no="285"?> Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm 269 Namen real existierender Schriftsteller werden, bis auf einen indirekten Hinweis auf Hermann Kant durch die Nennung seines Buchtitels Die Aula bzw. El aula (404, 419), nicht genannt. Andere erscheinen unter Pseudonymen, z. B. der Grosskritiker Wiktor Hart (472), der sogar eine Fussnote erhält: “Wiktor Hart es el trasunto de Marcel Reich-Ranicki: el gran crítico y ‘papa de la literatura‘ germano-occidental“ (429). Hier wäre vielleicht doch ein Hinweis angebracht gewesen, dass der Literaturkritiker dieses Pseudonym während seiner Zeit im Warschauer Ghetto wirklich benutzte (was wiederum bedeutsam ist für den DDR-Kontext). 4.7 Materielle Kultur Gegebenheiten der ostdeutschen Realität sind z. B. die Plattenbauten (455) oder Plattenbaugebiete (7) — zonas de edificios de placas de hormigón (13) oder die Beschaffenheit der Autobahn, die im Wesentlichen der nicht erneuerten Reichsautobahn entsprach, bei der die Fugen zwischen den Betonplatten der Fahrbahn noch deutlich zu spüren waren: das regelmässige ‘Bu-bumm‘, wenn der Lada über eine Asphaltfuge zwischen den Betonplatten fuhr (586) — El ‘bu-bummm [sic]‘ sistemático cuando el Lada pasaba sobre una junta del asfalto 44 entre las placas de hormigón (533). Der Lipsi (408), ein Tanz, über den man sich im Buch lustig macht, verdient eine Fussnote, in der es heisst: “Con ese baile (‘lipsi’, de Lipsia = Leipzig) se intentó, al final de los años cincuenta, establecer en Alemania Oriental una música propia de rock.” (371). Gemeint ist jedoch nicht eine Alternative zur noch nicht existierenden Rockmusik (sp. música rock), sondern zum (vermeintlich dekadenten) Rock’n Roll im Stile Elvis Presleys (sp. rock and roll). Die Ostsee und das Schwarze Meer als Urlaubsgebiete der DDR-Bürger machten eine Art Amulett populär, das als Hühnergott (661; 662) bekannt war. Der Name selbst war der Übersetzung eines Buches 45 zu verdanken, eine populäre Liebesgeschichte von Jewgeni Jewtuschenko mit dem Titel Kuriny bog. 46 Die Übersetzerin hat einen erklärenden Zusatz eingeschoben: Hühnergötter hielten Unheil ab. — El Hühnergott, la piedra fósil con un orificio abierto por el mar, desviaba la desgracia. (601) 44 Korrekter wäre junta de asfalto, da die Fuge aus Asphalt bestand, bzw. mit Asphalt verschmiert war; gemeint ist nicht die Asphaltdecke, denn die Fahrbahn bestand aus Betonplatten, wie auch im Text ersichtlich. 45 Thomas Reschke: “Was fehlt? Zum Beispiel Hühnergott“, in: Ruth Reiher / Rüdiger Läzer (Hg.): Von "Buschzulage" und "Ossinachweis". Ost-West-Deutsch in der Diskussion. Berlin: Aufbau-Taschenbuch-Verlag 1996, 135f. Der Name stammt daher, dass diese Steine am Schwarzen Meer von den Tataren an die Hühnerstange gehängt wurden. 46 Berlin: Verlag Volk und Welt 1966. Übersetzt von Tomas Reschke. <?page no="286"?> Sabine Geck 270 Dabei wird der Stein ein paar Zeilen weiter im Text selbst beschrieben: “Flintsteine mit einem Loch, durch das man eine Schnur ziehen konnte“(662). 47 Das Wort wurde in den DDR-Duden von 1985 aufgenommen, ist jedoch im sog. “Einheitsduden“ von 1991 nicht mehr verzeichnet. 48 4.8 Populäre Prägungen Wörtern, die ansonsten unauffällig sind, wurde durch die wiederholte Verwendung im Alltag eine neue Bedeutung beigelegt, sodass sie nur im Kontext der außersprachlichen DDR-Wirklichkeit verständlich sind. Eines der bekanntesten ist drüben (49), das mit allá* übersetzt und erklärt wird: “En ambas Alemanias, el término fijo ‘allá‘ -drübensignificaba siempre ‘la otra Alemania‘.“(51) So erklärt sich auch die besondere Bedeutung von herumrennen, das adäquat übersetzt wird (entsprechend etwa von Pontius zu Pilatus laufen): [sie] war nach Leckerbissen herumgerannt (528) — había ido de la Ceca a la Meca (480) Mitgedacht ist hier, dass dieses Herumrennen auf der Suche nach Waren geschieht, die nur unter Schwierigkeiten zu bekommen waren. Möglich wäre der Einschub para comprar cosas que escaseaban gewesen. Das Verb erscheint im Original kursiv markiert, um seine besondere Bedeutung zu unterstreichen; in der Übersetzung ist das nicht der Fall. Da Tabak Importware war, wurde er oft selbst angebaut. Traditionellerweise werden die Bahndämme in Deutschland oft als Schrebergärten genutzt. So ist der Ausdruck Bahndammernte (471) zu verstehen, mit dem bestimmte Zigarren 49 kommentiert werden. Er wird ohne Erklärung mit Cosecha de terraplenes de la vía férrea (428) übersetzt. Ein sog. Porte-manteau-Wort ist der Ausdruck all diese Knappazitäten (476), aus dem negativen knapp und dem positiven Kapazität entstanden. Hier gelingt eine hervorragende Wiedergabe im Spanischen: todas esas escaceses (433). Escasez, das normalerweise keinen Plural bildet, wird gekreuzt mit exquisiteces. Die Prägung Bückexemplare (528), Spontanbildung nach Bückware, “geht auf die [...] Vorstellung zurück, Mangelware läge statt im Regal unter dem Ladentisch des Verkäufers“. 50 Es handelt sich also nicht um unerlaubte, son- 47 Flint- oder Feuerstein (spanisch silex oder pedernal) wird an der Ostsee gefunden. Piedra fósil macht keinen Sinn: ‘Stein’ oder ‘Fossil’? 48 Vgl. Reschke, op.cit., S. 36. 49 Hier wird Zigarren mit cigarros übersetzt. Sollte es nicht puros heißen? 50 “Bückware“, in: Katja Ebert Medienkommunikation, DDR-Lexikon. DDR-Wissen, Wittenberg 2007-2010. http: / / www.ddr-wissen.de/ wiki/ ddr.pl? B%FCckware <?page no="287"?> Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm 271 dern um zurückgelegte Ware. Hier hätte ejemplares reservados gesagt werden können: Bückexemplare von Für Dich und Neue Berliner Illustrierte (528) — ejemplares clandestinos de Für Dich y Neue Berliner Illustrierte (480) Ein anderes Beispiel ist das Tal der Ahnungslosen, das sehr adäquat zu Valle de los Inocentes (638) wird. Die Erklärung, dass es sich um diejenigen Gebiete handelt, wo es keinen Empfang westdeutscher Rundfunk- und Fernsehsender gab, wird nicht gegeben. Die Liste dieser übersetzerischen Herausforderungen ließe sich beliebig fortsetzen. 4.9 Witze In die Nähe der oft humorvollen Alltagsprägungen gehören auch die Witze über die eigene Situation, z. B. unter Bezug auf Bananen. Ob der Lacheffekt auch beim spanischen Leser garantiert ist, sei dahingestellt. 51 Wie kann man mit einer Banane die Himmelsrichtung bestimmen? (64) — ¿Cómo se pueden determinar los puntos cardinales con un plátano? Ponerlo sobre el muro. Allí donde muerden el plátano es el Este. (65) Im Verein mit dem sächsischen Dialekt (auf den wir aus Platzgründen nicht eingehen werden, der aber auch zur Sprache der DDR gehört) bekommen die Witze im Kopf des Lesers einen besonders authentischen Anstrich. Besonderheiten der Aussprache welcher Art auch immer sind kaum in einer Übersetzung nachzuahmen und führen praktisch immer zu ungewollten Assoziationen (z. B. bairisch vs. andalusisch). Hier tut die Übersetzerin gut daran, den sächsischen Dialekt weitgehend unberücksichtigt zu lassen: Und selbst dor Genosse Schdaadsradsvorsitzende sa-chte, aus unseren Fabriken is‘ noch viel rauszuhol‘n (621) — Y hasta el camarada presidente del Consejo de Estado ha dicho que nuestras empresas aún dan mucho de sí (565) Ob hier wirklich der Sinn des Witzes begriffen werden kann, der darauf anspielt, dass aus den Fabriken im konkreten Sinn Dinge “rausgeholt“ (“dan de sí“) wurden, um sie gegen andere “Knappazitäten“ zu tauschen, ist auch hier nicht sicher. 51 Vgl. dazu Andrea Schiewe / Jürgen Schiewe: Witzkultur in der DDR. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 2000, sowie Jürgen Schiewe: “Vom Sprachwitz zur Sprachlosigkeit? Witzkultur in Ost und West vor und nach der Wende“, in: Roth / Wienen, op. cit., S. 141-156. <?page no="288"?> Sabine Geck 272 4.10 Anspielungen auf die Sowjetunion und andere Staaten des Warschauer Pakts Obgleich der Einfluss des Russischen auf die Alltagssprache der DDR oft heruntergespielt wird, ist doch zu verzeichnen, dass in der DDR das Wissen über die östlichen Nachbarländer und ihre Kultur viel verbreiteter war als in Westdeutschland, das völlig von diesen Ländern abgeschnitten war. Im Buch finden sich entsprechende Elemente bei der Beschreibung eines Empfangs mit Schriftstellern und Parteifunktionären, die sich mit ihrer Kenntnis der sozialistischen Bruderländer brüsten. Im allgemeinen werden Erklärungen in den Text eingefügt: Kascha, Buchweizengrütze (430) — kacha, sémola de trigo sarraceno (391) Die Tschistka? (524) — ¿La Chistka, las purgas? (477) Das ist doch Kwaß. (611) — Eso es kwas, una bebida rusa. (556) sie trug eine Schapka, die Barbara genäht hatte (590) — llevaba un gorro ruso de astracán confeccionado por Barbara (537) Unaufgelöst bleibt in der Übersetzung Sto Gramm (430) Sto Gramm (391), das nicht einmal kursiv gesetzt ist, wie es bei anderen fremdsprachlichen Ausdrücken der Fall ist. Zudem ist die deutsche Großschreibung beibehalten (die im Deutschen dem Satzanfang zuzuschreiben ist, und der Tatsache, dass es sich bei Gramm um ein Substantiv handelt). Weggefallen sind die Anführungszeichen der direkten Rede. Sto Gramm nun bedeutet ‘100 Gramm‘, das übliche Fassungsvermögen eines Wodka-Glases (Wodka wird in in Gramm, nicht in Milliliter gemessen), welches auf einen Zug ausgetrunken werden “muss“. Es handelt sich also um den Ausspruch eines Kenners dieser russischen bzw. polnischen Sitte. 4.11 Begriffe und Elemente der Arbeiterbewegung Eine weitere Domäne, die in der DDR wesentlich bekannter war als in der BRD, war die Arbeiterbewegung. Zur ihr gehören auch verschiedene Lieder, im Buch werden die “Moorsoldaten“ erwähnt. Dieses Lied, entstanden im Konzentrationslager Börgermoor im Emsland, wurde durch den Sänger Ernst Busch bei den internationalen Brigaden in Spanien bekannt. In der DDR wurde es zum Orchesterstück, im Westen später u.a. von Joan Baez oder Hannes Wader gesungen. Es sind die Soldados del pantano, / la pala en la mano, / ya no, und nicht (309) Soldados de musgo (309), da Moor hier ‘pantano’ bzw. ‘turbera’ bedeutet. Ein weiterer Hinweis auf den Bürgerkrieg befindet sich auf der Kopfbedeckung des Hochzeitsfotografen Marroquin: das Abzeichen No pasaran (sic) “in entgegengesetzten Ausrufezeichen“ (601), über die sich Niklas Tietze mokiert. Wenn ich die Stelle richtig interpretiere, dann versteht Tellkamp <?page no="289"?> Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm 273 selbst den Satz fälschlicherweise als Parteiparole (601); es gibt keinen noch so versteckten Hinweis darauf, dass Marroquin ein ehemaliger Spanienkämpfer ist. 4.12 Diskursroutinen Einer der großen Verdienste Tellkamps ist es, viele verschiedene für die DDR typische Diskurstypen literarisch re-kreiert zu haben. Beeindruckend sind lange Passagen direkter Rede, oft auch Monologe, bei denen man O- Ton zu hören vermeint. Das 45. Kapitel, “Die Papierrepublik” stellt eine Versammlung des Schriftstellerverbandes der DDR einzig mit Mitteln der direkten Rede dar, in der die offizielle DDR-Sprache und ihre Nutzung zur Repression dargestellt wird (vier Schriftsteller werden ausgeschlossen): Zu Ihnen kommen wir noch, Kollegin Schevola, keine Sorge. […] Nun, viele unserer Kollegen sind nicht mit Stift und goldenem Löffel großgeworden, sondern haben einen Phasenprüfer, eine Maurerkelle, einen Maulschlüssel in der Hand gehabt. […] (627) De usted ya nos ocuparemos después, colega Schevola, pierda cuidado. […] Bien, muchos de nuestros colegas no se han criado entre lápices ni entre cucharas de oro sino que tuvieron en la mano un detector de voltaje, una paleta de albañil, una llave inglesa. […] (570) Die Übersetzung lässt nichts zu wünschen übrig. Auf längere Sicht könnte es interressant sein, entsprechende spanischsprachige Paralleltexte, etwa aus Kuba, zu untersuchen, um die dort benutzte Rhetorik evtl. zu imitieren. Aber nicht nur die offizielle Sprache der Funktionäre wird gezeigt. Von besonderem Interesse ist auch die halboffizielle, familiäre, entspanntere Rhetorik, die ganz hervorragend im 4. Kapitel in der Rede eines Arztkollegen auf Richard Hoffmann zu seinem 50. Geburtstag nachgezeichnet ist (45- 51; 48-53). Die Selbstverständlichkeit, in der man sich da (in den achtziger Jahren! ) an die “Damenwelt“ (46) wendet, Goethe zitiert (“schon Goethe sagte“, 45) oder an preußische Tugenden erinnert (“die Pflanzstätte, um den alten, gut preußischen Ausdruck zu gebrauchen“, 47), wäre in der BRD, nach den Jahren der Studentenbewegung, die alle Autoritäten und Konventionen in Frage gestellt hatte, mit dieser Naivität so nicht mehr möglich gewesen. Dies kann auch die korrekteste Übersetzung nicht wiedergeben. 5 Zusammenfassung Die Lektüre des Turms, sei es auf deutsch oder spanisch, ist eine Lektüre für Eingeweihte, dabei stellt die hier vorgestellte Sprache der DDR nicht die einzige Schwierigkeit dar. Andererseits scheint Uwe Tellkamp absichtlich, fast lehrbuchmäßig, keinen Bereich dieser Varietät des Deutschen ausgelas- <?page no="290"?> Sabine Geck 274 sen zu haben. Er bedient also auch auch Erwartungen, unabhängig davon, dass er mit seinem grandiosen Werk auch eine (fast) komplette Darstellung des Lebens in der DDR intendiert. Die Übersetzung, unter den eingangs dargestellten Voraussetzungen der Außenrezeption, ist durchweg als gelungen zu bezeichnen. Folgende Strategien werden verwendet, um das Fremde wenn nicht zum Eigenen, so doch zum Verstehbaren und Nachvollziehbaren zu machen. 52 Es werden, erstens, Fußnoten verwendet, die, obzwar von den Verlegern nicht gern gesehen, im Falle des Turms und in Anbetracht eines erwartungsgemäß eher gebildeten Publikums, hier völlig am Platze, wenn nicht unverzichtbar sind. Es sind ihrer fast hundert an der Zahl, von denen sich etwa fünfzig speziell auf Gegebenheiten der DDR beziehen; in etwa 25 Fällen werden literarische Anspielungen erläutert. Die zweite Maßnahme ist das Einflechten von kurzen Erklärungen in den Text. Dieses Mittel wird des öfteren auch vom Autor selbst angewandt, sodass es sich hier gut in den Text einfügt, auch wenn es fallweise keine wörtliche Ensprechung im Originaltext hat und eigentlich dem Text etwas hinzufügt. Die dritte Strategie ist — die korrekte reine Übersetzung, ohne irgendwelche Zutaten. Auch der Originaltext ist oft für deutsche Leser hermetisch, fordert ständig dazu auf, sich zusätzliche Hintergrundinformationen zu beschaffen. Warum also sollte der übersetzte Text alles darin Enthaltene für den Leser aufbereiten? In einigen Fällen hätte man sich natürlich Erklärungen gewünscht, so z. B. bei Winnetou und den Apachen (47; 49), aber eine Beschränkung war hier sicher nötig, nicht nur durch eventuelle Vorgaben des Verlegers. Es handelt sich ja nicht um eine kritische Ausgabe. Eine gute Idee könnte der Vorschlag Kühns 53 sein (der für deutsche Leser gedacht ist), ein Glossar beizugeben, wie dies oft bei Übersetzungen aus fremden Kulturen, z. B. aus der indischen geschieht, denn “der Leser von Literatur, die DDR- Lebenswelt beschreibt, [braucht] verstehenssichernde Hilfen.“ Kühn begreift zu Recht “Wortgeschichte als Kulturgeschichte“, bezieht sich jedoch lediglich auf “Schlüsselthemen der DDR-Literatur“, wie etwa “Kindheit in der DDR“ oder “Arbeitswelt“. Ein Glossar zu einer Übersetzung hätte zudem den Vorteil, dass mehr Ausdrücke im Original stehen bleiben könnten (wie dies in der Übersetzung des Turms ja ab und an geschieht). Andererseits kann ein Glossar viel DDR-Sprachliches, wie z. B. die 52 Hier passt auch sehr gut der Begriff der Zugänglichkeit oder accessibility, vgl. Vicente López Folgado: “Literary Translation as a Cognitive Activity“, in: Parra Membrives / García Peinado / Classen (Hg.), op.cit., S. 101-119, hier S. 117f. 53 Ingrid Kühn: “Erinnerungsvokabular mit Verfallsdatum. Wie erklärungsbedürftig ist DDR-spezifische Lexik? , in: Reiher / Baumann (Hg.), op. cit. 2004, S. 315-325, hier S. 323. <?page no="291"?> Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm 275 in unserem Beitrag in Auswahl dargestellten Diskursroutinen, nicht erfassen. Literaturverzeichnis Thomas Ahbe: Ostalgie. Zum Umgang mit der DDR-Vergangenheit in den 1990er Jahren. Erfurt 2005. Ulrich Ammon: Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Das Problem der nationalen Varietäten. Berlin 1995. Jan Assmann: Das kulturelle Gedächtnis. Schrift, Erinnerung und politische Identität in frühen Hochkulturen. München 1997. Stephen Barbour und Patrick Stevenson: Variation im Deutschen. Soziolinguistische Perspektiven. Berlin 1998. Anne-Laure Daux: “Die ostdeutsche Nachwendeliteratur als Gegendiskurs”, in: Kersten Sven Roth und Markus Wienen (Hg.): Diskursmauern. Aktuelle Aspekte der sprachlichen Verhältnisse in Ost und West. Bremen 2008, S. 91-114. Iván de la Nuez: “Llega el eastern”, in: El País (Babelia), 08.05.2010. Marta Fernández Bueno und Torben Lohmüller (Hg.): 20 Jahre Mauerfall. Diskurse, Rückbauten, Perspektiven. Bern 2012. Sabine Geck: “Dialecto y lenguaje estándar en el ámbito de la lengua alemana”, in: Rosa María Alonso Díaz, Beatriz Coca Méndez und Carlos Moriyón Mojica (Hg.): Actas de las III Jornadas Conmemorativas del Día Europeo de las Lenguas. CD-Rom. Valladolid 2007, S. 158-171. Sabine Geck: “Kulturelle Schlüsselbegriffe in den spanischen Werther-Übersetzungen”, in: Eva Parra Membrives, Miguel Ángel García Peinado und Albrecht Classen (Hg.): Aspects of Literary Translation. Building Linguistic and Cultural Bridge in Past and Present. Tübingen 2012, S. 159-176. Helmut Glück: “Westdeutsch + Ostdeutsch = Gesamtdeutsch? Die deutsche Sprache fünf Jahre nach der ‘Wende‘“, in: Sprachwissenschaft 20, 1995, S. 187-206. Wolfdietrich Hartung: “Was die Kommunikation in der DDR prägte. Lebensformen und ihr Einfluss auf Kommunikationspraktiken und Sprache”, in: Ruth Reiher und Antje Baumann (Hg.): Vorwärts und nichts vergessen. Sprache in der DDR: Was war, was ist, was bleibt. Berlin 2004, S. 34-47. Manfred W. Hellmann: “Deutsche Sprache in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik”, in: Hans Peter Althaus et al. (Hg.): Lexikon der germanistischen Linguistik. Tübingen 1980, S. 519-527. Robert Hettlage: “Identitätsmanagement. Soziale Konstruktionsvorgänge zwischen Rahmung und Brechung”, in: Welttrends 15 (1997), S. 7-23. Ulrike Kramer: “Gibt es ein Ostdeutsch? ” Hausarbeit im Rahmen des Seminars ‘Ostdeutsch’, ‘Westdeutsch’, ‘Österreichisch’: Unterschiedliche Kommunikationskulturen oder verschiedene Sprachen? bei Prof. Dr. Gerd Antos, Universität Wien, WS 2000/ 2001. http: / / wboe.oeaw.ac.at/ media/ 50-ukGibtEsEinOstdeutsch.pdf [12.7.2012]. Ingrid Kühn: “Erinnerungsvokabular mit Verfallsdatum. Wie erklärungsbedürftig ist DDR-spezifische Lexik? , in: Ruth Reiher und Antje Baumann (Hg.): Vorwärts und nichts vergessen. Sprache in der DDR: Was war, was ist, was bleibt. Berlin 2004, S. 315- 325. <?page no="292"?> Sabine Geck 276 Heinrich Löffler: “Sprache der DDR aus der Außenperspektive”, in: Ruth Reiher und Antje Baumann (Hg.): Vorwärts und nichts vergessen. Sprache in der DDR: Was war, was ist, was bleibt. Berlin 2004, S. 335-345. Vicente López Folgado: “Literary Translation as a Cognitive Activity”, in: Eva Parra Membrives, Miguel Ángel García Peinado und Albrecht Classen (Hg.): Aspects of Literary Translation. Building Linguistic and Cultural Bridge in Past and Present. Tübingen 2012, S. 101-119. Klaus-Dieter Ludwig: “Der ‘Einheitsduden’ oder: Was ist geblieben? ”, in: Ruth Reiher und Rüdiger Läzer (Hg.): Von “Buschzulage” und “Ossinachweis”. Ost-West-Deutsch in der Diskussion. Berlin 1996, S. 110-134. Iwona Maria M®czka: Alles Banane? Fiktionale Erinnerung an DDR und Wende in den ersten zwanzig Jahren nach dem Mauerfall. Diss. Leiden 2010 http: / / media.leiden univ.nl/ legacy/ alles-banane--omslag-v7.pdf [12.7.2012]. Manuel Maldonado Alemán (Hg.): La narrativa de la unificación alemana. Bern 2006 Bettina Radeiski und Gerd Antos: “‘Markierter Osten‘. Zur medialen Inszenierung der Vogelgrippe auf Rügen und am Bodensee”, in: Kersten Sven Roth und Markus Wienen (Hg.): Diskursmauern. Aktuelle Aspekte der sprachlichen Verhältnisse in Ost und West. Bremen 2008, S. 55-67. Ruth Reiher: “Dreiraumversus Dreizimmerwohnung. Zum Sprachgebrauch der Ostdeutschen”, in: Der Deutschunterricht 1997, S. 42-49. Thomas Reschke: “Was fehlt? Zum Beispiel Hühnergott”, in: Ruth Reiher und Rüdiger Läzer (Hg.): Von “Buschzulage” und “Ossinachweis”. Ost-West-Deutsch in der Diskussion. Berlin 1996, S. 135f. Kersten Sven Roth: “Der Westen als ‘Normal Null‘, in: Kersten Sven Roth und Markus Wienen (Hg.): Diskursmauern. Aktuelle Aspekte der sprachlichen Verhältnisse in Ost und West. Bremen 2008, S. 69-89. Uwe Tellkamp: Der Turm. Geschichte aus einem versunkenen Land. Frankfurt 2008 (Taschenbuchausgabe 2010). Uwe Tellkamp: La Torre. Sobre un país desaparecido. Übersetzt von Carmen Gauger. Barcelona 2011. Andrea Schiewe und Jürgen Schiewe: Witzkultur in der DDR. Göttingen 2000. Jürgen Schiewe: “Vom Sprachwitz zur Sprachlosigkeit? Witzkultur in Ost und West vor und nach der Wende”, in: Kersten Sven Roth und Markus Wienen (Hg.): Diskursmauern. Aktuelle Aspekte der sprachlichen Verhältnisse in Ost und West. Bremen 2008, S. 141-156. Horst Dieter Schlosser: “Notwendige Rückblicke auf eine historisch gewordene Kommunikationsgemeinschaft”, in: ders. (Hg.): Kommunikationsbedingungen und Alltagssprache in der ehemaligen DDR. Hamburg 1991, S. 7-15. Horst Dieter Schlosser: Die deutsche Sprache in der DDR zwischen Stalinismus und Demokratie. Historische, politische und kommunikative Bedingungen. 2., aktualisierte Auflage. Köln 1999. Peter Schneider: Der Mauerspringer. Darmstadt 1984. Anna Wierzbicka: Understanding Cultures Through Their Key Words: English, Russian, Polish, German, Japanese. New York 1997. Ursula Wittich: “‘Dann schreibe ich eben an Erich Honecker! ‘ ‘Eingaben‘ und ‘Stellungnahmen‘ im Alltag der DDR”, in: Ruth Reiher und Antje Baumann (Hg.): Vorwärts und nichts vergessen. Sprache in der DDR: Was war, was ist, was bleibt. Berlin 2004, S.195-205. <?page no="293"?> Eine Beispielanalyse anhand von Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Turm 277 Rudolf Woderich: “Ostdeutsche Identitäten zwischen symbolischer Konstruktion und lebensweltlichem Eigensinn”. In: Carsten Förtsch / Frank Berg: Brandenburg-Berliner Institut für sozialwissenschaftliche Studien, BISS e. V. (Webseite) 1999. http: / / www.biss-online.de/ download/ ostdeutsche_identitaeten.pdf [12.7.2012]. <?page no="295"?> Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth “between cultures” in the translation of the biography of Frida Kahlo 1 Introduction Since the end of the 70s 1 , expositions of the work and life of Frida Kahlo have appeared in force and her fame crossed the borders of her native Mexico in no small way, the myth has only grown exponentially 2 . Today, following the celebration of the centenary of her birth in 2007, Frida Kahlo is the object of millions of Internet entries 3 , a registered merchandising brand of electronic commerce, an image intrinsically linked to the history of Mexico, as assimilated to this country in the transnational imaginary collective as the mariachis, tequila or the Mayan ruins. Since in 1983 the American historian Hayden Herrera published Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo (the Mexican government declared a year later that her artwork was “national heritage”), for decades it did not cease to rain biographies, compilations and studies on the painter from different scientific prisms: artistic, historical, sociological, anthropological, political, psychological, medical, and although in vernacular language still of prime importance linguistically. Given the relevance of this book for the growing figure of Frida Kahlo on and beyond the American continent, the study we present aims to tackle from a holistic and communicative perspective the analysis of its translation into Spanish and its cultural implications for the producer and recipient communities of this literary work. 1 “[...] I think Frida Kahlo’s fame began in the late ‘70s and had a lot to do with feminism, had a lot to do with the chicana people in the United States loving having this sort of emblem of Mexicanidad and loving her whole story, because it’s a painful one. And then there were exhibitions and lots of articles, and … but it sort of picked up and came as a sort of rolling thing that kept going more and more, and now there’s the movie, and that makes it even more so. (Herrera H., 2005). 2 The successful exhibition of 2010 at Martin-Gropius-Bau, Berlin, was preceded by those organized in Mexico, United States, United Kingdom and Colombia. 3 Frida, the movie (Julie Taymor, 2002), has contributed to popularize the myth and spread the legend. <?page no="296"?> Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz 280 2 Frida. A biography of Frida Kahlo The historian Hayden Herrera, former professor of Latin-American Art at New York University, curator of various art exhibitions, researcher for the New York Guggenheim and writer of biographies and numerous articles for Art in America, Art Forum and New York Times), published the first edition of the biography of Frida Kahlo in 1983 in an American editorial. One year later the translation by Angelika Scherp into Mexican Spanish was released through Editorial Diana, who gave this last version to Planeta, Spain for its management in 2002. The work is a chronicle of the life and work of the artist, full of facts, fragments of manuscripts, photographs and representations of her work. Of course, it is also an interpretation of the personality and psyche of Frida Kahlo with certain lyrical airs and an excuse to analyse the history of a bloody Mexico that looks for its origins in and out of Frida’s portraits. Therefore we can say that the historic memory of a nation, the most acclaimed biography of one of its emblems, was born from the scrutinising gaze of the neighbouring nation where Frida never ended up fitting in despite spending part of her life there, from another’s view point, from the American colonist, who worked to tell the story of the Mexican people with greater interest than the native citizens themselves. On this matter, faced with the great outcry that the transference of the publication rights of Frida’s diary to an American publisher raised, Aurelio Asiaín, owner of Revuelta magazine, stressed that he didn’t find it extraordinary that the U.S. had the publication rights given that much of the investigation on Mexican contemporary culture had been the work of American universities, unlike the lesser attention awakened among the native Mexicans. 4 Consequently, if we analyse the translation process in context and contained within the cultural norms 5 for the production of literature, from a descriptive, not prescriptive perspective as the translational theorists of the end of the 20th century point out, the peculiarity of the pair of texts we are comparing is striking: the original is only a subjective reproduction of the target culture, whereas the translation becomes the reflection of the dominant cultural mirror where the recipient society looks at itself. On the other hand, the final reader will not only hear the voice-over of Hayden Herrera and Frida (or, in certain cases, the words which historically are attributed to her) but also the voice of the translator, whose timbre is not only audible through the correction or positioning adopted on the work of rewriting but 4 “El diario de Frida Kahlo. La memoria subastada” [The Diary of Frida Kahlo. The Auctioned Memory] Cultural ABC [Spanish journal], August 19 th . 1994, p. 15. 5 André Lefevere sees translation as an act carried out under the influence of particular categories and norms constituent to systems in a society. The most important of these are patronage, ideology, poetics, and ‘the universe of discourse’ (Lefevere, 1992). <?page no="297"?> Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth 281 furthermore his conferring to her of a linguistic identity for other non- Mexican Hispanic audiences of the biography such as the Spanish audience. On this matter, as Carbonell indicated, “the study of the relationship of power and translation needs to be reflected [...] in two complementary planes in order to be effective and transcend in this way both the descriptiveness and the declaration of intentions. To the macro level theory [...] the macro level of the linguistic description must be added, in the line of research and ideology that Critical Discourse Analysis follows and other tendencies” (Carbonell, 1999: 216) Consequently, with the situation outlined which gave place to the translation and which, in turn, was configured as the basis of new discourse, we will set ourselves to identifying the unequivocal linguistic marks of the factors which influence the production of the target text. 3 Analysis of the translation In general, the translation of Frida: a biography of Frida Kahlo into Spanish is sound; it is a product of good quality. In the analysis we propose we cannot speak of serious mistakes that distort the message or flagrant manipulations of the original. Taking into account that the elemental translation process (comprehension>deverbalization>reformulation) is complicated by the play between cultures and places of edition, criticism about the translation we propose cannot limit itself to a traditional enumeration of “mistakes” and because of this we stop on the open gaps between the ST and the TT looking for their origin at the same time dealing with the difficulties that an exercise of these characteristics presents for the translator. For this reason, in our methodology of analysis, we work with a triple dimension of the text (ST in English compared with TT in Spanish/ Spanish ST set in English co-text versus English TT / Mexican Spanish ST edited in Mexico versus Mexican Spanish TT edited in Spain). In order to deal with his task, Delisle’s category of “error” or Vinay & Dalbernet’s “techniques of linguistic translation” would be simply insufficient; therefore we will need to look to more pragmatic theories who consider the rewriting as an act of communication in and for the context: functionalism, School of Manipulation, feminism and post colonialism in translation. On the other hand, we will focus on the idiolect of Frida as part of the artist’s personality and its repercussions for the transfer to English of her “painting with words.” <?page no="298"?> Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz 282 3.1 The translation EN>ES 3.1.1 Artificial Spanglish One of the most striking peculiarities of the original text at a glance is the “mestizo” nature of the signifier in certain passages, a use of artificial Spanglish that doesn’t heed the impossibility of translating definite Mexican realities into English, since, the author forms doublets (ES/ EN) to express the same concept. In the version of the biography into Spanish, the text is flat, simplified, by which the effect on the reader is altered considerably. The fact that the text describes a reality of those receiving the translation turns the source text into a cultural translation, and the TT into a conceptual backtranslation. ST: It testifies, in fact, to many of the qualities that marked Kahlo as a person and as a painter: her gallantry and indomitable alegría in the face of physical suffering; her insistence on surprise and specificity; her peculiar love of spectacle as a mask to preserve privacy and personal dignity. TT: En realidad, revela muchas de las cualidades que caracterizaron a Frida, como persona y pintora: su valor e indomable alegría frente al sufrimiento físico; la insistencia en el elemento de la sorpresa y la especificidad; la pasión propia por el espectáculo, que le sirvió de máscara para proteger su intimidad y dignidad. The original passage includes a word in Spanish whose effect passes unnoticed in the translation because all the text is composed of the same language. Possibly this gesture is maintained to emphasise a feature of the personality or of the culture represented. ST: When she laughed it was with carcajadas, a deep, contagious laughter that burst forth either as delight or as a fatalistic acknowledgment of the absurdity of pain. Her voice was bronca, a little hoarse. Words tumbled out intensely, swiftly, emphatically, punctuated by quick, graceful gestures, that full-bellied laughter, and the occasional screech of emotion. In English, which she spoke and wrote fluently, Frida tended to slang. Reading her letters today, one is struck by what one friend called the “toughisms” of her vernacular; it is as if she had learned English from Damon Runyon. In Spanish, she loved to use foul language—words like pendejo (which, politely translated, means idiotic person) and hijo de su chingada madre (son of a bitch). In either language she enjoyed the effect on her audience, an effect enhanced by the fact that the gutter vocabulary issued from such a femininelooking creature, one who held her head high on her long neck as nobly as a queen. TT: Siempre reía a carcajadas, con un tono profundo y contagioso que expresaba deleite o el reconocimiento fatalista de lo absurdo del dolor. Su voz era bronca. Sus palabras prorrumpían con vehemencia, rápida y enfáticamente, y eran acentuadas con gestos vertiginosos llenos de gracia, su sonora risa y alguno que otro chillido de emoción. En inglés, el cual hablaba y escribía con soltura, Frida tendía a usar la jerga. Al leer sus cartas hoy en día, impresiona lo que un amigo suyo <?page no="299"?> Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth 283 llamó la «dureza» de su lenguaje; es como si hubiera aprendido el idioma de Damon Runyon. En español, le encantaba usar groserías, palabras como pendejo o hijo de su chingada madre. Disfrutaba de la impresión que esa práctica, en ambos idiomas, causaba en su público, una impresión que era acentuada por el hecho de que tal vocabulario vulgar procedía de una criatura de aspecto tan femenino, y que mantenía la cabeza erguida, sobre un largo cuello, con la nobleza de una reina. In the first text, “carcajadas” appears in apposition with “a deep, contagious laughter”, which is a definition of the term. In the copy of this passage in the Spanish version, the explanation of the expression isn’t omitted but is incorporated to specify the noun “carcajadas.” In the case of “bronca”, the original text again duplicates the information, presenting the same reality in English and Spanish. The translation eliminates the clarification. On the other hand, the author incorporates explanations in English of the swear words collected in Spanish which obviously, disappear in the translated version. These explicitations are not completely “faithful to the original.” Pendejo is “politely translated” leaving it lacking the hardness that Mexican Spanish 6 can imprint on the speech. Finally, it may be pointed out that the simple expressions of the passage being analysed are proper to Mexican Spanish which is why, in the target language (which is actually the original), there wouldn’t have been need for explanations. For the publication of the work in Spain, the expressions mark the nationality and make it more exotic. The irruption into the Spanish panorama of Mexican soaps has led to the public being familiarised with some of these expressions, which would make explicitation through translation into European Spanish less necessary. However, the reading of this passage in other Latin-American countries could give rise to misunderstandings as the colloquial terms are charged with new meanings according to context, because of which there should be clarification included in the target text so as not to give room for error: “ pendejo” is a “boy” in Argentina and Uruguay; a “coward”, in Cuba and a “shrewd” and “crafty” person in Peru. We see another example of this ambiguity in the following text: 6 Although the rudeness level is marked by the context, “pendejo” has a more pejorative meaning than “dumb”, “asshole” or “jerk” (US slang for idiot in Merriam Webster online) as it can denote a greater degree of contempt for the receptor, being a synonym for coward. Moreover, in spite of “hijo de su chingada madre” and “son of a bitch” being natural equivalent, in its origin, the “chingada” was not the woman that prostitutes herself [bitch] but the one who passively submits to the foreign seducer to allow the conquest … (Braustein N.A., 2001). The chingada is the Mother who is open, raped or humiliated by forced [so] the son of the chingada is the bad fruit of rape, abduction or ridicule. If compared with the Spanish “hijo de puta” [bitch], a difference can be immediately noticed. (Paz, O., 1975). <?page no="300"?> Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz 284 ST: “I was nursed by a nana whose breasts they washed every time I was going to suckle,” […] TT: «Me crió una nana cuyos senos se lavaban cada vez que iba a mamar», le contó orgullosamente a una amiga […] In English, “nana” is synonymous with grandmother. Thus, the incorporation of the term into Spanish can pass unnoticed and lead to error for the original reader in spite of its context. 3.1.2 Gender and roles Another bias of the translation compared with the original is the appearance of patriarchal discourse which is hinted at in small sections. English is a language barely marked by gender; which is why including it means a taking up a position on the part of the translator of Mexican origin. On the other hand, precisely that mark of grammatical gender, which injects meaning into Spanish as compared with English, discriminates the meaning of the terms, which makes the exact copy of the original structure a redundant rewriting ( woman artist> una artista mujer). The conception of the masculine/ feminine roles in the translated culture is also clear. Some examples being: ST: they also say her eyes revealed her mood: devouring, bewitching, or skeptical and withering. TT: además de revelar su estado de ánimo: devorador y fascinante, o escéptica y marchita. In the original text, four adjectives refer to “mood.” In the translation, however, the last two do not agree with the nominal periphrasis “estado de animo” (mood) because they present a feminine gender, by which it is deduced that they allude to the protagonist in a direct way. Curiously, it is the adjectives with a negative meaning compared with those of masculine gender that transmit force, referring to a temporary state, with those contrasted. ST: Vivid, intelligent, sexy, she attracted men (and took many as lovers). TT: Viva, inteligente y atractiva, cautivaba a los hombres (y aceptaba a muchos como amantes). The verb “to take” has multiple meanings in English, which means that the context is essential for its interpretation. In the case in question, the translator has decided to consider “to take” as a synonym for “to accept”, assuming that the subject of the clause, Frida, responds in a positive way to a previous offer. Thus: take= (v) accept, have (receive willingly something given or offered) (Wordnet). In this sense, it is deduced that the ritual of love corresponds to the following sequence: 1. Men were attracted by Frida; 2. They asked her if she wanted to be their lover. 3. She accepted. This conception of <?page no="301"?> Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth 285 the world, in which “man propositions and woman responds” may fit perfectly with the time in which the biography is set but clashes with the peculiar and revolutionary personality the biography presents in many passages of the work. 7 This being so, for the sake of congruency perhaps it would be preferable to choose to rewrite it into Spanish in which Frida is given a more proactive and independent role changing the “chosen” meaning of “to take” in the translation: take= choose, select, pick out (pick out, select, or choose from a number of alternatives) (Wordnet) . It therefore seems that two possible translation options that would better fit the context are: and many became her lovers/ and many she made her lovers. This choice conveys a new reality in the ritual leading up to sexual encounter in which Frida “chooses” motu proprio her lovers: 1. Frida attracted men; 2. Frida liked some of these men; 3 Frida chose them as lovers. Furthermore we show another passage in which Frida is also assigned a passive role in the translation compared with the original: ST: It is natural that the young woman would have been attracted to another German, and if she did not love him—Frida said she did not—she at least thought she was making a good match. TT: Es natural que la joven mujer se sintiera atraída por otro alemán, y si no lo amaba, Frida afirmaba que no, al menos pensó que era un buen partido. In the original text, Frida’s mother (she) is the subject of the subordinate clause (the one that makes the good match) while in the translation Frida’s father occupies that syntactic position (the one that is the good match for Frida’s mother) in a clause describing the same characteristic. As it can be seen, the point of view of the narration differs radically in both versions since in the first, the woman plays an explicit active role (she “chooses”, “meets with” 7 As we have seen, Frida was by no means the passive victim of Diego’s ambient lusts, and she countered his infidelity with numerous casual, and some not so casual, extramarital affairs. Though her fragility, her illnesses, her numerous operations, meant that there were many periods in which she could not lead an active sex life, she had none of the passivity associated (at least in literature) with the stereotypical “long-suffering” Mexican woman. One of her lovers recalls that her physical ailments were no hindrance at all: “I’ve never seen anyone sturdier in the expression of affection than Frida! ” Nor did she have compunctions about pursuing any man she wanted. She believed that what she called la raza—a people unspoiled by the hypocritical demands of civilization—was less inhibited about sexuality, and since she wanted to be primitivistic in her behavior, she made a point of being outspoken about matters of sex (although she did not talk about the details of her own sex life). She had sex on her mind often, a fact that is evident in her paintings and drawings, as well as in her diary (pp. 368-369 of the biography). <?page no="302"?> Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz 286 men through interest, “she makes a good marriage”) which in the second disappears; in this case, it simply describes the quality of the object of the original clause and the earlier discourse pushes the reader to a logical deduction of this fact (Frida’s father was a good match THEN the mother chose him). 3.1.3 Cultural references The singularity of translating into Spanish the vision of a personality so interwoven into the target culture from the view of one New York author implies a double articulation of transference of cultures: C2 Mexican>C1 American/ C1 American>C2 Mexican. This is realised through the use of translation techniques for whose classification we will leave behind that used by Franco Aixelá (Franco, 2000) adapted to the place of edition: 3.1.4 Conservation The foreign element is kept in the movement C2>C1 although, at times, it is accompanied by an intra or extra textual gloss which helps the reader of the original understand the meaning. In the translation, specifically (C1>C2), literality can bring about unnecessary repetition. It could be that the translator loses sight of the fact that, in fact, he faces a cultural backtranslation. ST: On November 2, 1978, to celebrate the Day of the Dead, one of Mexico’s most festive holidays, the Galería de la Raza in San Francisco’s Mission district opened its own “Homage to Frida Kahlo.” It was an exhibition of works in various media by some fifty artists (mostly Chicano), who were invited to send contributions made “in the spirit of Frida Kahlo’s symbolism.” Against the back wall of the gallery was the traditional ofrenda, an altar to the deceased, covered with candles, candy skulls, straw crosses, “bread of the dead” shaped like human bones, a coffin containing birds made of sugar, and a toy bed on which lay a miniature Frida. TT: El 2 de noviembre de 1978, la Galería de la Raza en Mission, un barrio de San Francisco, inauguró su propio «Homenaje a Frida Kahlo», para celebrar el Día de Muertos, uno de los días festivos más importantes en México. La exposición incluyó las obras de unos cincuenta artistas (en su mayoría chicanos), a los que se pidió colaboraciones en diferentes medios de expresión y «en el espíritu del simbolismo de Frida Kahlo». ]unto a la pared del fondo de la galería se colocó la tradicional ofrenda, un altar dedicado a los difuntos, cubierta de velas, calaveras de dulce, cruces de paja, «pan de muerto» en forma de huesos humanos, un ataúd lleno de pájaros de azúcar y una cama de juguete sobre la que yacía una Frida en miniatura. In the original division, (the Day of the Dead, one of Mexico’s most festive holidays), the cultural Mexican reference is not only translated fully, but an <?page no="303"?> Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth 287 apposition is added to indicate the importance of the celebration. This digression becomes redundant in the Spanish version of the text which is commercialized in Mexico, although in Spain’s case it adds information of interest. Conversely “Galería de la Raza” is the original name of a room of exposition in San Francisco founded by the Chicano movement, so this place may not have the translation into English for ideological reasons. For its part “district” is a type of American administrative division which ends up naturalised in the work translated into Spanish. The terms “offering” and “bread of the dead” appear in the original text introducing a note of exotic flavour to the text written in English (through a loanword or a copy respectively), foreign colour which is extinguished in the translation. To facilitate the understanding of the original reader, the noun is completed by an explanatory apposition which is maintained in the Spanish version. In this way, in the Spanish passage the information is always duplicated unnecessarily and when the translation was only designed for a Latino public. ST: The entrance is guarded by two giant papier-máché Judas figures nearly twenty feet tall, gesticulating at each other as if they were engaged in conversation.* Foot note: Designed to be exploded on Sábado de Gloria—the Saturday before Easter—such figures stand for more than the betrayal of Christ by Judas. They have also come to signify the betrayal of the people by powerful oppre ssors, and they take many forms: some represent policemen, soldiers, politicians, and landowners—”anyone who had earned the hatred of the people” (Bertram D. Wolfe and Diego Rivera, Portrait of Mexico, p. 51). TT: Dos gigantescos judas de papier-máché y casi siete metros de alto guardan la entrada, haciéndose ademanes como si estuvieran conversando.* Estas figuras están destinadas a quemarse en el Sábado de Gloria, pero representan más que la traición de Cristo por judas. También han llegado a simbolizar el engaño del pueblo por los poderosos opresores. Adoptan muchas formas, por ejemplo, las de policías, soldados, políticos y terratenientes, «cualquiera que merezca el odio de la gente» (Bertram D. Wolfe y Diego Rivera, Portrait of México, p. 51). In this case, the footnote of the original provides information about the typical traditions of the context goal. The information becomes redundant in the translation except regarding the textual quote which, in its way, is a new “portrait” of Mexico carried out by the American communist Bertram D.Wolfe. Here is another example: ST: Designed to be exploded on Sábado de Gloria—the Saturday before Easter— TT: Estas figuras están destinadas a quemarse en el Sábado de Gloria. While the verb chosen in the text of origin to describe the action (to explode) is actually, the effect of the action, in the translation the beginning of the ritual is reflected, possibly because the finality of the burning is more than <?page no="304"?> Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz 288 enough and the image of the tradition is implicitly fits with what is familiar to the target readership . For obvious reasons, the original verb is more illustrative of Mexican folklore for any layman on the subject. Conversely, the translation eliminates the explanation which is annexed to “Holy Saturday” (the day before Easter Sunday) in the original through being redundant in Spanish. ST: Frida’s maternal grandparents, the Indian Antonio Calderon and the gachupina (of Spanish extraction) Isabel Gonzalez y Gonzalez, are situated above Frida’s mother. TT: Los abuelos maternos de Frida, el indígena Antonio Calderón y la gachupina Isabel González y González, están situados arriba de la madre de Frida. In the original the noun in Spanish is maintained and a definition between brackets is inserted which doesn’t include its negative connotation (gachupín(a) is offensive). In the translation for Mexican readers, no explanation is necessary. ST: She and Cristina attended a catechism class in preparation for their First Communion, “but we escaped and went to eat haws, quinces, and capulines [cherry-like fruit of the capulin tree] in a nearby orchard.” TT: Ambas asistían a clases de catecismo, como preparación para su primera comunión, «pero nos escapábamos para ir a comer tejocotes, membrillos y capulines en un huerto cercano». American readers of the original and target texts will recognise the concept to which the term “haws” 8 refers, because this type of plant and its fruit are native to North America. Understanding for British readers becomes more difficult by these allusions to unfamiliar realities. 3.2 Translation ES>EN In those passages of the original in which a textual quotation of Frida or of an important person in her life is repeated, the cultural translation as well as the linguistics and the ST and TT exchange roles. In general, the exoticizing factor dominates in these cases, with some description included (intratextual gloss). On other occasions, the foreign effect is neutralised (conservation techniques) as occurs in the case of huaraches 9 >sandals in the following passage. Finally it is left to point out that the “foreign” aspect is also inti- 8 Haw: any of a number of thorny shrubs or small trees of the genus Crataegus, in the rose family (Rosaceae), native to the North Temperate Zone. Many species are native to North America (Encyclopædia Britannica on-line). 9 Huarache: (Mexican) a sort of a coarse leather-made sandal (translated from DRAE). <?page no="305"?> Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth 289 mately related to the place of publication as happens with the term “tortilla” 10 . ST: I remember that I was four years old [actually, she was five] when the “tragic ten days” took place. I witnessed with my own eyes Zapata’s peasants’ battle against the Carrancistas. My situation was very clear. My mother opened the windows on Allende Street. She gave access to the Zapatistas, seeing to it that the wounded and hungry jumped from the windows of my house into the “living room.” She cured them and gave them thick tortillas, the only food that could be obtained in Coyoacán in those days... We were four sisters: Matita, Adri, me (Frida) and Cristi, the chubby one… In 1914 bullets just hissed. I still hear their extraordinary sound. In the tianguis [market] of Coyoacán propaganda in favor of Zapata was made wit corridos [revolutionary ballads] edited by [the printmaker Jose Guadalupe] Posada. On Friday these ballad sheets cost one centavo and, enclosed in a great wardrobe that smelled of walnut wood, Cristi and I sang them, while my mother and father watched out for us so that we could not fall into the hands of the guerrillas. I remember a wounded Carrancista running toward his stronghold [near] the river of Coyoacan. From the window I also spied [a] Zapatista with a bullet wound in his knee, squatting and putting on his sandals. TT: Recuerdo tener cuatro años [en realidad tenía cinco] cuando tuvo lugar la «decena trágica». Con mis propios ojos vi la batalla entre los campesinos de Zapata y los carrancistas. Mi ubicación era muy buena. Mi madre abrió las ventanas que daban a la calle de Allende para dar entrada a los zapatistas, y se encargó de que los heridos y los hambrientos saltaran de las ventanas de la casa a la «sala de estar». Ahí los curó y les dio gorditas de maíz, lo único que se podía conseguir de comer durante esos días en Coyoacán... Éramos cuatro hermanas: Matita, Adri, yo [Frida] y Cristi, la gordita... Durante 1914, sólo se oía el silbido de las balas. Todavía recuerdo su extraordinario sonido. En el tianguis de Coyoacán se vendía propaganda a favor de Zapata, en forma de corridos editados por [el impresor José Guadalupe] Posada. Los viernes cada hoja costaba un centavo. Cristi y yo contábamos las baladas, encerrándonos en un gran armario que olía a madera de nogal, mientras mis padres vigilaban para que no cayéramos en manos de los guerrilleros. Recuerdo cómo un carrancista herido corrió hacia su cuartel [ubicado cerca] del río de Coyoacán. 10 “Tortilla” is a Spanish loanword with some differences of meaning depending on the context: According to Cambridge Dictionary, a “tortilla” is a “type of thin round Mexican bread made from maize flour.” The description we find in Merriam Webster omits the topographical mark and includes some other characteristics: “a thin round of unleavened cornmeal or wheat flour bread usually eaten hot with a topping or filling (as of ground meat or cheese).” Tex-mex gastronomy makes it possible the inclusion of both the word and the concept in US culture. <?page no="306"?> Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz 290 Desde la ventana, también pude ver cómo [un] zapatista, que había sido herido en la rodilla por un balazo, se agachó para ponerse los huaraches. 3.2.1 The language of Frida In the course of history, the “image” of Frida has eclipsed her person, her artwork and, we could also say, that her written work, extended as the set composed of her personal correspondence and declarations such as her diary. The opposite poles on which the axis of Frida’s world has turned have turned her personality in reality and fiction into a struggle for survival that uses exhibitionism as a shield against pain. The Manichean contrasts are very attractive in their iconic sense: the feminine (Frida/ Diego) against the masculine (Diego/ Frida), laughter and tragedy, irony and a terrible situation, beautiful clothing, tremendously ornate against the injured and mutilated body…Mexico and United States, Mexico and Europe. Frida has become a national myth, a madonna for the ill, a feminist, lesbian and Chicano symbol, a “natural” surrealist, a passionate communist. History has tended to translate “the character” to the style of the biography of Hayden Herrera, that is, focusing on the most attractive side of it through raw foreignisms which give prominence to the “exotic” part of the narrative. (see point 2.1.1). 3.3 Games of signifiers and meanings As in similar works to that which we are analysing or that of Raquel Tibol (Tibol, 2004), beyond the picturesque mexicanisms and the roughness of the language (which has erased Frida’s cry of pain changing it into a sarcasm or masculinised acidity), Frida liked to use metaphors and word plays, which Manuel Alatorre (Tibol, 2004) called “the play sense of language” or ludus. In our understanding it is one more way of self defence and a challenge for the translator of the textual quotations in the original. Continuing on we will reflect some examples of how Frida exploited to the maximum the arbitrariness of the signifier relationship and the meaning in order to be ironic, downplay the matter or swear: ST: Estoy aburrida con A de ay, ay, ay. [interjection of pain] TT: I am bored with A of Ay Ay Ay! ST: Resultó una porquería con P de... TT: It turned out to be a porquería (disgusting mess) with a P ST: Pero el estado general bastante jo…ven. [jodido: fucked/ joven: young] TT: But my general state is rather fu ... ST: pen...sadora TT: pen .... sadora (thoughtful, but she probably was going to say pendeja, which is a swear word meaning “stupid”). <?page no="307"?> Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth 291 ST: ya sabe cómo son, estos ¡c...amiones de retrasados! [By starting the word with “c” she referred to “cabrones”, bastards]. TT: you know how they are, those retarded bastards! 11 The repetitions and alliterations also form part of the expression to intensify its effect: ST: Yo sigo mejor de la pezuña, pata o pie. TT: My hoof, paw or foot is better. ST: De visitas me han venido a ver un «gentío de gente» y una «humareda de humo» [...]. TT: Concerning visits, a “mob of people” and a cloud of smoke have come to see me [...] The games also exploit polysemy and homonymy 12 : ST: Como ves, mi léxico es cada día más florido, y tú podrás comprender la importancia de semejante adquisición cultural, dentro de mi ya extensa y bastísima cultura. [basto: coarse/ vasto: inmense]. TT: [...] within my extensive and immense culture! ST: [...] me voy volviendo cada vez más corajuda (en el sentido de México) no valerosa (estilo español de la Academia de la lengua), es decir, muy cascarrabias. TT: [...] I’m becoming more ill-tempered (in the Mexican sense of the word) nonvalorous (Academic Spanish style of the language) that is to say very grouchy). The biography also incluides rhymes extracted from her diary, songs, typical expressions 13 , terms and invented characters. All these resources challenge the translator in the original version in which better results are not always obtained as in the case of the recreation of “V.t.h”, literally, “hacerse que la virgen te habla” (to turn a blind eye to/ ignore) which ended up as “you vanish” or in that of F.Luna [Frida used F. Luna as a code word to signify her menstruation] as F. Luna [one of Frida’s doctors; she used the name as a code word to signify her menstruation] in which the noun is considered as the name of a doctor with whom Frida alludes, in code, to menstruation. The relationship between these ideas is clear in Spanish: cycles, menstruation, and moon. In the original this conceptual play does not exist, “Luna” is not 11 Kahlo relished the element of chance in these drawings, and she coaxed a number of figures from ink spots, stains resulting from deliberately spilled and splattered ink, some pressed onto the opposite page, others so thick they soaked through to the next sheet of paper. (Lowe, S., 1995). 12 Double meaning extends to her painting. In her famous masterpiece “The broken column”, Frida used clavos [nails]. In Mexico, “estar clavado”(to be nailed) means “to be madly in love.” (Exhibition Frida Kahlo: Retrospektive, Berlin 2010). 13 Frida’s peculiar expressions were: buten [very], lagrimilla [little tear meaning crying a lot], espinazo [spine] and original forms of referring to death: me lleva el tren [taken by the train], me lleva la pelona [taken by the bald woman], me lleva la recién casada [taken by the newly-wed woman], me lleva la tía de las muchachas [taken by the girls’ aunt]... (Alatorre, 2004). She also invented new words such as the verb “cielar”[from sky]: “tú me cielas” [you sky me]. <?page no="308"?> Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz 292 translated, a metaphor disappears and one of the symbols which most marked the artistic and personal discourse of the Mexican 14 . 3.4 Spanglish Frida usually peppered her language with English words which is why in the comparison of the ST and TT we are going to find the forced Spanglish of Hayden Herrera and that of the personality picked up the version of the biography into Spanish: Alex darling No me dejan escribir mucho, pero es sólo para decirte que ya pasé the big trago operatorio. Hace tres weeks que procedieron al corte y corte de huesos. Y es tan maravilloso este medicamento y tan lleno de vitalidad mi body, que hoy ya procedieron al paren en mis «puper» feet por dos minutillos, pero yo misma no lo bolivo [believe]. Las dos first semanas fueron de gran sufrimiento y lágrimas, pues mis dolores no se los deseo a nobody. Son buten de estridentes y malignos, pero esta semana aminoró el alarido y con ayuda de pastillas he sobrevivido más o menos bien. Tengo dos enormes cicatrices en la espaldilla en this forma. Far from being about a device, it can enclose in certain episodes a pejorative burden with respect to the American culture and snobbery. Therefore, it seems paradoxical that American researchers are those who rescue the memory of the artist. ST: [...] I don’t like the gringos with all their qualities and their defects which are very great, their manner of being, their disgusting puritanism, their Protestant sermons their endless pretension, the way that for everything one must be “very decent” and “very proper” seems to me rather stupid. I know that the people here are thieves, hijos de la chingada, cabrones, etc. etc. but I don’t know why, they do even the most horrible things with a little sense of humor, while the gringos are “sangrones” [dullards] by birth, although they are very respectful and decent(? ). Also their system of living seems to be the most repugnant, those damned parties, in which everything from the sale of a painting to a declaration of war is resolved after swallowing many little cocktails (they don’t even know how to get drunk in a spicy way) they always take into account that the seller of the painting or the 14 Perhaps inspired by the solar eclipse, Frida has, for the first time in her paintings, placed the sun and the moon together in the sky. Their juxtaposition became one of the most powerful symbols in her work. It represents the unity of cosmic and terrestrial forces, the Aztec notion of an eternal war between light and dark, the preoccupation in Mexican culture with the idea of duality: life-death, light-dark, pastpresent, daynight, male-female. Discussing the coexistence of the sun and the moon in Rivera ’s art, Bertram Wolfe explained: “In most nature religions, as in ancient Mexican mythology, the lords of the heavens are the Sun and the Moon: the Sun being the masculine principle, the fertilizer and life-giver, and the Moon (or in some Mexican traditions the Earth) the feminine principle, the mother of gods and men.”(pp. 152-153 of the biography). <?page no="309"?> Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth 293 declarer of war is an “important” personage, otherwise they don’t give one even a nickel’s worth of attention. In the U.S. they only suck u to the “important people” it doesn’t matter to them that they are unos hijos de su mother [Frida wrote “mother” in English] and like this I can give you a few other little opinions of those gringo types. You might tell me that you can also live there without little cocktails and without “parties,” but without them one never amounts to anything, and it is irritating that the most important thing for everyone in Gringolandia is to have ambition, to succeed in becoming “somebody,” and frankly I no longer have even the least ambitionto be anybody, I despise the conceit and being the gran caca does not interest me in any way. 3.5 Intralinguistic translation (ES>ES) of the edition in Spain From a functionalist point of view, the publication of a version by Angelika Scherp without a trace of modifying in a new context produces a new effect on the European public since it takes it closer to a new world through mexicanisms without sweetening. Words such as recámara (bedroom), gata (servant), colonia (area), sanguaza, allá, platicar (to chat), mula (adjective), the proliferation of diminutives 15 and augmentatives, the expressions of the mexican variety (pelar gallo, estar de la trompada, no haber piña, hacerse bolas, armar chismorrajos, hacer pendejadas, miarse fuera de la bacinica, echarse unas copiosas, hacerse la que la Virgen le habla, saber la calidad de la melcocha, ser una cosa del año del caldo, alguien barrido y regado) 16 (Alatorre, 2004) appear in this biography in a type of profound immersion in the country and Frida’s idiolect. 4 Conclusions We have analysed a complex process of translation from a cultural point of view with clear repercussions for the rewriter of the work. The fact that the culture of the original text differs from that of the object of the story erases 15 “She had the Mexican knack of turning all words into diminutives, charming the words, babying them, caressing them, discovering, as it were, the clitoris of pleasure in each word [...] Mexican diminutives are a form of defence against the arrogance of the rich and the oppression of the Mexican authoritarian tradition.”(Fuentes C., 1995). 16 Pelar gallo: to run away Estar de la trompada: to be sick or exhausted Armar chismorrajos: to gossip Hacer pendejadas: to do stupid things Echarse unas copiosas: to have some drinks Hacerse la que la Virgen le habla: to turn a blind eye to/ ignore Saber la calidad de la melcocha: to identify someone’s real character and morals Ser una cosa del año del caldo: to be very old Poner a alguien barrido y regado: to cricticize someone <?page no="310"?