eBooks

Events - Future, Trends, Perspectives

An international Approach

0511
2020
978-3-8385-5253-8
978-3-8252-5253-3
UTB 
Kim Werner
Ye Ding

The Corona crisis (Covid-19) is having a massive impact on the events industry. Due to the editorial deadline of this book in February 2020, this topic could not be considered in this edition. We ask for your understanding. An international approach! Events - future, trends, perspectives provides insights into many of the recent developments within the diverse event industry. International scholars and experts with backgrounds in multiple related fields have taken up exciting research topics and offer perspectives, thoughts and views on a number of current and future issues and challenges. The topics are as diverse as the industry itself and include discussions on gender and diversity, disruptive technologies, sustainability, psychological effects, the co-creation of experiences, the future of event education and many more. Vivid case studies and best practice examples are used to illustrate current and future developments and to spark discussion and debate amongst scholars, practitioners and students alike.

<?page no="0"?> Kim Werner | Ye Ding (Eds.) Events - Future, Trends, Perspectives Events - Future, Trends, Perspectives Werner | Ding (Eds.) An international approach! Events - future, trends, perspectives provides insights into many of the recent developments within the diverse event industry. International scholars and experts with backgrounds in multiple related fields have taken up exciting research topics and offer perspectives, thoughts and views on a number of current and future issues and challenges. The topics are as diverse as the industry itself and include discussions on gender and diversity, disruptive technologies, sustainability, psychological effects, the co-creation of experiences, the future of event education and many more. Vivid case studies and best practice examples are used to illustrate current and future developments and to spark discussion and debate amongst scholars, practitioners and students alike. Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften ,! 7ID8C5-cfcfdd! ISBN 978-3-8252-5253-3 Dies ist ein utb-Band aus dem UVK Verlag. utb ist eine Kooperation von Verlagen mit einem gemeinsamen Ziel: Lehrbücher und Lernmedien für das erfolgreiche Studium zu veröffentlichen. utb-shop.de QR-Code für mehr Infos und Bewertungen zu diesem Titel 52533 Werner_L-5253.indd 1 52533 Werner_L-5253.indd 1 18.03.20 14: 33 18.03.20 14: 33 <?page no="1"?> Eine Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Verlage Böhlau Verlag · Wien · Köln · Weimar Verlag Barbara Budrich · Opladen · Toronto facultas · Wien Wilhelm Fink · Paderborn Narr Francke Attempto Verlag / expert Verlag · Tübingen Haupt Verlag · Bern Verlag Julius Klinkhardt · Bad Heilbrunn Mohr Siebeck · Tübingen Ernst Reinhardt Verlag · München Ferdinand Schöningh · Paderborn transcript Verlag · Bielefeld Eugen Ulmer Verlag · Stuttgart UVK Verlag · München Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht · Göttingen Waxmann · Münster · New York wbv Publikation · Bielefeld utb 5253 <?page no="3"?> Kim Werner, Ye Ding (Eds./ Hg.) Events - Future, Trends, Perspectives UVK Verlag · München <?page no="4"?> Die Herausgeberinnen Kim Werner, Ph.D., is Professor of Event Management at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences, Germany. She is also the German Director of “International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS)”, a double-degree event management programme and joint venture with Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE). Ye Ding, Ph.D., is the Chinese Director of International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) at the School of Tourism and Event Management, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai, China. Online-Angebote oder elektronische Ausgaben sind erhältlich unter www.utb-shop.de Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über <http: / / dnb.ddb.de> abrufbar. © UVK Verlag 2020 - ein Unternehmen der Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG Dischingerweg 5, 72070 Tübingen Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages unzulässig und strafbar. Das gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. Lektorat: Rainer Berger, München Einbandgestaltung: Atelier Reichert, Stuttgart Einbandmotiv: © Rawpixel - iStock Druck und Bindung: CPI books GmbH, Leck Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG Dischingerweg 5 72070 Tübingen info@narr.de www.narr.de UTB-Nr. 5253 ISBN 978-3-8252- 5253-3 <?page no="5"?> Acknowledgements The editors wish to express their heartfelt gratitude to a number of people who have given their guidance, assistance, time and energy to develop this book. First and foremost, we would like to thank all the authors for contributing this wide variety of interesting studies, perspectives, thoughts and ideas. Your valuable contributions have not only enabled this book but also provided its heart and its relevance. We would also like to thank Clare Gray, Melanie Jauken and Ann-Kristin Bours, who provided proofreading, copyediting and research assistance. As well as providing insights into many perspectives and debates on the future of the event industry, this book seeks to celebrate the 15 th anniversary of International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS), a double-degree Sino-German event management programme established by Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences and Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE). IEMS would not exist without the tremendous support of its first two directors, Prof. Xing Lan and Prof. Helmut Schwägermann, who also contributed chapters to this book. In addition, many of the current and past IEMS lecturers have provided chapters, thoughts and ideas as well as valuable feedback. Thank you for being part of this project. Special thanks also go to Dr. Chunlei Wang, Dean of the School of Tourism and Event Management at SUIBE and former Chinese Director of IEMS, who not only contributed several chapters to this book but also built the EMBOK knowledge system for IEMS in the past five years. Finally, we sincerely thank Prof. Dr. Peter Mayer, who had the initial idea for this book, which seeks to combine current event research from different cultural perspectives, particularly those of Germany and China. <?page no="6"?> List of contributors (in alphabetical order) Aliosha Alexandrov is an Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh. He attained his doctoral degree from the University of Memphis in 2007. His research focuses on research methods, word of mouth, services, and consumer research. He teaches primarily marketing research, marketing analytics, and marketing strategy. Nicole Böhmer has been Professor at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences, Germany, since 2006. Her research focuses on international HRM, gender, talent management and careers. She teaches Human Resource Management and engages especially in case-study didactics. In addition to working in academia, she worked as an HR generalist in the banking sector for several years and has consulted in the nonprofit sector. Apart from her studies in the management discipline, she has a teaching degree. She holds a doctoral degree in political sciences (Dr. rer. pol.) from Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Germany. Christina Bosse is a student of Business Psychology and graduate assistant at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences, Germany. She has worked for the research project about “Slow Tourism” and “Slow Events” since 2018. She previously gained work experience in the tourism industry, and she now likes to combine this experience with her research topics about trends in the tourism and event industry. Ye Ding, Ph.D., is the Chinese Director of International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) at the School of Tourism and Event Management, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUBIE), Shanghai, China. Her main research areas are venue operation, event economy and event management. Yi Ding is a lecturer with the Sino-German programme “International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS)” at Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE). She received a master of arts in conference management in 2006 at University of Westminster, UK, and a doctoral degree in economics in 2011 at East China Normal University. She gained valuable experience in business operation and management while managing a private business in Shanghai from 1994 to 2003. Her research interests focus on corporate organisation in the event industry. She is the co-editor of Handbook Event Market China (2016) . Susanne Doppler is Professor of Event Management and Head of International Business at The University of Applied Sciences Fresenius Heidelberg. She teaches at Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE) within the IEMS programme. Her research interests include current <?page no="7"?> 7 aspects of the event industry. The project “Stress for event managers” started in 2018 in cooperation with the Department of Psychology at The University of Applied Sciences Fresenius Heidelberg. Liza Funke holds a Bachelor of Arts in International Business with Event Management from The University of Applied Sciences Fresenius Heidelberg. She studied “Stress Factors and their Outcome in the Event Industry” as her bachelor’s thesis topic. She is currently working as a Project Assistant at the event agency “audience communication GmbH” in Holzkirchen, Germany. Hans-Jürgen Gaida, Ph.D., studied Science of Journalism, Economics and History in Münster and at the Free University in Berlin. He held various leading positions in the MICE industry in Berlin (BAO Berlin Marketing Council), Frankfurt (Messe Frankfurt), and Vienna (Wiener Staatsoper) and was CEO of Halle Münsterland (Convention, Exhibition and Event Centre) in Münster and CEO of HCC - Hannover Congress Center. He also has more than 15 years of experience in event catering and large arena catering (Hannover soccer stadium). He is an independent consultant for the MICE industry, gaida@gaidaconsult.de. Since 1990, he has lectured on cultural management, management of event venues and destinations, and event catering at ICCM (International Center for Cultural Management) in Salzburg, Austria, the International Academy for Media and Events in Baden-Baden, Germany, the Cooperative State University in Ravensburg, the University of Applied Sciences Worms, and the Reinhold-Würth- Hochschule Künzelsau/ Heilbronn, and he lectured at Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE) from 2008 to 2016. Gernot Gehrke studied Communications, English, and Political Sciences at the University of Münster, where he completed his Ph.D. on Theory and Analysis of Broadcast Change in 1996. For fifteen years, he acted as Managing Director of consulting companies specialising in planning and realising (international) congresses, exhibitions and festivals. Since 2014, he has been a Professor of Management and Marketing in the Event Industry at the University of Applied Sciences and Arts Hannover. His main research interests are event education curricula and the future of the event industry. Kai-Michael Griese has been Professor of Marketing at Osnabrück University of Applied Science since 2009. He received his Ph.D. in Business Science from the University of Chemnitz in 2002. Since 2011, he has been a Visiting Professor at the Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE). His research interests centre on improving the understanding of sustainable marketing, mainly through the application of consumer research and statistics. Markus Große Ophoff studied chemistry in Aachen and Bristol and worked for the German Federal Environmental Foundation (Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt) in Berlin. Since 1997, he has been responsible for public relations at the Centre for Environmental Communication (Zentrum für Umweltkommunikation) in Osnabrück, Germany. He has headed the Centre since 2001. He is List of contributors <?page no="8"?> 8 Honorary Professor of Event Management and Sustainability Communication at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences, Germany. Hui Huang has been a lecturer of the School of Tourism and Event Management of Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE) since 2014. In the same year, he received his Ph.D. in geography from L’Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne. His research focuses on urban culture and cultural geography. Xing Lan is Associate Professor, Certified C & E master and co-founder of the Sino-German joint programme “International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS)” with SUIBE, former director of the Sino-German Research Centre of Event Economy, senior consultant of Shanghai Convention and Exhibition Industries Association, and distinguished professor of the HNU and TUD International Collaborative Education Programme of Hainan University. Mattheus Louw is a senior lecturer at Rhodes University, Makhanda (formally Grahamstown), South Africa. He teaches and researches in the fields of human resource management, strategic management, leadership and cultural management. He has been a Teaching Guest Professor at the Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE) since 2007. Steffen Ronft is a lecturer in marketing and psychology with the SRH Mobile University, lecturer at various other universities and institutions for professional education as well as speaker and consultant. He currently conducts his Ph.D. research on environmental influences on the human psyche and behaviour at the University of Kaiserslautern. He studied business administration with a focus on event management and business psychology. He worked as research associate and Deputy Head of the Center for Empirical and Experimental Business Studies in Mannheim (“Zentrum für empirische und experimentelle Betriebswirtschaftslehre”), an institute of the Baden-Württemberg Cooperative State University (DHBW). Due to his research and experience, he is considered a leading expert in the interdisciplinary field of event psychology. Burkhard Schmidt is Professor of Business, Work and Organisational Psychology and the current Vice-President and Dean of Psychology of The University of Applied Sciences Fresenius Heidelberg. He is an affiliated senior researcher at the Department of Work & Organizational Psychology and the Department of Clinical Psychology at the University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. His research, based on work stress research, ranges from occupational health psychology to clinical/ biological stress pathways in different occupations and the chances and risks of digital transformation for the work-force. Helmut Schwägermann is Professor emeritus at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences, Germany, where he was head of the study programme Event Management & Business Events from 2000 to 2014. He was the founding Programme Director of the bachelor’s degree programme International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) from 2003 to 2015. Schwägermann has been working List of contributors <?page no="9"?> 9 in the event industry for 40 years. Before his academic career, he held several management positions at Messe Berlin and was Director of the International Congress Centre ICC Berlin. Later, he was Managing Director of the consultancy company ConEcon Management & Marketing GmbH, Berlin. Throughout his career, Schwägermann has been actively involved in several associations of the event industry, such as AIPC, EVVC, GCB and ICCA, and consulted for event cities, event centres and event associations worldwide. In the last 15 years, Schwägermann has focused his research on the development of China’s event market and event education. Thomas Temme is a senior lecturer at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences, Germany, in the fields of Management, Business Administration and Event Management. Moreover, he is a specialist on business games. He has extensive teaching experience in national and international higher education. Since 2011, he has been a Teaching Guest Professor at Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE), Shanghai, China. Chunlei Wang, Ph.D., is Dean of the School of Tourism and Event Management at Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE), Shanghai, China. Dr. Wang is one of the early pioneers of event education in China. His main research areas are destination marketing, urban development and event management. Since 2002, he has published more than 30 papers in academic journals including IJCHM, APJTR and VOLUNTAS and authored 15 books. Xingdan Wang is Associate Professor at the School of Tourism and Culture Industry, Sichuan Tourism University, Chengdu, China. Her research focuses on event management and the culture industry. Imke Wargin is a student of Business Management (M.A.) focusing on HR and Change Management at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences, Germany. She holds a bachelor’s degree in Business Administration and Management. Currently, she works at the HR Research Unit “Career and Talent Management” at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences. Prior to her academic education, she completed vocational training in the banking industry. Kim Werner, Ph.D., is Professor of Event Management at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences, Germany. She is also the German Director of International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS), a double-degree event management programme and joint venture with Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE). She has an honours degree in International Tourism Management and a Ph.D. from AUT University, New Zealand. Prior to pursuing a career in academia, she worked in a variety of roles in event, tourism and destination marketing in Germany, Spain and New Zealand. Hanzhi Zhang is a former undergraduate student of the School of Tourism and Event Management, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE), Shanghai, China. List of contributors <?page no="10"?> 10 List of contributors Li Zhang, Ph.D., is a lecturer with the School of Tourism and Event Management, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE), Shanghai, China. Her main research areas are exhibition experience and event management. <?page no="11"?> Contents Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... 5 1 Kim Werner and Ye Ding Introduction .................................................................................... 21 Events: Future, Trends, Perspectives ........................................................ 21 What Students and Lecturers can take away from this Book ................ 22 The Structure of this Book.......................................................................... 23 Bibliography................................................................................................... 27 PART A 2 Nicole Böhmer, Kim Werner and Imke Wargin Female Careers in the Event Industry - Myth, Reality or Future Vision? ................................................. 31 2.2.1 Gendered preferences and gender gap ...................................................... 32 2.2.2 Current gender issues in the event industry.............................................. 34 2.2.3 Current situation of horizontal and vertical segregation in the German event industry ................................................................................ 35 2.2.4 International developments within the industry ...................................... 36 2.2.5 Current state of research.............................................................................. 37 2.4.1 Methodology.................................................................................................. 40 2.4.2 Results ............................................................................................................ 41 2.4.3 Discussion and implications........................................................................ 42 2.4.4 Limitations and future research avenues................................................... 44 <?page no="12"?> 12 Contents 3 Susanne Doppler, Burkhard Schmidt and Liza Funke Work Stress of Event Managers .......................................................... 3.2.1 Defining stress............................................................................................... 53 3.2.2 Job demands and resources......................................................................... 56 3.2.3 Health problems within the JD-R model.................................................. 58 3.3.1 Sample ............................................................................................................ 59 3.3.2 Interviews....................................................................................................... 60 3.4.1 Job demands .................................................................................................. 60 3.4.2 Job resources ................................................................................................. 62 4 Hans-Jürgen Gaida Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times: Future Challenges and Chances...................................... 4.2.1 ICCA, the International Congress and Convention Association .......... 72 4.2.2 World Economic Forum and Global Power City Index ........................ 73 4.2.3 UNWTO, the World Tourism Organization ........................................... 74 4.2.4 IATA, the International Air Transport Association................................ 75 <?page no="13"?> Contents 13 5 Steffen Ronft Event Psychology - An Interdisciplinary Approach ............... 5.2.1 General psychology ....................................................................................100 5.2.2 Social psychology ........................................................................................100 5.2.3 Differential psychology..............................................................................101 5.2.4 Psychology of perception ..........................................................................101 5.2.5 Environmental psychology........................................................................101 5.2.6 Cognitive psychology .................................................................................101 5.2.7 Biological psychology.................................................................................102 5.3.1 Enhancement of efficiency of live communication ..............................103 5.3.2 Specific relevance for professional event management ........................103 5.3.3 Specific relevance for brand communication .........................................104 5.3.4 Specific relevance for trade fairs...............................................................104 5.4.1 General conditions .....................................................................................104 5.4.2 Examples of psychological manipulation effects...................................105 5.4.3 Examples of sensory manipulating effects .............................................108 5.5.1 Definition and development .....................................................................109 5.5.2 Protagonists developing event psychology .............................................110 5.5.3 Multisensory communication as a limitation of digital transformation? ....................................................................................................110 <?page no="14"?> 14 Contents 6 Chunlei Wang and Xingdan Wang Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View”....... 6.2.1 Special events and people’s existence ......................................................118 6.2.2 Special events and life transformation.....................................................119 6.2.3 Special events and group life.....................................................................119 6.2.4 Special events and experiential learning ..................................................120 6.3.1 The theoretical basis...................................................................................120 6.3.2 The “event view as a kind of world view” ..............................................120 6.3.3 The core of special events: the experience and the attached meaning..121 6.3.4 Rituals and the symbolic meaning of an event.......................................122 6.3.5 Special events and the accumulation and integration of cognitive elements........................................................................................................122 6.3.6 The four-dimensional analysis framework of “objective-stakeholderprocess-change” ..........................................................................................123 6.5.1 Experience and meaning ...........................................................................126 6.5.2 Scene .............................................................................................................126 6.5.3 Rituals ...........................................................................................................128 6.5.4 Mixed objectives .........................................................................................129 6.5.5 Multiple stakeholders .................................................................................129 6.5.6 The whole process ......................................................................................130 6.5.7 Reconstruction ............................................................................................130 7 Helmut Schwägermann China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations ....................... <?page no="15"?> Contents 15 7.4.1 Quantitative online study with ICCA members (2013) ........................143 7.4.2 Qualitative study with Chinese event planners (2016/ 17) ...................143 7.5.1 ICCA statistics.............................................................................................145 7.5.2 China Meeting Statistical Analysis Report ..............................................145 7.5.3 Other China MICE-related studies ..........................................................145 7.5.4 Chinese outbound tourist (city) consumption (WTCF) .......................146 7.5.5 The Competitive Index for International Convention Destination....146 7.5.6 Nation Brand Index ...................................................................................147 7.5.7 Key insights from all studies .....................................................................147 7.7.1 The start .......................................................................................................149 7.7.2 Analysis of Sino-German and Sino-Berlin relations..............................150 7.7.3 Marketing and service quality goals for the workshops ........................150 7.7.4 SWOT analysis for Chinese event activities ...........................................151 7.7.5 China competence for a MICE destination............................................152 7.7.6 Potential and needs analysis of the Berlin MICE industry...................153 7.7.7 China certification for destinations ..........................................................154 7.7.8 China MICE competence workshops .....................................................154 8 Markus Große Ophoff, Kai-Michael Griese and Kim Werner Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation ............................................... 8.2.1 Sustainable event policies ..........................................................................163 8.2.2 Implementing sustainable event policies.................................................166 8.2.3 Sustainable event standards.......................................................................167 <?page no="16"?> 16 Contents 8.3.1 Trend studies ...............................................................................................172 8.3.2 Business Index Digital ...............................................................................173 8.3.3 Level of digital transformation .................................................................174 9 Hui Huang and Hanzhi Zhang Festivals and “New Retail”: A Case Study of the “Double 11” Shopping Festival in China .................................. 