> Mª Luisa Rodríguez Muñoz 294 the borders excellently between the original and translation in the core game between author, translator, and biographied personality, and causes disparities depending on the place of publication of the biography. On the other hand, the relationship between the three cultures is not aseptic: the U.S. is the intellectual coloniser of Mexico which changes this “exotic” country into an object of study while Spain was the historical colonizer which artists like Frida tried to get away from getting back the traditional customs and creating the myth of the vivacious Mexican dying of laughter. As we have pointed out in this brief study, this cultural combination has its linguistic reflection in the translation: 1. In the case of the ES>EN translation, prime to the “foreignization” with loanwords or doublets (loanword + definition), perhaps in order to give certain sincerity to what is shown and to submerge the reader in a fascinating and strange culture. It also recreates an artificial Spanglish giving prominence to laughter, swear words and pain. Is it Frida’s mask, Mexico’s or that of the prejudice towards the culture of the neighbouring country? Finally, the strength and the idiosyncrasy of the artist’s language lose force in English for three main reasons: the forms of the language are complex to represent in another language, Frida’s bilingualism is neutralised in the translation and the style of her expression is so bound to her land that it presents a macro culture in itself. 2. In the case of the EN>ES translation, forced tripartite (laugh-insultcry) Spanglish is erased, marks and roles of gender let us subtly glimpse a more macho interpretation of the world inconsistent with the active role of Frida. Moreover as a result of having faithfully followed the ST, we find some informative redundance since the object described in the biography coincides with the reader community of the Mexican Spanish translation. 3. In the case of the ES (Mexican) readership in other countries like Spain, the “foreignizing” effect mutates and is concentrated in the vocabulary and strange, even confusing, expressions for the receiving public as they can enclose different meanings due to their diatopic use of language. The phenomena described show some of the threads which will have to be pulled in order to undo the myth from a critical system which detects the subjective and cultural bias of the first American version of the famous biography. <?page no="311"?> Frida in Literature: some truths and lies about the construction of myth 295 References Irene Zoe Alameda: “Frida Kahlo: La frente y el perfil”, in Arte y Parte no. 57, 2005 [on-line journal]. http: / / www.revistasculturales.com/ revistas/ 6/ arte-y-parte/ Antonio Alatorre: “Prólogo”, in Escrituras de Frida Kahlo. México 2004. Néstor A. Braunstein: Por el camino de Freud. México D.F. 2001, p. 199. Ovidio Carbonell: Traducción y cultura. De la ideología al texto. Salamanca 1999. Declaration of artistic monument of Mexican artist Frida kahlo Calderón’s whole artistic work including easel and graphic pieces, engravings and technical documents, of national or individual property 1984: http: / / www.unesco.org/ culture/ natlaws/ media/ pdf/ mexico/ mx_decretomont artfridakahlo_spaorof.pdf “El diario de Frida Kahlo. La memoria subastada” [The Diary of Frida Kahlo. The Auctioned Memory] Cultural ABC [Spanish journal], August 19 th . 1994, p. 15. Javier Franco Aixelá: La traducción condicionada de los nombres propios (inglés-español). Análisis descriptivo. Salamanca 2000. Carlos Fuentes: “Prologue”, in The Diary of Frida Kahlo: An Intimate Self-Portrait. New York 1995. Hayden Herrera: Frida: Una biografía de Frida Kahlo. México D.F. 1985. Hayden Herrera: Frida: Una biografía de Frida Kahlo. Barcelona 2002. Hayden Herrera: Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo. New York 1983. Rauda Jamis: Frida Kahlo. Autorretrato de una mujer. México: Edivisión Compañía Editorial. 1987. André Lefevere: Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. Londres 1992. Sarah Lowe: El diario de Frida Kahlo: un íntimo autorretrato. Madrid 1995. Octavio Paz: El laberinto de la soledad. México 1975. Juie Taymor: Frida. México. [film] 2002. Raquel Tibol: Escrituras de Frida Kahlo. México 2004. Understanding Frida Today: Excerpts from and interview with filmmaker Amy Stechler and Kahlo biographer Hayden Herrera, 2005. http: / / www.pbs.org/ weta/ fridakahlo/ today/ herrera.html <?page no="313"?> Juan Miguel Zarandona The Hybrid New South African Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk and Zakes Mda Compared: Man Bitch (2001/ 2006) versus The Madonna of Excelsior (2002) 1 Introduction The Union of South Africa, a hybrid nation formed from the aggregation of four former southern African colonies, the Cape, Natal, Orange Free State and Transvaal, has repeatedly been described as a unique crossroad of races, cultures, languages and conflict, but for the purposes of this chapter I want to emphasize now and here that it is also a land divided between two oceans, the Atlantic and the Indian, almost separated by a Cape, so-called of Good Hope. A feeling of good hope still has to triumph and to deserve its name fully in the new present-day nine provinces that divide the country: the Northern, Western and Eastern Cape provinces; KwaZulu-Natal; Free State; Gauteng; North West province; Limpopo; and Mpumalanga. Hope is an exhaustible driving force, they say, so there is much room for future optimism above and beyond present difficulties (conflict). Consequently, this paper will struggle to seek, find and produce hope wherever it encounters it in the two novels that constitute its corpus of compared analysis. Firstly, I would like to state very clearly that the characters of both these early twenty-first century novels - depicting our most updated literary view of South Africa - The Madonna of Excelsior (2002) and Man Bitch (2001/ 2006), take creative refuge close to the Indian ocean, where South Africa is more South African, difficult and hybrid. In other words, the ‘desolate plains of the Free State of the Madonna’ - a safe catalyst of myth 1 - is placed against 1 This is how Zakes Mda explained this fact in a recent interview: This is how it happened. I love to drive around in South Africa. It’s open country there, and I enjoy the freedom. Sometimes I just get into my car and I just drive. Without any destination. I just go. But usually, the car takes me to the province of the Free State. I drive through the Free State and then I go forward to some of the small towns there. The sky is so big, that’s what affected me the most. The big sky you see. See: Rebecca L. Weber: The Africana QA: Zakes Mda, 2004, available at: http: / / www.rebeccalweber.com/ zakes.htlm, consulted: 7/ 30/ 2009, 3. <?page no="314"?> Juan Miguel Zarandona 298 the ‘bustling streets of urban Durban of Man Bitch’, a so-called City of Suffering. But this is not the end of their differences as works of art and as the literary products of two men and contemporary South African writers who do not, apparently, have much in common. An open playground for all kinds of dichotomies begins here: this is the story of two oceans, two lands belonging to the same Land, two novels, two writers, two literary visions, and two different conclusions compared. Everyone is welcome. 2 A story of two writers To begin with, it is almost impossible not to acknowledge that it is possible to claim that while Black Zakes Mda (born 1948), 2 the older writer, is the rising star of recent South African letters, a brilliant academic, a living example of the successful empowerment of formerly discriminated races and an attractive individual loved by his many readers, on the other hand, Johan van Wyk (born 1956), the younger writer, is a self-made outcast, a failed academic 3 - due to his lifestyle and bad luck - a provocateur, a man bitch, a disturbing representative of the guilt associated with formerly dominant races, and a man with very few admirers and prone to general rejection and scandal. A substantiating example related to Zakes Mda can be found in a recent book, Ways of Writing published by the University of KwaZulu-Natal, in which the editors provide the following introductory paragraph that makes him equal to the most legendary African writers ever: “Zakes Mda is recognised as an important African and significant South African writer. Like Chinua Achebe, he has engaged with the colonial, post-colonial and also neo-colonial history of his country. As in the case of Wole Soyinka’s work, Mda’s oevre encompasses both drama and fiction, which draw on Western and indigenous performance traditions. Mda’s career, like that of Ngugi wa Thiong’o, has followed a double trajectory and he has distinguished himself not only as a creative writer, but also as a cultural theorist and activist”. 4 2 Zakes Mda is a pen name, his full real name being Zanemvula Kizito Gatyeni Mda, which can be translated as follows: The-One-Who-Brings-Rain Mda. 3 ‘Failed’, as it will be explained later, must be understood here as not having enjoyed the fortune of leading the long, brilliant and successful academic career that he should have known and could be expected from his promising and rewarding beginnings. For a full list of his many merits, see his personal internet web page CV at http: / / graham.stewart.tw/ johanvanwykweb. 4 David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds.: 2009b, “Introduction. Zakes Mda. Ways of Writing”, in: David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds., Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda. Durban 2009b, 1. <?page no="315"?> The Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk and Zakes Mda Compared 299 In addition, the second paragraph compares him (a black writer) with the undisputed living stars of white South African letters, also his equals: “In the South African context, Mda’s writing may be compared with those of Nadine Gordimer [...] with a writer such as André P. Brink [...] in the same category as the metafictional discourse of J.M. Coetzee”. 5 It is quite evident that South Africans and South African academics love this writer. 6 To the best of my knowledge, no such laudatory, affectionate paragraphs have ever been devoted to our second writer, Johan van Wyk, who was born in the city of Bloemfontein, located within the boundaries of the former Orange Free State province. He is an Afrikaner and, consequently, for better or worse, a member of the formerly dominant ethnic group under the apartheid regime. Eventually, having chosen himself an academic career in Literary Studies, he became full professor in January 2000. This successful intellectual trajectory, however, met an abrupt ending in November 2002 when he had to be taken to hospital after being attacked in his flat at 27 Oxford House, 77 Gillespie Street - a new South African temple of encounters in downtown Durban. His health has never recovered fully. In addition to the researcher and higher education teacher, we have the man of letters, i.e., the poet, the novelist, the artist 7 and the translator. Although Afrikaans is his first language, he works (creates) both in English and Afrikaans. His poetry (1976-2005) is written mainly in Afrikaans, 8 but his later prose works are written in English (Man Bitch). Also very typically, Zakes Mda was born in the Eastern Cape but raised in Soweto, the world-famous Johannesburg black township. In 1963, during the difficult years of the struggle, he left South Africa, joining his father in exile in Lesotho. Soon he also made a name for himself as a poet and as a playwright. He also started an academic career, first in Lesotho and then in the United States of America, searching wider horizons to enliven his natural talent. 5 David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds.: 2009b, “Introduction. Zakes Mda. Ways of Writing”, in: David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds., Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda. Durban 2009b, 1. 6 Even a rigorous prestigious periodical such as The Economist claimed that Black South Africa has found a strong new voice in Zakes Mda, a marvellous story teller. See: The Economist: “New Fiction. Beyond the pale. The Madonna of Excelsior”, in: The Economist, 28 February, 2004, 89. 7 Johan van Wyk is also a very talented painter and portraitist. See also his personal web page CV at http: / / graham.stewart.tw/ johanvanwykweb for a selection of his works. I highly recommend the contemplation of his emotive portrait Mbali a few months before death. Mbali, a Durban woman, is one of the leading female characters of Man Bitch. 8 His published volumes of poetry in Afrikaans are: Deur die oog van die luiperd (1976), Heldedade kom nie dikwels voor nie (1978), Bome gaan dood om jou (1981), Oë in ‘n kas (1996), and Gedigte (1976-1996) (2005). <?page no="316"?> Juan Miguel Zarandona 300 Finally, in 1995 he returned to South Africa after thirty-two years in exile and published his first novel, Ways of Dying, to considerable critical acclaim, followed by very successful works of fiction: She Plays with the Darkness (1995), Merville 67 (1998), The Heart of Redness (2000), The Madonna of Excelsior (2002), The Whale Caller (2005) and Cion (2007), his last title thus far. Mda has declared that the end of apartheid (and I would add the end of post- apartheid will eventually complete this process) freed the imagination of the artist in South Africa. There was no longer a need to write as part of the struggle against the political situation and the moment had arrived to create with all the freedom in the world and develop as an individual artist. 9 The American subject matter of his last novel, Cion, proves that he has made this wish a reality. Again, after contemplating all these data, it is almost impossible to deny that while Zakes Mda is a success story leading to a well-deserved happy ending after many years of privation and suffering, Johan van Wyk has ended up, from his former position of privilege, as a minority artist prone to scandalous presentations of his own life’s subject matters, and suffering as a result of rampant crime and affirmative action policies. 3 Two novels compared Both texts of fiction by Mda and Van Wyk respectively devote much of their pages to what happened when the internal - social and racial - borders of the old South Africa fell apart with the end of apartheid and white supremacy, but with very different intentions. Black Mda, the official primeval narrator of a newly born people, sells collective comfort and healing, and a new cathartic mythical beginning for a finally re-united hybrid people much in need of that shared dreaming and symbolic guidance. ““I care about all my children, Viliki,” said Niki. “Not only those of my womb” 10 [...] “They want to take away all my children,” said Nike softly”. 11 “Concerned citizens who had come to witness the wonder of wonders. For the first time in the history of Excelsior, the town council had black members. And they were in the majority”. 12 “One of the greatest achievements of his council was the electrification of Mahlatswetsa Location. Every dwelling was wired up, even shacks like Niki’s”. 13 9 J.U. Jacobs: “Towards a South African Expressionism. The Madonna of Excelsior”, in: David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds., Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda. Durban 2007, 277. 10 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 128. 11 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 155. 12 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 158. <?page no="317"?> The Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk and Zakes Mda Compared 301 “Nike did not know what a right-winger was: she just looked at Popi sheepishly and said, “One day Tjaart will understand that he has to love you””. 14 Conversely, Afrikaner Van Wyk seems only to exhibit real-life failure, a very autobiographical, eroticized world of broken dreams, destruction among irreconcilable contraries, collective suffering, and more pain and disunion: “A cockroach watched me chopping up onion, garlic, and chillies, and adding curry powder, cumin, cinnamon sticks, lemon juice, tomato purée, and meat. I looked through the window, thinking that poor whites retire on the streets of Durban, living from the rubbish in the containers on the street corners”. 15 ““Angie” she replied “... my name in Angel, but I’m not from heaven in any way.” We spoke for a while, and I invited her to my empty flat, and she came, and sat on the chair in front of the hi-fi, and avoided facing me. Wilhelm Backhaus Concerto No. 1 was on the tape deck. I offered her some red wine. We went to the bedroom”. 16 4 Two literary visions Man Bitch, which was published first in 2001 and then in 2006, in an updated edition, is a very autobiographical rendering of its author’s goings-on, as mentioned above. The plot centres on Life in a new multiracial downtown Durban without limits. The protagonist, the writer himself, a white man (Man Bitch), loves (and is loved) openly and shares the suffering of a series of Black women: Mbali, Makhosi, Angel, Luisa, Zodwa, Beauty, etc., something that was impossible not so long ago. All the characters lead hard lives of alcoholism, prostitution, scandal, obsessive eroticism, AIDS, violence, crime, discrimination, abuse, extreme poverty, etc., which constitutes a veritable “contemporary tragicomedy of manners”: “While we were waiting for Joanna in the car, Luisa pushed my finger through a copper ring from Mozambique, and I could not get it off again. A slight feeling of nausea overcame me. “You fuck me too much” Luisa kept on telling me”. 17 “I had two injections and an AIDS test; the result would be out on the following Saturday. I had to live with the accusations from Luisa: “Why you don’t tell me before. Oh! My God! You don’t love me. You only think of yourself. I’m only twenty-three years old. Who is going to look after my children? Who is going to look after my son? I like my life. I don’t want to die””. 18 13 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 174. 14 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 192. 15 Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 4. 16 Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 9. 17 Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 24. 18 Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 27. <?page no="318"?> Juan Miguel Zarandona 302 The Madonna of Excelsior (2002) 19 tells its readers the story not of a huge urban community but of a small rural South African village, Excelsior, in the Free State - the story of Excelsior (a name to be analyzed), 20 before… and after… Before, in 1971, nineteen white and black citizens (the latter being women) were charged with breaking apartheid’s Immorality Act, which forbade sex between the races. In other words: “Now, his fine new novel has none of the weaknesses and all of the strengths of “The Heart of Redness”. It, too, is based on an historical event that still resonates through South Africa: the arrest in 1971 of 19 citizens of a small town in Orange Free State for contravening the Immorality Act by having sex across the colour line. Using changed names and disguised identities, Mr. Mda imagines how their lives have proceeded since then”. 21 “He was talking of the police. They had uncovered twelve light-skinned children who they claimed had mixed blood. They were already in jail with their black- skinned mothers. There was a doctor too. All the way from Bloemfontein. His work was to take blood tests and to confirm that the blood was indeed mixed“. 22 “Her own daughter and her light-skinned granddaughter were in jail. The police had come for them in the middle of the night. Three police vans in all. Each with five heavily-armed Afrikaner policemen“. 23 “Excelsior has become the best-known town in the world this week,” said the BBC man, talking into the microphone and facing the camera. “The small farming community - population seven hundred - was rocked a few weeks ago when some of its prominent citizens were arrested with their black maids for contravening the Immorality Act. The white accused include the secretary of the local branch of the National Party and some of the wealthiest farmers in the district”. 24 And after, in post-apartheid South Africa, when Blacks and Coloureds are taking over, some of them even becoming villainous, abusing new Black 19 The contrast begins with the very titles of both novels, ranging from a very pejorative version of manhood, a bitch man, to a Madonna, that is a representation of the best and most blessed among women, the Queen of Heaven and the human Mother of God according to Christian beliefs. 20 The etymology of Excelsior can be found in the comparative form of the Latin adjective excelsus, meaning ‘noble’, ‘great’, ‘high in dignity’, etc., which opens an unexpected wealth of interpretations when it becomes the place name for a small village and for the geographical point where such mythical deeds as the ones depicted in The Madonna of Excelsior are going to happen. Bethlehem in former Palestine was also a village of no importance until The Madonna gave birth to Jesus there and now it excels in history as no other place can claim to do. 21 The Economist: “New Fiction. Beyond the pale. The Madonna of Excelsior”, in: The Economist, 28 February, 2004, 89. 22 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 63. 23 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 64. 24 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 71. <?page no="319"?> The Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk and Zakes Mda Compared 303 elite who use affirmative action for their own advantage, and everything has changed dramatically and beyond all recognition, including this rural backwater of the nation, and not always for the better: “Death lived among the people of Mahlatdswetsa every day. In days gone by, a funeral was a rare occasion that everybody talked about […] But these days death was, as the Basotho people put it in their adage, the daughter-in-law of all homesteads. Young men came home to die after being eaten by AIDS. Young women infected their unborn babies, who died soon after reaching toddlerhood”. 25 “The affirmative action people had failed to run the town efficiently 26 […] As soon as the revolutionaries had got into power, Popi wailed, they had focused on accumulating farms and hotels for themselves”. 27 There is also one neutral witness, a missionary, Father Claerhout, artist and Catholic priest, whose favourite subject matter is painting Black Madonnas. Eventually, Niki, a black woman, becomes his first model and The Madonna of Excelsior par excellence, the one giving the novel its appealing and unexpected title. Father Frans Claerhout is a real man, born in Belgium, who arrived in South Africa in 1946 as a missionary and managed to become a very reputed religious (content) and expressionist (style/ form) South African painter (see Schwager and Schwager, 1994). 28 The appealing fact is that each chapter of the novel is introduced by a detailed description of a mystical, often religious, painting by this priest. Jacobs has identified two thrusts in Mda’s writing, 29 the first is realistic with the emphasis on place and historiography, and the second is highly imaginative and symbolic. In The Madonna of Excelsior the reality is represented by two historical periods of Excelsior and its inhabitants: the 1971 crisis and post-apartheid political and social changes, which are presented with great detail and accuracy due to extensive archival research. Mda has always believed in the social function 25 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 203. 26 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 207. 27 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 232. 28 The Schwagers, father and daughter, introduce their subject matter, Claerhout Artist and Priest, as follows: “My father and I have spent many hours with Father Claerhout, both socially and on business. Upon leaving we always felt revitalized and very hu mble. Softly spoken, gently humorous and deeply caring. Father Claerhout’s simple outlook on life means living close to the earth and experiencing each element. People form the core around which he has moulded his life. His home has people flooding in and out. He welcomes everyone, shows them his mission, tell them stories, introduces them to his animals and friends and then invites them for a home cooked meal […] hoping to capture the beauty of this great man”. See: Dirk Schwager and Dominique Schwager: Claerhout. Artist and Priest. Maseru, Lesotho 1994, 5. 29 J.U. Jacobs: “Towards a South African Expressionism. The Madonna of Excelsior”, in: David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds., Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda. Durban 2007, 277-280. <?page no="320"?> Juan Miguel Zarandona 304 of his art and art in general. 30 Then, we have the surreal, mystical expressionist art by Father Claerhout, which functions as the perfect transitional device that opens the gate to the deep and multiple messages of the imagination and its symbolic and mythical worlds: “That is the one thing that has not changed, for Father Frans Claerhout is still a great admirer of big hands and big breasts. He is, after all, still the same trinity: man, priest and artist. The threeness that has tamed the open skies, the vastness and the loneliness of the Free State”. 31 Mda’s unique talent recreates in words the plastic art of the master painter and makes it relevant to Excelsior and the troubled lives of its people, and this is another undeniable achievement of the novel. 5 The Madonna of Excelsior The Madonna presents a symbolic, mythical time of the origins of a new integrated South Africa. For this purpose, it forms a constant with the free use of all kinds of Christian imagery and concepts. There is specifically one concept that becomes the key concept throughout the entire text: God as a Trinity: the Christian belief in one God consisting of three different persons: Father, Son and Holy Spirit. As Mary was the mother of a Trinitarian God, Niki, the Madonna of Excelsior, is the mother of the new people of the new integrated nation, one and three simultaneously. This identification is possible by the fact that she has had three children: Viliki (Black), Popi (Coloured) and Tjaart (White). Niki was Tjaart’s nanny. In this way, as many Black South African nannies to white children, she becomes more of a mother to the boy than his biological mother. Viliki and Popi share the same mother, Nike, but not the same father, a black man for the former, a white master for the latter. Finally, Popi and Tjaart are the offspring of the same biological father, a white Boer. The network of family triangles (trinities) is almost perfect. Everyone is related, somehow, to everyone else in groups of three. This is the healing reality of the TRINITY of the New South Africa. Money, power, politics and business are not enough - they are likely to fail. Only spiritual values can make a difference. And this orientation towards symbolism, myth and demanding inner transformations is what gives this novel its unique appeal: 30 David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds.: “Introduction. Zakes Mda. Ways of Writing”, in: David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds., Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda. Durban 2009b, 1-14. 31 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 4. <?page no="321"?> The Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk and Zakes Mda Compared 305 “These days it is very difficult to find a white person who ever supported apartheid […] We wondered what it was that had drawn these two together. At least Popi and Lizette de Vries were drawn together by their work“. 32 “After all, there were some benefits in getting into partnership with black farmers. Some affirmative action contracts and tenders would surely come his way, in the name of his protégés“. 33 If some extra thought is given to the novel construction too, any sensitive reader soon realizes that, to write his novel, Zakes Mda makes use of a very old literary device, the Greek catharsis, usually meaning ‘purification from all excessive passions’ or ‘emotional cleansing’. 34 By means of this artistic device, Western literature has, by showing those excesses that it is intended to oppose, a therapeutic, or cathartic effect. 35 Once all these elements are forced together, The Madonna reminds us of that ancient mythical world of gods, heroes and dramatic deeds when nations are formed - the new South Africa now, for example. 6 Man Bitch Our second novel presents a very different world: a godless modern world of anti-heroic characters struggling for survival and enduring their problematic lives without much hope or future prospects. It is also an eroticized world where all limits preventing sex between white and black people have been eradicated: “Ageing and crippled prostitutes were on the dance floor; their clothes as weathered as their wrinkled and toothless faces. A dwarf, Three Quarters, was swirling his stubs in the air like a broken Jesus Christ amongst his beer-drinking following. I walked to the Squireman’s Pub, on the first floor of the Arcade, with an e ntrance from a dark side street”. 36 “I had not seen Mbali for weeks, and then she phoned me. Her voice sounded extremely weak. I fetched her at about three in the afternoon, and was shocked at how thin she had become. She swore at me for saying: “Jesus, you are thin, only skin and bone,” Back at the flat, Mbali’s skeleton was lying in bed”. 37 32 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 114. 33 Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002, 244. 34 J. A. Cuddon: The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, revised by C.E. Preston. London 1999, 115. 35 Aristotle uses the word in his definition of tragedy in chapter VI of Poetics, and there has been much debate (still inconclusive) on exactly what he meant. See: J. A. Cuddon: The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, revised by C.E. Preston. London 1999, 115. 36 Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 1. 37 Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 4. <?page no="322"?> Juan Miguel Zarandona 306 ““Devastation” was the word I had in my mind, this morning as I drove to work. A heavy devastated feeling cramping around the heart. I did not know what was real any more”. 38 “The tension in my neck returned. Maybe it was the cockroach poison affecting me. I started an extermination campaign. They were taking over my space”. 39 “It was the last day of 1999, the longest day of nothingness, fraught with em otional dangers”. 40 Man Bitch takes refuge in another very different literary paradigm that is well known and practised by so many contemporary Western writers in the 20th century: a century marking the final stage of a slow, continuous process leading to degradation and irrelevance. In other words, the fallen and parodist antithesis of the grand Homeric epic heroes of the origin of a civilization, the Greek Achilles (The Iliad) or Ulysses (The Odyssey), among many others, that is Dublin Irish Leopold Bloom, the new Ulysses of the Ulysses (1922) by James Joyce (1882-1941), and his many followers. From my point of view, Johan van Wyk’s Man Bitch can be regarded as the post-apartheid version of this tradition: transferred to Durban, Republic of South Africa, but, sometimes, presenting the same Johan’s lonely wandering around Durban as Leopold’s wandering around Dublin: “I wandered through the streets, feeling betrayed and disappointed. I was completely possessed. Thoughts of doing away with myself crowded my mind, and a pain and heaviness the chest. After a few hours walking in the sunny streets, I felt better, and took the route back to Palmerston Hotel”. 41 7 Ancient Greece and postcolonial Africa This approximation to Greek concepts such as catharsis and epic heroes should not come as a surprise. The literary reception of classical Greek literature in postcolonial contexts has recently been the object of some ambitious research endeavours, as proven by the book Classics in Postcolonial Worlds: 42 “... discussing the central issues of how, why and with what effect writers, theatre practitioners, poets, thinkers, sculptors, and architects used, abused, rewrote, and adapted the texts and images of ancient Greece and Rome in the cultural and political contexts of a supposedly post-colonial world”. 43 Regarding Africa, the manual deals with Africanized Greek constructions rang- 38 Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 20. 39 Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 50. 40 Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 58. 41 Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 13. 42 Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds.: Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds, Oxford 2007. 43 Lorna Hardwick: “Introduction”, in: Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds., Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007, 2. <?page no="323"?> The Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk and Zakes Mda Compared 307 ing from ‘Trojan Women in Yorubaland’ and ‘an African Antigone’ to a ‘Post-Apartheid Electra’. A truth had to be acknowledged about classical myth and literature, and it was indeed in the pages of this book: “Anyone familiar with the great ancient Greek dramas, written mostly in the far- off fifth century (BCE), cannot fail to appreciate their most enduring and timeless essence, as well as their cross-cultural bonds with Africa. Indeed, ancient Greek drama has become part of a globalized culture, or what some scholars may refer to as a ‘cultural universal’, because it addresses fundamental and intrinsic human traits, desires, weaknesses, and strengths, as well as, sometimes, our own fair share of excessive pride (hubris) and lack of exercise of discretion and circumspection (blindness) in our contemporary world”. 44 Chapter 6 is about South Africa and studies the impact of Greek drama as a protest under the apartheid regime and its continuing impact in the new South Africa, in the context of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. 45 Two of the keywords that I have used to understand The Madonna are also used here, which proves that they were much in vogue, blowing in the wind: thus, a process for a national catharsis was established. This was not an easy task since, especially in the South African context, the distinction between perpetrator and victim was often blurred; that is, in some cases, one person could be a victim and perpetrator simultaneously. Countless wounds from the past needed to be healed. 46 Chapter 9 is about ‘epic heroes’ and presents detailed studies of the post- epic, post-colonial nature of the long poem, Omeros (1990), by Caribbean Nobel Laureate Derek Walcott, and its many intertextualities with its ancient Greek ancestor. 47 In other words, many of the following comments could also easily be applied to Man Bitch, including the reference to James Joyce: “He draws attention to the intertextual nature of epic genealogy and complicates the relationship between his text and Homer’s epic by alluding to Joyce’s Ulysses. This move highlights the recurrent nature of epic and positions Walcott’s text in a tradition of modified epics; as ‘Homer is echoed by the Irish experience’, so Homer and Joyce resound in his St. Lucian world”. 48 44 John Djisenu: “Cross-Cultural Bonds Between Ancient Greece and Africa: Implications for Contemporary Staging Practices”, in: Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds., Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007, 72. 45 Elke Steinmeyer: “Post-Apartheid Electra: In the City of Paradise”, in: Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds., Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007, 102-118. 46 Elke Steinmeyer: “Post-Apartheid Electra: In the City of Paradise”, in: Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds.: Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007, 103. 47 Katharine Burkitt: “Imperial Reflections: The Post-Colonial Verse-Novel as Post-Epic”, in: Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds., Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007 157-169. 48 Katharine Burkitt: “Imperial Reflections: The Post-Colonial Verse-Novel as Post-Epic”, in: Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds., Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007 158. <?page no="324"?> Juan Miguel Zarandona 308 “I will consider whether the post-epic, with its fragmented and self-reflexive relation to epic, is the only possibility for manifestations of epic in the contemporary post-colonial world”. 49 “This is a present-day, post-colonial, epic perspective that is projected from the classical into the contemporary, global, post-epic world”. 50 8 Opposite ends This artistic and cultural location at opposite ends of a long tradition is no trivial thing at all. It emphasizes and strengthens the main argument discussed in this chapter. Whereas the former, The Madonna, set at a symbolic beginning, means future - at least that is what Zakes Mda makes his readers believe - the latter, futureless Man Bitch, symbolizes a cyclical return of a past of unhappiness and suffering under a new disguise. Not even the new South Africa can mend this. There is no way out for men and women, no matter how much they try, especially South Africans, at this final point in the history of a civilization. There is only some scarce comfort available in sharing misfortune and pain, or in forgetting and/ or neutralizing them. The intriguing question could be paraphrased as follows: once you stop reading, and books are closed, and it is real life all around: which message is more suited, convenient or even necessary for South Africa? 51 9 Conclusions As soon as final conclusions are provided, it seems very difficult to deny or not to repeat the following aforementioned ideas: whereas The Madonna 49 Katharine Burkitt: “Imperial Reflections: The Post-Colonial Verse-Novel as Post-Epic”, in: Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds., Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007, 160. 50 Katharine Burkitt: “Imperial Reflections: The Post-Colonial Verse-Novel as Post-Epic”, in: Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds., Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007 169. 51 When studying present-day English-language narratives produced in the new South Africa, the same doubt always comes to my mind: ‘the language factor’: Is English, no matter how hybridized it is with the other languages of South Africa, the most suitable or credible language to narrate the nation and its luck, and not only the most convenient? Probably not, The Madonna of Excelsior should perhaps have been written in Afrikaans and/ or Sotho, the languages of its protagonists, or in Xhosa, the writer’s mother tongue. And then, why not, translated or self-translated into English for the benefit of reaching wider audiences? And what about Man Bitch? Here English is much more credible than the Afrikaans/ Zulu of the characters, as it is the real lingua franca of everyday intercommunication for a big city such as Durban, but not fully satisfactory either. <?page no="325"?> The Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk and Zakes Mda Compared 309 means future, encouragement and collective healing, 52 Man Bitch, although very humane, wise, emotive and appealing, offers mainly the return of a past of suffering under a new disguise. Which one do you prefer? And this could be an answer to the previous not so rhetorical question: Today’s South Africa is probably in greater need of the benefits of mythical, symbolic literary constructions, rather than joining the tough everyday realities of real-world South Africa one more time: “The tragedy of South Africa is that it has always been ruled - and still is - by elites which seek their own group self-interest rather than that of the country as a whole. Only when it at last acquires a ruling elite which thinks and feels for the whole of this beloved country will the sad cycle change”. 53 And this is probably the reason why a novel like The Madonna of Excelsior has been so popular in South Africa. 54 And it could also be the reason why Man Bitch is hardly known and read by the greater public. However, the hermeneutic interpretation of texts is a never-ending space for freedom. Therefore, it is undoubtedly also possible to wonder if they really represent two approaches that are, ultimately, not so distant from each other, to wonder if it is not possible to uncover, after giving some extra thought to it, that there is also much that unites them beyond all appearances: the same traumatic past, the same search for reparation, the overwhelming race factor, 55 the need for (im)possible healing, 56 the strong determination to live together finally 57 as a hybrid nation that has finally come to terms with its hybridity, no matter how complicated it may be, etc. 58 52 This is the new feeling in Mda’s words taken from a text entitled Babel’s Happiness: “I often hear my compatriots lamenting the fact that ten years after liberation we cannot talk of a common South African culture. I do not share this concern. In my literature I celebrate the diversity. It is a blessing that South Africa has many heritages, each with its rich language, cuisine, dances and other cultural practices […] Such are the joys of Babel”. See: Zakes Mda. Zakes Mda’s Site, available at: http: / / www.zakesmda.com, consulted: 7/ 30/ 2009. 53 R. W. Johnson: South Africa. The First Man. The Last Nation. Johannesburg and Cape Town 2004, 232. 54 Even the characters of Man Bitch read and love Mda’s works: “She (Zodwa) enjoyed reading Zakes Mda’s She Plays with the Darkness, and recognized so much of her own world in that book. See: Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006, 71. 55 Ralph Goodman: “Race, Satire and Post-Colonial Issues in The Madonna of Excelsior”, in: David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds., Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda. Durban 2009, 299-313. 56 N. S. Zulu: “Narrating Transformative Possibilities: The Collective Voice in The Madonna of Excelsior”, in: David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds., Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda, Durban 2009, 333-353. 57 Zakes Mda is especially prone to utter such feel-good words around the vogue concept of reconciliation: “For South Africa to survive and prosper, reconciliation is absolutely essential. But true reconciliation will only happen when we are able to confront what happened yesterday without bitterness […]. But, most importantly, we ourselves must <?page no="326"?> Juan Miguel Zarandona 310 Mda’s literature does have this purpose. Johan van Wyk’s also has this purpose and, as far as literature is involved, he has theorized about this: “During the apartheid years the literatures in the different languages were institutionalized as disconnected fields of study with separate literary histories […] The traditional literary history assumes that continuity between texts written in a particular language is stronger than the possible links between texts of different languages. In a multilingual society, language is secondary to the experience of a common history and environment. The product of such a shared history and e nvironment would be strong thematic overlaps”. 59 As my final comment, I would also like to state that the hybrid comparative method chosen to write this paper, from my point of view, has proved to be quite the right option. While you compare visions, perspectives, outlooks and interpretations, you sum them up; consequently, you end up with a more complete, enriching and balanced hybrid view of the reality involved in the comparison, post-apartheid South Africa, in this case. This paper could be elaborated on more ambitiously by adding new writers and novels dealing with the same historical period from different perspectives and experiences. The more items compared, the more complex the resulting reality and the closer one approaches the truth of the matter. Disgrace (1999) by J.M. Coetzee would, for example, be a priority candidate for such an additional process. References David Bell and Johan U. Jacobs (eds.): Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda. Durban 2009a. David Bell and Johan U. Jacobs: “Introduction. Zakes Mda. Ways of Writing”, in David Bell and Johan U. Jacobs (eds.), Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda. Durban 2009b, pp. 1-14. Katharine Burkitt: “Imperial Reflections: The Post-Colonial Verse-Novel as Post- Epic”, in Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds., Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007, pp. 157-169. never assume the new role of oppressor. And only history can teach us those lessons, provided, of course, we are capable of learning from history”. See: Julie Ward. “Interview with Zakes Mda”, on Zakes Mda’s Site, available at: http: / / www.zakesmda.com, consulted: 7/ 30/ 2009. 58 Ania Loomba: “Hybridity”, in Colonialism/ Postcolonialism. London and New York 2008, 145-153. 59 Johan van Wyk: “Towards a South African Literary History”, in: Johannes A. Smit, Johan van Wyk and Jean-Philippe Wade, eds., Rethinking South African Literary History. Durban 1996, 33-34. <?page no="327"?> The Fictional Constructions of Johan van Wyk and Zakes Mda Compared 311 John A. Cuddon: The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, revised by C. E. Preston. London 1999. John Djisenu: “Cross-Cultural Bonds Between Ancient Greece and Africa: Implications for Contemporary Staging Practices”, in Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds., Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007, pp. 72-85. Ralph Goodman: “Race, Satire and Post-Colonial Issues in The Madonna of Excelsior”, in David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds., Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda. Durban 2009, pp. 299-313. Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds.: Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds, Oxford 2007. Lorna Hardwick: “Introduction”, in Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds, Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007, pp. 1-11. Johan U. Jacobs: “Towards a South African Expressionism. The Madonna of Excelsior”, in: David Bell and Johan U. Jacobs (eds.), Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda. Durban 2007, pp. 277-297. Richard W. Johnson: South Africa. The First Man. The Last Nation. Johannesburg and Cape Town 2004. Ania Loomba: “Hybridity”, in: Colonialism/ Postcolonialism. London and New York 2008, pp. 145-153. Zakes Mda: The Madonna of Excelsior. New York 2002. Zakes Mda: Zakes Mda’s Site, available at: http: / / www.zakesmda.com, consulted: 7/ 30/ 2009. Zakes Mda: “Babel’s Happiness”, on Zakes Mda’s Site. This article is also available at: http: / / www.zakesmda.com, consulted: 7/ 30/ 2009. Dirk Schwager and Dominique Schwager: Claerhout. Artist and Priest. Maseru, Lesotho 1994. Johannes A. Smit, Johan van Wyk and Jean-Philippe Wade, eds.: Rethinking South African Literary History. Durban 1996. Elke Steinmeyer: “Post-Apartheid Electra: In the City of Paradise”, in: Lorna Hardwick and Carol Gillespie, eds., Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds. Oxford 2007, 102-118. The Economist: “New Fiction. Beyond the pale. The Madonna of Excelsior”, in: The Economist, 28 February, 2004, pp. 89-90. Johan van Wyk: “Towards a South African Literary History”, in: Johannes A. Smit, Johan van Wyk and Jean-Philippe Wade, eds., Rethinking South African Literary History. Durban 1996, pp. 31-39. Johan van Wyk: Man Bitch, Durban 2006. Johan van Wyk: Johan van Wyk. Personal web page. This publication is also available at: http: / / graham.stewart.tw/ johanvanwykweb, consulted: 7/ 30/ 2009. Julie Ward: “Interview with Zakes Mda”, on Zakes Mda’s Site. This is also available at: http: / / www.zakesmda.com, consulted: 7/ 30/ 2009. Rebecca L. Weber: The Africana QA: Zakes Mda, 2004. This publication is also available at: http: / / www.rebeccalweber.com/ zakes.htlm, consulted: 7/ 30/ 2009, 3. Nogwaja S. Zulu: “Narrating Transformative Possibilities: The Collective Voice in The Madonna of Excelsior”, in: David Bell and J.U. Jacobs, eds., Ways of Writing. Critical Essays on Zakes Mda, Durban 2009, pp. 333-353. <?page no="329"?> Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente Corruption crimes and their translation: A contrastive study English-Spanish within the framework of European Union law 1 The scope of our study: corruption in English and Spanish The present work endeavors a qualitative study of criminal terminology regarding corruption in English and Spanish, in the context of EU and national legislation. The relevance of the task undertaken is clear, if we only consider that corruption -conceived here as the abuse of public power for private gains- is perceived as a dire problem in Europe, where there is a deep sense of frustration that institutions and political actors are not living up to ethical standards. Indeed, according to the 2011 Eurobarometer on corruption, 74% of the citizens in the European Union Member States think that corruption levels are alarming, and 42% that such levels have risen over the last three years. 1 According to a Communication from the European Commission, 2 an estimated 120 billion Euros per year, or one percent of the EU GDP, is lost to corruption: it is an endemic malaise which harms the finances, the political systems and, ultimately, the survival of the European Union as a whole. Nevertheless, the work undertaken by the NGO Transparency International analyzing 178 countries and rating them from 0 to 10, °from more to less corrupt, in the form of surveys and indexes of corruption since 2003° has meant a monumental advance towards the perception and eradication of corruption in Europe. In fact, such efforts have been embodied in the accession of Europe to the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) in 2008, and in the creation of a monitoring body, the Council of Europe Group of States against Corruption (GRECO). The latter’s compliance reports have enforced the UNCAC regulations, repeatedly calling on EU countries to reinforce its legislation on bribery, to regulate political financing, to improve transparency in political party funding and to sanction corruption vigorously. As far as Spain is concerned, this country scored 6.2 in the Corruption Perceptions index implemented by 1 European press release on the 2011 Eurobarometer: http: / / europa.eu/ rapid/ pressReleasesAction.do? reference=IP/ 12/ 135&format=HTM L&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en 2 EU Communication Fighting Corruption: http: / / europa.eu/ rapid/ pressReleasesAction.do? reference=IP/ 11/ 678 <?page no="330"?> Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente 314 Transparency International (TI) in 2011, ranking below advanced capitalist democracies and closer to the levels of corruption of developing nations with authoritarian regimes. However, the aftermath of the work by TI, and that of the action carried out by GRECO to fight dishonest conduct in the implementation of the Convention’s premises has had an important impact in the Spanish legal framework anticorruption (Heywood, 2007; Jiménez, 2009), since a new, amended version of the Spanish Penal Code dealing with corrupt practices has been put into force since June 2010. From a linguistic and traductological point of view, this panorama is extremely interesting, since a wide range of terms criminalizing corruption °in English and Spanish° is being deployed by national and international instruments and bodies, and according to our hypothesis, it is being done unevenly. This is true of all the ones mentioned above, namely the international Convention against Corruption, the GRECO reports and the new Spanish Penal Code (not translated into English as yet, to our knowledge). At first sight, and this is our theory, there is no homogeneity in the usage of terms, and no accord on the labeling of practices in either of these documents. Such state of affairs is further complicated by the new glossary on corruption elaborated by Transparency International in both languages, sometimes, but not always, in harmony with the terminology implemented by the previously-mentioned bodies and instruments. Hence, our study, specifically, revolves around the feasibility of equivalence between the criminal terms in English (as the most important working language of the EU) and Spanish, having as the ultimate goal the revelation of both uniformities and asymmetries in the usage of the terminology to label corruption crimes in each of the languages, and as translated from one language into the other. Being true that, as far as the scope of traductology is concerned, the attempts by the European Union to develop common legal systems have driven translation forward in this area, a study consistently harmonizing and organizing terms and their translations in both languages is needed, and our study is a timid, first-hand approach to this end. Our methodological approach is the descriptive analysis through terminological databases, which are becoming an increasingly important research technology weapon. This lexical resource provides the vocabularies that can be used to describe a universe of discourse. The lexical databases at hand, namely WordNet and EuroWordnet, can be interpreted and used as lexical ontologies, since the relations among the noun synsets, mainly hypernymy and hyponymy, can be seen as specialization relations between conceptual categories (Gangemi et al., 2003). However, ontologies involve exhaustive knowledge representation and are widely used for information exchange between systems and applications, thus the lexical databases would require certain adaptations. As Pease et al. (2002) put it, lexical <?page no="331"?> Corruption crimes and their translation 315 databases are rather computational lexicons which have been commonly used as a source for constructing ontologies. Since our work is supported methodologically by these lexical databases, its secondary hypothesis of departure is, thus, that consequential variations exist in the lexical structure of corruption crimes in both languages, and that such variations must be taken into account when efficiently translating crimes from English into Spanish and vice versa. This is mainly due to the lack of order with which terms are used throughout the EU, but has its roots in the fact that law is an ideological artifact: a social construct which is culturally-bound and not uniform and constant for each and every civilization, but different in each legal system (Geertz, 1983). Law being, like language, the product of local convention, develops its origins in a specific community throughout history, through the usage that its members make of it. In Šar²evi³’s words (2000: 13), ‘legal language is bound by the legal system in which it is produced.‘ Consequently, dealing with different legal systems in a transnational context like the EU implies understanding the differences and subtleties between the different legal traditions that live within. In general terms, differences within the EU crop up as might be expected because it is a supranational rule of law that mainly contains -like the Western civilization at large° two systems springing from two different legal traditions: the English-speaking Common law (based mainly upon case law, with some degree of legislation) and the Continental, or Civil law (based mainly upon codification). Nevertheless, it is worthwhile pointing out that the possibility of legal communication across Europe has to allow for what Vogt has called the ‘Anglo-internationalisation of law’, with major impact over the last two decades, which is ‘unlikely to change in the near future’ (Vogt, 2004: 13). This phenomenon explains why EU legal drafting is, hence, conducted mainly in English, even if Spanish and French are also working languages of the EU. Therefore, even if we are not studying the corruption terminology in the European English-speaking legal systems, we are using the English terminology (and its translation into Spanish) because of the importance of the language in the EU context. Such fact °English preeminence as a legal and political form of communication° affects the substantive content of legal texts in the EU (Vogt, 2004) through the translations made from English into other languages. The lexical databases at issue may show just this in our study, as far as Spanish is concerned. Along these lines, it is relevant to point out that Common law is the legal tradition which evolved in England from the 11th century onwards. Its principles appear mostly in reported judgments, via precedents, based on how prior cases have been decided and it is usually much more detailed in its prescriptions than Civil law. In Europe, Common law constitutes the legal foundation in England, Wales and Ireland. Civil law, on the other <?page no="332"?> Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente 316 hand, is the system used in Spain (and in most of Europe, for that matter) and may be defined as that legal tradition which has its origin in Roman law, as codified in the Corpus Iuris Civilis of Justinian, and as subsequently compiled by the French Civil Code of 1804 in Continental Europe and around the world. Civil law is profoundly systematised and heavily structured, relying on declarations of broad, general principles, often ignoring the details. In Common law jurisdictions, most rules are found in precedents (or case law), and then complemented by statutes. In Civil law jurisdictions, in contrast, the important principles are stated in codes, which are also complemented by statutes (Tetley, 2003). It is not by chance, then, that Spain being a civil system of law, the language of corruption here is mainly criminalized through the Penal Code, whereas the system in England and Wales is mainly ruled by precedent, with the aid of the 2010 Bribery Act. 2 Our corpora and their analyses As mentioned above, the present study attempts to bring order into the certain chaos surrounding corruption terminology mainly at three levels: 1. The international level, with two relevant analyses: a) A selection of the crimes depicted in the United Nations Convention against Corruption as the first legally binding international anti-corruption instrument. b) A selection of the crimes depicted in the Glossary drafted in English and translated into Spanish by Transparency International. 2. The European level, with the analyses of the terminology to typify corruption offences adopted by GRECO in its 2009 report on corruption incriminations. 3. The national level, with the study of the criminalizing terminology used in the new Spanish Penal Code. We aim to tackle the study of corruption crimes and its different treatment by the selected legal texts by means of the application of lexical databases. As regards legal ontologies, they are the common denominator for a varying set of models focusing on legal domains, their environments, legal argumentation and other legal and legally relevant phenomena, such as the ones accomplished by Breuker et al. (2005; 2008), Felices & Marín (2011), and Valente (2003), among others. It is worthwhile pointing out, though, that our work here has a mainly descriptive approach, while the scope of the abovementioned researchers is the elaboration of legal ontologies to be implemented in Computational Linguistics. Therefore, we have analyzed the terms as stored by the lexical databases WordNet and EuroWordnet. WordNet was developed by the Cognitive Science Laboratory of Princeton University and is a lexical database exclusively for the English <?page no="333"?> Corruption crimes and their translation 317 language. The result is a combination between a thesaurus and a dictionary which groups words into synsets, or synonyms, and their relationships, providing short definitions and contextualizations. EuroWordnet, on the other hand, is a multilingual database with wordnets for several European languages (Dutch, Italian, Spanish, German, French, Czech, and Estonian). It works in a similar way to its American counterpart. The first thing to do was, thus, to proceed to the selection of the most relevant terms concerning corruption and its incrimination in each of the documents, disregarding anything that did not have any direct relation to the labeling of crimes or offences in the area of corrupt practices. The terms to be analyzed in the first place were those of United Nations Convention against Corruption, or UNCAC. Being a general set of norms to be applied internationally (in the scope of 140 countries), the wording of the text is fairly general, having as the scope of application “the prevention, investigation and prosecution of corruption and to the freezing, seizure, confiscation and return of the proceeds of offences established in accordance with this Convention”. Throughout the text, the concern is mainly the public sector, or the behavior of public officials, with a minor dedication to criminalize conducts in the private enterprise. The onset of the document contains a very brief glossary of key terms, none of them having to do with offence terminology, namely public official, property, proceeds, freezing or seizure, confiscation, predicate offence and controlled delivery. However, the words specifically regarding criminalization of corrupt conduct that we have detected in the text are the following: UNCAC TERM SPANISH VERSION Money laundering Blanqueo de dinero Bribery (of national and foreign public officials, and officials of public international organizations) Soborno (de funcionarios públicos nacionales extranjeros y de funcionarios de organizaciones internacionales públicas) Embezzlement (misappropriation or other diversion of property by a public officials) Malversación (o peculado, apropiación indebida u otras formas de desviación de bienes por un funcionario público) Trading in influence Tráfico de influencias Abuse of functions Abuso de funciones Illicit enrichment Enriquecimiento ilícito Bribery in the private sector Soborno en el sector privado Embezzlement of property in the private sector Malversación o peculado de bienes en el sector privado Table 1. UNCAC terminology on corruption crimes The Spanish version corresponds to the translation supplied by the United Nations, and contains some words like peculado (a Spanish translation of misappropriation) which has an archaic use in Spain and is <?page no="334"?> Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente 318 only in force in South American countries. As far as the rest of the terms deployed are concerned, as they are in the wide and far scope of corruption, they present a one-to-one, fairly generalist translation into Spanish. The importance of bribery and embezzlement stands out from the rest. Also in the context of international law, Transparency International has elaborated a new anti-corruption glossary to harmonize all the terms that have been used in the realm of corrupt conduct, so as to achieve common understanding and language. This compendium of words should serve as a channel to ensure for dishonest conduct in public and private enterprises to be prevented in the future. It is in this spirit that the plain language guide by TI has been developed: to capture the key terms and their meanings for TI, and to provide the anti-corruption movement with a resource to work more effectively with government, private sector and the members of the civil society, through the offering of a set of standardized, easy-to-understand, definitions. Our choice of terms that appear in the said glossary is the following, again (as we did in the previous text under analysis) including only the offences typified in the document and its Spanish translation: TI TERM SPANISH VERSION 1. Bribery 1. Soborno 2. Clientelism 2. Clientelismo 3. Collusion 3. Colusión 4. Corruption 4. Corrupción 5. Embezzlement 5. Malversación 6. Extortion 6. Extorsión 7. Fraud 7. Fraude 8. Grand Corruption 8. Corrupción a gran escala 9. Lobbying 9. Ejercer presión 10. Money Laundering 10. Lavado de dinero 11. Nepotism (Cronyism) 11. Nepotismo 12. Political Corruption 12. Corrupción política 13. Revolving Door 13. Traspaso entre el sector público y el privado 14. Solicitation 14. Incitación Table 2. TI terminology on corruption crimes As we can see, the scope is wider than the Convention’s, including interesting novel terms not accounted for by the Convention, such as lobbying, revolving door and clientelism, which we hypothesize as not being standardized crimes. The translations into Spanish are quite literal and, in some cases, simplistic and debatable, as we hope to demonstrate in our lexical analysis. Within the EU scope, Spain joined GRECO in 1999. GRECO adopted the First Round Evaluation Report in respect of Spain at its 5th Plenary Meeting <?page no="335"?