9.4.1 The evolution of the “Double 11” Chinese Online Shopping Festival..........................................................................................................192 9.4.2 Diversification of participants ..................................................................192 9.4.3 “Double 11” becomes “Global Carnival” ..............................................193 9.5.1 Research design...........................................................................................194 9.5.2 Demographic data ......................................................................................194 9.5.3 Advance preparation ..................................................................................194 9.5.4 High popularity and degree of attention .................................................195 9.5.5 Attitudes and feelings towards “Double 11”..........................................196 <?page no="17"?> Contents 17 10 Kim Werner, Christina Bosse and Kai-Michael Griese Slow Events: Assessing the Potential for the Event Industry of the Future................................................................................. 10.3.1 Slow Food ....................................................................................................204 10.3.2 Slow Travel and Tourism ..........................................................................204 10.3.3 Slow Cities....................................................................................................206 10.3.4 Slow Events .................................................................................................207 10.5.1 Bad Essen ....................................................................................................209 10.5.2 The Historical Market: A Slow Event in Bad Essen .............................210 Slow Events and their Potential as a Marketing Tool ...........................212 PART B 11 Aliosha Alexandrov and Kai-Michael Griese Value Co-creation and the Impact on Marketing and Event Management Curricula ................................................................ 11.3.1 Overview: Axioms and foundational premises ......................................222 11.3.2 Value and value co-creation ......................................................................223 11.3.3 Levels of value co-creation........................................................................224 <?page no="18"?> 18 Contents 12 Xing Lan and Yi Ding Cooperative Transnational Event Management Education: A Case Study of International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS)............................................................................................. 12.2.1 Differentiation and analysis of concepts related to core competence of universities ..............................................................................................236 12.2.2 The core resources and core competences of Sino-foreign cooperative education ..............................................................................................237 12.2.3 The importance of optimised interaction for the formation of the core competences of Sino-foreign cooperative education ...................238 12.3.1 Positioning Sino-German cooperation....................................................240 12.3.2 Integration, transformation and innovation of high-quality resources between China and Germany .............................................................241 12.3.3 The optimised interaction between the cooperative universities ........242 12.3.4 Feedback on, evaluation of and adjustment of the cooperation .........244 13 Mattheus Louw and Thomas Temme Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management: Student Perceptions of a Business Simulation Game ............ <?page no="19"?> Contents 19 13.7.1 Category 1: Personal development...........................................................255 13.7.2 Category 2: Course understanding ...........................................................262 13.7.3 Category 3: Business simulation experience ...........................................264 14 Ye Ding, Li Zhang and Chunlei Wang Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management: Case studies from Chinese Universities........................ 14.2.1 What is entrepreneurship and innovation? .............................................273 14.2.2 Can entrepreneurship be taught? ..............................................................274 14.2.3 Entrepreneurship education and innovative talent training .................274 14.3.1 Entrepreneurship education in the world ...............................................276 14.3.2 Innovation and entrepreneurship education in China ..........................277 14.4.1 Modes of innovation and entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities ...................................................................................................281 14.4.2 The innovation and entrepreneurship education modes of event management programmes .........................................................................284 14.5.1 Optimising the curriculum ........................................................................285 14.5.2 Practical teaching activities ........................................................................287 14.5.3 Practice platform: innovation and entrepreneurship, school-enterprise cooperation and international exchange ........................................288 14.5.4 Achievements ..............................................................................................289 <?page no="20"?> 20 Contents 15 Gernot Gehrke Researching the Future of Event Education ............................ 15.2.1 Foreseeing the future of the event industry? ..........................................297 15.2.2 (Event industry) trends that have an impact? .........................................298 15.2.3 Foreseeing the future of event education? ..............................................300 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena (Chapter 5, Steffen Ronft) ........................................... Index....................................................................................................... 363 <?page no="21"?> 1 Introduction Kim Werner and Ye Ding Events: Future, Trends, Perspectives The growth of tourism, hospitality and events has been significant in recent years - faster than the growth of the wider economy and other significant sectors such as financial services, construction or health care (World Travel & Tourism Council, 2019). At the same time, globalisation, societal transformation and rapidly changing technologies have created a complex environment characterised by increasing uncertainties. The event industry needs to continuously respond to these challenges and constantly adapt to these new environments, uncertainties and instability factors (Michopoulou, Pappas and Azara, 2018). The rapid development within the industry is, however, also influenced by its multidisciplinary nature (Getz, 2012a). New and innovative developments within related disciplines such as marketing, economics, psychology or management have had a tremendous impact and have made it increasingly difficult to fully understand the changing dynamics of this diverse industry (Pappas and Bregoli, 2016). At the same time, the growing internationalisation of the industry has brought together an increasing number of people from distinctly different cultural backgrounds, leading to more diverse views, perspectives and discussions (Wang, Miao and Mattila, 2015; Werner, Wang and Gray, 2018). When asked about the future of events and important trends in the event industry, the diverse and multifarious views and perceptions of industry players often lead to serious debate and discussion (Yeoman, 2013). Which developments are important and will significantly change the industry - and why and how? How does digitalisation affect events and the industry? How can events be used to (co-)create value for all actors involved? Which recent developments must we consider when training young event professionals and students? How do other disciplines and industries (and the related advances) affect the future organisation of events? Do trends affect all countries similarly, or do we have to consider cultural differences? It is impossible to exactly predict the future. However, by examining recent developments in related disciplines, such as marketing, technology, education or communication, we may be able to better prepare for it. In this way, this book seeks to provide insights into a variety of recent developments within the diverse event industry. It seeks to spark discussion and debate amongst scholars, practitioners and students in this domain. The contributing authors of the book, scholars with backgrounds in diverse fields, have taken up exciting research topics that provide different perspectives, thoughts and views on a number of issues and challenges that the event industry is likely to face in the future. <?page no="22"?> 22 Introduction What Students and Lecturers can take away from this Book Event management programmes at universities and tertiary institutions have recently been criticised for their strong operational and project management focus. Spracklen and Lamond (2016) warned that “it is impossible to explore and understand events without understanding the wider social, cultural and political contexts” (p. 1). Getz (2012b) emphasised that a credible event management degree should be underpinned with theory and problem-solving skills. Hence, there is an increasing call for more flexible and innovative event management programmes that include varied learning (for example, through varied formats such as lectures, seminars, internships, and field trips) and examination options, student engagement in critical discussions, applied theory development, research components and interdisciplinarity through closer cooperation with interrelated fields. A wide variety of event management books with a practical “howto”approach and a focus on operational and logistical aspects exists - which is important given the relevance of such resources for the practical, “hands-on”event industry. However, this book seeks to enhance students’ (and all other readers’) engagement in critical discussion and debate. It intends to facilitate applied theory development and provides research components from many interrelated fields in order to add these very relevant and important aspects to the academic education of future event managers. Moreover, this book seeks to take an international approach by considering different perspectives from authors with diverse cultural backgrounds - whether the culture is that of South Africa, Germany, China, North America, or Great Britain. Denzin, Lincoln, and Guba (2011) noted that social science needs “emancipation from hearing only the voices of Western Europe, and emancipation from seeing the world in one color” (p. 125). Similar to tourism research, which has been subjected to the criticism that interpretation happens “through a tool-bag of theories conceived and re-conceived in the socio-cultural particularities of Euro-American societies” (Winter, 2009, p. 23), more studies on the event industry and on event management from non-Western countries are needed to consider the distinctive traits of events in non-Western regions (Cohen and Cohen, 2015). Hence, a variety of chapters in this book stem from non- Western authors and provide an exciting perspective on many aspects of current event education, research and practice. Part B of this book focuses on event education. This part particularly aims to increase the exchange amongst teachers, lecturers and professors within the field. A variety of event lecturers from different institutions world-wide have collected their experiences and important “learnings” gained over the years. They provide insights into some of the challenges faced when lecturing event management and offer best practice examples and suggestions on how to enhance the education of event managers in the future. <?page no="23"?> The Structure of this Book 23 Knowledge creation, management and exchange are important areas for event researchers and practitioners alike. It is anticipated that the contributing chapters of this book will highlight current and future developments, trends and challenges and offer a platform for contemporary discussion, debate and visions on events and their future In doing so, the book seeks to enhance the body of knowledge and professional practice. The Structure of this Book In Part A of this book, a variety of scholars from various backgrounds provide insights into current debates and discussions within the event industry. The topics are as diverse as the industry itself and include discussions on gender and diversity, disruptive technologies, sustainability, psychological effects, the co-creation of experiences and many more subjects. Part B of the book focuses on event education. It seeks to provide perspectives and thoughts about the current state of event education as well as suggestions to enhance curricula and to offer meaningful and relevant future event education for students and employers alike. Part A Gender and diversity have recently received wide attention as topics within the event industry (Dashper, 2018; Walters, 2017). While initial figures have highlighted the low proportion of female managers in the German event industry (Wünsch, 2017), there is still a significant lack of empirical and reliable scientific research in the field. In Chapter 2, Böhmer, Werner and Wargin investigate women’s careers in the German events industry and particularly analyse the industry’s horizontal and vertical segregation. They seek to initiate debate and discussion about (female) career goals and the reconciliation of work and family life among students and junior employees in the event industry. Given the event industry’s image as an industry with peaks of long working hours and high workload (Allen et al., 2011), Doppler, Schmidt and Funke further illuminate the topic of the work stress of event managers in Chapter 3. They use a qualitative study to explore job stress exposure for event managers in three German event agencies. Their findings highlight that high demands and potential loss of resources can lead to severe levels of work stress for event managers, which might ultimately result in severe health risks over time. We are living in an accelerating world, and innovations that have an impact on our daily life have never been as disruptive as they are today. Common phenomena discussed in this context include augmented and virtual reality, cloud technology, the Internet of Things, blockchain technology, machine learning, robotics and chatbots, all of which impact meeting and event destinations in various <?page no="24"?> 24 Introduction ways. In Chapter 4, Gaida evaluates how these factors (presumably) determine the current marketing and shape the future marketing of meeting and event destinations. Will the event industry be able to turn challenges into chances? Indisputably, the event participant is the most important determinant of every successful event; thus, human psychology is inherently omnipresent. In the past two centuries, brain research and modern psychology have made enormous progress, enabling human behaviour and decisions to be better understood (Scheier and Held, 2009). In Chapter 5, Ronft investigates event psychology, i.e., psychological effects that can be used in the planning and implementation of events to strategically influence the perception, memories and cognitive performance of the attendee. This chapter thus demonstrates how multisensory communication can enable more effective event communication. Eventology is a science that studies how to create positive benefits for all members of society by means of “special events” (Goldblatt, 2010). It is through special events and ceremonies that we continue to document our shared history, our experiences with friends and families. Different colourful celebrations held by people are conducive to creating new milestones and lasting memories that make our lives valuable and memorable for later generations (Goldblatt, 2010). In this context, in Chapter 6, Wang and Wang investigate the ability of events to enable personal development and growth. They postulate that an “event view” can provide people with better abilities to observe and analyse problems and thus assist the construction of a “better life”. This approach will help to enhance the status of the tourism and event industry in the future and can also enrich teaching and research content in the field of tourism, convention, exhibition and event management. China is an exciting new market for business events and has grown and developed dramatically over the last twenty years. Most researchers, scholars and event companies have, however, concentrated on China’s huge home market and focused on inbound aspects. In Chapter 7, Schwägermann discusses the increasing influence of China’s outbound meetings and events on the international meeting industry, especially event destinations. He presents insights and results from various studies and discusses potential strategies for destination management organisations (DMOs) seeking to enter this new market. The sustainability of events and event venues has been subject to debates and discussion for quite a while, and an increasing amount of research is focusing on the environmental impacts of events (Große Ophoff, 2016; Jones, 2014). However, limited attention has been paid to the question of how the increasing digitalisation of our society affects the organisation of sustainable events. As such, previous event research has considered the dimensions of “sustainability” and “digitalisation” only separately. In Chapter 8, Große Ophoff, Griese and Werner examine the two dimensions simultaneously. As such, the chapter takes an integrative view to consider the levels of both digitalisation and sustainability of event <?page no="25"?> The Structure of this Book 25 organisations. The authors discuss some of the challenges and benefits of increased digitalisation for the future planning of sustainable events. The results may be used by event organisers to identify future strategies. The retail world is evolving at an enormous pace, and this transformation goes far beyond online shopping. In 2017, the Chinese e-commerce giant Alibaba introduced the term New Retail. Alibaba’s co-founder Jack Ma explained the term in a letter to shareholders: “E-commerce is rapidly evolving into New Retail. The boundary between offline and online commerce disappears as we focus on fulfilling the personalized needs of each customer” (Bird, 2018). These developments not only affect how consumers do their shopping but also lead to new forms of entertainment and events. In Chapter 9, Huang and Zhang provide insights into the “Double 11 shopping festival” (also known as “Singles Day”) in China. The success of “Double 11” has given rise to an enormous economic and social phenomenon. The authors analyse the evolution of the “Double 11” festival from a typical commercial promotion day to a “carnival”. Interestingly, while shopping and entertainment events such as “Double 11” are on the rise and make huge economic contributions (it is estimated that approximately US$ 30.8 billion were spent in one day during the 2018 “Double 11” shopping festival; Kharpal, 2018), there is also a countermovement: The Slow Movement has gained considerable recent attention as a social movement that seeks to counteract increasing globalisation, commercialisation and marketisation in Western societies. The movement has already dispersed into many other economic areas and sectors, such as Slow Travel and Tourism or Slow Cities (Dickinson and Lumsdon, 2010; Presenza, Abbate and Micera, 2015). However, its application in the context of events is scant. In Chapter 10, Werner, Bosse and Griese identify Slow Events as a promising concept for the future event industry. The chapter provides an overview of the philosophy behind the Slow Movement, develops a definition of Slow Events and applies the findings to a practical case study. Part B What should future event management education at universities and tertiary institutions look like? How can event management programmes address the call by leading scholars such as Getz (2012) and Spracklen and Lamond (2016) for varied learning and examination options, student engagement in critical discussion and debate, applied theory development, research components and interdisciplinarity? This is the focal question of this part of the book. Events are intangible services, and services marketing thus plays a considerable role within event management education. The marketing mix with its “4 Ps” (product, price, promotion, and place) is an essential element of many event management curricula. However, more recent marketing concepts such as the co-creation of value or the service-dominant logic (Vargo and Lusch, 2008) appear not to have found their way into the contemporary marketing and event <?page no="26"?> 26 Introduction management curricula taught at universities. Alexandrov and Griese analyse new developments and concepts in the field of marketing in Chapter 11. They propose the service-dominant logic (S-D logic) as the new alternative to the traditional marketing mix. The key component of the S-D logic is value co-creation, which helps us to better understand marketing processes. Using several examples, they demonstrate how value co-creation could be included in university curricula, especially in the area of marketing and event management. Over the past 15 to 20 years, transnational education (TNE) has developed as a new form of international mobility. TNE refers to educational programmes in which the learners are located in a different country than the country where the awarding institution is based. The number of TNE programmes around the world is steadily increasing (Healey and Michael, 2015), with the highest growth rates being attributed to two countries: China and India. Since 2007, China has become one of the top ten host countries for higher education in the world, with approximately 1,400 foreign institutions offering programmes in China (Altbach, 2013). In Chapter 12, Lan and Ding analyse transnational cooperative event education as one of the effective means for developing international talent in higher event education Assimilating high-quality educational resources from other countries can produce competitive advantages for both partners. The Sino-German event management programme “International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS)” is used as a case study to demonstrate the benefits for both partners. In Chapter 13, Louw and Temme examine event students’ perceptions of how a business simulation game enhanced their learning in a strategic management course. The key business skills that students acquired by playing the business simulation game included strategic planning, decision making, critical thinking, teamwork and interpersonal communication. The business simulation game thus improved their understanding of strategic management concepts and principles and generally enhanced their understanding of the complexities of managing a business. Simulation games can therefore be regarded as a meaningful addition to enhance entrepreneurial and strategic management skills of future event managers. Undoubtedly, promoting an effective integration of innovation and entrepreneurship education in universities and tertiary institutions is conducive to improving graduates’ adaptability, employment competitiveness and innovation and entrepreneurship ability (Huang, Zhang and Gai, 2019). In Chapter 14, Ding, Zhang and Wang investigate the current state of innovation, entrepreneurship and talent cultivation in event management education worldwide. Using examples from Chinese universities, they propose a model of innovation and entrepreneurship education in event management programmes. Part B concludes with Chapter 15 by Gehrke, who critically discusses the future of event education and focuses on relevant factors that have an impact on event education and its future. He examines the results of a recent research project and <?page no="27"?> Bibliography 27 sketches a framework for the analysis of the future of event education based on findings from system theory. We now invite you to join the discussion - whether in class with your students or with peers working in our exciting industry or related fields. Kim Werner & Ye Ding February 2020 Bibliography Allen, J. et al. (2011) Festival & special event management. 5th edn. (Wiley Australian tourism series). Milton: Wiley. Altbach, P.G. (ed.) (2013) International imperative in higher education. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Bird, J. (2018) Alibaba’s ‘New Retail’ Revolution: What Is It, And Is It Genuinely New? (18 November). Available at: https: / / www.forbes.com/ sites/ jonbird1/ 2018/ 11/ 18/ alibabas-new-retail-revolution-what-is-it-and-is-it-genuinely-new/ (Accessed: 27 September 2019). Cohen, E. and Cohen, S.A. (2015) ‘Beyond Eurocentrism in tourism: a paradigm shift to mobilities’, Tourism Recreation Research, 40(2), pp. 157-168. doi: 10.1080/ 02508281.2015.1039331. Dashper, K. (2018) Will the lack of diversity in the events industry be addressed in 2018? - Leeds Beckett University Blogs. Available at: https: / / www.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/ blogs/ expert-opinion/ 2018/ 01/ will-the-lack-of-diversity-in-the-events-industry-be-addressed-in-2018/ (Accessed: 28 February 2019). Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S. (eds) (2011) The Sage handbook of qualitative research. 4th edn. Los Angeles, Calif.: Sage. Dickinson, J.E. and Lumsdon, L. (2010) Slow travel and tourism. (Tourism, environment and development series). London: Earthscan. Getz, D. (2012a) ‘Event Studies: Discourses and Future Directions’, Event Management, 16(2), pp. 171-187. doi: 10.3727/ 152599512X13343565268456. Getz, D. (2012b) ‘Events higher education: Management, tourism and studies’, in Dredge, D., Airey, D. and Gross, M.J. (eds) The Routledge Handbook of Tourism and Hospitality Education. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, pp. 476-491. Goldblatt, J. (ed.) (2010) Special events: Creating and sustaining a new world for celebration. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley (The Wiley event management series). Große Ophoff, M. (ed.) (2016) Nachhaltiges Veranstaltungsmanagement: Green Meetings als Zukunftsprojekt für die Veranstaltungsbranche. München: oekom (DBU-Umweltkommunikation, Band 7). Healey, N. and Michael, L. (2015) ‘Towards a New Framework for Analysing Transnational Education’, Higher Education Policy, 28(3), pp. 369-391. doi: 10.1057/ hep.2014.17. Huang, Z.M., Zhang, L.Z. and Gai, H.H. (2019) ‘Research on the integration of innovation and entrepreneurship education and professional education in colleges’’, Journal of Shijiazhuang University of Applied Technology (3), pp. 48-51. <?page no="28"?> 28 Introduction Jones, M.L. (2014) Sustainable Event Management: A Practical Guide. 3rd edn. Milton: Taylor and Francis. Kharpal, A. (2018) Alibaba sets new Singles Day record with more than $30.8 billion in sales in 24 hours. Available at: https: / / www.cnbc.com/ 2018/ 11/ 11/ alibaba-singles-day-2018-record-saleson-largest-shopping-event-day.html (Accessed: 27 September 2019). Michopoulou, E., Pappas, N. and Azara, I. (2018) Call for Papers: Event Management journal. Special Issue Theme: Events in a Changing World. Available at: https: / / cognizantcommunication.com/ publication/ event-management/ (Accessed: 31 December 2018). Pappas, N. and Bregoli, I. (2016) Global dynamics in travel, tourism, and hospitality. Hershey, Pennsylvania: IGI global. Presenza, A., Abbate, T. and Micera, R. (2015) ‘The Cittaslow Movement: Opportunities and Challenges for the Governance of Tourism Destinations’, Tourism Planning & Development, 12(4), pp. 479-488. doi: 10.1080/ 21568316.2015.1037929. Scheier, C. and Held, D. (2009) Was Marken erfolgreich macht: Neuropsychologie in der Markenführung. 2nd edn. (Wirtschaftssachbuch). München: Haufe Verlag. Spracklen, K. and Lamond, I.R. (2016) Critical event studies. (Routledge Advances in Event Research Series). Abingdon: Taylor and Francis. Vargo, S.L. and Lusch, R.F. (2008) ‘Service-dominant logic: continuing the evolution’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36(1), pp. 1-10. doi: 10.1007/ s11747-007-0069-6. Walters, T. (2017) ‘Gender equality in academic tourism, hospitality, leisure and events conferences’, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 10(1), pp. 17-32. doi: 10.1080/ 19407963.2018.1403165. Wang, C.-Y., Miao, L. and Mattila, A.S. (2015) ‘Customer responses to intercultural communication accommodation strategies in hospitality service encounters’, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 51, pp. 96-104. Werner, K., Wang, C. and Gray, C. (2018) ‘Comparative Global Perspectives of Event Management Education: Lessons from a Sino-German Double Degree Event Management Program’, Event Management, 22(6), pp. 1027-1046. doi: 10.3727/ 152599518X15346132863274. Winter, T. (2009) ‘Asian tourism and the retreat of anglo-western centrism in tourism theory’, Current Issues in Tourism, 12(1), pp. 21-31. World Travel & Tourism Council (2019) Travel and tourism world economic impact. Available at: https: / / www.wttc.org/ -/ media/ files/ reports/ economic-impact-research/ regions-2019/ world2019.pdf (Accessed: 11 September 2019). Wünsch, K. (2017) Ermannt euch! tw tagungswirtschaft 2/ 2017. Available at: https: / / digital.twmedia.com/ 13234-ermannt-euch (Accessed: 1 March 2019). Yeoman, I. (2013) ‘A futurist’s thoughts on consumer trends shaping future festivals and events’, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 4(3), pp. 249-260. doi: 10.1108/ IJEFM-06-2013-0017. <?page no="29"?> PART A <?page no="31"?> 2 Female Careers in the Event Industry - Myth, Reality or Future Vision? Nicole Böhmer, Kim Werner and Imke Wargin This chapter presents an analysis of the current situation of horizontal and vertical segregation in the German event industry. To illustrate current career options in the industry, it introduces, analyses, and (with reference to gender) interprets the careers of exemplary women and men. Overall, the chapter advocates a need for up-to-date career opportunities and provides potential solutions. In doing so, it seeks to initiate debate and discussion about (female) career goals and the reconciliation of work and family life among students and junior employees in the event industry. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: gender, career, leadership, role models, segregation, equality, “glass elevator”, “sticky floor”, “glass ceiling”, “glass cliff” Introduction Gender is a current issue in the event industry. Decisions such as the end of “Pretty Motor Shows” in China in 2015, when the Shanghai Motor Show had to do without scantily dressed hostesses and focus on product quality and technology instead, have led to a new awareness of gender diversity and its outcomes in the industry (Doll and Erling, 2015). However, the major annual networking event for business professionals in Osnabrück, Germany, the “Osnabrücker Mahlzeit”, was still an exclusively male event in 2019 (Hinrichs, W., 2019). The same applies to “Bremer Eiswette”, a traditional event in the city of Bremen that is directed exclusively at men (Hinrichs, J., 2019). A survey conducted by the German Convention Bureau among event practitioners indicated feminisation as the least important mega-trend. This might be due to the perception that there is already a high number of females working in the event industry, which can be interpreted as female prevalence (Dashper, 2017; Ligos, 2019). Consequently, since the current legal setting is aiming at equal opportunities and the closure of the gender gap, it might be concluded that time and continuous change will deal with the existing differences. At the same time, it has become obvious that gender equality in the event industry is a topic of interest to employees, customers, <?page no="32"?> 32 Female Careers in the Event Industry - Myth, Reality or Future Vision? hosts, culture and society as well as companies in their role as employers and service providers in competitive markets. An opaque field of tension appears between divergent (business) needs, customs, traditions, gender role stereotypes, and equality. Few studies are available to provide more transparency and help students or professionals in the event industry understand their career challenges and opportunities. Therefore, it is unclear whether female careers in the event industry are myth, reality or future vision. To provide a current overview, this chapter first presents facts on relevant gender issues for careers in the industry, at times drawing from anecdotal evidence to fill in blank spaces. Careers can be understood as patterns of professional experiences spread along the individual life path (Greenhaus, Callanan and Godshalk, 2000). Different experiences and career steps lead to a unique career capital that will be explained in the following section along with the kaleidoscope career model, which indicates gender differences. To understand the development of male and female careers in the German event industry, we analyse current leadership careers and identify general and gender-specific patterns. This chapter closes with a discussion about future career trends for companies and careerists in the industry. In addition, some useful questions have been added for personal reflection for students planning their career in the industry. The Relevance of Gender Differences in the Event Industry 2.2.1 Gendered preferences and gender gap Women have historically been less well represented in leadership positions than men. They emerge as leaders in certain countries and industries more than in others. This development is partly rooted in cultural values and the resulting gender roles. Issues such as gender equality, feminisation, and wage inequality have been present in media, politics and various industry sectors for many years. For example, questions regarding whether women in top management are necessary to fill key positions in times of skill shortages, to promote gender justice, to make businesses more successful or simply to provide a more “friendly face” of a business have been discussed increasingly and often controversially (Böhmer and Schinnenburg, 2016). These discussions are closely related to the long-lasting shared pictures that have led to effects such as “think manager - think male” (Schein et al., 1996) and the homosocial reproduction of leaders with the same gender and ethnicity. Occupational choices, educational decisions, and other economic outcomes, e.g., financial investment, can be explained by gender differences in preferences. Among these preferences are the willingness to take risks, positive and negative reciprocity, patience, and altruism. With increasing economic development and improved gender equality, one might presume that these differences have shrunk <?page no="33"?> The Relevance of Gender Differences in the Event Industry 33 and that equal opportunities have led to gender parity (convergence). However, Falk and Hermle’s (2018) recent study showed that with more gender equality and access to more resources, men and women form more independent preferences and therefore express more gender-specific choices. In their study, they use data representing 90% of the world population. This growing divergence of preferences with more gender equality and an increasing standard of living shows the importance of actively dealing with gender issues around the globe (Falk and Hermle, 2018). Thus, it is not surprising that the average gender gap of 32.0% found by the World Economic Forum in the fields of economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment is closing slowly (World Economic Forum, 2018). If the trend progresses as it has during the past decade, it will take more than a century to close the gap. Western Europe currently accounts for the highest average level of gender parity. In Germany - apart from a notable lack of female political participation - major drivers of the gap are economic participation and opportunity. Significant vertical labour market segregation mirrors the ratio of only 29.2% women in senior roles such as legislators, senior officials and managers compared to 70.8% men. Reasons for this vertical segregation can be found in the part-time employment rate of 46.6% among women. They spend almost 60% of their daily working hours in unpaid work, such as household chores. Furthermore, the female share of high-skilled workers with a tertiary degree is 11.9%, which is remarkably lower than the male rate of 16.4% (Sachverständigenkommission zum Zweiten Gleichstellungsbericht der Bundesregierung, 2017; World Economic Forum, 2018). Consequently, to date, career breaks, part-time work and the lower percentage of female labour force participation have contributed to the fact that women are less likely to hold positions of workplace authority. Regarding the formal qualifications of top managers, research shows that the average qualifications of female managers in Germany are higher than those of their male colleagues. Women experience the necessity for a much greater degree of competence and diligence to rise into top management, while male members of advisory boards or boards of directors state that formal qualifications had a minor impact on their nomination (Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren and Frauen und Jugend, 2010). Correspondingly, when exploring the relevant causes and mechanisms of the gender gap, horizontal segregation must be considered. In Germany, genderspecific occupational choices have led to a majority of female graduates working in arts and humanities, education, and health and welfare, while male graduates dominate business, administration and law as well as engineering, manufacturing and construction (World Economic Forum, 2018). Since leadership positions are not equally distributed over occupations, mere occupational choice might be a reason that women are rare amongst senior managers. In fact, Granato (2017) found that women in Germany frequently work in academic professions, which <?page no="34"?> 34 Female Careers in the Event Industry - Myth, Reality or Future Vision? offer fewer leadership positions than other occupational fields. This distribution partly explains the constant low ratios of women in leadership. However, significant gender differences regarding the probability of a leadership role were not found in managerial positions or in the non-academic professions of the service industries (Granato, 2017). Since the event industry can be characterised as knowledge-intensive and since it is part of the professional services industry (McCabe and Savery, 2007), a simple explanation for the low ratio of female top managers is still lacking. 2.2.2 Current gender issues in the event industry The event industry faces gender differences in event participants, spectators, and customers. Generalising male preferences might lead to the exclusion of women due to (subtle) discrimination, sexism, or daunting practices and norms. While men and women distribute their lifetime similarly, Veals (2011) found divergent patterns of leisure activities in Australia. Men more frequently participate in sport and physical activities, while women take part in cultural and informal outdoor activities (Veal, 2011). The traditional female gender roles focus on the private sphere, which demands a nurturing role and interpersonal harmony, while men take to the reproductive and public spheres, which call for agency, ambition, achievement and rationality (Böhmer and Schinnenburg, 2016). The expectation to care that women face may mean that they try to optimise their children’s leisure time at the expense of their own, while men feel entitled to their own leisure time (Fullagar and Pavlidis, 2012). Taking a nine-day cycling event as an example, Fullagar and Pavlidis (2012) found that events partly provide women with an experience of freedom from family and household responsibilities, a sense of belonging and friendship due to the social atmosphere of the event, and an adventure. At the same time, the high competition and insensitive technical support derived from the male event culture were perceived negatively (Fullagar and Pavlidis, 2012). Further studies have analysed conference and convention attendance from a gender perspective. In this context, Ramirez, Laing, and Mair (2013) explored the advantages and disadvantages, key influences and facilitating and inhibiting factors affecting the decision to attend a convention. They found that the opportunity to present papers was an important component for male participants, while networking opportunities were more influential for women in their convention attendance decision. Consequently, if gender differences impact the development of events aiming at maximum participation and enjoyment by both genders, they will also influence tasks and responsibilities in event management. Thus, the required competences and job profiles will be influenced. Moreover, we argue that the underlying gender role expectations influence women’s chances of taking on leadership positions. <?page no="35"?> The Relevance of Gender Differences in the Event Industry 35 These differences in cultural context, gender roles, and industry-specific aspects of gendered customer preferences lead to several open questions regarding career possibilities and hurdles in the event industry. Drawing from illustrative metaphors that might facilitate an understanding (Carli and Eagly, 2016), these questions are as follows:  Is there a “sticky floor” in the event industry that derives from women’s poor career planning, maternity and own creations of career barriers?  Is there a “glass elevator” in the event industry that helps men to rapid hierarchical progress, overtaking talented women on their way?  Is there a “glass ceiling” consisting of individual, organisational, and societal opaque issues that prevent women from taking on top managerial positions? 2.2.3 Current situation of horizontal and vertical segregation in the German event industry Despite the controversial debates around feminism, equality, diversity and equal pay in a variety of industry sectors, these and similar topics and discussions have only recently found their way into the German event industry. This is surprising given that the German event industry tends to be female dominated. According to data from the German Federal Statistical Office (Destatis, no date), a total of 4,512 apprentices are enrolled in vocational training to become “event managers” (as of 31.12.2015), of whom 2,949 are women (approximately 65%), and 1,626 are men (approximately 35%). Similarly, student enrolment at German universities of applied sciences and universities that offer a tertiary degree in the field of event management traditionally has a very high female share - although only anecdotal evidence exists. However, the upper echelon of the event industry provides an opposite picture. For example, within the European Association of Event Centres (EVVC), of 339 companies, only 93 (27%) are led by females. Additionally, with the increasing size of venues, the proportion of female bosses drops to only 16% in venues with over 4,000 seats (Wünsch, 2017). While initial figures highlighting the low proportion of female managers in the German event industry exist (Wünsch, 2017), there is still a significant lack of empirical and reliable scientific research in the field. As early as 2013, the German Convention Bureau defined “demographic change and feminisation” as an important topic for the future of the convention and congress industry in Germany (German Convention Bureau, 2013). In a survey (entitled “Women in the event industry”) conducted by the specialist magazines tw tagungswirtschaft and m+a report in cooperation with the IMEX trade fair in March 2017, women were asked about the factors that had the greatest impact on their careers - both positive and negative (tw tagungswirtschaft, m+a and IMEX, 2017). The factors “self-esteem and willingness to ask for promotion” (50.78%; n = 575) and “in- <?page no="36"?> 36 Female Careers in the Event Industry - Myth, Reality or Future Vision? terruption of employment due to maternity leave” (58.61%) were clearly the leading factors. In this context, one participant also highlighted the following: “80% of our workforce is female, but the higher the level of management, the fewer women there are in our company” (tw tagungswirtschaft, m+a and IMEX, 2017, p. 22). The survey results emphasise the complexity of the topic and raise the question of which of the individual, organisational and societal hurdles - summarised under the term “glass ceiling” in the scientific literature - are particularly relevant in the event industry. The survey and its results drew attention all over Germany and led to a number of special events highlighting gender issues and inequality in the event industry, such as the “Pink Hour” during the IMEX trade fair and a series of talks about “women in the event industry” at the trade fair “Best of Events” in 2018 (Wünsch and Knecht, 2018). 2.2.4 International developments within the industry Gender inequality has also received recent attention in the international event industry. As far back as 2013, Fay Sharpe, managing director of the US-based company BCD Meetings & Events, highlighted: “There is a huge dominance of women in the events sector. We don’t have a problem getting women into the industry, but we need to make sure they are moving though into the positions they should be.” In 2015, the “Association for Women in Events” was founded to facilitate better exchanges between women in the industry and to promote career opportunities (Association for Women in Events, 2018). Particular attention was raised through the initiative by Saara Särmä, a researcher in international relations at the University of Tampere in Finland, to raise awareness of inequality at conferences, seminars and events by highlighting panels consisting exclusively of white male experts. Särmä and her business partner started collecting images of these men-only expert panels and posted them to social media with the punchline “Congrats, you have an all-male panel! ” (WYSK, 2015). The initiative led to hundreds of submissions over the following months. Julius Solaris, a prominent event blogger and owner of the “Eventmanagerblog”, also picked the topic up and emphasised “the event industry’s problem with speaker diversity” in one of his blog articles (Solaris, 2015). In 2018, the IMEX trade fair introduced the “She means business” conference and pushed the issue of women in management with its CEO, Carina Bauer, in a leading role. At the conference, a variety of female CEOs and leading executives acted as keynote speakers and discussed crucial issues currently faced by women. Additionally, the “Ascent” CEO promise initiated by the Professional Convention Management Association (PCMA) was launched as an initiative to close the event industry’s gender gap, with diversity and inclusion of minorities being the true core of the project. The “She means business” conference attracted worldwide attention and was repeated in 2019 (IMEX, 2018). As the above examples show, the topic is being increasingly discussed at conferences and meetings and in panels, newspapers and online articles. At the same <?page no="37"?> The Relevance of Gender Differences in the Event Industry 37 time, a variety of countermeasures have been suggested and introduced by many organisations to address these issues. These measures include apprenticeship schemes that encourage diversity, positive media coverage of staff from all walks of life and career advice and mentoring programmes for women (Flach, 2017). However, Dashper (2018b) criticises that while “women in the industry appear to be able to recognise inequality and discrimination, … [they] are unwilling to take action to address it … [and] many in the industry - male and female - are cautious about drawing attention to inequality and discrimination.” Additionally, while most of these measures outlined above (such as mentoring) can be effective in empowering single women within leadership and organisational contexts, transforming the mind-set of those currently in positions of power or of an entire industry is a much larger challenge and requires more efforts in the future (Dashper, 2018b). 2.2.5 Current state of research Studies on the career planning and development strategies of individuals in the meetings and event industry started to appear only in the last 15 years (Allen et al., 2011; Barron and Ali-Knight, 2017). Many of them demonstrated that the industry “is dominated by well-educated, career-mobile females” (McCabe, 2008, p. 222). Others identified female gender traits, including creativity, time-management skills, enthusiastic personalities and organisational abilities, as particularly suited to the industry (Robinson, Barron and Solnet, 2008). However, genderspecific analyses initially received limited attention. Dashper (2013) analysed job advertisements for event management roles and found gender-specific biases. While many of the advertisements stressed the importance of being a good team player, companies also highlighted characteristics relating to individualism and self-interest. This individualism had strong masculine undertones and thus likely reproduced stereotypical gender roles that disadvantaged women. As highlighted in previous studies in other industries, women who take on masculine norms of behaviour in managerial positions are evaluated more negatively than male managers whose performance is similar (Hekman et al., 2010; Ollilainen and Calasanti, 2007). Similarly, advertisements stressing the willingness to travel and to work at unsociable hours also tend to be problematic for women. Gustafson (2006) highlighted managers’ gendered perceptions that make them assume that women are unwilling and unable to travel for work (due to family commitments) but that men will not be constrained in this way. Consequently, Gustafson argued that work-related travel acts as a career path for men but a barrier for women. Walters (2017) examined gender equality in academic conferences in the tourism, hospitality, leisure and events field. She analysed 53 academic conferences <?page no="38"?> 38 Female Careers in the Event Industry - Myth, Reality or Future Vision? around the globe and found gender inequality in two types of roles: keynote speakers and membership on honorary committees, with women being significantly under-represented. Walters outlined three potential negative effects resulting from this gender imbalance: (1) a less balanced perspective on the issues discussed at the conference and therefore less innovative solutions, (2) a hindrance to women’s promotion and career progression to senior roles, and (3) little role modelling of women academics as successful experts who can inspire junior academics. The debate around gender equality was particularly fuelled by Rhodri Thomas’ article in the Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure & Events in 2017, entitled “A remarkable absence of women: a comment on the formation of the new Events Industry Board [in the UK]” (Thomas, 2016). The journal also published a special issue (“Equality and Diversity in the Professional Planned Events Industry”) in 2018 in which relevant aspects of gender equality and diversity were scientifically analysed and discussed (Platt and Finkel, 2018). For example, Dashper (2017) examined the importance of mentoring for the careers and development of women in the event industry. She specifically noted that the “events industry is female-dominated numerically, yet men continue to occupy the majority of senior roles and positions of influence” (p. 1). Her research identified and analysed several factors negatively affecting women’s careers in the event industry, such as a lack of female role models, a lack of self-confidence, inflexible working hours and limited professional networks. She conducted 37 qualitative interviews with women participating in mentoring programmes and particularly emphasised that such programmes can assist women in enhancing their self-confidence and building a professional network. Similar studies of female CEOs in the USA have highlighted that the concept of “sponsorship” (in the sense of active support for a person) is of great importance for women to gain access to the highest management level (Korn Ferry Institute, 2017). However, whilst these mentoring and sponsorships programmes often empower the women involved, previous research has also found that they mostly affect only women’s individual careers (Dashper, 2018a). As such, the extent to which they contribute to addressing gender discrimination in a broader sense is highly debatable. The programmes assist in making gender visible within businesses and individual careers. However, previous studies have demonstrated that masculine norms and discourses of success often remain invisible, unacknowledged and thus largely unchallenged. Therefore, more efforts to address gender inequality in the industry are needed in the future (Dashper, 2018a). The topics of gender equality and diversity have received further attention through the recent stream of research on critical event studies (e.g., Finkel, Sharp and Sweeney, 2019; Robertson et al., 2018). In this context, research on aspects such as diversity, inclusion, and accessibility have increased and include various issues and aspects such as caring responsibilities while attending business events (Henderson, 2019) or delegate behaviour from a gender perspective (Mair and Frew, 2018). <?page no="39"?> Current Career Concepts 39 Overall, there remains a paucity of gender analyses within the event industry, and further research is needed to enhance our understanding of the relevant constraints for women in the industry and to enhance the successful planning and marketing of future events (Ramirez, Laing and Mair, 2013). Current Career Concepts Current careers are moving increasingly further away from the traditional German ideal of a vocation that serves as a steady base for the whole life path. Instead, in times of rapid developments in globally volatile markets, knowledge workers such as managers, who mainly find novel solutions for business situations by using their individual knowledge and competencies, need to continuously adapt their professional skill set. Furthermore, traditional company careers, implying company career paths that lead successful employees “up the chimney”, are being replaced by boundaryless and protean careers: Careerists perceive opportunities outside their current employer and move freely or without boundaries between employers, industries, and countries. With career decisions based on individual values and in a self-directed manner, protean careerists shape their career paths themselves (Böhmer and Schinnenburg, 2016; Briscoe and Hall, 2006). In this context, careers in the convention and exhibition industry in Australia include vertical, horizontal, and diagonal career steps. Careerists also “flutter” between different sectors, best described as butterflying career patterns (McCabe and Savery, 2007). While gathering experiences in diverse professional positions, employees develop career capital (Inkson and Arthur, 2001) that can be marketed on the labour market similar to financial capital on the financial market. The “currencies of career capital” (Defillippi and Arthur, 1994) can be described as three ways of knowing that complement each other: 1. Knowing how develops with accumulated skills and (implicit or explicit) knowledge. 2. Knowing why grows with the identification, motivation, purpose and sense that an individual sees in his or her professional actions. 3. Knowing whom includes the network of acquaintances and colleagues the individual develops and the attachments and reputation he or she expands through his or her career path (Lamb and Sutherland, 2010). While the accumulation of career capital is a continuous process, the individual approach to career steps and decisions might change along the life path. The kaleidoscope career model helps us understand these changes and proposes gender differences. Depending on their current life stage, individuals place varying weight on authenticity, balance, and challenge (Mainiero and Sullivan, 2005). <?page no="40"?