> Corruption crimes and their translation 319 (11-15 June 2001) and the Second Round Evaluation Report (2004 7E) at its 23rd Plenary Meeting (17-20 May 2005). The Third Round Evaluation was launched in 2007 and was applied in Spain in 2009, containing the advice and recommendations of the Commission for the incrimination of corruption in the country. The data collected by the GRECO evaluation teams are first of all a unique source of information on what is a fairly recent body of regulations in the history of European democracies. These evaluations look at all aspects of corrupt practices, including all kinds of irregular behavior of public officials, how the regulations are enforced and what penalties may be imposed. The selection of terms we have carried out of the reports is the basis for us to check the ways in which the Convention and GRECO define corruption crimes, as described in Table 3: GRECO TERM SPANISH VERSION 1. Bribery (Active/ Passive) 1. Cohecho (Activo/ Pasivo) 2. Corruption 2. Corrupción 3. Trading in influence 3. Tráfico de influencias 4. Account offences 4. Delitos contables 5. Participatory acts 5. Actos de participación 6. Abuse of official duties 6. Abuso del ejercicio de sus funciones oficiales 7. Breach of official duty 7. Incumplimiento de obligaciones oficiales Table 3. Corruption crimes deployed by GRECO But there exists a concern by GRECO of all forms of bribery, which we treat separately, to highlight the importance of this concept in the report: GRECO TERM ON BRIBERY SPANISH VERSION 1. Passive bribery (actions / omissions constituting a crime) 1. Cohecho pasivo (acciones/ omisiones constitutivas de delito) 2. Passive bribery (actions/ omissions constituting an unjust act) 2. Cohecho pasivo (acciones/ omisiones que suponen un acto injusto) 3. Passive bribery (omission of acts inherent to the public official’s duties) 3. Cohecho pasivo (omisión de actos inherentes a las funciones del empleado público) 4. Passive bribery (performance of acts inherent to the public official’s duties) 4. Cohecho pasivo (comisión de actos inherentes a las funciones de empleado público) 5. Passive bribery (bribe offered in consideration of the public official’s position or in order for the public official to fulfill a lawful act) 5. Cohecho pasivo (soborno ofrecido en consideración a su cargo o por la rea lización de un acto lícito) 6. Active bribery 6. Cohecho activo Table 4. Bribery according to GRECO <?page no="336"?> Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente 320 Finally, we reach the national scope: the new Spanish Penal Code (SPC henceforth) includes a number of important reforms in the anti-corruption arena very much in harmony with the GRECO postulates, providing for, inter alia, the criminalization of bribery in the private sector, a simplified classification of bribery in the public sector (lawful acts, unlawful acts and situations in which the bribe is accepted on the basis of the public official’s position), explicit criminalization of capital laundering, corporate liability, increased levels of sanctions, etc. As can be seen in our tables below, corruption of public officials is regulated by Titles VIII (On Falsehood), XIII (On Property and the Socioeconomic order), XVI (Regarding Urban Planning and Heritage) and, mainly, XIX, specifically controlling jobbery matters (On Public Administration). Together with the technical term for the offence, several data are supplied in our tables, such as the Title and Chapter and Articles where the crime is to be found and its less technical, more general version of the offence, as known by the general public. Also the Articles which have been reformed in the new Spanish Code, in line with GRECO and the UN Convention normative, are highlighted (Valero, 2011). OFFENCE ENGLISH TRANSLA- TION CHAPT. ARTICLES ARTICLES REFORMED Falsedad documental Documentary falsehood II 390-394 392 Cobro de facturas falsas False billing II 395-6 none Table 5. Title VIII of the SPC, On Falsehood OFFENCE ENGLISH TRANSLA- TION CHAPT. ARTICLES ARTICLES REFORMED Blanqueo de capitales Money laundering XIV 301-304 301, 302 Table 6. Title XIII of the SPC: On Property and Socioeconomic Order OFFENCE ENGLISH TRANSLA- TION CHAPT. ARTICLES ARTICLES REFORMED Crimen contra la ordenación del territorio y el urbanismo Against land and urban planning / Urban planning crimes I 319, 320 319, 320 Crimen contra el patrimonio Against the public heritage II 321-324 none Crimen contra los recursos naturales y el medio ambiente Against natural resources and environment III 325-331 325, 327, 328, 329 Table 7. Title XVI of the SPC: Crimes Regarding Urban Planning and Public Heritage <?page no="337"?> Corruption crimes and their translation 321 OFFENCE ENGLISH TRANS- LATION CHAPT. ARTICLES ARTICLES REFORMED Prevaricación administrativa Administrative breach of trust, jobbery I 404-406 none Cohecho (activo, pasivo e impropio) Bribery, Corruption V 419-427 419-427 Tráfico de influencias Trading in influence VI 428-431 428-430 Malversación (de fondos, de caudales públicos) Embezzlement and misappropriation (of funds, of public funds) VII 432-435 none Fraude y exacciones ilegales Fraud and illegal extortion VIII 436-438 436 Negociaciones y actividades prohibidas a los funcionarios Illegal partaking of public officials in business activities or contracts IX 439-444 439 Corrupción en transacciones comerciales internacionales Corruption in international commercial transactions X 445 445 Table 8. Title XIX of the SPC: Crimes Against The Public Administration OFFENCE ENGLISH TRANS- LATION CHAPT. ARTICLES ARTICLES REFORMED Prevaricación judicial Judicial breach of trust, jobbery I 446-449 none Table 9. Title XX of the SPC: Crimes Against The Administration Of Justice For the sake of the limitations of our study, we could not detain ourselves in the analysis of all of the terms in each of the instruments at the different levels. The criteria we selected were twofold: a) To have the criminalizing terms in the Penal Code as the main source of selection, contrasting those with the different English equivalents as provided by the international and EU documents. b) To exclude nominal groups from our lexical analysis (as it is the case of the majority of terms in GRECO and the Convention), since they do not constitute criminal terminology, taken one by one (abuse/ abuso, traffic of influence/ tráfico de influencias, etc), and the results of a previous exploration proved to be inconclusive. Therefore, taking these two premises into account, our final selection of terms was the following: <?page no="338"?> Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente 322 SELECTED TERM SPANISH VERSION/ S Bribery (Active/ Passive) Cohecho (Activo/ Pasivo) Corruption Corrupción Embezzlement, misappropriation Malversación Money laundering Blanqueo de capitales Fraud Fraude Extortion Exacción, extorsión Table 10. Selected terms for incrimination and their Spanish version Notably, the two first terms are the most important ones. Corruption constitutes the very name of the lexical field whose study we are endeavoring. Bribery, on the other hand, is less general in character but appears in all the instruments under analysis, and in an exhaustive way, at that. Embezzlement shows also a ubiquitous presence, except in the GRECO reports, and the same is true of Money laundering. Extortion and Fraud, finally, appear solely in the SPC and in the TI glossary, but were interesting as examples of cognate adaptations. 3 Results and discussion To exemplify our findings, we have chosen to make a graphic representation of the semantic structure of the pairs °the term in English and its translation into Spanish as provided by the SPC° through figures. The terms chosen are in bold and have been inserted into a burgundy square, terms in English being written in black, while those in Spanish are in white. Horizontal lines represent the level of semantic concreteness, the superior level (in green) being the most general one. At the same level of the node term, synonyms appear related with the <=> symbol in a pale shade of mauve. Terms belonging to the lower level in orange are hyponyms with more specificity and are represented as interrelated with thick white arrows; black arrows express inter-linguistic equivalence English-Spanish. 3.1 Bribery/ Cohecho Transparency International defines bribery as the‚offering, promising, giving, accepting or soliciting of an advantage as an inducement for an action which is illegal, unethical or a breach of trust. Inducements can take the form of gifts, loans, fees, rewards or other advantages (taxes, services, donations, etc.).‘ In its turn, the SPC distinguishes among several usages of bribery, in accordance to the realm of usage of the word: soborno (the translation favored by the TI glossary for bribery) for any person or persons, and cohecho as regards public officials or politicians. On the other hand, <?page no="339"?> Corruption crimes and their translation 323 EuroWordnet shows that the hypernym of cohecho is crimen or delito mayor, and among its synonyms are soborno and coima (see Figure 1) while, according to the WordNet taxonomy, bribery is a synonym for graft, understood as the acquisition of money, power, etc., by dishonest or unfair means, especially by taking advantage of a position of trust. The structural relationships presented by WordNet show crime, felony and transgression as hypernyms of this concept, while its hyponyms would be barratry, as the crime of a judge whose judgment is influenced by, and commercial bribery, or bribery of a purchasing agent in order to induce the agent to enter into a transaction. Figure 1. Graphic representation of the bribery/ cohecho semantic structure Even if there exist important structural coincidences in the analysis of these concepts, the definitions provided by the corpora tell us that the Spanish term is much more specific than its English equivalent. That is to say, bribery is a fairly general term, applied in English to any kind of inducement. Nevertheless, the choice of words would be dual in Spanish, cohecho or soborno; the former would refer to public officials and Government personnel, while the second is much more general. However, this differentiation is not accounted for by the lexical databases at hand. Also, both in the European context of GRECO and the national one of the SPC there is a difference drawn between passive and active bribery and cohecho activo y el cohecho pasivo. According to GRECO, active bribery is ‘the promising, offering or giving by any person, directly or indirectly, of any undue advantage to any of its public officials, for himself or herself or for anyone else, for him or her to act or refrain from acting in the exercise of his or her functions’, while passive bribery is ‘the request or receipt by any of its public officials, directly or indirectly, of any undue advantage, for himself or herself or for anyone else, or the acceptance of an offer or a promise of such an advantage, to act or refrain from acting in the exercise of his or her functions.’ Along the same lines, Luzón (2004) <?page no="340"?> Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente 324 explains that in cohecho activo is the individual who corrupts the public official, and vice versa in the case of cohecho pasivo. Also, cohecho pasivo is subdivided into cohecho pasivo propio (when the act is unlawful or an omission of duty) and impropio (when the act is not unlawful) under Spanish law. This differentiation does not appear in the lexical databases either, despite the importance of their typification. 3.2 Corruption/ Corrupción There is no single definition of corruption in the Spanish legal system. Rather, a number of corruption offences are envisaged stricto senso in the Spanish Criminal Code of 1995 under various headings. As far as the TI glossary is concerned, the term refers to the abuse of entrusted power for private gain and can be classified as grand, petty or political, depending on the amounts of money at stake, and the sector where it occurs. Indeed, it is true that the word has a markedly general character, labeling the entire lexical field under study. However, it is consequential because of its appearance in each and every of our corpora, framing most of the criminal conducts in the area. According to the structural relationships in WordNet, the term Corruption has inducement or inducing as direct hypernyms (see Figure 2), and is defined as lack of integrity or honesty, especially through bribery, or the use of a position of trust for dishonest gain. Both hypernyms refer to a more neutral ‘act of bringing about a desired result.’ Corruption has jobbery, infection or venality as hyponyms, only the first one being specifically applied to dishonest conduct by public officials. In contrast, EuroWordnet does not offer any hypernym for Corrupción and offers some hyponyms which are not present anywhere in our corpora, such as agiotaje, intriga and chanchullo. In our opinion, this analysis is incomplete for such a complex phenomenon. Figure 2. Graphic representation of the corruption/ corrupción semantic structure <?page no="341"?> Corruption crimes and their translation 325 3.3 Embezzlement/ Malversación TI defines embezzlement as the crime executed ‚when a person holding office in an institution, organization or company dishonestly and illegally appropriates, uses or traffics the funds and goods they have been entrusted with for personal enrichment or other activities.‘ In WordNet, it is represented as the total synonym of several terms such as peculation, misapplication, misappropriation (also in the TI glossary) and defalcation. Its direct hyponyms are raid, ‚an attempt by speculators to defraud investors‘ and plunderage (equivalent to saqueo in Spanish), especially the embezzlement of goods on shipboard. Embezzlement is also hyponym of larceny, theft, thievery, thieving and stealing. The Spanish equivalent is malversación, which has, according to EuroWordnet, desfalco (close to its English equivalent, defalcation) and not peculio (as it is suggested by the TI Glossary) as its synonym. Peculio is an archaic word in European Spanish (according to the DRAE), this form being used only in Latin-American countries. Its only hyponym is saqueo, the Spanish equivalent of plunderage. It has also several hypernyms such as alzado, sustracción, robo, latrocinio or desvalijamiento (see Figure 3). <?page no="342"?> Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente 326 Figure 3. Graphic representation of the embezzlement/ malversación semantic structure <?page no="343"?> Corruption crimes and their translation 327 3.4 Money laundering/ Blanqueo de capitales Money laundering is defined as ‘concealing the source of illegally gotten money’ and as ’the process of concealing the origin, ownership or destination of illegally or dishonestly obtained money by hiding it within legitimate economic activities’ by TI. The American lexical database provides neither hyponyms nor synonyms, but its hypernyms are concealment, concealing and hiding. Money laundering is translated as lavado de capitales by the TI glossary, but its usual translation in European Spanish is blanqueo, not lavado. There is no entry for the word in the European database. Figure 4. Graphic representation of the money laundering/ blanqueo de capitales semantic structure 3.5 Fraud/ Fraude Extrinsic fraud Fraude Fraud Constructive fraud = Legal fraud Collateral fraud Fraud in fact Positive fraud = = Fraud in the factum Fraud in the inducement Intrinsic fraud Crime Criminal offense Lawbreaking Barratry Crime Delito Figure 5. Graphic representation of the fraud/ fraude semantic structure <?page no="344"?> Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente 328 Fraud is a widely used word, commonly deployed to describe many forms of trickery and unethical behavior, used to give wide berth to judicial construction to punish certain dishonest conducts. Under Common law, fraud may be a crime or a civil wrong and three elements are required to prove it: a material false statement made with intent to deceive, a victim’s reliance on the statement, and damages. 3 The structural relationships presented by WordNet for the term fraud show crime, criminal offense and law-breaking as hypernyms, while it offers several hyponyms. The first one is barratry, which was also considered to be a hyponym of bribery, and described as the crime of a judge whose judgment is influenced by. Some of their sister terms are constructive fraud -synonymous with legal fraud-, and extrinsic fraud, a synonym for collateral fraud known in Spanish as fraude implícito. Moreover, the lexical database provides three further sister terms: fraud in the factum, fraud in the inducement, and intrinsic fraud. Nonetheless, it is our belief that these three terms should not be placed at the same level within the hierarchy; rather, the latter acts as a hypernym for the concepts of fraud in the factum and fraud in the inducement. The translation into Spanish, as given by Transparency International is fraude. The translation is inexact, since fraud may be civil or criminal in English, while it is only criminal in Spanish. As it happens with corrupción, there is no single definition of corruption in the Spanish legal system for fraude, which also called defraudación or estafa. 4 None of these synonyms appear in EuroWordnet, which does not offer but two hyponyms, crimen and delito, both meaning crime or criminal offence. Fraude, when applied to public officials, is described in article 436 of the SPC, and involves one person (or group of persons) deceiving another person in order to gain some financial or other advantage. 3.6 Extortion/ Extorsión, exacción Extortion is defined by TI as ‘the act of utilizing, either directly or indirectly, one’s access to a position of power or knowledge to demand unmerited cooperation or compensation as a result of coercive threats.’ It is a general term which has exaction as its hypernym, according to WordNet; specifically, it is defined in the database as ‘the unjust exaction by the misuse of authority’, showing no synonyms. The equivalent in Spanish, extorsión has exacción and concusión as synonyms (see Figure 5). 3 Law Lessons from D’Agostino v. Maldonado, Chan. Div., BER-C-84-09, Koblitz, P.J. Ch., June 30, 2010. 4 http: / / despachoabogados.fullblog.com.ar/ indice-codigo-penal-espanol-2011actualizado.html <?page no="345"?> Corruption crimes and their translation 329 Figure 6. Graphic representation of the extortion/ extorsión, exacción semantic structure 4 Conclusions We aimed at harmonizing the wide range of terms criminalizing corruption in the different areas of international and national legislation, namely the international Convention against Corruption, the Transparency International Plain Language Guide, the GRECO reports and the new Spanish Penal Code. The application of these terms is, indeed, being done unevenly, according to our primary hypothesis. The search in the major legal instruments dealing with anticorruption incriminations has proved that our premise is true. The account of terms and their definitions, as given by the international bodies is intentionally wide, having to adapt concepts belonging to several legal systems. There is no internationally recognized legal characterization of key terms like corruption, bribery or fraud. In its narrowest sense, corruption is most usually interpreted as referring to bribery and extortion. More widely, it includes also fraud, collusion, abuse of power, embezzlement, trading in influence and money laundering, but some new terms like revolving door, cronyism and lobbyism are being introduced by TI, for example. These activities will normally constitute criminal offences in most jurisdictions although the precise definition of the offence may differ. We also endeavored to carry out a selection of terms, in accordance to the terminology on corrupt practices provided by the Spanish Penal Code, contrasting them with their different English equivalents, as provided by the international and EU documents. To attain this goal, we scrutinized the way in which they are stored by the lexical databases WordNet and EuroWordnet. In the process, we disregarded any term that did not have a direct relation to the labeling of crimes or offences. The terms of our selection were the following: bribery/ cohecho, corruption/ corrupción, embezzlement/ malversa ción, money laundering/ blanqueo de capitales, extortion/ extorsión and fraud/ fraude. Important problems in the lexical structuring of these databases re garding corruption incriminations were found in the course of this analysis, such as the following: - - <?page no="346"?> Mª Ángeles Orts Llopis & Ángela Almela Sánchez-Lafuente 330 a) The description of semantic relationships in the form of hyponyms, hypernyms and synonyms was disparate in either database, the versions given by the American one being much more thorough than that accomplished by the European one. b) There are asymmetries between the meaning of terms in either language that the databases cannot describe or interpret. c) Such dissimilitude is mostly due to the complexity and peculiarity of the legal systems that the source and target terms belong to. Such idiosyncrasy makes it impossible to find exact equivalences for most of the terms. At the onset of our study we wished to find ways to clarify the way in which the terminology of corruption crimes in English and their translation into Spanish is deployed in the EU context, through lexical databases. The results of our analysis have proven to be somewhat disappointing. Nevertheless, precisely because such databases are in a process of continuous evolution and adaptation, we wish for our study to signify that their application can be improved, at least when implemented in such an important lexical field as corrupt conducts and their incriminations in the context of the EU. References Joost Breuker, André Valente & Radboud Winkels: ‘Use and Reuse of Legal Ontologies in Knowledge Engineering and Information Management’. Law and the Semantic Web, 2003, pp. 36-64. Joost Breuker, Pompeu Casanovas & Michel C. A. Klein (eds.): Law, Ontologies and the Semantic Web. Amsterdam 2008. Ángel Felices & Amalia Marín: ‘La semántica profunda como fundamento para desarrollar una subontología jurídica en el contexto de las ontologías de ámbito legal’. Comunicación oral presentada en el XXIX Congreso Internacional de AESLA. Universidad de Salamanca 2011. Aldo Gangemi, Roberto Navigli & Paola Velardi. The OntoWordNet Project: Extension and Axiomatization of Conceptual Relations in WordNet, In Proc. of International Conference on Ontologies, Databases and Applications of SEmantics (ODBASE 2003), Catania, Sicily (Italy), 2003, pp. 820-838. Clifford Geertz: Local Knowledge. Further Essays in Interpretative Anthropology. New York 1983. Paul M. Heywood: ‘Corruption in Contemporary Spain’. PS: Political Science & Politics, 40, 2007, pp. 695-699. Fernando Jiménez: ‘Building Boom and Political Corruption in Spain’. South European Society and Politics, 14: 3, 2009, pp. 255-272. Jose María Luzón: Compendio de Derecho Penal. Parte general, 15ª edición. Madrid 2004. <?page no="347"?> Corruption crimes and their translation 331 Adam Pease, Ian Niles & John Li: The suggested upper merged ontology: A large ontology for the Semantic Web and its applications. In Proc. of the AAAI-2002 Workshop on Ontologies and the Semantic Web. Edmonton 2002. André Valente: ‘Types and Roles of Legal Ontologies’. Law and the Semantic Web, 2003, pp. 65-76. José Valero: Índice Código Penal Español 2011 actualizado. Retrieved May 3, 2011, from http: / / despachoabogados.fullblog.com.ar/ indice-codigo-penal-espanol-2011actualizado.html, 2011. Niemen P. Vogt: ‘Anglo-Internationalisation of Law and Language: English as the Language of the Law? ’ International Legal Practitioner, 29, 1, 2004, pp. 13-16. <?page no="349"?> Bryan J. Robinson Lost or found in translation? To what extent are the translations of scientific, medical and technical texts the key to their dissemination and impact? 1 Duplicate Publications and the Status of Cover-to-Cover Translations An issue that has recently caused concern among Information Science specialists is the ethical question arising from so-called duplicate publications. Research into potentially unethical behavior on the part of authors has sought to identify by electronic means the incidence of three phenomena: duplication, co-submission, and plagiarism. 1 The exponential growth of the Internet and explosion of online journals mean opportunities to publish have multiplied, but this boom has been accompanied by the increasing ease with which unethical authors can ‘break rules’ in their search for enhanced ‘impact’. Defined by Yue and Wilson 2 as “a forceful consequence or strong influence”, ‘impact’ is generally understood to be an indirect indicator of the quality, importance, influence or performance of publications. Our principle aim is to determine how much language of publication influences any given journal’s impact. Errami and Garner 1 argue that duplicate publication makes “significant works available to a wider audience, especially in other languages” and report that 20% of duplicate publications are translations into another language, which suggests the market for professional translators is growing apace with the publishing boom. Comparisons of publication volume suggest the countries that publish the most, produce the most duplicate publications too. The only variation is found in works of authors from China and Japan, where translations account for rather more of the total. ‘Impact’ and the Journal of Citation Reports’ (JCR) ‘Impact factor’ (IF) have become bywords in scientific publication and our case studies illustrate how specific editorial strategies - here, the decision to publish in English rather 1 Mounir Errami and Harold Garner: “A tale of two citations“, in Nature, 2008, 451, pp. 397-399. 2 W. Yue and C. S. Wilson: “Measuring the citation impact of research journals in clinical neurology: A structural equation modelling analysis“, in Scientometrics, 2004, 60, pp. 317-332. <?page no="350"?> Bryan J. Robinson 334 than in a national language - are adopted to enhance a journal’s status and achieve greater impact. 2 The Matthew Effect The authors of scientific publications are subject to what is termed “the Matthew effect“: “For unto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance: but from him that hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath”. 3 Jackson 4 suggests that authors who have achieved a certain status find it comparatively easy to gain recognition for their publications - ‘status- enhancement’ - whereas those who have yet to establish a reputation are less likely to be given recognition - ‘status-suppression’. For authors who publish in languages other than English, ‘status-suppression’ is a fact of life. Ardila, 5 Bakewell, 6 Bekavac 7 and Vandenbroucke 8 lament but reluctantly accept the need to publish in English. They describe a scientific social status gap between ‘upper’ and ‘lower class’ authors on the basis of the language they choose as their medium of communication. Gibbs 9 surveys status- suppression in the developing world and warns of its consequences in terms of status, recognition and, most importantly, finance. Eugene Garfield - who invented the IF - considered these circumstances normal and pointed to two significant consequences of the ‘language barrier’: “First, those [authors] whose native language is not English risk being unaware of - and overlooked by - mainstream international research unless they learn to read, write, and publish in English. Second, native English-speaking researchers 3 Matthew 25: 29. 4 R. Jackson: “The Matthew Effect in science“, in International Journal of Dermatology, 1968, 27, pp. 16. 5 Rubén Ardila: “International psychology“, in American Psychologist, 1982, 37, pp. 323- 329. 6 David Bakewell: “Publish in English, or perish? “, in Nature, 1992, 356, pp. 648. 7 Anamarija Bekavac, Jelka Petrak and Zoran Buneta: “Citation behavior and place of publication in the authors from the scientific periphery: A matter of quality? “, Information Processing & Management, 1994, 30, pp. 33-42. 8 J. P. Vandenbroucke: “On not being born a native speaker of English“, in British Medical Journal, 1989, 298, pp. 1461-1462. 9 W. Wayt Gibbs: “Lost Science in the Third World“, in Scientific American, 1995, 273, 2, pp. 92-99. <?page no="351"?> Lost or found in translation? 335 risk being ignorant of significant findings reported in foreign languages […] unless they become proficient in at least one other language”. 10 Garfield’s research was Anglocentric, ignoring any possible value of publishing in languages other than English. The answers to his three research questions - Who writes in what languages? Who cites what languages? and Who cites what nations? - reinforced the dominance of English showing that 32.8% of Spanish authors published in English; only 1.5% of Spanish authors cited Spanish-language publications; and most authors cited English - language publications most, despite the attraction of language self-citation (i.e. Spanish-language authors citing Spanish-language publications). Following a brief review of the literature, the present article analyzes the consequences of REC’s editorial decision to adopt cover-to-cover translation into English and begins with a brief case study of REC. We then report a parallel study involving Annales de l’Institut Pasteur (AIP). 3 Review of the Literature To gain a broader perspective of the language/ IF relation we have conducted an online review of the literature in search of earlier studies that specifically deal with different aspects of the impact of scientific publications and the role of language of publication. To construct our initial bibliography, we began with an ‘All fields’ search of the Scopus database using the keywords: ‘Scientific publications’ AND ‘Impact factor’ AND ‘Translation’ AND ‘Spanish language; ’ and we filtered out publications in languages other than English and Spanish. This search produced no results. Removing ‘Spanish language’ provided eight hits of which manual revision excluded two: one that we considered irrelevant and another that was published in Slovak and had ‘slipped past’ the language filter. A ‘Topic’ search of the Web of Science (WoS) using the same initial set of keywords and filters produced no results either. Removing ‘Spanish language’ from this search also proved fruitless and by trial and error we arrived at the following combination which did produce results susceptible to manual editing: ‘Scientific publications’ AND ‘Translation’ NOT ‘Knowledge translation’ resulted in 19 hits. Manual revision excluded 15 references: one was neither published in English nor Spanish and 14 others dealt with different topics. Our bibliography was therefore founded on these texts, which we audited manually to add further references on the basis of the authors’ citations. 10 Eugene Garfield and Alfred Welljams-Dorof: “Language Use in International Research: A Citation Analysis“, in Annals of the American Academy of Social and Political Science, 1990, 511, pp. 10-24. <?page no="352"?> Bryan J. Robinson 336 3.1 Variables The initial results of our search reveal that impact and language of publication are but two of the variables included in the multidimensional field of assessment into research. Our study has identified access, author geographical location, authorship practices, citation practice, editorial board, editorial strategy, the Immediacy index (II), internationality, journal geographical location, language, marketing peer-review and quality as just some of the variables representing other dimensions of the field. Furthermore, our reading has revealed bias, the limitations of the IF, and manipulation of the IF as some of the confounding issues which have undergone empirical investigation, the results of which contribute to our present study. In the field of basic research, the need for assessment has been justified in terms of the so-called ‘sophistication factor’, which defines the growth in the cost of evermore sophisticated research methods; the constraints on public expenditure; the failings of the increasingly pressed peer-review process; and the demand for public accountability. In applied research, customer satisfaction represents a further input to assessment. Martin 11 considers that this multidimensionality demands the balanced use of a range of performance indicators in addition to exhaustive peer-review but balancing the costs and benefits of this dual approach are crucial in the decision-making process. Indicators that can provide hard data in comparatively shorter periods of time at lower costs - such as publication counts, citation counts, IF scores - are generally preferred to more time consuming procedures such as extensive peer-review. The benefits of using a multidimensional approach lie in the fact that it more accurately reflects the multidimensional nature of research. Whatever approach we take, the results can only ever be comparative. In this context, Martin views language of publication as a component of ‘impact’ and suggests that the ‘impact’ of a publication describes “Its actual influence on surrounding research activities at a given time. While this will depend partly on its importance, it may also be affected by such factors as the location of the author, and the prestige, language and availability of the publishing journal”. Yue and Wilson 2 are more precise in their configuration of indicators englobing language within journal accessibility - a conglomerate including circulation and the existence or not of an electronic version - although their definition of the concept is perhaps equally unhelpful in that it groups quality, influence, importance and performance all together. 