> 40 Female Careers in the Event Industry - Myth, Reality or Future Vision? When deciding on the next career step, all three aspects have an impact that changes in importance with the development of the private and professional spheres. The metaphor of the kaleidoscope indicates that with every new turn along the life path, the three elements fall into a new pattern, similar to the colours in a kaleidoscope. The element of challenge indicates the right amount of stimulation at the workplace and the avoidance of boredom. Balance stands for interweaving different private and professional matters of life and work-life balance. Authenticity includes decisions that suit the individual aiming at self-fulfilment and the wish to be truly oneself on the job. Throughout life, the three elements gain and lose importance and consequently become more or less dominant in individual career patterns. The gender differences in career patterns identified by Mainiero and Sullivan (2005) stress the pattern of females making more relational career decisions than men. This is especially found in mid-career, when partnership, children and other relationships or care responsibilities accumulate. Both workand non-work-related aspects of women’s lives are relevant and worth balancing at this stage, while career challenges and personal fulfilment are neglected. In contrast, men are less likely to alter their career patterns from early to mid-career. In both phases, they focus on challenge and tend to follow the traditional linear career progression without breaks. Women design their own career paths to suit their needs, responsibilities and objectives. Consequently, female careers show more fragmentation and interruptions triggered by the private sphere. In both male and female late careers, authenticity gains importance and leads to career choices that stress being true to oneself rather than balance or challenge. In addition, this model emphasises the impact of contextual factors on careers. Differences in career patterns are therefore influenced by national and industrial culture. In the next section of this chapter, we therefore analyse the career paths of successful careerists in the German event industry to identify career patterns and to examine gender differences. We further question whether there are elements of career capital that are especially useful or “marketable” in the industry. Event Careers: Dream Career or Accidental Success? 2.4.1 Methodology A recent article in an American events magazine prominently presented women of influence in the event industry, highlighting their career ambitions and goals. For example, Nancy Lindemer of IACC-Americas describes taking on her current position as natural and a way of giving back to the industry. Claire Smith of the PCMA claims that her career evolved and that she did not make a conscious decision to move into her current role (Ligos, 2019). Neither of the women mentions performance or competences as career triggers, and they seem to give greater weight to authenticity than to challenge or balance. <?page no="41"?> Event Careers: Dream Career or Accidental Success? 41 Little is known about successful careerists in the German event industry. Therefore, we applied an explorative approach when analysing the career paths of twelve German event managers. To deduce gender differences, the sample includes six managers of each gender (see Table 1). The sample consists of renowned people in different career phases representing different fields within the industry. They currently hold top managerial positions in medium to large event firms and have between 7 and 30 years of work experience in the sector. We conducted an analysis of online profiles based on the managers’ representations available on the internet and on social media platforms such as LinkedIn or XING. Based on Kuckartz (2016), we developed categories in a deductive-inductive manner. 2.4.2 Results Even though the professionalisation of Germany’s event industry, including the beginning of tertiary education, started approximately fifteen years ago (Ding, Gaida and Schwägermann, 2016), few graduates of these study programmes can be found amongst the top managers. At the same time, the importance of German vocational education does not mirror the available career paths. Only three in twelve managers did not complete an academic education. The managers graduated from a wide range of different study programmes. In our sample, we observed clear educational differences between male and female managers. All managers but one hold at least one tertiary degree. However, the male managers selected managerial and economic programmes and did not seek further tertiary degrees. With one exception, they do not have further industry-specific educational attainments. Five of the six female managers list two academic degrees, and four of the six women hold additional qualifications, such as business coach or meeting planner. Four of the six women’s tertiary education includes a degree in education or arts and humanities combined with a degree in a field such as management and economics. Overall, the female portraits show a broader and higher level of qualification. Moreover, international experiences are found more frequently amongst female than amongst male managers. Half of the women spent time studying or working abroad. The managers’ practical experience is diverse. Table 1 illustrates that on average, women change industries and companies more frequently than men. Five of the managers started their careers in events directly after graduating from a management programme. Only two of the male managers entered the industry at a later stage. They both changed from related industries, namely, hotel business and gastronomy. The women’s profiles more frequently show the first contact with events as interns or working students or after initially working in related professions, such as marketing or communications. However, some also show clear changes in industry, e.g., from education or logistics. Considering their study programmes, this suggests the question of whether they planned an event career from the beginning or saw the industry as suitable for earning a living. We con- <?page no="42"?> 42 Female Careers in the Event Industry - Myth, Reality or Future Vision? clude that for most successful women, the industry rather accidentally became more attractive and developed into a career path, whereas the male managers entered the sector more deliberately. Subsequently, in academic education as well as in practical experiences, the female managers built their careers on a broader base. The industry allows careerists to enter in different career stages. However, in addition to some evidence for boundaryless careers, we found two careers with more than fifteen years of employment at one company. One other profile shows a similar retention period due to firm ownership. With almost ten years, the career paths show a relatively long time of service with the same employer. Gender differences cannot be found regarding the development across companies in the sector. On average, male and female managers changed their position almost five times before taking on their current role. Tab. 1: Average Professional Experiences and Career Changes Ten of the careerists have records of honorary positions in their profiles. These include membership, chair and board positions, frequently in the international event sector. Most managers have held at least one chair or board position to date. 2.4.3 Discussion and implications The explanations above highlight the event sector’s current gender gap in career opportunities. Research concerning female careers and female event participants is scarce. Currently, the industry can be characterised as male dominated with the exception of female numerical dominance in staff below the executive tier. However, female role models and careers exist and indicate that they have moved beyond a myth: Managers who move into top positions show gender differences in their education and the average number of industries they experienced before entering the industry. All careerists display strong loyalty to the industry once they have entered. female male sample Years of professional experience 21.5 21.7 21.6 Years in event industry 19.0 17.0 18.0 Years in current company 9.9 10.5 10.2 Years in current position 5.9 8.3 7.1 Changes in industry 2.0 0.7 1.3 Changes in company 3.3 2.3 2.8 Position changes 4.8 4.7 4.8 Time at current company in relation to overall career 39.7% 51.8% 45.8% Time in event industry in relation to overall career 85.9% 81.8% 83.9% <?page no="43"?> Event Careers: Dream Career or Accidental Success? 43 Considering the three ways of knowing to build career capital, gender differences show in terms of knowing why and knowing how. Female managers continuously add new formal qualifications at a senior stage of their careers. Thus, they focus more on knowing how. Male managers enter the industry at the beginning of their career paths. It appears to be a career asset to have a clear sense of purpose that leads up the career ladder. Female managers more frequently change into the industry after qualifying in education or arts and humanities or working in other industries. Thus, the industry-specific knowing why may follow at a later stage. We question whether women’s careers in the event industry implement their professional dreams or whether these careers just happened rather accidentally after the women entered the industry in search of any job to earn a living. A high amount of voluntary work and an impressive number of voluntary positions help to build networks and lead to mutual obligations and consequently to knowing whom career capital. This specific aspect of the industry’s leading careers seems to complement knowing what and knowing why career capital. Compared to the 36% (in 2009) of the German people who actively volunteer, the high quota amongst German event managers is noteworthy. Interestingly, few German volunteers older than 30 years aim at career advancement with their engagement, and the largest part of voluntary tasks performed in Germany (64%) is event organisation and realisation (BMFSFJ, 2010). The relationship between honorary positions and event managers’ careers suggests specific conditions in the industry that might be a promising future research avenue. During the last two decades, the industry underwent a period of professionalisation, with event managers merging into the field from related industries such as theatre, audio-visual production and film, lighting or sound production or positions in marketing, PR/ media/ communications, tourism, sport or leisure, and arts and culture (Allen, O’Toole, Harris, and McDonnell, 2011). Similar careers that include the application of knowledge gained in these sectors and skills learned on the job can still be found in the industry’s present-day top positions. Female managers’ careers in particular display a high permeability between industries. However, after entering the industry, the careerists did not leave the event sector but moved vertically through the ranks. Mobility seems to be more of a prerequisite for female than for male careers. Thus, in contrast to McCabe and Savery’s findings in Australia, no evidence of butterflying career patterns was detected. Our findings and the lower average level of qualification amongst the male managers indicate that one reason why there are still few women in top positions is the application of a double sta nda rd. While women have to do and give it all, there seems to be a more relaxed evaluation of male career assets - and paucities - when filling high-level roles and positions. This might indicate a “glass elevator” for men, enabling them to ascend through career levels with less effort than women. Moreover, this difference might be due to the special attention women receive as part of a minority in management, the so-called “token” status (Kanter, <?page no="44"?> 44 Female Careers in the Event Industry - Myth, Reality or Future Vision? 1977). This conclusion also implies that when 30% of the top positions are filled by women, the double standard dissolves. We argue that it will take more than this quota in the event industry because gender stereotypes permeate the sector on different tiers. Gender-specific expectations affect participants’ enjoyment and experience of an event. Therefore, the cultural context influences the general acceptance of female leaders and managers in the sector. The question arises whether, due to the numerical dominance of women and the simultaneous presence of inequality, the German event industry is prone to “gender fatigue” (Dashper, 2018a; Kelan, 2009). This term is used to describe an effect where the industry or workplace recognises that gender discrimination exists but is tired of seeing this gender discrimination and “prefers to see a world that is gender egalitarian, where gender no longer matters” (Kelan, 2009, p. 198). The effect hence leads to little engagement with further closing the gender gap. One example is the Ascent promise proudly announced during the “She means business”-conference in Frankfurt (PCMA, 2018), which includes three rather broad goals to embrace a culture of inclusiveness. However, gender is not explicitly mentioned. For employers, this indicates that bias-free advertisements, transparent selection and development processes, and mentoring or sponsoring programmes that have already proven their positive effects (Dashper, 2018a) are not sufficient to develop gender parity. The industry is not only influenced by gender roles but also actively influences society in the way events are planned and held. Therefore, to provide equal opportunities for women taking on managerial roles, an intense reflection on the company and sector culture is necessary. A permanent development of fair and equal conditions is needed to close the sector’s gender gap, or, as Patricia V. Blake, CEO of the Heart Rhythm Society, puts it: “It’s important to unapologetically be a woman” (Ligos, 2019). In 2016, Madonna summarised her experiences as a career woman in a speech giving thanks for the Billboard Women in Music Award 2016. She presented personal examples of why it is difficult for women to succeed due to hurdles imposed both by men and by women. Moreover, she gave the following advice: “Seek out strong women to be friends, to align yourself with, to learn from, to be inspired by, to collaborate with, to be enlightened by.” With her examples, it becomes obvious that women in particular need to dare to be different and perceive the difficulties along the way as support to make them stronger. The questions at the end of this chapter help to reflect on career issues and personal work-life balance. 2.4.4 Limitations and future research avenues Due to the limited sample of our analysis, the career patterns described above cannot be generalised. The sources we used include publicly available self-representations. Thus, we must be aware that careerists will present a positive picture <?page no="45"?> Conclusions and Summary 45 in the media. Moreover, these sources provide limited access to information on the private sphere, such as career breaks or children. Therefore, the aspect of balancing is difficult to detect in the data. Neither kaleidoscope career patterns nor “sticky floor” or “glass ceiling” effects could be identified in our empirical data. Nevertheless, the results depict first insights into professional event managers’ careers that raise questions for further research. One research avenue is the perspective of the careerists on their career decisions with a special focus on the interconnection between the professional and the private life spheres. Exploring the field with an interview study would contribute to understanding the relevance of career breaks and their consequences for rising to top management. Gendered preferences would become more transparent and help to identify industry-specific “must haves” and “nice to haves” for career planning. Gendered hurdles such as the metaphorical “glass cliff”, indicating the promotion of women to exposed and difficult top positions in which they are doomed to fail, do not show in our sample because all the top managers are still in their positions. Further research is needed to determine whether evidence verifies merely anecdotal cases of “glass cliffs” in the event industry. Moreover, the special relevance of voluntary positions and work is represented in the online profiles. However, it is not clear whether this engagement for and in the industry has a catalytic effect on careers. More broadly, the “business case” for females in top managerial positions in the event industry has not yet been quantified. Whether more female leaders are good for the business, including financial performance and other contributions (Hoobler et al., 2018), is an intriguing question that could be explored in further research in the sector. Conclusions and Summary Even though the international event industry tends to be dominated by welleducated females, the majority of senior positions are still occupied by men. This leads to the question of which of the individual, organisational and societal hurdles are of particular relevance in the event industry and whether there is a “sticky floor” with self-made female barriers or a “glass elevator” for male managers. A closer look at the event industry reveals that a male undertone has formed within the industry. Furthermore, gender inequality has led to a lack of female role models for junior academics but is also being increasingly discussed at international conferences and in journals and trade magazines. Thus far, answering the question in the title of this chapter is not yet possible yet due to a very limited amount of research focusing on gender issues in the event industry and, more specifically, on female careers. Thus, a general introduction to current career concepts and career patterns along the life path has been given. To identify parallels and differences in male and female career patterns in the German event industry, an analysis of successful <?page no="46"?> 46 Female Careers in the Event Industry - Myth, Reality or Future Vision? career paths was conducted. The analysed career paths show a relatively long time of service in the same company, even though women change industries and companies more often than men. The majority of the managers hold an academic degree, but a significant difference is noticeable, as almost all women have completed two academic degrees and additional qualifications, leading to a broader and higher level of female qualification. It seems that for female leaders, a career in the event industry rather accidentally became more attractive. After the first contact with the industry, the male and female managers moved vertically through their industry but did not leave it again. In contrast to other international findings, butterflying career patterns appear to be absent in the German event industry. When these results are transferred to the development of career capital, female careerists concentrate more on knowing how, and their specific knowing why capital is formed over time. A possible reason for the minority of female leaders in the event industry is the application of a double standard, as there seems to be a more relaxed evaluation of male career assets than of female career assets, which can also be connected with the female “token” status in top management. More specifically, a clear cultural context influences the general acceptance of female leaders in the event sector and raises the question of whether the German event industry recognises the existence of gender discrimination but prefers to see a world of equality in the industry. However, current international approaches are not sufficient to tackle gender inequality in the industry. The study can serve as a starting point for further research and the development of equal opportunities in companies. The rather broad “Ascent” CEO promise represents only the first step on a very long journey. Questions  In your home country, how would you describe a successful career or person? What are the “ingredients” of career success?  How do you perceive a very successful female leader in the event industry? Think about positive and negative aspects. Is there a difference between women with or without children?  In your relationship to your [1] parents [2] boyfriend/ fiancé [3] friends, would being a successful professional change anything? Try to characterise possible changes!  Imagine you have just retired and are looking back on your life. To conclude, “I had a successful life! ” - what does it take? (Böhmer and Schinnenburg, 2018) <?page no="47"?> Further Readings 47 Further Readings  Böhmer, N. and Schinnenburg, H. (2016) ‘How Gender and Career Concepts impact Global Talent Management’, Employee Relations, 38(1), pp. 73-93.  Dashper, K. (2017) ‘Confident, focused and connected: The importance of mentoring for women’s career development in the events industry’, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 10(2), pp. 134-150. doi: 10.1080/ 19407963.2018.1403162  Walters, T. 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Available at: https: / / womenyoushouldknow.net/ congrats-youhave-an-all-male-panel-meet-the-brilliant-women-who-are-making-inequality-visible-on-tumblr/ (Accessed: 28 February 2019). <?page no="51"?> 3 Work Stress of Event Managers Susanne Doppler, Burkhard Schmidt and Liza Funke This chapter aims to further illuminate the topic of the work stress of event managers, as the event industry is known for peaks of long working hours and workload and a high level of responsibility for the creation of unique experiences worldwide, robust and timely project management, risk management due to financial and security tasks and human resources. An introduction to the issue of workforce stress and theoretically valid work stress models is given. The job-demands resources (JD-R) model can be considered as a functioning theoretical framework. This work is an initial attempt to broaden and evaluate the research on event managers’ occupational hazards by comparing their experiences to known job stressors within the workforce. A qualitative study explored job stress exposure for event managers in three German event agencies. The findings provide initial insights that the JD-R model seems appropriate for use in further research in the event industry. In addition, the results indicate that perceived high demands and potential loss of resources lead to high exposure to unhealthy work stress patterns among event managers, which might ultimately result in severe health risks over time. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: work stress, job stressors, job demands, job-demands resources model, health risks Introduction In work stress research, the investigation of psychosocial stress determinants that ultimately lead to health impairment and loss of wellbeing has greatly increased (Schmidt et al., 2019). As demands on employees to interact with colleagues, with superiors and, above all in service professions, with customers increase as a consequence of and in addition to professional requirements, individuals must cope with high emotional and social demands (Holz, Zapf and Dormann, 2004). Factors such as precarious working conditions, virtual teams, constantly increasing demands on employees and increasing economic pressure as well as the combination of products, services and processes that are constantly changing dynamically and simultaneously becoming more complex are essential causes for changing requirements and coping qualities that might result in numer- <?page no="52"?> 52 Work Stress of Event Managers ous challenges to mental and physical health (Kastner and Schmidt, 2011). Furthermore, these factors become more challenging in times of disruption, such as the current changes in work life caused by digital transformation (Schmidt, 2017). As events have been established worldwide as lucrative communication instruments for the public and for corporate or industry strategies (Brown, Pettersson and Wallstam, 2015), an increase in events staged worldwide (Allen, O’Toole, Harris, and McDonnell, 2010; Devine and Devine, 2015; Mair and Whitford, 2013) and the professionalisation of event management can be observed (Ellert and Schafmeister, 2015; Getz, 2015). According to the event management body of knowledge (EMBOK) model (http: / / www.embok.org/ index.php/ embok-model), event management contains the initiation, planning, implementation and closure of all types of events, such as meetings, conventions, trade fairs and exhibitions, festivals, cultural celebrations, sport events and other special events. Getz (2015) structures event managers’ business domains as the design, planning and management of events. The profession of an event manager is described as “exciting, fast-growing and global” (Getz, 2005, p. 1). This means that the work of an event manager is also becoming increasingly complex, which demands complex problem-solving competences, a challenge for all involved (Ellert and Schafmeister, 2015). These challenges strain individuals’ resources for coping with stress, which, depending on various factors, might lead to negative consequences (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007). Event studies, as reviewed, for example, by Getz (2012, 2015), illustrate this expansion. The social value of various types of events (e.g., sport, culture, business events) has been studied in a variety of disciplines (e.g., sport and business management, anthropology, tourism and leisure studies, regional planning, psychology) (Mair and Whitford, 2013). Consequently, in recent years, this interdisciplinary area of study has undergone rapid changes in research focus (Park and Park, 2017) as researchers in different disciplines with a variety of perspectives, such as anthropology, sociology and applied psychology, have taken an interest in events (Getz, Andersson and Carlsen, 2010). From a psychological viewpoint, research in the field of event management is focused mostly on the impact on participants and their perceptions. The reason for this focus is obvious because events are an integral part of marketing communication, the aim of which is impactful communication with target groups. To select only a few research results, several foundational theories and concepts, such as behavioural settings, sensory stimulation, cognitive mapping and wayfaring, queuing theory, crowd management and control, effects of engagement and involvement in the experience, have been identified in the field of environmental psychology (Getz, Andersson and Carlsen, 2010). In addition, the application of event management draws on findings from cognitive psychology, emotional psychology and media psychology. All these approaches focus on attendee (performers, spectators, participants) perceptions as well as on psychological ideas (Benckendorff and Pearce, 2015) such as involvement, motivation, coping, dealing with uncertainty, flow, mindfulness, satisfaction and trust. <?page no="53"?> Stress in the Event Industry 53 Stress in the Event Industry As previously stated, the daily work of event managers is characterised by precarious working conditions (e.g., time pressure, the simultaneity of several tasks oriented around strongly defined go-live deadlines and projects, budget-related issues, work-family conflicts), working in virtual teams and ubiquitous working environments and continually increasing demands on employees. Economic pressure increases due to constant dynamic changes in products, services and processes, which simultaneously become more complex. These changes consequently lead to chances and risks for individuals, as their ability to cope, deal with uncertainty and adapt is becoming essential for their well-being and health (Schmidt, 2017b). Potential causes of adverse health outcomes for event managers might be long working hours, high work intensity, high pressure to take responsibility and frequent role conflicts (Zimber, Hentrich and Meyer-Lindenberg, 2018). They face long working hours, high work intensity at given times, and responsibility for time, finance and scope (Allen, O’Toole, Harris, and McDonnell, 2011), human resources (Hanlon and Jago, 2015), environmental impacts (Case, 2015) and risk management due to financial tasks (Allen et al., 2011; Brown et al., 2015; Kitchin and Wilson, 2017; Raj et al., 2017; Ritchie and Reid, 2017; Tarlow, 2002; ). Furthermore, role conflicts can occur due to the different expectations of stakeholders (Allen et al., 2011; Leopkey and Parent, 2009). Specific stressors presented by the work of organising committees for mega-events are time pressure, role stressors, job insecurity and work-family conflicts, as “these specific stressors speak to the organizational and managerial complexities that are inherent” in organising committee work (Odio, Walker and Kim, 2003, p. 141). 