11 B. R. Martin: “The use of multiple indicators in the assessment of basic research“, in Scientometrics, 1996, 36, pp. 343-362. <?page no="353"?> Lost or found in translation? 337 We would stress the importance of the fact that impact, and most especially the IF, is an indirect indicator and can also be highly imperfect. Impact is relatively immediate but may be positive or negative; impact does not necessarily equate with quality. 12,13 Hence, valuing impact and an increase in a journal’s IF as evidence of ‘success’ should be, at the very least, qualified by an awareness of the complexity of the concept. 3.1.1 The Impact Factor A scientific publication’s IF score for a given year is calculated on the basis of the number of citations of articles published in the two previous years, divided by the number of citable articles published in the same two years The use and abuse of the IF has been reported widely. 14,15 Perhaps the most notable flaw highlighted by these authors is the fact that the IF is determined by factors other than the quality of the articles, many of which are of a technical nature. Other factors include differences in citation rates and research field dependence. The technical issues involved can be manipulated through the application of certain editorial strategies. 3.1.2. Editorial Strategies The decision as to which articles are considered citable (the denominator in the IF equation) is solely that of WoS. However, definitions are public and journals are able to confer with WoS and, even, discuss changing which documents they have published are considered citable. Some editors show concern over the composition of the denominator and its influence on their journal’s IF. Moreover, there are a number of ways in which editorial policy can intentionally or accidentally influence the citable articles included in a journal. Chew et al 16 report editorial awareness of four areas in which changes can lead to a reduction in the total number of citable articles: (1) a 12 Jens Minnerup, Heike Wersching, Kai Diederich, Matthias Schilling, Erich Bernd Ringelstein, Jürgen Wellmann and Wolf-Rüdiger Schäbitz: “Methodological quality of preclinical stroke studies is not required for publication in high-impact journals“, in Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 2010,30, pp. 1619-24. 13 Humberto Reyes, Ronald Kauffmann and Max Andresen: “¿Es la metodología de nuestros trabajos de investigación esencialmente inferior a la de estudios similares en revistas que se publican en inglés? “, in Revista Médica de Chile, 1998,126, pp. 361-362. 14 Per O. Seglen: “Why the impact factor of journals should not be used for evaluating research“, in British Medical Journal, 1997,314, pp. 498-502. 15 Andrew P. Kurmis: “Understanding the limitations of the journal impact factor“ in Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 2003,85-A, pp. 2449-54. 16 Mabel Chew, Elmer V Villanueva and Martin B. Van Der Weyden: “Life and times of the impact factor: retrospective analysis of trends for seven medical journals (1994 - 2005) and their Editors ' views“, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 2007,100, pp. 142-50. <?page no="354"?> Bryan J. Robinson 338 conscious decision to publish fewer citable articles, (2) changes in article selection policy that favor specific content areas and/ or article types, (3) article length changes - longer articles mean fewer articles unless the number of pages is increased - and (4) design changes that affect the paper format. 3.2 Study Design Some studies included qualitative instruments - questionnaires and/ or interviews; many drew on quantitative procedures - most notably regression analysis; and a few combined both approaches. Only two offered empirical data on the relation between IF and publication in English: Bracho-Riquelme et al 17,18 report <11% influence derived from language of publication and Yue and Wilson 2 report 0.3% influence. 3.3 Interrelationships among Variables The most profitable approach to measuring variables that influence impact appears to be that which, in different forms, is proposed by Yue and Wilson 2 and Zych and Buela-Casal. 19,20 While differing in the details, these authors coincide in using theoretical constructs to group variables they consider to be associated. Their mesoanalyses focus on specific groups of research journals in given disciplines (clinical neurology and psychology, respectively) and use different statistical methods to quantify these constructs. Yue and Wilson propose five groups of variables: journal citation impact itself and four variables they term ‘external,’ consisting of journal characteristics, journal accessibility - within which they include language, journal visibility and journal internationality. They apply a partial least squares regression model and include language as a binary variable: English versus non-English. Their results suggest language accounts for as little as 0.030 of the variation in IF. Zych and Buela-Casal focus exclusively on the last of these - internationality - proposing and applying an internationality index by 17 Rodolfo L. Bracho-Riquelme, Nazario Pescador-Salas and Miguel Arturo Reyes- Romero: “Repercusión bibliométrica de adoptar el inglés como idioma única de publicación“, in Revista de Investigación Clínica, 1997,49, pp. 369-372. 18 Rodolfo L. Bracho-Riquelme, Nazario Pescador-Salas and Miguel Arturo Reyes- Romero: “The change from French to English and its effect upon the impact factor and ranking of the Pasteur journals“, in Journal of Information Science, 1999,25, pp. 413-417. 19 Izabela Zych and Gualberto Buela-Casal: “The internationality index: Application to Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología“, in Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 2009,41, pp. 401-412. 20 Izabela Zych and Gualberto Buela-Casal: “Internacionalidad de las revistas de psicología multidisciplinar editadas en iberoamérica e incluidas en la Web of Science“, in Universitas Psychológica, 2010 9, pp. 27-34. <?page no="355"?> Lost or found in translation? 339 which to rank publications. In contrast to Yue and Wilson, they include language of publication within the extensive list of internationality variables and give it more consistency by considering the importance of the different languages in which a journal may be published. On the basis of their results, they divide the criterion into nine languages and weight each of them: English (4.89), French (2.23), Spanish (2.08), Chinese (1.77), Italian (1.72), German (0.32), Russian (0.1), Japanese (0.05) and Portuguese (0.02) (2009). They do not, however, go so far as to correlate these variables with IF. 4 Case Study 1. Revista Española de Cardiología In 2001, Revista Española de Cardiología (REC) began to implement an editorial strategy aimed at increasing the journal’s impact: cover-to-cover translation. Previously, monthly issues of REC had appeared in paper and electronic format, with the paper copies being available in the first days of each month. During the first stage of the changeover, the paper copies continued to appear following the same schedule and the unedited translation subsequently appeared in electronic format before the end of the corresponding month. This edition was available in online html and downloadable pdf formats from REC’s free, open access website. Between 2001 and 2010 Elsevier España SL took over as publishers and the edited English Edition of each article usually appeared both at www.revespcardiol.org and via Elsevier’s ScienceDirect database 3 to 5 months after the month of publication, i.e. the final edited English-language version of the January issue would appear online in May-June. Since January 2011, the significance of the English- language version has been further enhanced as it is now this which appears online at the beginning of the month and the Spanish edition that appears later. The 87.9% increase in REC’s IF between 2003 (IF=0.959) and 2004 (IF=1.802) reflected the growth in the number of citations in 2004 of articles published in 2002-03 with respect to the number of citations in 2003. 21 As translation began in January 2002, we could conclude that the online Spanish-into-English translations had made REC available to a wider readership and that this had contributed to the substantially enhanced IF. While we must remember that the IF is specific to a journal and not to any given article, the prima facie evidence strongly suggests the cover-to-cover translation was largely responsible. 21 Fernando Alfonso, Javier Bermejo and Javier Segovia: “REVISTA ESPAÑOLA DE CARDIOLOGÍA 2005: actividad y reconocimiento científico“, in Revista Española de Cardiología, 2005,58, pp. 1482-1487. <?page no="356"?> Bryan J. Robinson 340 5 Case Study 2. Annales de l’Institut Pasteur A process resembling that undergone by REC had previously been experienced at the prestigious Annales de l’Institut Pasteur (AIP). 18,19 Here, the editorial decision was to make a gradual change in language of publication - from French to English. Prior to 1973, AIP published in French only. During a transition period from 1974 to 1989 the editors accepted English-language articles which were published alongside French-language articles. No translation was undertaken at all. Since 1990, AIP has published in English only. The nature of this process facilitated the authors’ study design in that they were able to apply simple regression analysis to identify the correlation coefficient (r 2 ) between the percentage of articles published in English and (a) the IF, and (b) journal ranking among publications listed by the JCR within the same field. Their conclusion was that the change to English represented less than 11% of the change in the journal’s IF. However, the AIP process differed from that at REC in aspects that invalidate any attempt to replicate this research design using REC data. Annales de l’Institut Pasteur has never issued cover-to-cover translations. The journal offered readers a mixed language edition in which some articles appeared in French and others in English. The authors were therefore able to calculate growth in the number of English-language articles published as a percentage of the total number of articles and obtain an annual percentage figure, which would not be possible at REC as the data would offer only two figures: 0% (2001), and 50% (2002). A further difference that also influenced this study was the fact that, over the study period, AIP divided into three separate journals, meaning the authors needed to compare IFs and ranking data for three different fields of study. Nonetheless, both AIP and REC 22 adopted an editorial strategy based on the hypothesis that publishing in English was a valid means of enhancing journal status and that success could be measured in terms of an increased IF score. Bracho-Riquelme et al’s conclusion was that the strategy had largely failed. Simple regression analysis of the relation between percentage of articles in English and IF, and that between percentage of articles in English and JCR ranking showed that less than 11% of variation in IF was due to the publication of articles in English (r 2 =0.108). Furthermore, the relations between publication in English and the respective rankings of the three AIP journals were weak (r 2 = 0.178, 0.045 and 0.122). We consider this study had significant limitations that invalidate parts of the design but not necessarily the overall conclusion. Their choice of two interdependent variables means they measured the same variable twice. The 22 Xavier Bosch, Julián P. Villacastín and Fernando Alfonso: “Edición en inglés por Internet. Un nuevo gran paso adelante“, in Revista Española de Cardiología, 2002,55, pp. 1-3. <?page no="357"?> Lost or found in translation? 341 relation between percentage of English-language articles and IF is valid, as is that between English and the ISI rankings, but because the latter is also based on IF, they measured a single variable but expressed it in different terms. Notwithstanding, we believe the study raised a number of issues, some of which the authors themselves comment on. Firstly, while the editorial decision was motivated by the desire to enhance status, we suggest that the IF may be only indirectly related to increased dissemination. Secondly, we wonder whether number of subscribers equates with number of readers, especially given the level of institutional subscribers many journals have and current levels of online access, whether by individual or institutional subscription or free of charge. Thirdly, the division of one journal into three must affect the study as would the changes in title by which the French- language Annales de l’Institut Pasteur became the English-language Research in Microbiology, Research in Immunology and Research in Virology in 1989. Fourthly, we coincide with the authors in asking what effect ‘marketing’ may have on dissemination. And finally, we would question the role that publication in electronic formats has on journal access. Clearly, from a methodological perspective, it is difficult to determine empirically the level of ‘added value’ a journal gains by publishing in English. Here alone, we have encountered editorial strategy, the IF, dissemination, readership, subscribers, access, title and marketing as variables that may to a greater or lesser extent influence the impact of a publication and interact with language of publication. 6 Further Research Despite the apparently disheartening nature of currently available data, we consider it of importance to pursue the empirical study of the influence of language on the impact of scientific publications. Hence, we are currently conducting more detailed studies of Revista Española de Cardiología, alone and in comparison with other Spanish-language biomedical journals, as proposed by González Alcaide et al; 23 and of a number of the variables we have so far identified as of particular relevance - peer - review bias, citation patterns, and authorship practice in particular. Furthermore, we believe research into other language combinations would shed further light on the topic. 23 Gregorio González Alcaide, Miguel Castellano Gómez, Juan Carlos Valderrama Zurián and R. Aleixandre Benavent: “Literatura científica de autores españoles sobre análisis de citas y factor de impacto en Biomedicina (1981-2005)“, in Revista Española de Documentación Científica, 2008, 31, pp. 344-365. <?page no="358"?> Bryan J. Robinson 342 References Fernando Alfonso, Javier Bermejo and Javier Segovia: “Revista española de cardiología 2005: actividad y reconocimiento científico”, in Revista española de cardiología, 2005, 58 ,PP. 1482-1487. Rubén Ardila: “International psychology”, in American Psychologist, 1982, 37, pp. 323- 329. David Bakewell: “Publish in English, or perish? ”, in Nature 1992, 356, pp. 648 . Anamarija Bekavac, Jelka Petrak and Zoran Buneta: “Citation behavior and place of publication in the authors from the scientific periphery: A matter of quality? ”, Information Processing & Management, 1994, 30, pp. 33-42. Xavier Bosch, Julián P. Villacastín and Fernando Alfonso: “Edición en inglés por Internet. Un nuevo gran paso adelante”, in Revista Española de Cardiología, 2002,55, pp. 1-3. Rodolfo L. Bracho-Riquelme, Nazario Pescador-Salas and Miguel Arturo Reyes- Romero: “Repercusión bibliométrica de adoptar el inglés como idioma única de publicación”, in Revista de Investigación Clínica, 1997, 49, pp. 369-372. Rodolfo L. Bracho-Riquelme, Nazario Pescador-Salas and Miguel Arturo Reyes- Romero: “The change from French to English and its effect upon the impact factor and ranking of the Pasteur journals”, in Journal of Information Science, 1999, 25, pp. 413-417. Mabel Chew, Elmer V Villanueva and Martin B. Van Der Weyden: “Life and times of the impact factor: retrospective analysis of trends for seven medical journals (1994-2005) and their Editors ' views”, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 2007, 100, pp. 142-50. Mounir Errami and Harold Garner: “A tale of two citations”, in Nature, 2008, 451, pp. 397-399. Eugene Garfield and Alfred Welljams-Dorof: “Language Use in International Research: A Citation Analysis”, in Annals of the American Academy of Social and Political Science, 1990, 511, pp. 10-24. William Wayt Gibbs: “Lost Science in the Third World”, in Scientific American, 1995, 273, 2, pp. 92-99. Gregorio González Alcaide, Miguel Castellano Gómez, Juan Carlos Valderrama Zurián and R. Aleixandre Benavent: “Literatura científica de autores españoles sobre análisis de citas y factor de impacto en Biomedicina (1981-2005)”, in Revista Española de Documentación Científica, 2008,31, pp. 344-365 Robert Jackson: “The Matthew Effect in science”, in International Journal of Dermatology, 1968, 27, p. 16 Andrew P. Kurmis: “Understanding the limitations of the journal impact factor”, in The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 2003, 85-A, pp. 2449-54. Anne Marie Link: “US and non-US submissions: an analysis of reviewer bias”, in Journal of the American Medical Association, 1998, 280, pp. 246-247. Marc Luwel: “Is the science citation index US-biased? ”, in Scientometrics, 1999, 46, pp. 549-562. Ben R. Martin: “The use of multiple indicators in the assessment of basic research”, in Scientometrics, 1996, 36, pp. 343-362. Jens Minnerup, Heike Wersching, Kai Diederich, Matthias Schilling, Erich Bernd Ringelstein, Jürgen Wellmann and Wolf-Rüdiger Schäbitz: “Methodological <?page no="359"?> Lost or found in translation? 343 quality of preclinical stroke studies is not required for publication in high-impact journals”, in Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 2010, 30, pp. 1619-24. Humberto Reyes, Ronald Kauffmann and Max Andresen: “¿Es la metodología de nuestros trabajos de investigación esencialmente inferior a la de estudios similares en revistas que se publican en inglés? ”, in Revista Médica de Chile, 1998, 126, pp. 361-362. Per O. Seglen: “Why the impact factor of journals should not be used for evaluating research”, in British Medical Journal, 1997, 314, pp. 498-502. Jan P. Vandenbroucke: “On not being born a native speaker of English”, in British Medical Journal, 1989, 298, pp. 1461-1462. Thed N. Van Leeuwen et al.: “Language biases in the coverage of the Science Citation Index and its consequences for international comparisons of national research performance”, in Scientometrics, 2001, 51, pp. 335-346 Weiping Yue and Concepción S. Wilson: “Measuring the citation impact of research journals in clinical neurology: A structural equation modelling analysis”, in Scientometrics, 2004, 60, pp. 317-332. Izabela Zych and Gualberto Buela-Casal: “The internationality index: Application to Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología”, in Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 2009, 41, pp. 401-412. Izabela Zych and Gualberto Buela-Casal: “Internacionalidad de las revistas de psicología multidisciplinar editadas en iberoamérica e incluidas en la Web of Science”, in Universitas Psychológica, 2010, 9, pp. 27-34. <?page no="361"?> Aurora Ruiz Mezcua Intercultural dialogue at hospitals for training interpreters 1 Introduction Cultural diversity has always existed and been seen a main problem for people understanding. It is intrinsic to the human being and can cause some interference among groups which belong to different communities. According to the European Council: “Cultural diversity is an essential condition of human society, brought about by cross-border migration, (…) globalisation or the advances of the information and media era, among some others”. 1 As a human characteristic, it does not only belong to the past. In fact, we could say our cultural environment is becoming more and more diverse now. As mentioned in the quotation above, globalisation, migration, media, etc., might be some the most important means to put people in touch from any part of the world. But there are many other reasons for human societies to get close, even if it is not always easy to manage a situation where two different cultures interact: “Los procesos de comunicación intercultural constituyen una situación a veces extrema del encuentro de diferentes códigos. Sin embargo, esa diferencia, que lleva a malentendidos y a situaciones de incomprensión, es constitutiva de la comunicación humana”. 2 It is important to point out that when different languages happen to be in the same context and there is a clear need of understanding, an intercultural dialogue must emerge. The European Council, in its White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue, states: “Intercultural Dialogue is understood as an open and respectful exchange of views between individuals and groups with different ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic backgrounds and heritage”. 3 1 Council of Europe/ Conseil d´Europe.The concept of intercultural dialogue. Online at http: / / www.coe.int/ t/ dg4/ intercultural/ concept_EN.asp 2 Alejandro Grimson: Interculturalidad y Comunicación, Grupo Editorial Norma, Colombia 2000, p. 18. 3 Council of Europe/ Conseil d´Europe. Op.Cit. <?page no="362"?> Aurora Ruiz Mezcua 346 And here comes the role of the interpreter. The interpreter is the person who orally translates from one given language, culture and society into another. Obviously, it is a much more complex task than only transmitting words from and into languages and cultures, as it involves many aspects and requires many skills. But to make it easier now, the interpreter is the person who enables the above mentioned intercultural dialogue. Nevertheless, the participants not always make it easy for the mediator. Language and culture are two concepts difficult to define. When there is more than one language and culture involved it is even more difficult to mediate: “La interculturalidad incluye dimensiones cotidianas, a veces personales, de e xtrañamiento frente a la alteridad, desigualdades sociales, así como dimensiones políticas, grupales y estatales (…) “. 4 The main objective of this study is to analyse the type of work an interpreter must carry out in health contexts. The second, to consider what type of training an interpreter should receive to become a good professional. Having this last point in mind, we have divided this work into three different sections related to training interpreters: language, culture and psychology. For each section, we will provide some examples and simple techniques that an interpreter could easily apply to fulfil his/ her role as well as possible. 2 Training interpreters Renée Van Hoof, Head of the European Communities Conference and Interpreting Service, stated that“interpreters are born, not made” 5 . This longstanding controversy has prevailed due to the lack of specific training in interpreting techniques. In the 20 th century, the Foreign Affairs Offices of some countries designed courses to cover the linguistic and diplomatic needs that had arisen suddenly as a result of political changes. According to Francesca Gaiba, there are references dating back to 1904 to “student interpreters” in documents of the US State Department, as well as in several state archives from the UK and Germany. 6 4 Alejandro Grimson: Op.Cit., p.16. 5 The Times, 26 th of September 1973 (Kalina: “Interpreting competences as a basis and a goal for teaching” The Interpreters' Newsletter, Nº. 10, EUT - Edizioni Università di Trieste: Trieste 2000, p. 8). 6 These quotation marks appear in the original source. Francesca Gaiba: The Origins of Simultaneous Interpretation: The Nuremberg Trial, University of Ottawa Press: Ottawa (Canada), p. 252. <?page no="363"?> Intercultural dialogue at hospitals for training interpreters 347 In the beginning, training focused solely on conference interpreting with the main objective being to train linguistic professionals who could work at international organizations, while academic or research-related aspects of the field were largely overlooked. This suggests that interpreters entered the profession by chance (motivated by their language skills and cultural and social knowledge) and surprisingly, they did a good job. Nevertheless, the normal process is to receive some training before undertaking interpretation (as happens in most disciplines). Indeed, all professions can and should be taught, particularly if they are complex and demanding, as is the case of interpretation. While previous training may not be an indispensable requirement (although many associations, organizations and customers demand it today), it is, without a doubt, a guarantee for delivering a quality service. An interpreter with natural talent plus the appropriate training will be much more efficient. Training courses serve to improve upon these talents by exposing students to the activity and allowing them to learn through doing under the supervision of professionals who can help them to deal with potentially problematic situations. Traditionally, consecutive interpretation was considered to be more prestigious than simultaneous interpretation, and more attention was given to the first mode in the curricula. For this reason, many of the entrance exams for interpreter training programs still consider getting a good mark in consecutive interpreting to be very important. Moreover, although the majority of curricula at universities worldwide start by teaching consecutive interpretation, some experts do not attach importance to the order in which the two modes are taught. Other than that, there are also some other modes of interpreting appart from consecutive and simultaneous, both classified as conference interpreting. We are referring to what we call “community interpreting”: “Community interpreting is a term that has come into common usage in recent years to describe the kind of interpreting that enables residents of a community to gain access to public services when they do not speak the dominant language of the community”. 7 But courses on community interpreting cannot always be found in all countries when needed, as it is, for the moment, an emergent profession: “In many countries, guidelines or models (however limited they may be) do not even exist, as community interpreting is not a recognised activity or such recognition is in a very incipient phase. It just “happens” spontaneously. In these cases, 7 Holly Mikkelson and Sharon Neumann Solow: Report from the Front Lines: Multilingual Training-of-Trainers for Refugee Interpreters, Conference of Interpreter Trainers annual conference, Minneapolis, MN, October 2002. Available online at: http: / / www.acebo.com/ papers/ report.htm. <?page no="364"?> Aurora Ruiz Mezcua 348 this kind of interpreting is undertaken by volunteers or family members who have no professional training and are not aware of the need for it.“. 8 Fortunately, given that the training of interpreters became much more important from the seventies onwards, we can conclude that views about the field have changed radically over the years. In fact, now, and especially in Spain, there are many academic institutions which offer a degree in Translation and Interpreting, where conference interpreting is normally included in their curricula. Some of the reasons that may have led to this general growing recognition are the accession of new Member States in the EU, the increase in specialized conferences and technological advances, the rise in interpreting resources, the development of international exchanges, the students international exchange programs popularity, the migration movements, as well as globalization and new technologies and easy internet access all over the world. Nevertheless, we must also point out that community interpreting is still not recognised as it should be in public organisations and administrations in Spain, which leads to a lack of training in schools and centres where Translation and Interpretation is taught, leaving the volunteers as the only way of communication in some contexts: “Although interpreting services are contemplated in some hospitals in Spain this work is done largely by untrained volunteer workers in this field, the majority of these workers represent the country or the language they speak”. 9 In this changing context, we have to bear in mind that working as an interpreter for health community services is a really complex task. It requires comprehensive and specific training in several aspects, including for instance: learning the language and appropriate terminology, as well as the main socio-cultural characteristics of the countries involved. Furthermore, the interpreter should know the rules of the institution or organisation he/ she works for, and should choose the right technique according to the particular communicative situation. But there are also some other factors that could determine the success or failure of this act of communication, for example the level of personal involvement or the stress management ability of the individual. 8 Ann Martin and Carmen Valero Garcés: Crossing borders in Community Interpreting. Definitions and Dilemmas, John Benjamins, Manchester 2008, p.2. 9 María Gracia Torres Díaz and I.S. Bains: “An awareness of an interpreting culture: everyday misconceptions created by the lack of knowledge of the interpreting processes and culture” in José Antonio Gallegos Rosillo and Hannelore Benz Busch (eds.) Traducción y cultura: el papel de la cultura en la comprensión del texto original, Encasa Ediciones y Publicaciones, Málaga 2004, p.164. <?page no="365"?> Intercultural dialogue at hospitals for training interpreters 349 2.1 Language training No interpreting is possible if the combination of the languages the trainee is going to use are not well spoken or understood. But at the same time, it is impossible to fully and completely master a language, i.e., there are many special fields and words related to professions that a person does not even know in their mother tongue. According to Mª. Teresa Cabré, a language is composed of a set of subcodes: “[Una lengua es un] conjunto de subcódigos parcialmente coincidentes en el subcódigo de la lengua común caracterizados en virtud de unas peculiaridades especiales”. 10 Therefore, we will start by defining what a language is, as it is critical for students to properly understand how the main tools they are going to work with function. Basically, Sapir defines the concept of general language as a deliberate human method to communicate ideas, emotions and wishes through an auditive code: “El lenguaje es un método exclusivamente humano, y no instintivo, de comunicar ideas, emociones y deseos por medio de un sistema de símbolos producidos de manera deliberada. Estos símbolos son ante todo auditivos y producidos por los llamados órganos del habla”. 11 It might sound obvious, but it is well known that interpreters must acquire an excellent knowledge of the foreign language, which implies not only being able to understand and chat with people, but mastering conversational skills. Besides, they must have a perfect acquaintance of their mother tongue. This includes mastering a wide vocabulary and being able to express the message in the right register using the proper words according to the situation. With this purpose, the trainee interpreter must prepare the vocabulary he/ she is going to potentially use in both languages and in advance, as it will be not possible to research any terminology when interpreting in situ. It means the trainee must know the jargon, technolect or speciality language before the meeting. Alcaraz Varó defines the concept of speciality language as: “ El lenguaje específico que utilizan algunos profesionales y especialistas para transmitir información y para negociar los términos, los conceptos y los conoci- 10 María Teresa Cabré: La terminología. Teoría, metodología y aplicaciones., Atártida- Enpúries, Barcelona 1993, p. 129. 