3.2.1 Defining stress First, a consensus is needed on how to grasp terms such as “stress”. Work stress has been comprehensively described from a psychological, sociological and medical point of view, but there is still a constructive debate. Nevertheless, it is essential to approach this term neutrally, especially because there is common ground for understanding the stress reaction (Schmidt, 2017b). Stress is not a negative construct per se. From an evolutionary perspective, stress is an adaptation reaction of the body to changes in its environment and thus is an integral part of evolutionary processes. The body was enabled to either fight or to move a long distance at times when it needed to escape danger (also known as “fight or flight”) (Cannon, 1932). The alarm phase is followed by the resistance phase, in which the body attempts to repair the damage of the alarm phase with the aim of returning to its original status. The resistance phase, only once the stressor is gone, is followed by the exhaustion phase, in which the body regenerates its resources. In this context, it is especially important that the working person today hardly differs from our ancestors in terms of the stress reaction. This is summarised in one of the most common stress theories today, the model of “allostatic load” (McEwen, 1998) (see Figure 1). <?page no="54"?> 54 Work Stress of Event Managers Fig, 1: Consequences of Allostatic Load (Source: Adapted from Mauss et al. , 2014) <?page no="55"?> Stress in the Event Industry 55 Human development includes a certain degree of “challenge” - the so-called “allostasis” named by McEwen, i.e., an adaptation reaction to the environment. Chronic stressors force the brain and associated biological systems to bring the body back into balance (homeostasis) (McEwen, 1998). In this context, the allostatic load is the “wear and tear” on the body through continuous adaptation reactions. The stronger the “allostatic load” is and the longer it lasts, or when it becomes “allostatic overload”, the greater the danger of chronic dysregulation, which can ultimately lead to the above-mentioned severe health consequences. At the same time, the model emphasises that challenging the system is necessary to maintain biological adaptability. This is often explained by the metaphor of muscles that need constant training to develop/ not to deteriorate. Indeed, stress research is reliant on the notion that these evolutionary biological stress mechanisms are problematic in the sense that biological and psychological reactions still want to avert life-threatening situations for evolutionary reasons and prepare the body for them (“failed habituation”) (Rohleder, 2014). Most “stress” situations that we experience in the world of work, for example, are not life-threatening. However, our bodily functioning is the same as if they were (Koolhaas et al., 2011). This “failed adaptation” contributes to the many negative health consequences of work life. Another fundamental understanding within stress research is that the experience of stressors is highly individual and dependent on the perception of the indiviual, which in turn is (co-)shaped by personality, emotions, experiences, etc. (Kastner, 2010). The small amount of objective strain is initially considered to be similar to all psychological events outside the skin (DIN EN ISO 10075-1). A volume of 140 decibels is one hundred forty decibels for everyone. The stress reaction originates “under the skin”, which is the previously described adaptation. The stress reaction is a consequence of the individual reaction to the stimulus. If you are at a concert and love the music being played, you may not find 140 decibels to be demanding, but if you do not like the music, it is highly likely that you will perceive 140 decibels to be a stressor. A deaf person would not perceive this status as stress because there is no strain associated with it. The individual adaptation reaction, in turn, depends on balance or equilibrium. Kastner (2010) describes this with the image of a seesaw, with the two sides being investment and consumption. The human being invests (time, money, energy, tension, etc.) and emphasises relaxation, enjoyment, leisure time, etc. (consumption). Consequently, the question of how balance can be maintained over time arises. This leads directly to the terms “demands/ challenges and resources”. Modern terms such as “deceleration”, or “slowing down”, e.g., the wilful attempt to withdraw from dynamics and complexity or the use of other protective factors (e.g., hiking in a pleasant natural environment) to counteract negative consequences fall within the same context (see for example Chapter 10 of this book about the “Slow Movement”). <?page no="56"?> 56 Work Stress of Event Managers 3.2.2 Job demands and resources Psychosocial resources play a central role in this context. Semmer and Udris (2004) describe health as a dynamic balance between the physical and psychological defence mechanisms of the organism, on the one hand, and the potentially pathogenic biological and social environmental influences, on the other hand. This balance is in turn dependent on the availability and use of the protective and restorative factors of the individual and environment, which are referred to as personal and social resources. Human resources are the habitualised, healthpreserving and health-recovering coping mechanisms of the person as well as cognitive persuasion systems. The concept of resources is fundamental because it proposes an antagonist to job demands in work stress research. The diversity of demands that can be experienced in work life are as follows Schmidt, 2012): Demands due to the work task  Quantitative and qualitative requirements too high  Uncompleted tasks  Time/ deadline pressure  Information overload (overflow)  Unclear tasks or conflicting instructions  Interruptions and malfunctions Demands from the work role  Responsibility  Harassment and competitive behaviour  Lack of support  Disappointment, lack of recognition (gratification crises)  Conflicts with superiors and colleagues Exposure from the work environment  Polluting environmental influences (noise, heat, draughts, etc.) Social demands  Work climate  Change of environment/ employees/ tasks  Structural changes  Information deficits  Isolation From a psychological point of view, however, it is not only situation-related stress that must be considered but also the interaction of the individual with his or her experiences, attitudes, upbringing, genetics, neuropsychological makeup, <?page no="57"?> Stress in the Event Industry 57 etc. and the perceived work situation. These interactions mainly define the individual stress reaction, coping with demands and depletion or recovery of resources. Thus, in occupational health psychology, the personal system is an important determinant for the development of mental ill-health or versus crafting a healthy and productive working environment (Warr, 1994). Stress from the personal system  Fear of tasks, failure, blame and sanctions  Inefficient action style  Lack of qualifications or experience  Family conflicts (work-life balance) In conclusion, the result is a simple consequence. In a modern, globalised world, it is difficult or impossible to reduce job demands/ requirements because cost pressure, competition from other globalised markets and dynaxity will most likely increase demand. The decisive factor is how the individual is able to address these challenges and whether there are functional solutions to help/ train/ develop a new form of homeostasis, as described here (Schmidt, 2017b). With regard to work stress research, three dominant theoretical models have been established: the job-demands control model (Karasek and Theorell, 1990), the effort-reward imbalance model (Siegrist, 1996) and the organisational justice model (Kivimäki et al., 2003). As an overarching framework within occupational health psychology, the JD-R model is currently considered the most important (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007). Fig. 2: The Job-Demands Resources (JD-R Model) (Source: Adapted from Bakker and Demerouti, 2007) Mental Physical Emotional Etc. Support Feedback Autonomy Etc. Job Demands Job Resources Strain Motivation Organisational Outcomes - - + + + <?page no="58"?> 58 Work Stress of Event Managers According to this model, work conditions are categorised into two distinct groups: job demands and job resources (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007). As Figure 2 shows, the model is subject to two psychological assumptions. First, it is assumed that poor working conditions raise perceived job demands that ascend into stress, which in turn results in negative health outcomes over a longer period of time and when resources are lacking. Second, it is assumed that work itself and the associated resources can have positive, motivational effects, which compensate for negative job demands to some degree. A good example is the effect of social support or reasonable, constructive feedback from a superior or conceiving purpose in the work (Schmidt et al., 2013). According to the model, resources also buffer the negative consequences of job demands (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017). Within the JD-R model, this association is explained by the “conservation of resources” theory (Hobfoll, 1989). Under high demands, it is important for an individual to protect or preserve his or her resources, which can be expressed by the described spiral of loss in reduced motivation. 3.2.3 Health problems within the JD-R model As outlined before, work stress in its various forms has been associated with physical and psychosocial impairments that over time may have severe health consequences. Work stress is associated with a wide range of cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes or stroke, with a 10-40% greater risk for exposed individuals than for a healthy population (Kivimäki and Kawachi, 2015). There is plenty of research establishing the link between stress and impaired well-being (Nieuwenhuijsen, Bruinvels and Frings-Dresen, 2010; Schmidt et al., 2014). The original JD-R model was created to explain burnout within organisations (Demerouti et al., 2001b), but in its application over the years, its explanatory and prognostic value for explaining health impairments as well as positive effects in the workforce have increased (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017). Within the framework, associations have been shown with high job demands and lack of resources and burnout and consequent depression, sleeping problems, vital exhaustion, disengagement or absence duration (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017). Conversely, the JD-R model has shown that an individual with a high level of personal and occupational resources combined with a motivational setting can actually counteract these negative consequences, and the most recent discussion revolves around the topic of how to actually make a workforce flourish under ever-increasing demands (Schmidt et al., 2018). To date, studies have examined the specific stressors present in mega-event work, with a special focus on organising teams (Odio, Walker and Kim, 2013; Xing and Chalip, 2009) that are assembled to stage and deliver large-scale events such as the Olympic Games, the FIFA World Cup or the Super Bowl. To the best of our knowledge, research regarding the positive and negative determinants of healthy and productive work within typical event agencies in which <?page no="59"?> Method 59 project managers simultaneously work on several projects with different clients is still rare, and this is a first attempt at opening the research field. Relevant questions that need to be considered are, e.g., which situations within event managers’ particular area of occupation are similar to known work stressors within the general workforce and where they might differ. This also translates to the individual and his or her characteristics and the type of demands that regularly occur on the job (e.g., emotional dissonance), which again bear chances and risks and help maintain balances or disrupt them over time, with the discussed positive or negative consequences. To ultimately provide guided advice on how to construct a healthy and productive work environment within event management, the specifics of this population should be identified and grounded in established work stress research and its mechanisms. Consequently, this chapter aims to provide the first insights based on a qualitative design. Because the situational factors “demands” and “resources” have the highest impact on the stress level in event management (Odio, Walker and Kim, 2013), these factors were analysed in this first approach. Method To evaluate typical job demands and resources for event managers, a qualitative study was conducted at rather small event agencies with a minimum of ten and a maximum of thirty employees to determine the presence of such stress factors and resources. 3.3.1 Sample The participants were six event employees of three event agencies, including one senior project manager (SPM) and one junior project manager of each agency. To be included, the three agencies had to meet one criterion: the number of employees should be between ten and thirty, which marks a rather small event agency. The criterion for selecting the people within the agencies and considering them experts in their field were as follows: the number of events organised simultaneously by one employee should be three or more so that a current stress level could be identified. Moreover, the budget should be five or six digits, and the number of suppliers for one project should be at least three. <?page no="60"?> 60 Work Stress of Event Managers Tab. 2: Sample Interviewee Agency Position Number of simultaneous projects Size of the budget Number of simultaneous suppliers SPM 1 1 Senior Project Manager Approximately 20 projects Six digits Approximately 4 JPM 1 1 Junior Project Manager 2 to 3 projects Six or seven digits Min. 10 SPM 2 2 Senior Project Manager 4 to 5 projects Five and six digits 5 to 6 JPM 2 2 Junior Project Manager 3 to 5 projects Average five digits Approximately 5 SPM 3 3 Senior Project Manager 5 to 20 projects Four to six digits 2 to 5 JPM 3 3 Junior Project Manager 6 projects Four and five digits 2 to 5 3.3.2 Interviews As a qualitative approach, a survey was conducted with a semi-structured interview, which lasted between 12 and 19 minutes and was recorded by mobile phone and transcribed afterwards. The data were analysed in a qualitative content analysis (Mayring, 2015). Based on a literature review, deductive coding was used (Döring and Bortz, 2016). Results Concerning job demands and resources, the following initial insights indicate that employees in event agencies evaluate stressors as a hindrance at work. 3.4.1 Job demands Odio et al. (2013) proved that managers of mega-events experience time pressure because of the deadlines they face. The conducted interviews support these findings and provide evidence of the stressor “time pressure” on event managers in small event agencies. Time pressure is caused mainly by deadlines, by unpredictable occurrences and by the need to rearrange things due to clients’ demands. SPM 1: So the first big issue is just the time. As you only have a limited period for the huge events, this sometimes can also get out of hand. <?page no="61"?> Results 61 SPM 3: But when something unpredictable happens, these are the time-consuming activities, what automatically creates stress for me, because I have to hurry the team, and therefore, the team has stress through me again because they have to rearrange things and check what has to be changed. Moreover, accumulating demands, such as interactions with clients or even unfriendly clients and the competence of suppliers, were observed. These interactions can be demanding due to constant changes and difficult or ineffectual communication: SPM 1: Another big issue is constant wishes for change from the client. So when you have done four, five rounds, or we just had it with a smaller point where we did nine changing rounds - that is tough. SPM 2: Definitely, that the client is changing things on short notice or converts or has new ideas or has ideas where you tell him that this will influence the budget, which he doesn’t want. And then you start discussing again. SPM 3: So there are lovely clients, and this is the central part of our clients, luckily. But there are also clients who are harder to handle, more complicated, and therefore, their handling is more time consuming. Because maybe they are asking something again because they didn’t really listen, and you already explained it, and they didn’t understand it or didn’t read it carefully. JPM 2: For example, with a company, we are working with a DMC because the incentive is in Slovenia, and this is very exhausting for me to work with them, as they often give me wrong information or no information at all. You always have to be on their heels, which is exhausting. This observation of accumulating job demands resulting in a higher stress level as negative effects accumulate has been made before (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017). Furthermore, Bakker and Demerouti (2007, 2017) noted demanding interactions with clients as job demand in their JD-R model. Another stressor in client communication is caused by bad briefings: SMP 1: Another big issue is not-well-done briefings. Nevertheless, the “simultaneity of tasks” and “not making progress with tasks” due to frequent interruptions in the workflow and meetings were noted: JPM 1: So the main problem that makes me feel stress is because I don’t make any progress with my tasks. And that is either when I have many meetings or when you come from one phone call into the next unplanned phone call. Or when new tasks are coming that you didn’t expect. Project managers with responsibilities for other team members are affected by the stressors “delegating responsibilities” and “poor communication in the team”. <?page no="62"?> 62 Work Stress of Event Managers SPM 3: I am the connection between the clients and the project managers. That means I take the projects and distribute them to the project managers, and still, I have to look that the plans are working out well so that all the projects are running. That means I need to trust my colleagues 100% because when someone is dropping out of the plan because of illness or holidays, that would be bad. Holiday planning is also essential. That creates the most stress for me because otherwise, I have to do some things by myself if I wouldn’t let go and delegate the responsibilities. But this letting go sometimes works out better than other times. And that is the core stressor that you can’t let go because you have the feeling to still watch over the project. … I always look over their shoulders to check that everything is working, although I know that everything will work out fine. However, it was mentioned that several demands, for example, the changes mentioned above, can be motivating as well. SPM 1: Until a certain level, stressors can also be a motivating challenge, yes, definitely. In addition to the constant changes, two other job demands were seen as motivating challenges, first, “having new things” and second, “having a possible number of tasks that have to be mastered”. JPM 2: So especially in the agency, the constant challenge is to have new things. So you have to know a little bit of everything, … I don’t have the feeling that I am saying ok, I already did that a hundred times, and I know how this works. Instead, there are always new challenges where you can develop your skills. Having new things can probably be categorised as a high workload (Kalimo, EI- Batawi and Cooper, 1987; Odio, Walker and Kim, 2013; Panigrahi, 2017) if the number of new things to learn becomes too high and therefore becomes a hindering job demand as the workload becomes too extensive. Moreover, realising that the number of tasks is manageable can be seen as motivating. JPM 1: Yes, [it is motivating] when you can see the light at the end of the tunnel, and when you know that you have only a few tasks to do. 3.4.2 Job resources The interviewed event managers confirmed the job resources mentioned in the literature (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017; Demerouti et al., 2001). They pointed out factors such as team climate, participation in decision-making or performance feedback as job resources and also show their applicability to the event agencies. SPM 3: We have a boss who gives feedback. So a pleasant boss is highly essential. SPM 2: I think it is essential to have a good team atmosphere and that you can feel comfortable. If I had colleagues I didn’t like that much and with whom it would be difficult in stressful times, this would be an extra stressor. <?page no="63"?> Summary 63 JPM 3: And the time management, I didn’t know that before that, you can manage your own time and plan what you have to do today. That is helpful, as you can prioritise your tasks yourself. Notably, “time compensation”, “home office” and “participation in decision making” can be seen as beneficial job resources because these can help project managers unwind and recover, as free time can be planned individually. The importance of recovery has been mentioned before. Additionally, incentives and small benefits can help an employee’s prevention measures for stress. SPM 1: What helps me remarkably is that I can regularly work from my home office. Where I am even freer, I save the ways to work and therefore have time savings. Home office regulation is something that helps me. Fig. 3: The seesaw of job demands and job resources in the event industry Summary The accepted narrative in occupational health psychology is that individual and situational resources can, to some extent, compensate for high job demands and their negative consequences for well-being and health (Hobfoll, 1989). The combination of job demands while providing adapted resources at the same time can lead to increased individual motivation and engagement and ultimately may provide a competitive advantage (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017). Regarding the interviewed event managers, the exposure to high job demands at event agencies can be summarised as problematic and, in consequence, is a perceived stress burden within this population. The JD-R model provides a mechanism for solutions, which is identifying important individual and situational resources as well as smart management of the critical demands for project-related event managers, ultimately not only preventing health impairments but also improving work life. The findings of this study also show that the JD-R framework is highly compatible with the event industry, especially with a closer look at motivational processes and the general effects on the work performed. Therefore, the model can <?page no="64"?> 64 Work Stress of Event Managers provide a necessary theoretical foundation for exploring and confirming workforce health and engagement within event management in future research. In addition, this would allow for distinct comparisons between the event management industry and other service-oriented fields to a) learn from the already existing solutions provided by others and b) develop new solutions, recommendations and strategies to address particular problems for event managers. This knowledge, to which we invite our fellow scholars to contribute, needs to be known and integrated by leaders, staff, teachers and students of event management to improve work life without reducing productivity or risking individual health. Questions  What is stress?  Why is stress an issue for which event managers need to be prepared?  Which job demands are typical for event managers?  What role do resources play in buffering stress?  What strategies would you like to develop to deal with stress personally? Further Readings  Michels, B. (2015) Projektmanagement Handbuch: Grundlagen mit Methoden und Techniken für Einsteiger. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.  Michels, B. (2017) Projektmanagement Handbuch 3: Verschiedene Projekte gleichzeitig leiten und steuern. Multiprojektmanagement. Portfoliomanagement. Projekte parallel steuern. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.  Raj, R., Walters, P. and Rashid, T. (2017) Events Management. 3 rd edn. London: Sage  Sonntag, K., Frieling, E. and Stegmaier, R. (2012) Lehrbuch Arbeitspsychologie. Bern: Hans Huber. Bibliography Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R. and McDonnell, I. (2010) Festival and Special Event Management. 5th edn. Milton: Wiley Ausstralia Tourism Series. Bakker, A. B. and Demerouti, E. (2017) ‘Job Demands-Resources Theory: Taking Stock and Looking Forward’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), pp. 273-285. doi: 10.1037/ ocp0000056. Bakker, A. B., and Demerouti, E. (2007) ‘The Job Demands-Resources Model: State of the Art’ Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22 (3), pp. 309-328. <?page no="65"?> Bibliography 65 Benckendorff, P. and Pearce, L. P. (2015) ‘The Psychology of Events’, in Page, S. J. and Connell, J. (eds) Routledge Handbook of Events, pp. 165-185. New York: Routledge. Brown, S., Getz, D., Pettersson, R. and Wallstam, M. (2015) ‘Event Evaluation: Definitions, Concepts and a State of the Art Review’ International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 6(2), pp. 135-157. doi: 10.1108/ IJEFM-03-2015-0014. Cannon, W. B. (1932) Wisdom of the Body. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Case, R. (2015) ‘Event Impacts and Environmental Sustainability’, in Page, S.J. and Connell, J. (eds) Routledge Handbook of Events. New York: Routledge, pp. 362-384. Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F. and Schaufeli, W. B. (2001a) ‘The Job Demands- Resources Model of Burnout’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), pp. 499-512. doi: 10.1037/ / 0021-9010.86.3.499. Demerouti, E., Nachreiner, F., Bakker, A. B. and Schaufeli, W. B. (2001b) ‘The Job Demands- Resources Model of Burnout’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), pp. 499-512. doi: 10.1037/ 0021-9010.86.3.499. Devine, A. and Devine, F. (2015) ‘Government-Funded Event Organisations - Good and Bad Practice’, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 6(3), pp. 200-214. doi: 10.1108/ IJEFM-11-2014-0024. Döring, N. and Bortz, J. (2016) Forschungsmethoden Und Evaluation in Den Sozial- Und Humanwissenschaften. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Gabler. doi: 10.1007/ 978-3-642-41089-5. Ellert, G., Schafmeister, G., Wawrzinek, D. and Gassner, H. (2015) ‘Expect the Unexpected’, International Journal of Event Management 6(1), pp. 54-72. doi: 10.1108/ IJEFM-02-2014-0003. Getz, D. 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(2015) ‘Work Stress as a Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease’, Current Cardiology Reports, 17(9), pp. 74. doi: 10.1007/ s11886-015-0630-8. Koolhaas, J. M., Bartolomucci, A., Buwalda, B., de Boer, S. F., Flügge, G., Korte, S.M., Meerlo, P., Murisong, R., Olivieri, B., Palanzak, P., Richter-Levine, G., Sgoifo, A., Steimer, T., Stiedl, O., van Dijk, G., Wöhr, M. and Fuchs, E. (2011) ‘Stress Revisited: A Critical Evaluation of the Stress Concept’, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(5), pp. 1291-1301. doi: 10.1016/ j.neubiorev.2011.02.003. Leopkey, B. and Parent, M. M. (2009) ‘Risk Management Strategies by Stakeholders in Canadian Major Sporting Events’, Event Management, 13(3), pp. 153-170, doi: 10.3727/ 152599509790029828. Mair, J. and Whitford, M. (2013) ‘An Exploration of Events Research: Event Topics, Themes and Emerging Trends’, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 4(1), pp. 6-30, doi: 10.1108/ 17582951311307485. Mauss, D., Li, J., Schmidt, B., Angerer, P. and Jarczok, M. N. (2014) ‘Measuring Allostatic Load in the Workforce a Systematic Review’, Industrial Health, 53(1), pp. 5-20. doi: 10.2486/ indhealth.2014-0122. Mayring, P. (2015) Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse: Grundlagen und Techniken. 