11 Edward Sapir: El lenguaje: introducción al studio del habla/ Language: an introduction to study of speech. Margit Alatorre and Antonio Alatorre (trads). Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico 1954, p. 14. <?page no="366"?> Aurora Ruiz Mezcua 350 mientos de una determinada área de conocimiento, a saber, confirmar los existentes, matizar el ámbito de su aplicación y modificarlos total o parcialmente”. 12 But sometimes it is not easy to limit what belongs in general language or in a speciality language. Mª. Teresa Cabré states that it is a “hard question”, full of “controversy” and still “not clear”. 13 Nevertheless, interpreters and translators use both general and speciality languages as their main working tool. Therefore, trainees must know the everyday language and also the specific terms of the field they are working for. “El conocimiento de un ámbito de estudio se representa y se transfiere a través de palabras de significado especializado. Una de las características de estas palabras es su precisión. En medicina, por ejemplo, se utilizan unidades léxicas (…) que tienen un significado muy específico en el discurso médico. (…) En la lengua general, estas unidades suelen ser semánticamente genéricas”. 14 There is no doubt that using the right terminology in clinical settings is paramount for a good interpretation. But at the same time, according to the famous School of Paris regarding the well-known Sense Theory on interpretation: “On ne traduit pas une langue, mais un discours” (“We do not translate a language, but a speech”). 15 In other words, an interpreter must understand the sense of the original message to convey it to the target language and we must never translate word by word. 2.2 Culture training Many times we are not aware of the importance of culture as we already live in a social group which follows some pre-set rules. But when a person has no familiarity with these conventional norms and needs to deal with some other people who expect that person to act according to them, problems may occur. An interpreter is a link among cultures, not only among languages. Sometimes it is necessary for him/ her to interact to explain some behaviours or habits that may differ or even obstruct the act of communication. To begin with, an interpreter must learn the “courtesy rules” or the “rules of etiquette” of the countries represented to facilitate the interaction. Trainees must learn the correct way for introducing themselves, addressing the participants and starting a multi-cultural dialogue: 12 Enrique Alcaraz Varó: El inglés profesional y académico, Alianza, Madrid 2000, p.15. 13 María Teresa Cabré: Op.Cit., p.132. 14 Rosa Estopa and Antoni Valero: “Adquisición de conocimiento especializado y unidades de significación especializada en medicina”, Panacea, 2002, p.1. Online at http: / / www.upf.edu/ pdi/ dtf/ rosa.estopa/ docums/ 99estopa_valero.pdf 15 Marianne Lederer: “Principes et méthodes de l´enseignement de l´Interprétation”, Turjuman, Vol. 1, Nº.1, Tánger 1992, p. 29. <?page no="367"?> Intercultural dialogue at hospitals for training interpreters 351 “Interpreters (…) have an obligation to treat everyone in the encounter with dignity and courtesy, respecting the rights and duties of each individual, including their own. An essential implication of this principle is that the interpreter respects the autonomy and expertise that each party brings to the encounter. 16 The eye contact, gestures and other non-verbal communication can play a very important role at this point and also during the conversation. In fact, human interaction is not possible if the participants do not use the appropriate “body language” as it always shapes the oral speech: “The discovery of the importance of non-verbal communication (NVC) has transformed the study of human social behaviour. (…). Humans also have a verbal channel of communication, but other research showed that speech is accompanied by intricate set of vocal and gestural non-verbal signals, which affect meaning, emphasis, and other aspects of utterance. “ 17 This non-verbal communication also differs among cultures. As the Western culture model is widespread, some people tend to think Western rules are known everywhere. But it does not always work this way. Even foreign people who live in Western societies use different norms and manners and keep their traditions, as some of them have very deep roots. A good interpreter must learn and respect these cultural norms. For instance, the Japanese have very little physical contact when they are not intimate. In general, they bow to indicate respect and they are very formal. Moments of silence are frequent, and smiling does not always mean that the individual is expressing pleasure. If an interpreter works with the Japanese and non- Japanese, he/ she should understand both cultures as well as make use of their intrinsic habits. At the same time, the interpreter might be able to explain what is happening to the other party involved, since there is a need to create a fluent communication. Regarding the given setting, interpreters should also adopt the right position in the meeting or dialogue which is going to take place. This means not too far but not too close to the people who are going to be interpreted. This is an aspect that really varies among cultures. For example, Americans, Canadians and British need a bigger personal distance if we compare it to Latin Americans or Arabs. 18 Finally, we must not forget that a language is a reflection of a culture. In the case of health contexts, we must take into account, for instance, that some parts of the body or some medical terms can be a taboo; and some 16 Code of the Nacional Council on Interpreting in Health Care, 2004, p. 20. 17 Rober A. Hinde: Non-Verbal Communication, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1972, p 243. 18 Sharon Mantik, L. et alii. : Enfermería medicoquirúrgica: valoración y cuidados de problemas clínicos. Elsevier, Madrid 2004, p. 7. <?page no="368"?> Aurora Ruiz Mezcua 352 illnesses, treatments or even the view of death can easily differ, depending on cultures: “Culturally based presuppositions and expectations about illness, appropriate treatment, and the sick role are much more diverse than their vision of pluralism acknowlegdes, and their proponents´ admonitions for doctors to respect patients´self-determination raise more complicated questions than these theories typically accommodate”. 19 2.3 Psychological training The skills required to become a good interpreter are many and are of a different nature. Even if the trainee has received high-quality linguistic and cultural training and is able to translate fluently and with accuracy, this person must be able to control his/ her stress at work. This might seem simple at a glance, but scientific studies have shown that interpreting is one of the most stressful occupations. In fact, the results of the “Interpreter Workload Study” carried out by the International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) placed simultaneous interpretation in the category of high-stress professions with high burnout levels. 20 Since the 80’s, there has been a great interest in the study of the psychological function of the interpreter’s mind, especially regarding their responses to stress. “Since the early 1980s, formerly unsubstantiated claims have some under scrutiny. Several researchers have investigated environmental, psychological and physiological stress parameters and have collected objective data”. 21 Obviously, the language processing task, fast speakers, difficult accents, lack of background material, dealing with people who are in trouble or in urgent need of medical help, 22 using technical and specific language terms for a long time, getting a big load of information (and not always well structured or by respected turns), etc. is not easy at all. All the above mentioned examples demonstrate that, in some situations, the effort of interpreting might exceed the stress and anxiety limits of an individual (especially of someone who is not used to it nor well prepared). 19 Gerald P. McKenny and Jonathan R. Sande (eds.): Theological Analyses of the clinical encounter, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands 1994, p. 203. 20 AIIC and the European Comission. Available online at <http: / / aiic.net/ page/ 657> 21 Ingrid Kurd: “Physiological stress during simultaneous interpreting: a comparison of experts and novices”, The Interpreters' Newsletter, EUT - Edizioni Università di Trieste, N.12, 2003, p. 13. 22 Let´s imagine a situation where the interpreter has to transmit bad or even terminal diagnoses to patients, communicate a child´s illness to their parents or attend medical evaluations of patients who have been abused, etc. <?page no="369"?> Intercultural dialogue at hospitals for training interpreters 353 But an interpreter should always look like they are in control of the situation. This is what interpreters call “calm under pressure”. 23 Moreover, the trainee must be aware of the possible personal involvement when working in a medical setting: “Proper medical interpretation requires a firm grasp of the two different and complex languages to achieve immediate, highly functional, and accurate translation, often at times of high stress and in critical circumstances, plus an ability to communicate effectively in each language at many different educational levels”. 24 In general, a trainee interpreter who wants to work for a hospital or in a medical setting must have a well-balanced personality, i.e., must not be person who is easy to upset or depress and who has strong emotional stability. 3 Final considerations In the beginning, interpreters entered the profession by chance, thanks to some language skills they had acquired randomly. This is why some researchers and experts thought that interpreters were born and not made. But from the seventies onwards, the training of interpreters was proved to be possible and it became a successful reality. Therefore, we can conclude that the development of specific training in interpreting techniques has greatly evolved over time. Currently, Translation and Interpretation degrees in some countries, like Spain, train hundreds of conference interpreters to suit a market that needs only a few. Curiously, there is no other type of training for students who are willing to work in a context which is not related to conference interpreting, such as community interpreting. The only programmes we can find at the moment are mainly post-graduate courses. Community interpreting is not yet considered a profession and its recognition is in a very early phase. In some cases, this kind of interpreting is still undertaken by volunteers, family members or even children who have no qualified preparation or, even worse, no training at all. All professions should be taught before they are put into practice, particularly if they are 23 Many researchers have referred to it using different expressions. This sentence in particular is literally the title of one of the main skills an interpreter must master a ccording to the “interpreting skills map”, included in the National Network for Interpreting(NNI)webpage. The NNI is a very useful online resource for teaching interpretation. It is part of the Routes into Languages project, and aims to raise awareness about careers with languages and interpreting in particular. This project was developed by several Universities of the United Kingdom. Online at <http: / / www.nationalnetworkforinterpreting.ac.uk/ >. 24 Linda Haffner: “Translation is not enough. Interpreting in a medical setting”, Western Journal of Medicine, California, vol. 157 (3), September 1992, p. 258. <?page no="370"?> Aurora Ruiz Mezcua 354 complex and demanding, as is the case of interpretation. This means that we still need more awareness of the profession and its specific teaching. In this article we have divided the specific formation into three different sections related to interpreters training: language, culture and psychology. No interpreting is possible if the combination of the languages the trainee is going to use are not well spoken or understood. Trainees must master their mother tongue and must acquire an excellent knowledge of the foreign language. At the same time, we must bear in mind that an interpreter is not only a link among languages, but also among cultures. One of the most important skills an interpreter must hold is tact. Interpreters sometimes act as “diplomats” and must use the “rules of etiquette” and follow some cutural pre-set norms to facilitate the intercultural dialogue. Furthermore, they must employ the appropriate non-verbal communication (like having the appropriate physical contact or proximity during the meetings). Frequently they would have to explain some cultural habits to the other party involved in the particular setting where the interpretation is taking place. Moreover, there are some other factors that could determine the success or failure of the interpretation, for instance, the level of personal involvement or the stress management ability of the individual. Transmitting terminal diagnoses to patients, communicating illness or attending hard medical evaluations could be too hard for someone who is not used to it, does not expect it, or is not well trained. These types of feelings can have an adverse effect on the non- experienced interpreter, resulting in the beginner being unable to provide any type of communication. For those reasons, on the one hand, it is critical to make students and trainee interpreters aware of all the difficulties which community interpreters might face. On the other hand, it is also vital to do research and to demonstrate that there is a strong need for this profession to be recognised. References Enrique Alcaraz Varó: El inglés profesional y académico, Alianza, Madrid 2000. María Teresa Cabré: La terminología. Teoría, metodología y aplicaciones., Atártida- Enpúries, Barcelona 1993. Rosa Estopa and Antoni Valero: “Adquisición de conocimiento especializado y unidades de significación especializada en medicina”, Panacea 2002. Francesca Gaiba: The Origins of Simultaneous Interpretation: The Nuremberg Trial, University of Ottawa Press, Ottawa (Canada) 1999. Alejandro Grimson: Interculturalidad y Comunicación, Grupo Editorial Norma, Colombia 2000. Linda Haffner: “Translation is not enough. Interpreting in a medical setting”, Western Journal of Medicine, vol. 157 (3). California 1992. <?page no="371"?> Intercultural dialogue at hospitals for training interpreters 355 Rober A. Hinde: Non-Verbal Communication, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1972. Silvia Kalina: “Interpreting competences as a basis and a goal for teaching” The Interpreters' Newsletter, n. 10, EUT - Edizioni Università di Trieste, Trieste 2000. Ingrid Kurd: “Physiological stress during simultaneous interpreting: a comparison of experts and novices”, The Interpreters' Newsletter, EUT - Edizioni Università di Trieste , N.12, Trieste 2003. Marianne Lederer : “Principes et méthodes de l´enseignement de l´Interprétation”, Turjuman, Vol. 1, n. 1, Tánger 1992. Sharon Mantik et alii.: Enfermería medicoquirúrgica: valoración y cuidados de problemas clínicos. Elsevier, Madrid 2004. Ann Martin and Carmen Valero Garcés: Crossing borders in Community Interpreting. Definitions and Dilemmas, John Benjamins, Manchester 2008. Gerald P. McKenny and Jonathan R. Sande (eds.): Theological Analyses of the clinical encounter, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands 1994. Edward Sapir: El lenguaje: introducción al studio del habla/ Language: an introduction to study of speech. Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico 1954. María Gracia Torres Díaz and I.S. Bains: “An awareness of an interpreting culture: everyday misconceptions created by the lack of knowledge of the interpreting processes and culture” in José Antonio Gallegos Rosillo and Hannelore Benz Busch (eds.) Traducción y cultura: el papel de la cultura en la comprensión del texto original, Encasa Ediciones y Publicaciones, Málaga 2004. <?page no="373"?> Miriam Seghiri Domínguez Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle for the teaching and learning of Scientific and Technical Translation 1 Introduction The syllabus of the annual subject “Specialized Translation English/ Spanish, Spanish/ English (Scientific-Technical Texts)” taught in the degree in Translation and Interpreting Studies at the University of Málaga is partially based on the use of the Moodle Platform in order to improve the teaching of this course and to bring the teaching and learning of scientific-technical translation near the actual professional world. 1 Terminology management is one of the most important stages in a translation project. For this reason, we will train our students to create their own glossaries through the Moodle platform. 2 Methodology for Corpus Design and Compilation In the following section we will describe the methodology followed in class, and it is divided into the following stages: First of all, the teacher creates the web page of the subject, based on Moodle. The web page has different modules (see Figure 1): 1 The research reported in this paper has been carried out in the framework of two research projects: on the one hand, the European TELL-ME project (Ref. no. 517937- LLP-2011-UK-LEONARDO-LMP), which has been funded with support of the Lifelong Learning Programme of the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein; on the other, the national R&D project INTELITERM: Sistema Inteligente de Gestión Terminológica para Traductores (ref. no. FFI2012-38881, 2012-2015). <?page no="374"?> Miriam Seghiri Domínguez 358 <?page no="375"?> Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle 359 Figure 1: Course homepage based on Moodle This course homepage is divided into two main sections: on the one hand, technical translation and, on the other hand, scientific translation. Technical translation is taught during the first semester while scientific translation is taught during the second semester. Both sections, scientific and technical, have the same modules in the webpage of the course, mainly: a) General information (‘Información general’), where relevant documents <?page no="376"?> Miriam Seghiri Domínguez 360 about the course are published as the syllabus, grades, etc.; b) The Private Forums (‘Foros privados de equipos’) where each group has its private forum in order to communicate with each other; c) Selected readings (‘Lecturas’) on specialized translation that are made accessible electronically; d) Selected original texts (see Fig. 1, sections 4 and 5) on technical (or scientific) topics to be translated into English or Spanish. Once the text has been translated, each team will create its own private glossary with the standardized terminology (see Fig. 1, section 3); e) The Free Forum (‘Zona de intercambio de información’) has been created for all the students to interchange documents, general information, etc; and, f) The Assignment module (‘Entrega de tareas’) is an easy way to allow students to upload digital content for grading. Secondly, once the web page has been created, the source text in English which is going to be translated into Spanish is published on the course website, for instance, in section 5 (see Figure 1). This technical text is about the ‘Procedure for Shifting the Stator’ (see Figure 2). Figure 2: Source text Thirdly, once the text has been published, students read the instructions provided (skopos) -‘Descripción del Encargo 2’- which affect the translation <?page no="377"?> Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle 361 process. The skopos theory focuses on translation as an activity with an aim or purpose and on the intended addressee or audience of the translation (see Figure 3): Figure 3: Description of the skopos Fourthly, after reading the source text and the skopos, each group starts with the documentation and translation process in its Private Forum (see Figure 4). The discussions made through the virtual private forum are always followed by the teacher. Figure 4: Private Forum Fifthly, each group uploads a draft verion of the target text in its private forum (see Figure 4) and, next, translations are revised in class, by means of <?page no="378"?> Miriam Seghiri Domínguez 362 the following procedure: a group presents its translation using audiovisual materials (such as Word or PowerPoint), while the rest of the groups propose corrections or improvements. The final version is always revised by the teacher. Sixthly, during the revision stage each team appoints a carefully selected reviser to check the translation for accuracy and appropriate style, terminology and phraseology. The reviser uses the Word revision marks tools (see Figure 5). Importantly, the translation is reviewed against the original document, rather than being read in isolation to avoid the risk of the translation being plausible but inaccurate. Other activities during the revision stage include ensuring that all late changes and additions to the original document have been incorporated into the translation, that issues which may have arisen are resolved and that the format corresponds to the output format requested by the client. Figure 5: Revision Stage Seventhly, the last step during the revision stage is producing a final target text, free of errors (see Figure 6). <?page no="379"?> Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle 363 Figure 6: Target text Once the final target text free of mistakes is produced, it is time for the last stage: terminology management. 3 Creating a bilingual glossary of specialized terms Terminology management is one of the most important stages in the translation process. Thus, each group is responsible for the creation of its own online private glossary based on Moodle. We are going to illustrate this methodology by creating an English-Spanish glossary with technical terms based on the text ‘The procedure of Shifting the Stator’. The main characteristics of this text are that it is quite short (179 words) but highly specialized. So, first of all, each group choses the terminology and phraseology that posed major problems during the translation process in order include them in the glossary. Each member of the group helps in this task. For this reason, the group indicates in its private forum the terms (and phraseology) selected and the member of the group that has to upload a particular term or phraseology in order to create the glossary (see Figure 7). <?page no="380"?> Miriam Seghiri Domínguez 364 Figure 7: Terminology and phraseology selected by a group work The Moodle platform has proved to be a very useful platform, which allows the students to introduce the terms in an easy and fast way. Some guidelines are recommended by the teacher in order to standardize all the parts and the format of the entries: a) Headword in source language (SL) (Arial 12, bold, regular style). If the headword in SL is an abbreviation or an acronym, another entry has to be added with the abbreviation or acronym in SL with a brief definition; b) Grammatical category of the SL headword (Arial 12, italic); c) Definition in SL (Arial 12, regular style), accompanied by the source, if possible; d) One example of the headword contexts in SL, accompanied by the source, if possible (Arial 12, bold); e) One example of the equivalent context in target language (TL), accompanied by the source, if possible (Arial 12, bold); f) Equivalent(s) of the headword in TL, accompanied by the source, if possible (Arial 12, bold, italic). If the headword in TL is an abbreviation or an acronym, another entry has to be added with the abbreviation or acronym in TL and a brief definition in TL; g) Comments (Arial 12, regular style, in another paragraph, with underlined title). Once students have a standardized way to upload the terms, each group is ready to start creating the glossary (see Figure 8). <?page no="381"?> Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle 365 <?page no="382"?> Miriam Seghiri Domínguez 366 <?page no="383"?> Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle 367 Figure 8: Example of glossary created by the group Engine If students need it, it is possible to attach images to an entry, in order to clarify concepts (see Figure 9): <?page no="384"?> Miriam Seghiri Domínguez 368 Fig. 9: An entry with illustration Finally, it is important to mention that each group cannot see the entries of the glossary until they are corrected by the teacher who corrects, modifies, clarifies, eliminates or, simply, approves the entry. All the corrections, improvements or precisions are often explained by a comment (see Figure 10): <?page no="385"?> Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle 369 Figure 10: Corrections and comments by the teacher The glossary contains some terms whose translation does not appear in general dictionaries but are found due to documentation tasks of students (mainly online). Corrections, improvements, as well as precisions often go with a justification or a comment, and consequently, our students will be aware of their mistakes. Once all the entries have been checked by the group, first, and by the teacher, at the end, the glossary will be used as another tool for future translations, as for instance, the final test that takes place at the end of the semester. 4 Conclusions Creating a glossary of approved terms is essential. It will not only save time for the students but ensures a consistent style and voice, an accurate rendering of the original text and a level of translation quality that is even throughout. Online glossaries created by the students based on Moodle have <?page no="386"?> Miriam Seghiri Domínguez 370 shown many advantages for the teaching and learning of scientific-technical translation: first, the platform has allowed the students to have a complete and reliable glossary for future translations made by their own, and checked by the teacher; second, the platform allows more direct interaction between students, and between students and the teacher, since their contributions are revised or commented; finally, creating glossaries helps to introduce our students into the terminology management stage, essential for professional translators. References Cristina Castillo Rodríguez: “A compilation of a bilingual parallel corpus (English - Spanish) specialized in in vitro diagnostic medical devices (IVD)”. In X Simposio Internacional de Comunicación Social: 20 años de comunicación científica . Santiago de Cuba: Centro de Lingüística Aplicada 2007, pp. 677-681. Cristina Castillo Rodríguez and Juan Mora Ordóñez: “Glosario de términos en el subdominio de la ventilación mecánica y fisiopatología respiratoria (español- inglés/ inglés-español)”. Translation Journal 15 (3), 2011. http: / / translationjournal.net/ journal/ 57glossary.htm. Cristina Castillo Rodríguez: “Identification of Terms Marked by the Japanese and Indian Cultures: an empirical practice using a multilingual comparable corpus of wellness and beauty tourism (Spanish, English, Italian, French) in a translation- classroom environment”. Translation Journal, 16 (2), 2012. http: / / translationjournal.net/ journal/ 60tourism.htm. Gloria Corpas Pastor; Rosario Bautista Zambrana; Cristina Castillo Rodríguez; María Cristina Toledo Báez and Miriam Seghiri Domínguez: “Entornos de formación en red: tutoría virtual, e-learning y e-moderación para la enseñanza-aprendizaje de la traducción científica”. Revista Electrónica Teoría de la Educación: Educación y Cultura en la Sociedad de la Información 8(2). Salamanca: Universidad de Salamanca 2007, pp. 162-178. Gloria Corpas Pastor; Míriam Seghiri Domínguez; M.ª Rosario bautista Zambrana and Cristina M. Castillo Rodríguez: “Elaboration of a terminological glossary for the teaching of medical translation in a collaborative virtual environment“. X Simposio Internacional de Comunicación Social: 20 años de comunicación científica . Satiago de Cuba: Centro de Lingüística Aplicada 2007, pp. 189-193. Gloria Corpas Pastor and Mª José Varela Salinas: Entornos informáticos de la traducción profesional: las memorias de traducción. Granada: Atrio 2003. Isabel Durán Muñoz and María Muñoz Ramos: “Herramientas colaborativas como apoyo terminológico en la enseñanza de la traducción especializada”. Multiple Voices in Academic and Professional Discourse: Current Issues in Specialised Language Research, Teaching and New Technologies. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing 2011. María Muñoz Ramos: “Campus Virtual: ICTs involved in the teaching-learning process of foreign language”. Proceedings of the IX Annual International Conference on Literature, Languages & Linguistic, Forthcoming. <?page no="387"?> Creating a bilingual glossary (English-Spanish) based on Moodle 371 María Muñoz Ramos: Hacia una redefinición de las materias de tecnologías de la traducción en el marco del EEES: concepto, competencias, procesos de enseñanza -aprendizaje y evaluación. Málaga: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Málaga 2012. María Cristina Toledo Báez: “Holistic Translation Assessment: Proposal of a New Electronic Template in the Context of Translation Training”. Aspects of Literary Translation. Building Linguistic and Cultural Bridge in Past and Present. Tubinga: Narr Verlag 2012, pp. 369-384. <?page no="389"?> María Cristina Toledo Báez Analytic Translation Assessment: Experiment with a Template implemented in Markin 1 1 Introduction When teaching how to translate, one of the most common trained skills is the ability to assess a translation. However, translations have been traditionally assessed according to stylistic criteria or to a specific translation method, i.e., covert or overt translation. 2 Taking into account that assessing translations is considered to be “one of the cornerstones in translators training”, 3 it goes without saying that it should be based on valid and reliable approaches to testing and assessment. 4 1 The research reported on this paper has been carried out in the framework of THE European Leonardo da Vinci project “Towards European Language Learning for MEdical professionals" (517937-LLP-1-2011-1-UK-LEONARDO-LMP)”and the national project “Sistema inteligente de gestión terminológica para traductores (FFI2012-38881, 2012-2015)”. 2 Juliane House: “Concepts and Methods of Translation Criticism: A Linguistic Perspective” in: Übersetzung. Translation. Traduction. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Übersetzungsforschung. An International Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. Encyclopédie internationale de la recherche sur la traduction, ed.: Harald Kittel, Armin Paul Frank, Norbert Greiner, Theo Hermans, Werner Koller, José Lambert, and Fritz Paul. Berlin/ New York 2004, 698-718. See on the issue of translation in general the following authors: Míriam Seghiri Domínguez: “Metodología protocolizada de compilación de un corpus de seguros de viajes: aspectos de diseño y representatividad” in: Revista de lingüística teórica y aplicada (RLA), 49(2). 2011, 13-30. URL: <http: / / www.scielo.cl/ scielo.php? pid=S0718-48832011000200002&script=sci_arttext>; see also Cristina Castillo Rodríguez: “Identification of Terms Marked by the Japanese and Indian Cultures: an empirical practice using a multilingual comparable corpus of wellness and beauty tourism (Spanish, English, Italian, French) in a translation-classroom environment“ in Translation Journal, 16(2), 2012. Available at <http: / / translationjournal.net/ journal/ 60tourism.htm>; María Muñoz Ramos: Hacia una redefinición de las materias de tecnologías de la traducción en el marco del EEES: concepto, competencias, procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje y evaluación, PhD dissertation. Málaga 2012. 3 Rosa Rabadán and Purificación Fernández Nistal: La traducción inglés-español: fundamentos, herramientas, aplicaciones. León 2002, 24. 4 See on this issue: Claudia V. Angelelli and Holly E. Jacobson (eds.): Testing and Assessment in Translation and Interpreting Studies: A Call for Dialogue between Research and Practice. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia 2009; José Tomás Conde Ruano: Proceso y resultado de la evaluación de traducciones, PhD dissertation. Granada 2009. <?page no="390"?> María Cristina Toledo Báez 374 The aim of this paper is to present a template for analytic error assessment, for which the notion of error is basic, developed on Toledo Báez's previous studies. 5 This template focuses on negative aspects such as source text related errors (wrong sense, unnecessary addition or inadequate linguistic variation), target text related errors (orthography, grammar, terminology or textual type) and also on positive aspects such as correct terms and appropriate renderings. The main features of the template are: 1) its implementation in the training software Markin, whose main advantage for lecturers is facilitating the tasks of assessing and marking electronic assignments and 2) its adaptation from previous templates, specifically from two models: on one hand, Hurtado Albir 6 and, on the other hand, the error typology developed by the Leonardo da Vinci project MeLLANGE (Multilingual eLearning in LANGuage Engineering). 7 The template presented here was used in a classroom-environment experiment to evaluate both specialized translation, specifically legal-technological texts, and inverse translation since it was applied to the language combination Spanish-English having native speakers of Spanish translating into English. The advantages of using this template and the lines for future work are also addressed. 2 Analytic assessment: error in translation Without taking into account the functions of evaluation, 8 we will consider the following translation evaluation methods: 1. Analytic evaluation, for which the notion of error is basic. 2. Holistic evaluation, in which translation competence 9 is the key concept. 5 María Cristina Toledo Báez: El resumen automático como recurso documental para la traducción de artículos de investigación del ámbito jurídico-tecnológico (español-inglés- francés), PhD dissertation. Málaga 2009; María Cristina Toledo Báez: El resumen automático y la evaluación de traducciones en el contexto de la traducción especializada. Frankfurt a. M. vol. 69 2010; María Cristina Toledo Báez: “La difícil tarea de evaluar traducciones: propuesta de una plantilla de evaluación analítica” in: Traducción y modernidad: textos científico-técnicos, jurídico-socioeconómicos, audiovisuales y de interpretación, ed.: Rafael López-Campos Bodineau, Carmen Balbuena Torezano, and Manuela Álvarez Jurado. Córdoba 2010, 225-237. 6 Amparo Hurtado Albir: “La didáctica de la traducción. Evolución y estado actual” in: Perspectivas de la traducción inglés/ español, ed.: Purificación Hernández y José María Bravo. Valladolid 1995, 49-74. 7 MeLLANGE was a Leonardo da Vinci European developed from 2004 to 2007 that aimed to adapt vocational training of translators and other language professionals to the new needs arising from the ongoing globalisation process (<http: / / mellange.eila. jussieu.fr/ >) 8 It is not our main goal to study here the functions of evaluation, although, according to Roland Abrecht: L’évaluation formative, une analyse critique. Brussels 1991, there are three main types of functions: diagnostic function, summative function and formative function. <?page no="391"?> Analytic Translation Assessment 375 Consequently, the analytic evaluation method is based on linguistic correction and, therefore, error becomes the hallmark of this method. We will approach to this concept in order to better understand analytic evaluation. Generally speaking, error in translation refers to an inadequacy in a specific translation project and it has been studied in Translatology from different points of view, albeit all of them revolve around the concept translation problem. 10 It is worth pointing out that some authors such as Nord 11 distinguish between translation problem and translation difficulty. Nord defines problem as an objective problem that any translator must resolve in a translation project, regardless competence level or technical conditions for his/ her job. By contrast, translation difficulty is subjective and it has to do with the translator him/ herself and the particular conditions of work. As to translation problems, Hurtado Albir 12 proposes four linguistic categories: linguistic, extralinguistic, instrumental, and pragmatic. Although many 9 See on the issue of translation competence the following authors: Alison Beeby, Mònica Fernández, Olivia Fox, Amparo Hurtado Albir, Inna Kozlova, Wilhem Neunzig, Marisa Presas, Patricia Rodríguez, Lupe Romero: “Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues” in: Meta: journal des traducteurs/ Meta: Translators’ Journal 50(2) 2005, 609-619; Allison Beeby, Mònica Fernández, Olivia Fox, Amparo Hurtado Albir, Inna Kozlova, Anna Kuznik, Wilhelm Neunzig, Patricia Rodríguez, Lupe Romero: “Une recherche empirique expérimentale sur la compétence de traduction” in: Quelle qualification les traducteurs? Actes des universités d’été et d’automne 2006 et du colloque international Traduction spécialisée: quelle qualification universitaire pour les traducteurs? , ed.: Daniel Gouadec. Paris 2007, 95-116; Allison Beeby, Mònica Fernández, Olivia Fox, Amparo Hurtado Albir, Inna Kozlova, Anna Kuznik, Willy Neunzig, Patricia Rodríguez, Lupe Romero: “First Results of a Translation Competence Experiment: ‘Knowledge of Translation’ and ‘Efficacy of the Translation Process’” in: Translator and Interpreter Training. Issues, Methods and Debates, ed.: John Kearns. London/ New York 2008, 104-126; Maria Lluïsa Presas Corbellá: “Bilingual Competence and Translation Competence” in: Developing Translation Competence, ed.: Christina Schäffner and Beverly Adab. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia 2000, 19-31; Allison Beeby: “Evaluating the Development of Translation Competence” in: Developing Translation Competence, ed.: Christina Schäffner and Beverly Adab. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia 2000, 185-189. However, it is worth pointing out that, according to Jean Delisle: L’analyse du discours comme méthode de traduction. Initiation à la traduction française de textes pragmatiques anglais, théorie et pratique. Ottawa 1980, and Mariana Orozco Jutorán: Instrumentos de medida de la adquisición de la competencia traductora: Construcción y validación, PhD dissertation. Barcelona 2000, there is no a generally accepted definition for translation competence. 10 Cf. Christiane Nord: Textanalyse und Übersetzen. Heidelberg 1988; Amparo Hurtado Albir: Traducción y Traductología: Introducción a la Traductología. Madrid 2001, 279. 11 Christiane Nord: Textanalyse und Übersetzen. Heidelberg 1988, 151. 12 Amparo Hurtado Albir: Traducción y Traductología: Introducción a la Traductología. Madrid 2001, 288. <?page no="392"?> María Cristina Toledo Báez 376 authors use the term error, 13 others prefer the terms inadequacy 14 or mistake 15 and even some of them make a distinction between error and mistake. 16 The notion of error is crucial not only for translation revision and evaluation, but also for translation theory, practice, and teaching. Specifically in translation teaching, it is basic the error etiology, i.e., discovering the causes of errors in order to be able of solving them. 17 We will summarise below the main error typologies, although some of them will not be explored: 18 Palazuelos 19 1. Equivalent sense: translation without errors 2. Different sense 3. Incomprehensible sense 13 Cf. Juliane House: A Model for Translation Quality Assessment. Tübingen 1981; Anthony Pym: “Translation Error Analysis and the Interface with Language Teaching” in: Teaching Translation and Interpreting. Training, Talent and Experience. Papers from the First La nguage International Conference, ed.: Cay Dollerup and Anne Loddegaard. Amsterdam 1992, 279-288; Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit: “The Problem of Translation Error Evaluation” in: Translation in Foreign Language Teaching and Testing, ed.: Christopher Titford and A. E. Hieke. Tübingen 1985, 169-179. 14 See on this issue: Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit: “The Problem of Translation Error Evaluation” in: Translation in Foreign Language Teaching and Testing, ed.: Christopher Titford and A. E. Hieke. Tübingen 1985, 169-179; Paul Kussmaul: Training the Translator. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia 1995; Christiane Nord: “El error en la traducción: categorías y evaluación“ in: La enseñanza de la traducción, ed.: Amparo Hurtado Albir. Castellón 1996, 91-103; Basil Hatim and Ian Mason: The Translator as Communicator. London/ New York 1997. 15 Daniel Gouadec: “Comprendre, évaluer, prévenir” in: TTR, vol. 2. 1989, 38; Daniel Gile: “Les fautes de traduction: une analyse pédagogique” in: Méta, vol. 26(2) 1992, 251-262; Jean Delisle: La traduction raisonnée. Manuel d’initiation à la traduction professionnelle de l’anglais vers le français. Ottawa 1993; Christiane Nord: Text Analysis in Translation. Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Amsterdam/ Atlanta 1991; Christiane Nord: “El error en la traducción: categorías y evaluación“ in: La enseñanza de la traducción, ed.: Amparo Hurtado Albir. Castellón 1996, 91-103. 16 Irène Spilka: “Analyse de traduction“ in: La traduction: l’universitaire et le praticien, ed.: Arlette Thomas and Jacques Flamand. Ottawa 1984, 72-81. 17 Cf. Amparo Hurtado Albir: “La didáctica de la traducción. Evolución y estado actual” in: Perspectivas de la traducción inglés/ español, ed.: Purificación Hernández y José María Bravo. Valladolid 1995, 49-74; Amparo Hurtado Albir: Enseñar a traducir. Metodología en la formación de traductores e intépretes. Teoría y fichas prácticas. Madrid 1999. At this regard, Hurtado Albir has also proposed an error pedagogy or error teaching based on five principles: 1) establishing the etiology; 2) tailoring the diagnosis to each translator; 3) learning lessons from the error; 4) solving individually every error; 5) progressing in the application of correcting criteria according to the learning level. 18 See on this issue Malcom Williams: “The Assessment of Professional Translation Quality: Creating Credibility out of Chaos” in: Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction, vol. 2(2) 1989, 13-33. 19 Juan Carlos Palazuelos: El error en traducción. Santiago de Chile 1992. <?page no="393"?> Analytic Translation Assessment 377 4. Extended sense 5. Restricted sense 6. Related sense 20 House 21 1. Covertly erroneous error: dimensional mismatch 2. Overtly erroneous error: non-dimensional mismatch Pym 22 1. Binary error: error result of selecting from a potential TT series of more than one viable term. 2. Non-binary error: error result of opposing a wrong answer to the right answer. Kussmaul 23 1. Cultural adequacy 2. Situational adequacy 3. Speech acts 4. Meaning of words 5. Language errors 24 Gouadec 25 1. Parameter 1: Specifying the nature of the fault 26 with a code. 2. Parameter 2: Specifying the level of the element. 3. Parameter 3: Specifying the role of the element. 4. Parameter 4: Specifying the origin of the element. Table 1: Main error typologies Error is of paramount importance in analytic translation assessment and it is the basis for evaluation parameters. 3 Analytic assessment: evaluation parameters A key task when settling evaluation parameters is choosing and defining proper evaluation parameters, which are supposed to be par excellence objective, reliable, and clear. However, translations are frequently evaluated according to subjective parameters as we find intuitive evaluations, used in translation criticism and based on overall impressions, and partial evalua- 20 It would be sentido emparentado in Spanish. 21 Juliane House: A Model for Translation Quality Assessment. Tübingen 1981; Juliane House: Translation Quality Assessment. A Model Revisited. Tübingen 1997. 22 Anthony Pym: “Translation Error Analysis and the Interface with Language Teaching” in: Teaching Translation and Interpreting. Training, Talent and Experience. Papers from the First Language International Conference, ed.: Cay Dollerup and Anne Loddegaard. Amsterdam 1992, 279-288. 23 Paul Kussmaul: Training the Translator. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia 1995. All the typologies here are included in the functionalist theory but Kussmaul’s typology, which is considered to be part of the communicative theory. Besides, Kussmaul refers more properly to categories for evaluation. 24 According to Kussmaul, this type of error includes errors such as wrong use of tenses, prepositions, word order, idioms, collocations, etc. 25 Daniel Gouadec: “Paramètres de l’évaluation des traductions” in Méta, 26(2) 1981, 99- 116. 26 It refers to the French faute. <?page no="394"?> María Cristina Toledo Báez 378 tions, in which not all factors in the process of translating are included. There is another type, detailed evaluations, based on objective and well defined criteria. We will use the latter type of evaluation. One of the main characteristics of the detailed evaluations is the use of scales, either for correcting or marking or both, and other measuring instruments such as translation exercises, multiple choice questions, questionnaires, interviews, observation record, etc. 27 We will use a scale and we will combine two proposals: Hurtado Albir’s 28 and Multilingual eLearning in LANGuage Engineering (MeLLANGE)’s. The former presents the following scale: EVALUATION TEMPLATE 1. Inappropriate renderings which affect the understanding of the source text 1.1. Contresens (CS) - Linguistic lack of knowledge - Extralinguistic lack of knowledge 1.2. Faux sens (FS) - Linguistic lack of knowledge - Extralinguistic lack of knowledge 1.3. Nonsens (SS) - Incomprehensible - Lack of clarity 1.4. Addition (AD) 1.5. Omission (OM) 1.6. Unresolved extralinguistic references (EXT) 1.7. Loss of meaning (LM) - Unexplained nuance - Exaggeration/ reduction - Concrete/ abstract; abstract/ concrete 1.8. Inappropriate linguistic variation (LV) - Inappropriate register (formal/ informal) (IR) - Inappropriate style (IE) - Inappropriate social dialect (ISD) - Inappropriate dialect (ID) - Inappropriate idiolect (II) 2. Inappropriate renderings which affect expression in the target la nguage 2.1. Spelling and punctuation 2.2. Grammar (GR) 27 Jean Delisle: La traduction raisonnée. Manuel d’initiation à la traduction professionnelle de l’anglais vers le français, Col. Pédagogie de la traduction 1. Ottawa 1993 ; Amparo Hurtado Albir: “La didáctica de la traducción. Evolución y estado actual” in: Perspectivas de la traducción inglés/ español, ed.: Purificación Hernández y José María Bravo. Valladolid 1995, 49-74; Amparo Hurtado Albir: Enseñar a traducir. Metodología en la formación de traductores e intépretes. Teoría y fichas prácticas. Madrid 1999. 28 Amparo Hurtado Albir: “La didáctica de la traducción. Evolución y estado actual” in: Perspectivas de la traducción inglés/ español, ed.: Purificación Hernández y José María Bravo. Valladolid 1995, 49-74. <?page no="395"?> Analytic Translation Assessment 379 - Syntax mistakes - Non-idiomatic use 2.3. Lexical items - Barbarism/ borrowed word LEXa - Regionalisms LEXb - Inaccurate 2.4. Text (TEXT) - Incoherence TEXTa - Wrong use of conjunctions TEXTb 2.5. Style (STY) - Non-idiomatic expression ESTa - Wrong expression - Lack of euphony - Inaccurate expression - Unclear expression - “Tedious“ style/ “Telegraphic“ style - Pleonasms, unnecessary repetitions - Poor style 3. Inappropriate renderings which affect the transmission of either the main function or secondary functions of the source text - Inappropriate renderings which affect the source text function (STF) - Inappropriate renderings which affect the translation function (ITF) 4. Accuracy - Good equivalent (GE) - Very good equivalent VGE Table 2: Hurtado Albir’s evaluation template The other template has been developed by the Leonardo project MeL- LANGE: 29 ERROR TYPOLOGY Content transfer 1. Omission (TR-OM) 2. Addition (TR-AD) 3. Distortion (TR-DI) 4. Indecision (TR-IN) 5. User-Defined (TR-UD) Source Language Intrusion: 1. Untranslated Translatable (TR-SI-UT) 2. Too literal (TR-SI-TL) 3. Units of weight/ measurement, dates and numbers (TR-SI-UN) 4. User-Defined (TR-SI-UD) Target Language Intrusion: 1. Translated Do-Not-Translate (TR-TI-TD) 2. Too Free (TR-TI-TF) 3. User-Defined (TR-TI-UD) 29 The MeLLANGE template is available at <http: / / corpus.leeds.ac.uk/ mellange/ images/ mellange_error_typology_en.jpg>. <?page no="396"?> María Cristina Toledo Báez 380 Language - Syntax (LA-SY) - Wrong preposition (LA-PR) Inflection and Agreement 1. Tense/ Aspect (LA-IA-TA) 2. Gender (LA-IA-GE) 3. Number (LA-IA-NU) 4. User-Defined (LA-IA-UD) Terminology and Lexis 1. Incorrect (LA-TL-IN) 2. Falso cognate (LA-TL-FC) 3. Term Translated by Non-Term (LA-TL-NT) 4. Inconsistent with Glossary (LA-TL-IG) 5. Inconsistent within TT (LA-TL-IT) 6. Inappropriate collocation (LA-TL-IC) 7. User-Defined (LA-TL-UD) Hygiene 1. Spelling (LA-HY-SP) 2. Accents or Diacritics (LA-HY-AC) 3. Incorrect Case (Upper/ Lower) (LA-HY-CA) 4. Punctuation (LA-HY-PU) 5. User-Defined (LA-HY-UD) Register 1. Inconsistent with ST (e.g. form of address) (LA-RE-IS) 2. Inappropriate for TT Text Type (LA-RE-IN) 3. Inconsistent within TT (LA-RE-IT) 4. User-Defined (LA-RE-UD) Style 1. Awkward (LA-ST-AW) 2. Tautology (LA-ST-TA) Table 3: MeLLANGE’s evaluation template As mentioned above, we will present our own analytic evaluation template taking into consideration both templates by Hurtado Albir and MeLLANGE. 4 Our template for analytic translation assessment Regarding our own analytic evaluation template, we combine the two templates explained above, although it is mainly based on Hurtado Albir’s proposal. From Hurtado Albir’s proposal, we delete the following elements: - Inaccurate expression - Unclear expression - Lack of euphony ESTb - “Tedious“ style/ “Telegraphic“ style - Pleonasms; unnecessary repetitions <?page no="397"?> Analytic Translation Assessment 381 - Poor style - Unresolved extralinguistic references (EXT) - Inadequacy of social dialect (ISD) - Inadecuacy of dialect (ID) - Inadecuacy of idiolect (II) - Linguistic lack of knowledge - Extralinguistic lack of knowledge - Incomprehensible - Lack of clarity - Unexplained nuance - Exaggeration/ reduction - Concrete/ abstract; abstract/ concrete - Syntax mistakes - Non-idiomatic use - Inaccurate expression Regarding MeLLANGE’s template, we have chosen the following elements: - Translated Do-Not-Translate (TR-TI-TD) - Too literal (TR-SI-TL) - Too Free (TR-TI-TF) - Spelling (LA-HY-SP) - Punctuation (LA-HY-PU) 30 - Syntax mistake (LA-SY) - Incorrect term (LA-TL-IN) - Gender (LA-IA-GE) - Number (LA-IA-NU) The final result of our analytic evaluation template is the following: A NALYTIC EVALUATION TEMPLATE 1. Inappropriate renderings which affect the understanding of the source text 1.1. Contresens (CS) 1.2. False sense (FS) 1.3. Senseless (SS) 1.4. Addition (AD) 1.5. Omission (OM) - Untranslated Translatable (UT) 1.6. Loss of meaning (LM) 1.7. Inappropriate linguistic variation - Inappropriate register (formal/ informal) (IR) - Inappropriate style (IE) 2. Inappropriate renderings which affect expression in the target la nguage 2.1. Spelling (SP) 2.2. Punctuation (PUN) 30 We specifically distinguish between spelling and punctuation. <?page no="398"?> María Cristina Toledo Báez 382 2.3. Grammar (GR) - Syntax (SYN) - Gender (GEN) - Number (NUM) - Verb (VERB) 2.3. Lexical items (LEX) - Barbarism/ borrowed word (LEXa) - Regionalisms (LEXb) - Inadequate terminology (IAT) 2.4. Text (TEXT) - Incoherence (TEXT) - Wrong use of conjunctions (TEXTb) 2.5. Style (STY) - Non-idiomatic expression (NIE) - Wrong expression (WEX) - Too literal (TLI) - Too free (TFR) 3. Inadequate renderings which affect the transmission of either the main function or secondary functions of the source text - Inappropriate renderings which affect the source text function (STF) - Inappropriate renderings which affect the translation function (ITF) 4. Accuracy - Good equivalent (GE) - Very good equivalent (VGE) Table 4: Our own template for analytic assessment As explained above, one of the main features of the template presented is its implementation in the training software Markin, which will be detailed below. 5 Implementation of the analytic template in Markin: advantages and future work The on-screen marking and annotation software Markin 31 was developed by Martin Holmes in 1996 and it is presented as a solution for most electronic marking applications. Markin is a Windows program which runs on the teacher’s computer. It can import a student’s text for marking by pasting from the clipboard, or directly from a document file. Once the text has been imported, Markin provides a comprehensive set of tools enabling the teacher to mark and annotate the text. When marking is complete, Markin saves it as an XHTML document, in which the teacher's marks and annotations appear as coloured text. When the student opens this document in a web browser (such as In- 31 The web page is <http: / / www.cict.co.uk/ software/ markin/ index.htm>. <?page no="399"?> Analytic Translation Assessment 383 ternet Explorer, Firefox, Safari or Chrome), they can click on the marks to reveal more detail about the nature of the teacher's annotation or comment. Markin provides four different ways of adding marks to an essay text: - Annotations are pre-defined ways of marking specific errors, or giving specific kinds of praise. - Comments are used when you have something more specific or detailed to say. They are used when no pre-defined annotation can explain a problem in enough detail to be helpful. - Feedback is what comes at the end of the marked essay. This is where you express your general responses to the whole text. - The Grade can be anything you like - a letter grade, a percentage, a mark out of ten, or any other form of assessment. Fig. 1: Set of buttons for analytic evaluation in Spanish Sets of buttons need to be used with Markin. In our case, the buttons are represented with the acronyms for each unappropriate rendering as well - up- as the acronyms for the accuracies -bottom-. Both accuracies and inappropriate renderings are found in figure 1 (see figure 1). We find below (see figure 2) an example of a translation marked with Markin. It is a translation Spanish-English of a text from the research article “Contratación electrónica y protección de datos personales” from the Revista <?page no="400"?> María Cristina Toledo Báez 384 de contratación electronica. 32 As a consequence, the text is to be considered specialized translation because it deals with the legal-technological discourse. In order to compare both source text and translation, we copy below the original part: “Contratación electrónica y protección de datos personales” PALABRAS CLAVE Comercio electrónico, contratación electrónica, protección de datos personales, tratamiento, privacidad, spam, subastas. I. Introducción "Nuestro mundo ha entrado, con el cambio de milenio, en un nuevo modo de organización social vinculado a una revolución tecnológica con su epicentro en las tecnologías de info rmación y comunicación. La globalización de la economía, la virtualización de la cultura, el desarrollo de redes horizontales de comunicación interactiva, la constitución gradual de la sociedad red como nueva estructura social de nuestro tiempo son expresiones de esta transformación de alcance histórico". En la nueva sociedad de la información, el desarrollo de la actividad económica cada vez se apoya más en el empleo de las tecnologías de información y comunicación propias de la nueva sociedad en red. El comercio electrónico, pues, ha de ser entendido y situado en ese contexto general de esta nueva sociedad y de este nuevo ámbito en el que se desenvuelven las relaciones económicas, en particular, y las humanas, en general. El uso de estas nuevas tecnologías abre todo un mundo de oportunidades y facilita la comunicación en las relaciones humanas. Pero, como suele ocurrir con muchos instrumentos, junto a las fortalezas y oportunidades que su aparición y manejo comportan, aparecen usos que suponen riesgos, si no ataques directos, a valores, derechos o libertades del ser humano. Fig. 2: Example of analytic assessment with Markin 32 Agustín Madrid Parra: “Contratación electrónica y protección de datos personales” in Revista de contratación electrónica, 94, 2008. <?page no="401"?> Analytic Translation Assessment 385 This translation was carried out in a classroom-environment experiment with students where they were required to translate texts from Spanish into English using an automatic summarization programme and other resources. 33 According to figure 2, we have highlighted the following inappropriate renderings and accuracies in the translation: - An accuracy when translating “protección de datos personales” into “personal data protection”. - A terminological inappropriate rendering when translating “tratamiento” into “treatment” when it should be translated as “processing”. - An accuracy when translating “sociedad red” as “net society”. - An inappropriate rendering regarding spelling in “*base”. Given that we are working here with analytic assessment, we have focused on specific errors. Nevertheless, in order to have a wider assessment, we think that analytic assessment should be combined with holistic assessment, as we proposed in Toledo Báez. 34 In the classroom environment, a very important aspect of the combination of the holistic template and Markin for translation training is that it facilitates the feedback and communication among lecturers and students. It should be taken into account that all the evaluation templates should be explained in class before using them for assessing translations. We should also ensure that all students know the templates and understand all the aspects developed. In this regard, one may wonder what the advantages are when combining our holistic template and Markin for translation training are. We consider that the advantages are the following: 1. Easing translation evaluation and assessment by means of an innovative software. 2. Facilitating correction and evaluation. 3. Avoiding subjective assessment. 4. Registering results of students. 5. Facilitating feedback among students and lecturers. 6. Using template for analytic assessment in any learning approach. 7. Using the template for any language combination. 33 The whole experiment is described in: María Cristina Toledo Báez: El resumen automático como recurso documental para la traducción de artículos de investigación del ámbito jurídico-tecnológico (español-inglés-francés), PhD dissertation. Málaga 2009 and María Cristina Toledo Báez: El resumen automático y la evaluación de traducciones en el contexto de la traducción especializada. Frankfurt a. M. vol. 69 2010. 34 Ibid. <?page no="402"?> María Cristina Toledo Báez 386 Consequently, we believe that it is very convenient to use our template for analytic assessment of translations, better combined with a holistic assessment, as well as the software Markin. Nevertheless, we are aware of the fact that our work needs to be improved and we propose two lines for future work: 1. On the one hand, an empirical study of the application of the template for analytic assessment with quantitative and qualitative analyses of the results based on Toledo Báez’s previous work. 35 2. On the other hand, the development of an electronic version of the template for the scientific community. References Roland Abrecht: L’évaluation formative, une analyse critique. Brussels 1991. Allison Beeby: “Evaluating the Development of Translation Competence” in: Developing Translation Competence, ed.: Christina Schäffner and Beverly Adab. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia 2000, 185-189. Alison Beeby, Mònica Fernández, Olivia Fox, Amparo Hurtado Albir, Inna Kozlova, Wilhem Neunzig, Marisa Presas, Patricia Rodríguez, Lupe Romero: “Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues” in: Méta: journal des traducteurs/ Meta: Translators’ Journal 50(2) 2005, 609-619. Allison Beeby, Mònica Fernández, Olivia Fox, Amparo Hurtado Albir, Inna Kozlova, Anna Kuznik, Wilhelm Neunzig, Patricia Rodríguez, Lupe Romero: “Une recherche empirique expérimentale sur la compétence de traduction” in: Quelle qualification les traducteurs? Actes des universités d’été et d’automne 2006 et du colloque international Traduction spécialisée: quelle qualification universitaire pour les traducteurs? , ed.: Daniel Gouadec. Paris 2007, 95-116. Allison Beeby, Mònica Fernández, Olivia Fox, Amparo Hurtado Albir, Inna Kozlova, Anna Kuznik, Willy Neunzig, Patricia Rodríguez, Lupe Romero: “First Results of a Translation Competence Experiment: ‘Knowledge of Translation’ and ‘Efficacy of the Translation Process’” in: Translator and Interpreter Training. Issues, Methods and Debates, ed.: John Kearns. London/ New York 2008, 104-126. Cristina Castillo Rodríguez: “Identification of Terms Marked by the Japanese and Indian Cultures: an empirical practice using a multilingual comparable corpus of wellness and beauty tourism (Spanish, English, Italian, French) in a translation- classroom environment“ in Translation Journal, 16(2). 2012. <http: / / translationjournal.net/ journal/ 60tourism.htm>. José Tomás Conde Ruano: Proceso y resultado de la evaluación de traducciones, PhD dissertation. Granada 2009. Jean Delisle: L’analyse du discours comme méthode de traduction. Initiation à la traduction française de textes pragmatiques anglais, théorie et pratique . Ottawa 1980. Jean Delisle: La traduction raisonnée. Manuel d’initiation à la traduction professionnelle de l’anglais vers le français. Ottawa 1993. Daniel Gouadec: “Comprendre, évaluer, prévenir” in: TTR, vol. 2. 1989, 35-54. 35 Ibid. <?page no="403"?> Analytic Translation Assessment 387 Daniel Gouadec: “Paramètres de l’évaluation des traductions” in Méta, 26(2) 1981, 99- 116. Daniel Gile: “Les fautes de traduction: une analyse pédagogique” in: Méta, vol. 26(2) 1992, 251-262. Basil Hatim and Ian Mason: The Translator as Communicator. London/ New York 1997. Juliane House: “Concepts and Methods of Translation Criticism: A Linguistic Perspective” in: Übersetzung. Translation. Traduction. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Übersetzungsforschung. An International Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. Encyclopédie internationale de la recherche sur la traduction, ed.: Harald Kittel, Armin Paul Frank, Norbert Greiner, Theo Hermans, Werner Koller, José Lambert, and Fritz Paul. Berlin/ New York 2004, 698-718. Juliane House: A Model for Translation Quality Assessment. Tübingen 1981. Juliane House: Translation Quality Assessment. A Model Revisited. Tübingen 1997. Juliane House: “Concepts and Methods of Translation Criticism: A Linguistic Perspective” in: Übersetzung. Translation. Traduction. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Übersetzungsforschung. An International Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. Encyclopédie internationale de la recherche sur la traduction, ed.: Harald Kittel, Armin Paul Frank, Norbert Greiner, Theo Hermans, Werner Koller, José Lambert, and Fritz Paul. Berlin/ New York 2004, 698-718. Amparo Hurtado Albir: “La didáctica de la traducción. Evolución y estado actual” in: Perspectivas de la traducción inglés/ español, ed.: Purificación Hernández y José María Bravo. Valladolid 1995, 49-74. Amparo Hurtado Albir: Enseñar a traducir. Metodología en la formación de traductores e intépretes. Teoría y fichas prácticas. Madrid 1999. Amparo Hurtado Albir: Traducción y Traductología: Introducción a la Traductología. Madrid 2001, 279. Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit: “The Problem of Translation Error Evaluation” in: Translation in Foreign Language Teaching and Testing, ed.: Christopher Titford and A. E. Hieke. Tübingen 1985, 169-179. Paul Kussmaul: Training the Translator. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia 1995. Agustín Madrid Parra: “Contratación electrónica y protección de datos personales” in Revista de contratación electrónica, 94, 2008. María Muñoz Ramos: Hacia una redefinición de las materias de tecnologías de la traducción en el marco del EEES: concepto, competencias, procesos de enseñanza -aprendizaje y evaluación, PhD dissertation. Málaga 2012. Christiane Nord: Textanalyse und Übersetzen. Heidelberg 1988. Christiane Nord: “El error en la traducción: categorías y evaluación“ in: La enseñanza de la traducción, ed.: Amparo Hurtad