12th edn. Weinheim: Belz. McEwen, B. (1998) ‘Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators’, New England Journal of Medicine, 338, pp. 171-179. Nieuwenhuijsen, K, Bruinvels, D. and Frings-Dresen, M. (2010) ‘Psychosocial Work Environment and Stress-Related Disorders, a Systematic Review’, Occupational Medicine, 60 (4), pp. 277-286. doi: 10.1093/ occmed/ kqq081. Odio, M. A., Walker, M. and Kim, M. (2013) ‘Examining the Stress and Coping Process of Mega-Event Employees’, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 4(2), pp. 140- 155. doi: 10.1108/ 17582951311325908. Panigrahi A. (2016) ‘Managing stress at workplace’, Journal of Management Research and Analysis, 4(3), pp. 154-160. Park, S. B. and Park, K. (2017) ‘Thematic Trends in Event Management Research’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 29(3), pp. 848-861, doi: 10.1108/ IJCHM-09- 2015-0521. Raj, R., Walters, P. and Rashid, T. (2017) Events Management. 3rd edn. London: Sage. Ritchie, B. W. and Reid, S. (2017) ‘Risk Management’, in Ferdinand, N. and Kitchin, P. J. (eds) Events Management - An International Approach. 2 nd edn.. London: Sage, pp. 211-240. Rohleder, N. (2014) ‘Stimulation of Systemic Low-Grade Inflammation by Psychosocial Stress’ Psychosom Med, 76(3), pp. 181-189, doi: 10.1097/ PSY.0000000000000049. Siegrist, J. (1996) ‘Adverse Effects of high effort - low reward conditions at work’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, pp. 27-43. Schmidt, B. (2012) Transformationale und transaktionale Führung als erfolgreicher Führungsstil für Leistung und Gesundheit? - Eine kritische Überprüfung des “Full Range ofLeadership”-Konzeptes für das betriebliche Gesundheitsmanagement. Dortmund: Technische University Dortmund. Schmidt, B., Herr, R. M., Jarczok, M. N., Baumert, J., Lukaschek, K., Emeny, R. T. and Ladwig, K. H. (2018) ‘Lack of Supportive Leadership Behavior Predicts Suboptimal Self-Rated Health Independent of Job Strain after 10 Years of Follow-up: Findings from the Population-Based MONICA/ KORA Study’, International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 91(5), pp. 623-631. doi: 10.1007/ s00420-018-1312-9. <?page no="67"?> Schmidt, B. (2017a) ‘Räumliche, Zeitliche Und Psychische Entgrenzung Durch Flexible Arbeitsformen’, in Kastner, M. (ed) Digitalisierung Und Psychische Gefährdung. 1st edn. Witten: Maori. Schmidt, B. (2017b) ‘Führung und Gesundheit’ in Sohn, D. and Au, M. (eds) Führung Und Betriebliches Gesundheitsmanagement . Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag. Schmidt, B., Loerbroks, A., Herr, R., Litaker, D., Wilson, M., Kastner, M. and Fischer, J. 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Zimber, A., Hentrich, S. and Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2018) ‘Dass ich das ändern muss, damit ich nicht irgendwann kollabiere ...: Eine qualitative Studie zur Entstehung psychischer Beeinträchtigungen bei Führungskräften und Implikationen für die Stressprävention’, Psychiatrische Praxis, 45(1), pp. 30-37. doi: 10.1055/ s-0042-122163. Bibliography 67 <?page no="69"?> 4 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times: Future Challenges and Chances Hans-Jürgen Gaida “The best way to predict the future is to invent it” [Volocopter] We are living in an accelerating world of mobility and accessibility in travel and communication. Changes in innovations that have an impact on daily life have never been as disruptive as they are today. A few common phenomena that are currently predominant are big data, the cloud, digital transformation platforms, augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), the Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain, machine learning, robotics, chatbots, facial recognition, immersive experience, and sharing economies. The meeting and event industry must take note of these phenomena and constantly monitor their development. This chapter will touch on only a few of these apparently external factors and evaluate how they (presumably) will determine the current and shape the future marketing of meeting and event destinations. Will the event industry be able to turn challenges into chances? Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: artificial intelligence (AI), disruptive technologies, smart cities, new mobility services, eco-system policy Introduction In early 2010, under the auspices of ICCA, IMEX and Fast Future Research, the presentation of “Convention 2020 - The Future of Meetings, Venues and Destinations”, a global strategic foresight study for the meeting industry, was announced. The elaborate study was presented later at IMEX Frankfurt 2010 and at the ICCA Congresses in Hyderabad in 2010 and Leipzig in 2011. 1 1 Although we are using the general term event, the overall focus is on business events, i.e., corporate and association events, meetings and conventions. When describing event destinations, event venues of any kind are included when relevant. In general, most phenomena relating to tourism (except specific holiday or leisure tourism) and the behaviour of tourists can also be applied to events and their attendees, although other characteristics of the event industry can be regarded as “beyond tourism”. We omit the “classical” strategies and instruments of event destination marketing. On that basis, we prefer to <?page no="70"?> 70 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times After almost one decade, let us select some of the findings of the first survey focussing on “The Future of Exhibitions, Meetings and Events” (1,125 meeting industry respondents from 76 countries; Talwar and Hancock, 2010). On the one hand, they demonstrate how uncertain predictions of the future are. The authors of the study (Rohit Talwar and Tim Hancock) argue that the uncertainty “was partly due to a lack of awareness of the advances coming through and partly to a lack of faith that the emerging technologies would deliver on their promise or have a major impact on live events.” On the other hand, it is apparent that professionals in the industry know the state of the art and have, if not in-depth knowledge, at least a “feeling” for the potential challenges and chances of future development. In principle, the findings can be applied to event destinations and their marketing.  The most commonly expected developments were ‘Live video streaming to remote participants’ (75%), ‘A social network before, during and after events’ (70%) and ‘All event content downloaded to our mobile phones’ (64%).  Despite the common excitement about and proliferation of augmented reality applications for smartphones, such as the Apple iPhone, only 32% expected such technology to be in widespread use at events by 2020 (virtual reality 38%).  Interestingly, in addition to augmented reality, the other lowest-ranked developments were amongst those that are generating the most excitement in the technology development community - namely, ‘Remote attendees participating as 3D holograms’ (33%), ‘Every object has built-in intelligence and can interact with the people around it - e.g., chairs, walls, tables’ (17%) and ‘Intelligent avatars participating in virtual events on our behalf’ (15%).  While more advanced immersive and experiential technologies were not ranked highly as individual developments, there was strong support for their potential applications when discussed subsequently in scenarios for personalisation.  One of the important opportunities being proposed for the industry is the use of advances in visualisation and interactive experiential technologies to personalise the delegate experience: 79% expected a totally personalised technology experience; 70% felt this individual customisation would extend to areas such as food and seating; and 93% believed that technology will enable the capture and analysis of every activity, presentation and conversation. highlight some phenomena of the so-called disruptive technologies under the umbrella of digital transformation and artificial intelligence (AI). This chapter does not refer to the political, economic and societal implications that might influence the described novelties and event destinations in the future. It focuses mainly on technology, people and their attitude towards disruptive technologies in order to draw attention to how they could foster or affect the event industry in the future. On the internet, one can find a plethora of websites about the topics mentioned. Therefore, the references are the author’s deliberate choice and are quoted or paraphrased. They were all retrieved in March 2019. <?page no="71"?> Preliminaries 71  Advances in science and technology will provide far greater personalisation of the entire event experience and the total immersion of delegates in the content of events. This is an area that could become a major differentiator - particularly for venues that can provide such ‘total experience’ solutions.  Despite the obvious concerns over privacy, 93% considered it likely or very likely that “In 2020, almost everything that happens at events will be ‘measured and stored as useful data for organisers and participants’ to use in real time, including sessions that individuals attend, interactions between attendees, appointments that are made and the educational and business interests that individuals express (before, during and after the event)”.  70% felt it likely or very likely that “In 2020, ethical and environmental decisions will play a big part in determining which events are attended (e.g., is the meeting environmentally sustainable? Can the delegate justify the carbon cost of travelling to this destination? ).”  An equal proportion of both respondent groups (55%) considered it likely or very likely that security would continue to be a primary concern and that “In 2020, those attending conferences and exhibitions will be even more concerned about personal security than today, and will avoid attending any events or destinations where there are perceived high risks.” Keywords that have in fact become relevant today or will have more impact in the future are in italics. Regarding the adopted technology, they show that some aspects have already been accepted and have emerged as useful tools, some have remained resilient and others have become obsolete or have been replaced by unforeseen innovations. On the other hand, people’s behaviour, way of thinking and expectations persist or are volatile, if not unpredictable. To put it bluntly, when talking about the future, it is almost impossible to take all pros and cons into account. It is similar to painting a picture with brilliant colours but also leaving blank areas. Preliminaries Many facts and figures describe present practices or those that will occur in the near future. First, we should keep in mind the brief history of digital transformation: the personal computer in the 1980s, the internet and mobile phones in the 1990s, social media in the 2000s, the introduction of the Apple iPhone in 2007, platforms (Uber, Airbnb) from 2010 onwards, and the acceleration of the mainstream implementation of AI, AR/ VR, IoT, blockchain, machine learning, robotics and other disruptive technologies from 2019 until 2020 or 2025 and the following years. Big data and algorithms as well as the recently launched phenomenal new generation of mobile communication technology, 5G, represent a magic wand. <?page no="72"?> 72 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times 4.2.1 ICCA, the International Congress and Convention Association ICCA has been monitoring and analysing the development of the global meeting market since 1963. The results are published annually in a comprehensive report. The statistics include only meetings organised by associations and those that fulfil the following three criteria: at least 50 participants, organised on a regular basis (one-time events are not included), and rotation among at least 3 different countries. In particular, the last criterion is a great restriction because important meetings organised by national associations on a regular basis are omitted, as they normally rotate only among domestic destinations. However, the ICCA statistics can be regarded as a mirror of the real international worldwide active meeting market. The annual ICCA reports publish the results in ranking tables of countries and cities. To eliminate the fluctuations due to changing ranks from year to year, we refer to the publication “A Modern History of International Association Meetings - Update 1963-2017” (International Congress and Convention, 2018), which shows the sum of meetings taking place in a five-year period, i.e., the last period between 2013 and 2017. For the entire 55 years, the ICCA database comprises 225,243 meetings, of which 65,566 took place during the last period and 12,555 in 2017. The market share by number of meetings was as follows: Europe, 53%; Asia, 18.5%; North America, 11.7%; and Latin America, 9.6%. The proportion of meetings that rotate around the globe (international/ worldwide) was 43.7%, followed by meetings rotating in Europe, 30.8%, and Asia, 5.6%. Despite the average meeting size becoming smaller, the estimated total number of participants in all meetings grew to almost 107 million in 55 years; in the monitored period, 2013-2017, there were 24 million attendees, and in 2017, there were almost 5 million. The estimated share of participants in meetings in particular regions was Europe, 49.4%; Asia, 19.7%; North America, 13.3%; and Latin America, 10.5%. The size of the meetings: 82 % had not more than 500 participants (of that category in Europe 56%, Asia/ Pacific 20%, North-America 11%, Latin-America 7%, Africa 3%, and Middle East 1%). Only 8% of the meetings had more than 1.000 participants (of that category in Europe 44%, Asia/ Pacific 23%, North-America 15%, Latin-America 12%, Africa 3%, and Middle East 2%). The most important topics of the meetings were medical sciences, 16.6%; technology, 14.4%; and science, 13.5% (of 16 listed subjects). The average length per meeting dropped to 3.65 days, and 59.8% of the meetings took place annually. In general, the ICCA Association Database for the past ten years (2007-2017) shows an exceedingly disproportional structure of the worldwide meeting market. About 50.000 of all meetings and 22 million of the attendees are to be found in ten countries only (USA, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Spain, Italy, China-P.R., Japan, Netherlands, and Canada). The following ten countries account for 22.000 meetings with eight million attendees (Brazil, Rep. of Korea, Portugal, Austria, Australia, Sweden, Switzerland, Belgium, Poland, and Mexico). <?page no="73"?> Preliminaries 73 The first ten cities hosted 15,000 meetings and attracted 7.9 million attendees (Paris, Vienna, Barcelona, Berlin, London, Singapore, Seoul, Madrid, Beijing, and Prague). The following ten cities attracted 10,000 meetings with 4.8 million attendees (Lisbon, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Istanbul, Brussels, Rome, Hong Kong, Buenos Aires, and Stockholm). In contrast to these event “heavyweights” ICCA counted about 1,600 destinations around the globe that were host only for one rotating meeting in ten years. How will the future of digital transformation, as described later, affect these event destinations, countries and cities? And how innovative will previously successful destinations response to altering conditions in the global event business? Which one will be able to cope with the challenges and adopt the novelties to the benefits of their reputation and their abilities? 4.2.2 World Economic Forum and Global Power City Index Given the ambitious efforts of cities to pitch themselves as attractive and inviting event destinations, the following data deserve consideration. The UN predicts that by 2030, there will be the following number of cities (Thornton, 2019; United Nations, 2018): 43 (+10 compared with 2018) with 10 million and more inhabitants (“mega-cities”) 66 (+18) with 5 to 10 million inhabitants 597 (+130) with 1 to 5 million inhabitants 710 (112) with 500,000 to 1 million inhabitants Of the world’s 33 megacities - that is, cities with 10 million inhabitants or more in 2018 - 27 are located in less developed regions or the “global South”. China was home to six megacities in 2018, while India had five. Among the 33 megacities are Paris, Moscow, Istanbul, Chongqing, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Tianjin, Xi’an, Osaka, Hyderabad, Calcutta, Karachi, Manila, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Jakarta, Bogota, Lima, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. Nine of the ten cities projected to become megacities between 2018 and 2030 are located in Asian and African countries (except London). These nine are Tehran, Chengdu, Nanjing, Seoul, Ho Chi Minh City, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Dar es Salaam, and Luanda. The ten largest cities (million inhabitants) by 2030 will be Delhi (39), Tokyo (36), Shanghai (33), Dhaka (28), Cairo (25), Mumbai (24), Beijing (25), Mexico City (24), Sao Paulo (24), and Kinshasa (22). All the above-mentioned cities have a good reputation in the event industry, but what future impact will the agglomeration have? <?page no="74"?> 74 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times The Global Power City Index (GPCI) offers a different point of view (Fleming, 2019; The Mori Memorial Foundation, 2018). The GPCI has been published by the Mori Memorial Foundation of the Japanese Institute for Urban Strategies since 2010. It evaluates and ranks the major cities of the world according to their “magnetism,” or their comprehensive power to attract people, capital, and enterprises from around the world. It does so by measuring six functions - economy, research and development, cultural interaction, liveability, environment, and accessibility - and providing a multidimensional ranking. These six functions are, in turn, broken down into 70 different indicators, which are all given a score. The cumulative score provides the final ranking. Of a GPCI list of 44 ranked cites worldwide, the top ten in 2018 (in descending order; ICCA city ranking numbers of meetings / and participants as of 2017 appear in brackets) were London (177/ 78k), New York (47/ 15k), Tokyo (101/ 27k), Paris (190/ 110k), Singapore (160/ 83k), Amsterdam (112/ 75k), Seoul (142/ 53k), Berlin (187/ 97k), Hong Kong (119/ 48k), and Sydney (76/ 35k), all of which had the highest score for liveability. 4.2.3 UNWTO, the World Tourism Organization Although the figures show the general situation of the tourism industry, one can obtain some generic information from these figures for the event industry as well. Madrid, Spain, 21 January 2019 - International tourist arrivals grew 6% in 2018, totalling 1.4 billion according to the latest UNWTO World Tourism Barometer. UN- WTO’s long-term forecast issued in 2010 indicated that the 1.4 billion mark would be reached in 2020, yet the remarkable growth of international arrivals in recent years achieved that mark two years earlier (World Tourism Organization, 2019a, para. 1). International tourist arrivals in Europe reached 713 million in 2018, a notable 6% increase over an exceptionally strong 2017. Asia and the Pacific (+6%) recorded 343 million international tourist arrivals in 2018. The Americas (+3%) welcomed 217 million international arrivals in 2018. Data from Africa point to a 7% increase in 2018, with an estimated 67 million arrivals. The Middle East (+10%) showed solid results in 2018, consolidating its 2017 recovery, with international tourist arrivals reaching 64 million. Based on current trends, economic prospects and the UNWTO Confidence Index, UNWTO forecasts that international arrivals will grow 3% to 4% in 2019, a rate more in line with historic growth trends. “Digitalisation, new business models, more affordable travel and societal changes are expected to continue shaping our sector, so both destination and companies need to adapt if they want to remain competitive” (World Tourism Organization, 2019a, para. 15). <?page no="75"?> Preliminaries 75 4.2.4 IATA, the International Air Transport Association IATA has published a 20-year passenger forecast. It takes into account, among others, the following fundamental drivers of air travel demand (De Juniac, 2017, 2018; IATA, 2018a; 2018b; 2018c):  The emerging middle class in developing countries  Diverging demographic outlooks  Further liberalisation of aviation markets  Climate change In addition, it provides the following outlook:  Passenger numbers are forecast to double to 8.2 billion by 2037.  Aviation’s centre of gravity continues to shift eastward.  China will displace the USA as the largest air passenger market by 2025.  By 2037, India will be the third largest aviation market in the world. More than 572 million passengers will travel to, from, or within India at that time, tripling 2017 traffic. This incredible traffic boom is due largely to an increase in connectivity - there are now 700 domestic airport pairs - and a decrease in fares. International destinations have risen to 304 from 230 a decade ago.  Indonesia is forecast to make the largest jump, from the 10 th to the 4 th largest market by 2030.  Market liberalisation and better infrastructure will unlock the full benefits of aviation.  In contrast, rising protectionism and inefficient infrastructure will slow growth. Aviation is a customer-focused industry. Travellers want each touch point in their journey to be as uniquely tailored, seamless, hassle free and efficient as possible, from booking and check-in through security to collecting their luggage at their destination airport. In 2017, airlines connected a record number of cities worldwide, providing regular services to more than 20,000 city pairs. In 2017, 4.588 million passengers were transported by 39.8 million flights. Some of the findings of IATA’s market surveys (its statistics do not differentiate between holiday and business travellers and, among the latter, flights to event destinations) and the subsequent innovation programmes illustrate how travellers are self-confidently embracing new technologies:  82% of passengers want to use a digital passport on their smartphone for as many flight-related processes as possible.  64% of passengers favour biometric identifiers as their preferred travel token.  85% of passengers want airlines and airports to offer a more customised travel experience and are willing to provide more personal data to make this happen. <?page no="76"?> 76 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times  72% of travellers want to be able to print their luggage tags remotely or to use an electronic bag tag, and 61% of passengers want the ability to track their bags throughout their journey.  48% of passengers have already used automated border control (ABC) systems with 89% satisfaction. The success of ABC has paved the way for a new generation of passenger processes based on biometric recognition. In 2016, a number of airports installed automated kiosks with facial, iris or fingerprint recognition capabilities. Future developments for the passenger experience are endless. Biometric data, for example, can be employed as a single travel identification method to drastically improve passenger throughput.  To use a single biometric identity token of passengers for all their travel transactions, from booking flights to passing through security and border control to collecting their bags, the One ID concept has been developed. It relies on the early validation of a passenger’s identity and controlled access to this information by various public and private stakeholders on an authorised-toknow basis. It ensures that passengers are recognised and attended to in the most efficient way in each successive step of their journeys with the use of trusted digital identity and biometric recognition technology  India already has the largest biometric programme in the world. Its Aadhaar card - a unique 12-digit number issued to every Indian resident based on demographic and biometric data - is used by some 1.2 billion people .  Passengers want increased control over airport processes. They wish to take advantage of the latest digital self-service options. Fast Travel, one of IATA’s recent initiatives, transforms the airport experience. It ensures that passengers can walk from the door of the terminal to their seats on the plane with minimal inconvenience. The programme provides self-service options at six airport touch points: selfor automated check-in, self-tagging of baggage, self-checking of documentation, self-rebooking of flights, self-boarding and self-recovery of baggage.  In 2017, 45% of travellers already had access to the complete Fast Travel experience.  For passengers, the ONE Order concept means the gradual disappearance of multiple reservation records associated with a customer purchase. The only thing passengers will need to locate their itinerary and be recognised throughout their journey is a single order number. ONE Order will greatly simplify the passenger experience and remove one of the major hassles of air travel - trying to find the correct document or number when dealing with an itinerary change or a travel disruption.  More than four billion bags are carried by airlines annually, and 99.57% of those bags arrive with their owners. In December 2018, IATA proclaimed “RFID 2 : Back to the future.” 2 RFID: radio-frequency identification <?page no="77"?> Preliminaries 77  By 2020, many airline customers will notice significant changes that will improve the management of their bags. Self-service options will increase; offairport baggage provisions will proliferate; and transparent, real-time tracking solutions will enable a more relaxing customer journey.  The backdrop to the future is IATA Resolution 753, which came into effect on 1 June 2018. It mandates bag tracking at four key data points in the journey. Additionally, IATA member airlines are considering mandating an RFID inlay for all bag tags manufactured after 2020.  Looking further ahead, the introduction of RFID infrastructure to airports will eventually lead to reusable RFID. The idea is simple: add RFID to a suitcase, and there is no further need to tag the bag. The RFID identity is a unique and permanent link to the journey.  It will take several years before this technology is commonplace, but the RFID group at IATA is already working on the processes and principles for reusable RFID.  IATA is leveraging such existing innovation tools as hackathons, events and industry data models. It is also building the missing platforms and tools, including a development hub and open API framework, and will utilise member airlines’ innovation structures where appropriate. From 57 founding members in 1945, IATA now represents some 290 airlines in 120 countries, carrying 82% of the world’s air traffic. Case study: Touristik Union International (TUI) TUI Group is the world’s number-one tourism group, operating in approximately 180 destinations worldwide. The company is based in Germany, with its headquarters in Hannover. TUI Group recorded a turnover of €19.2bn in the financial year 2018 and an operating result of €1.177bn. The group employs 70,000 people in more than 100 countries. TUI offers comprehensive services from a single source to approximately 27 million customers, including 21 million in national organisations in Europe, and covers the entire tourism value chain under one roof. This comprises around 330 group-owned hotels and resorts with premium brands such as RIU and Robinson, as well as 16 cruise ships. The group also includes leading international tour operator brands, 1,600 travel agencies in Europe and five European leisure airlines with around 150 modern mediumand long-haul aircrafts. Global responsibility for sustainable economic, ecological and social activity is a key feature of its corporate culture. TUI Destination Experiences is the world’s leading provider of destination experiences. With 9,000 employees in 49 countries the company generates a turnover of 700 million Euros. TUI Destination Experiences, based in Palma de Mallorca, offers a broad product portfolio of high-quality destination ex- <?page no="78"?> 78 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times periences such as excursions, activities, tours, transfers and guest services to over 14 million customers. TUI Destination Experiences sold more than six million activities and excursions in 2018. TUI is currently deploying R&D teams to monitor and check the fast development of artificial intelligence (AI) and its possible impact on the global tourist industry. This is a core part of the management’s future strategy to transform the company into a digital and platform provider of a unique connected digital customer experience starting in the shop, through to the airlines, on board their cruise ships, in their hotels and in the destinations. To name but a few initiatives: In April 2018, the company renamed the branch TUI Destination Services as TUI Destination Experiences. The management sees the great potential to grow through more personalised offers for customers in the holiday destinations, driven by greater digitalisation of the business. Therefore in January 2019, TUI Destination Experiences under the guidance of the Digital Acceleration Director started a test how to use augmented reality (AR) in its activities. TUI is working with the Austrian company Mixed Reality I/ O. Its CEO is convinced that XR (Augmented, Mixed and Virtual Reality) will disrupt every aspect of our lives. In particular: “Tourism is full of potential for immersive technologies, whether in virtual reality for planning the holiday or in augmented reality during the stay in the destination.” Yet, even in the internal personal structure the company is taking innovative steps. In August 2018, TUI welcomed its first ever robotic humanoid employee, Pepper 2E (manufactured by the French company SoftBank Robotics), to the new Data Analytics and Machine Learning team based in TUI’s Stockholm office. The humanoid robot has a detailed job description as well as set “personal” goals he will be evaluated on, just as any regular TUI employee. The main responsibility of the Robot Assistant is to inspire innovation, curiosity and technological pioneering. Furthermore, the Robot Assistant will help visitors as well as colleagues and external customers with everyday questions and problems. Humanoid robots have been employed in the hospitality industry for many years, but this case is not only meant to be a test. Incorporating robotics consistently stands for the company’s philosophy to foster curiosity about the future and openness for new technologies (SoftBank, no date; TUI AG, no date). <?page no="79"?> Disruptive Technologies 79 Disruptive Technologies A multitude of disruption-related terms have been used for many years but have recently gained momentum. It is not the intention of this chapter to interpret them in detail. Only a few are highlighted to illustrate their potential impact on event destinations and their future marketing. Artificial intelligence (AI) has become the overall umbrella for disruptive technologies supplied by big data and operated by algorithms within the digital transformation movement. Comparable to human intelligence, AI relies on three pillars - learning from historical data, cognitive problem-solving, and pattern recognition - analysing and deriving predictions from them. AI is not only supposed to solve traditional problems but also offers a range of completely new solutions. The application spectrum is almost unlimited, and new applications are being added on a daily basis (Hannover Messe, 2019). The second step is machine learning, i.e., machines that have the ability to draw knowledge from (digitally) collected and stored data. The Internet of Things (IoT) - machine to machine - is the next step, deployable not only in industry 4.0 activities but also in many other fields, most notably in autonomous transport projects to enable vehicles to communicate independently with each other. 5G. All these technologies require a high-performance IT infrastructure. The new mobile radio technology, 5G, will enable digital communication almost in real time with high data transmission rates of up to 20 Gbit/ s, 100 times faster than the now prevailing 4G/ LTE standard. To highlight the new tremendous advantages of 5G for events of any kind, following is just one of the recent announcements (DFL Deutsche Fußball Liga, 2019). Case study: DFL and Vodafone to bring 5G to the Bundesliga 3 July 2019 - The DFL (Deutsche Fußball Liga) and Vodafone are bringing 5G into the stadium. For the start of the 2019-20 season, the telecommunications group and the DFL are starting a two-year 5G cooperation. In the future, the fifth generation of mobile communications will connect two worlds for football fans: the emotional live experience and the digital flow of information. For this purpose, Vodafone and the DFL are developing a real-time app that makes information and match data available to the fans in the stadium without delay on their smartphones via augmented reality - before, during and after the match. This innovative presentation of statistics has never before been available to spectators in the stadium in this way. For example, fans will now be able to look at a striker who is sprinting towards the rival team’s goal and find out how fast he is. <?page no="80"?> 80 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times In the new season (2019-20), the digital partners will introduce the real-time network in a Bundesliga stadium for the first time: 5G will be available in the Volkswagen Arena of VfL Wolfsburg in the autumn - for the first time in professional football. For football fans, this increases the available network capacity in the stadium by more than 60%. During top Bundesliga matches, up to 500 gigabytes of data rushes through the stadium via the Vodafone network. The tendency is increasing: last year alone, this value increased by approximately 50%. This presents increasing challenges to mobile communications networks: the Bundesliga is a continuous spectator magnet with almost 43,000 fans per match on average. With the start of the 5G network in the stadium, Vodafone and the DFL will also present the first functions of the new real-time app that the partners are developing together. The real-time app makes all additional information available to fans on their smartphones live and in real time via 5G and augmented reality, thus enhancing the stadium experience. The basis for the flow of information in real time is approximately 1,600 match events and 3.6 million positioning points, which the DFL gathers during a Bundesliga match. The changes with 5G and the real-time app are as follows: the data are analysed in real time and transmitted to smartphones without delay via 5G. The app presents the data visually and provides live graphs, statistics and analyses, which were previously available only after the match on TV. For statistics fans, this means accurate real-time analysis instead of delayed slow motion after the match (DFL, 2019). Digital transformation, provided with 5G transmission, is the almost exponentially emerging use of digital technology to solve traditional problems. These disruptive solutions enable inherently new types of innovation and creativity rather than simply enhancing and supporting old methods. The DFL-case study indicates a promising approach: to connect emotional live experience with the digital flow of information. The creative options open a vast array of models and tools for event destinations and their marketing. Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality During the past decade, the implementation of AR has been rather hesitant, whereas VR has been regarded mostly as an innovative tool for digital videogames. Just recently, the appreciation of both technologies has changed (Champion, 2019; iResearch Consulting Group, 2019a; The Ghost Howls, 2019; Aggregage, 2019). The 2019 ITB (Internationale Tourismusbörse Berlin, the leading trade show in tourism) created a platform for virtual and augmented reality, the ITB Virtual Reality Lab, in Hall 10.2 for the first time, showcasing applications <?page no="81"?> Smart Cities 81 and projects for the tourism industry and their appropriate marketing. To underline the wide range of the emerging impact of AR/ VR, an internet platform named VeeR, which aims to create an inclusive international community for sharing high-quality digital VR content, announced 29 events, exhibitions and conferences to take place worldwide in 2019 (VeeR VR Blog, 2018). Industry experts predict a strong push through the recently presented stand-alone headsets, which work without the support of smartphones, tablets or computers. This device will certainly not be the final stage of development. In the broadest sense, the technologies open ways to new marketing concepts using 360-degree-view storytelling, targeted video content, 3-D printing, digital twins and many more options (omnia360, 2019). The starting point is to collect as many details as possible about the customers and their behaviour, attitudes, preferences, wishes, expectations and previous decision-making. On such a database, enabling predictions, some measures can be taken for a personalised immersive approach. Following are examples of how AI with disruptive technologies may be used (Cox, 2017):  Conversational interfaces (learning machines that communicate with humans in natural language, e.g., chatbots)  AI-generated content (automated narratives written by algorithms and based on continuously collected data)  Targeted (personalised) advertising  Visual AI (with enhanced personalised AR and VR; video content)  AI tracked on-boarding, tracking the results of a marketing campaign across all digital devices of a customer Smart Cities A brief definition of smart cities that is easy to remember comes from the European Commission: “A smart city is a place where traditional networks and services are made more efficient with the use of digital and telecommunication technologies for the benefit of its inhabitants and business. A smart city goes beyond the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) for better resource use and less emissions. It means smarter urban transport networks, upgraded water supply and waste disposal facilities and more efficient ways to light and heat buildings. It also means a more interactive and responsive city administration, safer public spaces and meeting the needs of an ageing population.” (Amsterdam Smart City, no date; Chee and Neo, 2018; European Commission, no date-a, para. 1; Roelofs, no date; Whiting, 2019). <?page no="82"?> 82 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times The main clusters of development are as follows:  Digital transformation  Urban environment  Mobility (urban transport network)  Governance and finance  Inclusive and sharing cities To foster the diverse initiatives, the European Innovation Partnership on Smart Cities and Communities (EIP-SCC) has been commissioned by the European Commission. It brings together cities, industries, small and medium enterprises (SMEs), banks, research bodies and others. The Smart City Expo World Congress (SCEWC) was inaugurated in Barcelona as a global showcase in 2011, starting with 6,160 visitors and 118 exhibitors and representatives from over 100 cities. Since then, the SCEWC has taken place every year, and the numbers rocketed to 21,331 visitors, 844 exhibitors and more than 700 cities participating in 2018. Four hundred speakers covered a wealth of essential topics related to the above-mentioned five clusters. Since 2013, spinoff events have taken place on four continents, with 19 local editions adapted to the specific needs and interests of their host cities (Fira de Barcelona, no date). Which innovative projects and solutions will have an impact on cities as event destinations and their marketing? Browsing any documents and publications reveals that the overall aim of the initiatives and prospects is to improve cities for the benefits of their citizens. They keep open how non-residents - and the majority of event attendees - should cope with specific novelties unless they are not harmonised and coordinated on a national or even global level. On March 12, 2019, the following news could be read on the internet. Case study: The Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority LAS VEGAS - The Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority (LVCVA) Board of Directors today made a monumental decision that will revolutionise Southern Nevada’s transportation. The 14-member Board approved a recommendation to select Elon Musk’s The Boring Company (TBC) to design, construct and operate a people mover for the Las Vegas Convention Center via a loop of underground express-route tunnels that could carry passengers in autonomous electric vehicles at high speeds. The innovative project has the potential to connect Downtown, the Las Vegas Convention Center, the Las Vegas Boulevard Resort Corridor, McCarran International Airport and beyond. Currently in the midst of an expansion, the Las Vegas Convention Center will span 200 acres when complete in time for Consumer Electronics Show <?page no="83"?> Urban Mobility 83 (CES) in 2021. Conventioneers walking the facility from end to end would log approximately two miles, creating the need for an on-property guest transportation solution. In 2018, Las Vegas had more than 42 million visitors. The Las Vegas Convention Center hosts more than 1 million convention attendees annually. The Regional Transportation Commission of Southern Nevada carries approximately 12 million passengers per year within the Las Vegas Boulevard Resort Corridor. TBC’s existing proposal indicates that the underground loop system offers reduced total costs, less disruption to pedestrian and vehicle traffic, and faster construction time than traditional ground or above-ground options. The loop will be designed to meet the full spectrum of ridership needs, including demands from future expansions, with a potential capacity of up to 11,000 passengers per hour. The estimated system cost is between $35 million and $55 million depending on route, number of stations and size of stations (Dennis, 2019, para. 1; 3; 8). The Las Vegas example demonstrates that challenges and chances for the event industry include not only promoting a destination but also actively contributing to the development of its future profile. Strange? Not really! IMEX Frankfurt 2019 welcomed the topic of the business and power of placemaking: how business events can act as a catalyst in developing inspiring locations, and IMEX Policy Forum 2019 put future city development front and centre. Carina Bauer, CEO of the IMEX Group, commented: “Placemaking is a concept that’s long been understood and embraced by some city planners and developers alike, but now the meetings and event industry understands the power and importance of being part of these conversations. This year’s agenda reflects what feels like a tipping point: a recognition that the business event industry can - and should - speak up to influence any city planning or placemaking decisions. This year’s Forum will guide by example and show the way.” (Blake and Lewis, 2019, para. 9) Urban Mobility Metropolises and medium-sized cities around the globe are fighting against air pollution, nitrogen oxides, carbonic acid gas, and particulate matter (PM). On 1 January 2005, the EU Guideline on Particulate Matter (PM 10) came into effect with strict value thresholds. Since then, municipalities have initiated mandatory regulations, orders or even restrictions on the traffic of cars and trucks. Cities that are affected by air pollution to an extraordinarily large extent and have therefore already reacted with a number of initiatives, currently banning diesel vehi- <?page no="84"?> 84 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times cles, are Paris, Rome, Moscow, Los Angeles, Mexico City, Beijing, Bangkok, New Delhi and Cairo, all well-known event destinations, to name but a few. Many more cities will follow suit. Another approach is to develop and implement attractive new forms of public transport to eventually reduce the still emerging individual traffic. Among the preconditions are the proliferation and common acceptance of the so-called sharing economy. Among the models that were already introduced some decades ago are car sharing and carpooling. These models have experienced tremendous growth. For example, in China, as of February 2019, the number of registered vehicle sharing companies exceeded 1,600, and the number of sharing vehicles in use was 110,000-130,000 (I Research Consulting Group, 2019b). The following paragraphs illustrate the complexity of inherent problems and are based on the descriptions of the action clusters released by the European Innovation Partnership on Smart Cities and Communities (EIP-SCC). The main goal of the EIP-SCC Sustainable Urban Mobility cluster is to become the largest electric mobility platform in the world. Today, cities face challenges in terms of congestion, lack of space, population growth, air quality, noise, liveability, social inclusion, health, economic development and job creation. Citizens want to be mobile and move from point “a to b” - within and between cities - easily, cheaply, smartly and cleanly. Freight needs to be transported equally easily, cheaply, smartly and cleanly. Expanding infrastructure in the urban environment is almost never an option or a sustainable long-term solution: it is not cost-effective, there is no space, it results in environmental issues and citizens want custom-made and flexible solutions instead of strictly regulated public transport. In the meantime, innovation and competitiveness are crucial for the future of Europe. The large-scale deployment of new mobility services (NMS) is part of the solution in dealing with these challenges. Cooperative intelligent transport systems (C-ITS), connected automated driving (CAM), mobility as a service (MaaS), shared mobility concepts and smart bicycle solutions can contribute to wealthy, healthy, clean, spacious, liveable and accessible cities. The industry has innovative solutions available that have the potential to truly revolutionise the mobility sector. Apart from the speed and extent of these innovations, the integration potential of innovations will further increase their impact on the mobility sector. The integration of these developments in NMS is a game changer for our current mobility system and therefore has a great impact on society and on the way we use public space. “Especially smalland medium-sized cities (50,000-400,000 inhabitants) will profit more from embracing and rolling out these NMS because of larger dependency on car mobility compared to large cities (500,000+) having rail-based public transport services such as metro and trams and a more extensive network of public bus services” (European Commission, no date-a; European Union, no <?page no="85"?> Urban Mobility 85 date-b; European Union, no date-b; Goldsteen and Mermanns, no date). Electrically propelled and autonomous (also named self-driving, driverless, or Robotaxi) vehicles are the core catalysts of the new envisaged mobility (https: / / 360.here.com). A race for prototypes has started among the leading automotive manufacturers, software and hardware providers (e.g., renowned companies in Germany such as Bosch and Continental) and a global flock of ambitious start-ups to present their latest developments and be the first to deliver. Even companies such as Amazon, Google and Apple, whose fame is not coherent with car production at first glance, are active in this new disruptive field. The visionary idea is to end individual car ownership and replace individual transport with new mobility services. These new services, notably mobility on demand (MoD) or mobility as a service (MaaS), in any case prioritising public transport and the prospect of automated traffic with autonomous singleand multiple-occupant driverless vehicles, are envisaged. Striking details can be found in an elaborated study (Gleave et al., 2016) and with a focus on tourism in a white paper (Bainbridge, 2018). The study of the European Parliament published in 2016 (Gleave et al., 2016) emphasises that the European Union is paying increasing attention to automated and connected vehicles, as they could have huge impacts on road safety, travel behaviour and urban development. The study reports on state-of-the-art key research projects and large-scale testing in this area and discusses future pathways and potential impacts of increasing vehicle automation. The following list of recent headlines illustrates the versatility and complexity of the matter.  World’s first self-driving taxi trial begins in Singapore - MIT-spinoff NuTonomy beats Uber to the punch  Apple reportedly partnering with Volkswagen to make self-driving employee shuttles after failing to secure deals with BMW and Mercedes  Robot valets are now parking cars in one of France’s busiest airports - Stanley Robotics says its self-driving valets are more efficient than their human equivalents (at Lyon-Saint-Exupéry airport)  New York City is finally getting its own self-driving shuttle service. Boston-based Optimus Ride will deploy an autonomous shuttle service at the Brooklyn Navy Yard later  Uber is buying Middle Eastern ride-sharing rival Careem for $3.1 billion. (The company operates in 98 cities across 14 countries)  Local Motors wants to prove 3D-printed self-driving shuttles are safe. An exclusive look at the first crash test footage of the start-up’s Olli self-driving bus.  Toyota’s self-driving cars can now fit more junk in their trunks. The automaker will reveal its latest test vehicle at CES in Las Vegas <?page no="86"?> 86 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times  Audi pulls the curtain back on its self-driving car program. - Autonomous Intelligent Driving is to Audi as Cruise is to GM, says the German automaker’s CTO  Ford’s self-driving cars are really good, but are they good enough to win? (The Verge, no date) There are different levels of the development of driving automation, from electric cars through driver assistance systems to fully automated driving, but almost all are still in the testing phase, mostly in California, Arizona and other regions of the United States. In China, testing is taking place in 34 cities throughout the country, including Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Hangzhou, and Chongqing (Feifei, 2019). It is not surprising that the responses switch between two viewpoints, from hype to hysteria and from mercy to curse. Continental’s Mobility-Study 2018 reveals that the majority of surveyed Germans dislike car-sharing; only one-third would use Robotaxis, but 70% say they would prefer the existing public transport system. In contrast, four of five (younger) Chinese people can imagine riding a driverless car and buying one as status symbol if they had the money (Continental AG, 2018). Relying on their (optimistic) experience with car sharing, Mercedes and BMW, although they have been fierce competitors as carmakers, plan to establish a new joint venture to develop and serve an overall future mobility concept. They boast of already having disposability of 20,000 sharing cars and 60 million contacts to drivers worldwide, with 2,600 cars and 500,000 registered clients in Berlin alone. Tentatively named Jurbey (“Your urban journey”), the new mobility brand will coordinate new activities and be accessible through appropriate apps, such as car sharing, ride hailing, parking services, charging services and on-demand mobility services. The planned project cost is 1 billion euros, and 1,000 new jobs are expected to be created at the headquarters in Berlin (Howard, 2019; Niedermeyer, 2019). The Urban Air Mobility (UAM) Initiative of the European Commission is an even more ambitious project. The canton of Geneva was the first to join the initiative in May 2018, followed by Hamburg one month later. Since then, almost a dozen European cities and regions have joined (European Commission, 2018; European Union, no date-c). In March 2019, Airbus, in cooperation with SIE- MENS, presented its newest version of City Airbus called Demonstrator (Stüber, 2018; The Vertical Flight Society, no date). It is a 4-passenger, autonomously piloted eVTOL (electric vertical take-off and landing aircraft). Ingolstadt (Audi) in Germany is one of several European cities (including Hamburg, Toulouse, Antwerp, Brussels and Geneva) that will test the aircraft as part of the European <?page no="87"?> Aviation 87 Union for Urban Air Mobility initiative. The commercial introduction of the City Airbus is planned for 2023. Recently, Frankfurt Airport joined the German company Volocopter GmbH to develop concepts for the ground infrastructure and operations required for air taxi services at airports (The Vertical Flight Society, 2018). The company’s claim that “The best way to predict the future is to invent it” manifests its motivation and activities. It boasts of having built and successfully tested “the world’s first manned, fully electric and safe VTOL” and has committed to offering autonomous and on-demand mobility services between vital intersections in urban areas. As one of the suggested solutions in Frankfurt, transit between the airport and Messe Frankfurt fairgrounds is being considered. Although conveniently situated at the crossroads of the A-3 and A-5 motorways, both sites are suffering, especially during rush hours, from torturous and time-consuming traffic congestion. Yet another topical news (as of September 2019): “Stuttgart sees first urban flight of Volocopter in Europe”. The flight, organised in partnership by Daimler AG and Volocopter, was the highlight of the two-day event “Vision Smart City - Experience future mobility today”, also part of an initiative of a research project by the Technical University of Stuttgart to examine the social acceptance of air taxis (Daimler AG, 2019). Aviation Who remembers that 50 years ago, in January 1969, the first civil supersonic aircraft, the legendary Concorde, took off for its first flight from Toulouse, France? Its glory days lasted only until 2003. Since then, the vision of supersonic flights for business and holiday travel seemed to have been consigned to the grave. However, this fate is not final. During the well-known Farnborough Airshow (UK) in July 2018, Boeing, the world’s largest aerospace company, announced that it was setting up an organisation, Boeing NeXt (The Boeing Company, 2019), to leverage its research into autonomous flight and advanced propulsion and explore new transportation markets, such as on-demand cargo drones, urban air taxis and even hypersonic airliners. The company’s management sees reasons for these opportunities in a rapidly evolving market, for example, in the facts that by 2030, the population in the top 30 largest cities worldwide will grow by 150 million and that commuting and delivering goods will come to a near standstill in the resulting constant traffic jams. Cities will not be able to cope with these challenges because they are running out of space in urban and suburban areas; either they use the short space for traffic or for building dwellings for new residents. In January 2019, Boeing NeXT reported that its electric autonomous passenger air vehicle prototype had completed a controlled take-off, hover and land- <?page no="88"?> 88 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times ing during its first flight test. The management is convinced that its eVTOL aircraft will soon become deployable in practice (The Boeing Company, 2019). As part of its broader Elevate Aviation Initiative, Uber plans to operate a network of small electric aircraft in numerous cities worldwide to enable four-person ridesharing flights in densely populated urban markets. The aircraft not only delivers a technical perspective for future eVTOL designs but also takes the customer ride-sharing perspective into new dimensions of urban air transit (The Vertical Flight Society, 2018). To return to supersonic flights across the globe, since February 2019, Boeing NeXT has been partnering with Aerion Supersonic (Aerion Supersonic, no datea, b), Reno, NV (USA), to accelerate supersonic travel and introduce it into new markets. The latter company has designed a supersonic AS2 12-passenger business jet that will be able to fly at speeds up to Mach 1.4, or approximately 1,000 miles per hour. Up to 70% faster than present-day business jets, the AS2 will save approximately three hours on a transatlantic flight while meeting environmental performance requirements. On its website, Aerion Supersonic outlines some of the potential flight connections, e.g., from New York to Shanghai, Singapore (with a fuel stop in Petropavlovsk, Russia), Sydney, Cape Town and Dubai and from London to Beijing, Sydney, Cape Town, Buenos Aires, New York, Los Angeles and many more destinations. The first flight is scheduled for 2023. Sustainability Concerns about climate change and corporate social responsibility (CSR) are among the foremost demands influencing the management of events and thus have an impact on event destinations. These concerns are gaining momentum. For example, in 2014, the “Directive on the disclosure of non-financial and diversity information” (Directive 2014/ 95/ EU) (CSR Europe and GRI, 2017, p. 5) of the European Parliament and of the Council set a clear course towards greater business transparency and accountability related to social and environmental issues. The following information must be provided:  Environmental performance  Social and employee matters  Human rights performance  Corruption and anti-bribery matters Although the obligation to disclose a non-financial statement should apply only to those large undertakings which are public-interest entities and to those publicinterest entities, which are parent undertakings of a large group, in each case having an average number of employees in excess of 500, in the case of a group on a consolidated basis”, the consequences are widespread. The expected trans- <?page no="89"?> Summary 89 parency and public interest will cause not only the mentioned big enterprises but also smaller companies and associations to focus on these issues. However, many people in the event industry have not realised the consequences. Most notably, mandatory environmental performance will have a great impact on the event industry. Since travelling is a major constituent element of most events, the “carbon footprint” will gain increasing attention, not only by the organisers or the participants (reason to attend) of the event but also by social and public media to prove the ethical responsibility of the industry. Three crucial trends of future events are becoming apparent (Rück, 2018): Regionalisation: Scaling back the travel distance between origin and destination, thus avoiding carbon emissions, will become a key argument for the choice of a destination and location. Metropolisation: Metropolitan areas typically have a dense public transport network (commuter trains, underground, busses, taxis, etc.) and adequate accommodation options concentrated near event venues. On the other hand, they must cope with traffic congestion and emissions. Therefore, as smart cities, they will strive for solutions such as electric cars and trucks and autonomous mobility as a service (MaaS) to meet the mandatory ecological standards quickly, efficiently and effectively. Shorter events: Since the former practice of long-distance travel will be rendered irrelevant by the above-mentioned trends, the duration of many events will be reduced; e.g., attendees may arrive in the morning and leave in the evening of a single day. As a result, support (social) functions, mostly taking place in the evening, may be eliminated. It is likely that due to the sustained attention of NGOs and the obligation to be politically correct, event organisers will align themselves with these trends to maintain their reputation of flawless responsible environmental performance in the future. There is no doubt that this attitude will have a deep impact on event destination strategies (e.g., must “flying shame” be taken into account and how? ). Summary Digital transformation as a complex joint action is the almost exponentially spreading use of digital technology to solve traditional problems. These disruptive solutions enable inherently new types of innovation and creativity rather than simply enhancing and supporting traditional methods. This chapter cannot cover all essential aspects; thus, only some have been mentioned here for illustrative purposes. Attention could also have been paid to matters such as blockchain (e.g., implemented in smart city measurements, it would allow non-resi- <?page no="90"?> 90 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times dents to pay all debts with cryptocurrencies, thus avoiding the exchange of foreign money; Andrews, 2019; Blockchain Centre Vilnius, no date) or facial recognition, used to identify people to direct them and finally keep them under surveillance. The future operational capabilities of artificial intelligence open a vast array of models and tools for event destinations and their marketing. All stakeholders in the event industry - companies, organisations, associations, organisers, PCOs, CVBs, DMOs, venues, suppliers and the related destination authorities - must face the associated challenges and jointly scrutinise whether and how artificial intelligence approaches can be turned into practice. In addition, human scepticism, opposition or simple anxiety about the unfamiliar novelties, which in many cases will be real game changers, must be considered. Therefore, the event industry must make meticulous efforts to build trust in its innovative strategies. A key challenge in the fast-moving world, marked by volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity, is the irreversible nature of the progress, which does not happen at the same pace. The future comes more quickly than expected, and nobody knows how long the process will last. Therefore, the most challenging aspect is the period when the previous technologies are still occurring, albeit at a diminishing rate, and the new disruptive concepts have come into practice with full force. Will a race occur among cities, regions and nations to determine which will be the first to adopt AI, which will become the champion in terms of being the most advanced? The suggested ambitious timeline of artificial intelligence and disruptive technologies becoming reality is early 2020 to 2030. Nevertheless, each project must obtain the approval (technical, societal, ethical, responsibility, insurance and legal and regulatory) (Singh, 2019) of the government of a country, state or city. Due to the expanded and diversified possibilities of obtaining personal data with the predominant disruptive technologies, the event organiser (PCO) will be able to gather information about his attendees’ profiles. Will he or she be willing to share that knowledge with the destination marketing organisations to enable them to customise their information and services properly to meet the needs and expectations of the incoming participants? Are all foreign visitors prepared and willing to become acquainted with the societal mobility concept of a destination? Sharing mentality has not been everybody’s preference, so what about event attendees who want to retain their personal, individual sovereign attitude in a foreign destination? If they want to immerse themselves in the area of digital transformation, how can they download the appropriate apps or obtain the necessary devices? Will the event organiser or the CVB provide them? Given people’s different IQs and willingness and capability to adapt to new circumstances, care and attention must be devoted to the authenticity, reliability and trustworthiness of the introduction and communication of disruptive initiatives. <?page no="91"?> Summary 91 In 5G networks, up to one million terminal devices should be able to transmit and receive information per square kilometre. Will humans and their future behaviour be closed in on artificial intelligence options and become the controlled appendices of machines? Will we experience a comeback of more devoted human elements in event services and destination marketing and communication as a consequence to narrow down feared intrusion into privacy? Many more questions remain with no firm answers for the time being. The issues outlined for tourism by Dr. Song Rui of WTCF Research at the 2019 ITB Convention in Berlin, can in principle be taken into account by all event destination stakeholders (ITB Convention 2019):  Artificial intelligence increases the operational efficiency of tourism.  Tourism will be one of the main sectors for the application of VR/ AR technology.  Blockchains will change the payment system, credit system and service system of tourism.  Human-computer interaction techniques will affect tourist industry development in many ways.  The new energy revolution effectively supports the sustainable development of tourism.  GIS technology enables a scientific approach to tourism analysis and service delivery.  The Internet of Things will change the service processes and structure of tourism communication and distribution.  Cloud computing will enhance the digital management and digital marketing of tourism.  High-end management and technology talents are currently insufficient.  Tourism has started to change from a labour-intensive industry into capitalintensive and technology-intensive industry.  The digital transformation requires high-end management and technology talent with high-level skills and new ways of thinking.  As new technologies appear and penetrate the tourism industry, the industry demand for high-end technical talent will be very high, and the gap in this aspect will be large.  Because the demands of customers for tourism services are increasingly diversified and customised, future tourist management personnel need more extensive management abilities and business liability. In conclusion, the major challenge for event destination marketing is not to predict the future but to invent it in a sophisticated, attentive, open-minded and unhesitant manner. The chances are great that professionals in this area will meet this challenge. <?page no="92"?> 92 Marketing Meeting and Event Destinations in Disruptive Times Questions  What does digital transformation imply for event destination marketing and future strategy concepts?  What kind of AR/ VR tools should event destination marketing develop to offer all relevant information? How can the personal and even the “nice to have” expectations of an individual participant be determined (by using AI)?  What insights are provided by ICCA statistics concerning meetings and participants? Select two cities of your choice and compare their websites. Are any significant effects of the six GPCI functions noticeable?  What is your personal opinion with regard to AI and disruptive technologies? How can the challenges be turned into chances for marketing event destinations? Further Readings  HERE Deutschland GmbH (2018) How autonomous vehicles could relieve or worsen traffic congestion (white paper). Available at: https: / / en.calameo.com/ read/ 003329972e56c79d00991 (Accessed: 30 July 2019).  Talwar, R., Wells, S., Whittington, A., Koury, A. and Romero, M. (2017) Beyond Genuine Stupidity: Ensuring AI Serves Humanity. Fast Future Publishing.  Talwar, R. and Hancock, T. (2010) Convention 2020 - The Future of Exhibitions, Meetings and Events. Available at: https: / / portal.imex-frankfurt.com/ documents/ Convention2020Phase1SurveyReportMarch2010.pdf (Accessed: 8 May 2019).  Whittington, A., Koury, A., Calle, H., Talwar, R. and Wells, S. (2019) 20 Ways Business Meetings and Events Might Change in the Next Five Years. Available at: https: / / innovationmanagement.se/ 2019/ 04/ 18/ 20-ways-business-meetingsand-events-might-change-in-the-next-five-years/ (Accessed: 20 May 2019). Bibliography Aerion Supersonic (no date-a) Time Machine. Available at: https: / / www.aerionsupersonic.com/ timemachine/ (Accessed: 20 May 2019). Aerion Supersonic (no date-b) Aerion & Boeing Take The Fast Lane. Partnership Ushers in New Era of Supersonic Mobility. Available at: https: / / www.aerionsupersonic.com/ (Accessed: 22 May 2019). Aggregage, Inc. (2019) Virtual Reality Pulse. News & Insights Driving The VR, AR & MR Industries. Available at: https: / / www.virtualrealitypulse.com/ 2020/ industry/ (Accessed: 18 May 2019). <?page no="93"?> Bibliography 93 Amsterdam Smart City (no date) Join our open collective, increase your impact and start building the city of tomorrow. Available at: https: / / amsterdamsmartcity.com/ (Accessed: 20 May 2019). Andrews, J. (2019) Seoul: the blockchain city. Available at: https: / / cities-today.com/ seoul-theblockchain-city/ (Accessed: 20 May 2019). Bainbridge, A. (2018) Autonomous vehicles & auto-tours. What is an auto-tour and how will autonomous vehicles impact tours, attractions & cities? Available at: http: / / www.destinationcto. com/ docs/ AutoTour.pdf (Accessed: 15 May 2019). Blake, E. and Lewis, C. (2019) The business and power of placemaking: how business events can act as a catalyst in developing inspiring locations. IMEX Policy Forum 2019 puts future city development front and centre. Available at: https: / / www.imexexhibitions.com/ media/ press/ the-businessand-power-of-placemaking-how-business-events-can-act-as-a-catalyst-in (Accessed: 14 May 2019). Blockchain Centre Vilnius (no date) Welcome to Blockchain Centre Vilnius. A global hub for blockchain-related services with an additional focus on community building and education. Available at: https: / / bcgateway.eu/ (Accessed: 20. May 2019). Champion, E. M. 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(no date) New Mobility Services (NMS). Available at: https: / / eusmartcities.eu/ initiatives/ 838/ description (Accessed: 17 May 2019). Hannover Messe (no date) Machine learning: artificial intelligence in Industrie 4.0. Available at: https: / / www.hannovermesse.de/ en/ news/ key-topics/ artificial-intelligence/ (Accessed: 16 May 2019). Hannover Messe (2019) Five facts about 5G. Available at: https: / / www.hannovermesse.de/ en/ news/ news-overview/ news-details_115270-504194.xhtml (Accessed: 16 May 2019). Howard, B. (2019) Frenemies: BMW, Mercedes Prepare ‘Jurbey’ Joint Mobility Service. Available at: https: / / www.extremetech.com/ extreme/ 284553-frenemies-bmw-mercedes-prepare-jurbeyjoint-mobility-service (Accessed: 19 May 2019). International Air Transport Association (2018a) 20 Year Passenger Forecast. Available at: https: / / www.iata.org/ publications/ store/ Pages/ 20-year-passenger-forecast.aspx (Accessed: 24 May 2019). International Air Transport Association (2018b) Dossier: Preparing for take-off. Available at: https: / / www.airlines.iata.org/ analysis/ dossier-preparing-for-take-off (Accessed: 24 May 2019). <?page no="95"?> Bibliography 95 International Air Transport Association (2018c) RFID: Back to the future. Available at: https: / / www.airlines.iata.org/ analysis/ rfid-back-to-the-future (Accessed: 16 May 2019). International Congress and Convention Association (2017) ICCA Statistics Report. Country & City Rankings. Public Abstract. Available at: https: / / www.iccaworld.org/ knowledge/ benefit.cfm? benefitid=4036 (Accessed: 10 May 2019). International Congress and Convention Association (2018) A Modern History of International Association Meetings - UPDATE: 1963-2017. Available at: https: / / www.iccaworld.org/ knowledge/ benefit.cfm? benefitid=5230 (Accessed: 10 May 2019). iResearch Consulting Group (2019a) Revenue of China’s Online Video Industry Totaled 96.27 Bn Yuan in 2018. 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Multisensory communication enables the more effective communication of messages, and insights from business, emotional, and cognitive psychology make it possible to improve the efficiency of event content. In light of sensory overload, increasing competition between marketing events as communication instruments and as entertainment events is an inevitable development for professional event management. The planning and prediction of visitor perceptions, emotions and memories are ultimately the central aspects of modern event planning. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: event psychology, event management, event marketing, multisensory, live communication, manipulation Introduction and Definition The visitor is indisputably the most important determinant of every event; thus, human psychology is inherently omnipresent. In the past two centuries, brain research and modern psychology have made enormous progress, enabling human behaviour and human decisions to be better understood (Camerer, Loewenstein and Prelec, 2005; Scheier and Held, 2009, p. 21). In 2002, for the first time, the Nobel Prize for Economics was awarded to a psychologist - Daniel Kahneman - for his research in the field of decision-making. The event experience originates in the mind of the person who experiences it. In this context, it is necessary to determine the importance of research on visitors’ needs and behaviours and how an event planner can access the precise participant minds in which an event originates and sustainably influence them. <?page no="98"?> 98 Event Psychology - An Interdisciplinary Approach Generally, the following four basic goals can be identified in psychology (Evans and Rooney, 2008, p. 9):  Describe: Data collection of the observable conditions in which a certain behaviour happens  Explain: Determining the conditions and causes of a certain behaviour  Predict: Using information gained in the past to forecast a future situation  Control: Purposefully causing, provoking, upholding or ending behaviour as well as specifying its magnitude In particular, the last two are suitable for use in an event context. Psychology itself is differentiated in various disciplines. For example, general psychology is independent of the person and can thus be used in the same way for all people. This provides fundamental information about how human perception, information processing, information assessment and information retention generally work. Psychological research and applications encompass fundamental fields such as general, biological, developmental, personality and social psychology. From these results, application-oriented disciplines such as psychology of perception, cognitive psychology, psychology of learning, organisational psychology, environmental psychology and social psychology emerge. Event psychology creates an intersection of these fields and is thus an interdisciplinary approach (see Figure 4 “Blossom of event psychology”). Further differentiations and applied perspectives can be defined that currently extend from, for example, health psychology to organisational psychology, media psychology, sports psychology and pedagogical psychology to traffic psychology, environmental psychology, and forensic psychology (dgps.de, 2019). Along with the increasing popularity of the discipline of psychology as a whole, this development reflects the ever-growing significance of psychology in the framework of different practical fields. Insights from diverse psychological areas also allow for reflection in an event context and enable an overlap in event management. Similarly, the relevant research questions in an immediate event context can be researched with the methodical adaption of individual psychological disciplines. These contribute, again, to the expansion of the relevant findings through the transfer of other psychological disciplines. The advantage of psychological reflection on an event concept is the prediction of the concept’s impact. In this way, predictions can be made about the expected subjective perception of the participant. This is of central importance because the so-called uno actu principle applies to events. A perception that has already happened cannot be subsequently revised because communication always takes place in real time. Both perception and environment psychology play a special role in the desired multisensory communication. <?page no="99"?> Characteristics of Psychological Disciplines 99 Event psychology is an interdisciplinary application of psychological and neurological findings to achieve the goals of an event. In addition, derived from social psychology, the human behaviour that takes place in connection with (large) events - such as group dynamics and flight behaviour in situations of panic - can be attributed to the extended field of event psychology and thus subsumed under this term (Ronft, 2013). Fig. 4: Blossom of event psychology (Source: Ronft, 2020) By purposefully using psychological aspects during events (i.e., by applying event psychology), it is possible to significantly influence the success of the event (Wrobel and Winnen, 2014). Goals can be better reached, concepts better finalised, safety concepts appropriately adapted and organisational teamwork improved. Event psychology can not only influence the participants of events but also all involved, such as organisers, service providers, media spectators and other responsible parties. Thus, event psychology is expected to be an important part of the future of professional event management. Characteristics of Psychological Disciplines The fundamental psychological disciplines deal with the elemental mechanisms of human experiences and behaviour. Psychological disciplinary theories and models supply the foundation for the applied psychological disciplines. This means that they are significantly responsible for the models and theories that are ultimately used in applied psychology to explain and change human behaviour. <?page no="100"?> 100 Event Psychology - An Interdisciplinary Approach 5.2.1 General psychology General psychology deals with fundamental mental processes, mechanisms and functions of human experiences and behaviours and attempts to arrive at conclusions that are valid for as many people as possible. General psychology investigates these topics, preferably with the help of experimental methods, in order to discover causal connections. The following fields are investigated in general psychology:  Psychology of perception (reception, allocation and processing of perceived information)  Psychology of attention (selection of relevant information due to limited processing ability)  Psychology of learning (changes in behaviour patterns due to experiencebased learning)  Psychology of memory (saving perceived information and keeping it available)  Cognitive psychology (ability to judge, decide and solve problems)  Psychology of emotion (change of state due to objects or occurrences)  Psychology of motivation and volition (reasons for behaviour and goal achievement) 5.2.2 Social psychology Allport describes social psychology as an attempt to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other people (Allport, 1985). The person is not viewed and analysed as a single person but instead in terms of their social surroundings. The research investigates how social surroundings affect the individual person and how individuals affect their social surroundings. This view corresponds better with the definition of Smith and Mackie than with that of Allport: Social psychology is the scientific study of the effect of social and cognitive processes and of how individuals perceive, influence and relate to others (Smith and Mackie, 2007). Individuals often act in a social framework according to generally accepted social norms. These norms are determined by the reciprocal influence of individuals. However, different social environments have different norms, which can lead to problems when an individual enters a social environment that is different from his or her usual social environment. Classic topics of social psychology are, for example, studies on social comparisons, social interactions, friendships and romantic relationships, feelings of attraction, leadership behaviour, stereotyping and discrimination, and cooperation or conflicts between and within groups. <?page no="101"?> Characteristics of Psychological Disciplines 101 5.2.3 Differential psychology Another wide field is differential psychology, or personality psychology. This discipline focuses on interindividual differences. To determine and purposefully use this knowledge, further information regarding the target audience, such as traits and characteristics, is needed. In this case, the more one knows about the target group, the more purposeful the influence is. However, an optimal application is possible only when both the common findings of general psychology and those of differential psychology are considered. For emotions, there are fundamental mechanisms from general psychology; however, the mechanism depends on the individual whose stimulus leads to a particular concrete effect (Revelle, Wilt and Condon, 2011). 5.2.4 Psychology of perception The psychology of perception deals with the intake, supply and processing of perceived information. The perception accordingly becomes the information processing process through which individuals gain knowledge from themselves and their environment. The goal of perception is to understand each of the steps in the perception process that lead to the behaviour reactions of perception, recognition and action. Perception is subject to constant changes; it is a dynamic process. In this way, for example, the perception of the same thing changes as soon as a person views it from another perspective. Perception is also susceptible to subjectivity. Every single person has his or her own subjective perception and thus his or her individual picture of the environment that can deviate from that of another. At the same time, subjective perception is often seen as objective, which can lead to conflicts. Furthermore, perception is selectively chosen, which means that not every perception that a person can perceive is actually perceived (Grondin, 2016). 5.2.5 Environmental psychology The field of environmental psychology is a special but meaningful discipline, especially in the business context and in event psychology. This discipline examines the interaction of the environment and people. This includes questions about the effects that space, architecture, or city planning have on people, including the effects exerted by interior design and environmental features. The concrete findings are used, in particular, for the optimisation of environmental elements such as light, sound, colour and temperature to influence human experience and, where appropriate, behaviour (Fleury-Bahi, Pol and Navarro, 2017; Stokols and Altman, 1987). 5.2.6 Cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology deals with the nature of human intelligence and its functionality as well as the intellectual processes with which happenings are recognised and understood. Cognitive psychology specifically deals with the internal <?page no="102"?> 102 Event Psychology - An Interdisciplinary Approach functions of human understanding and the fundamental mechanisms of human thought. In contrast to the psychology of perception, cognitive psychology deals less with how something is perceived than with how it is processed in the brain. (Galotti, 2009). Due to information processing (cognition), an individual determines how he or she will decide and act, given that the action is not expected to be a direct reaction to a stimulus. In this connection, an individual also reverts to information about his or her subjective environment. In cognitive psychology, a person’s thoughts, which are generated through cognition, can be the result of an action or can initiate an action. Furthermore, human thought distortions are part of social or cognitive psychology. As mentioned earlier, the Nobel Prize for Economics was awarded to Daniel Kahneman in 2002 for the experimental psychological foundation of the socalled prospect theory, a cognitive distortion effect (Kahneman, 2013; Kahneman and Tversky, 1979; Tversky and Kahneman, 1992). 5.2.7 Biological psychology Biological psychology addresses the interaction between body and psyche. This includes the facilitation of basic knowledge about the structure and functionality of the human body, especially the nervous system and the brain as the central organ for mental processes. Furthermore, biological psychology deals with the transfer of knowledge about the so-called psychophysiological methods to measure physical activity, such as brain activity, activity of the cardiovascular system and muscles. Findings from studies of genetics, animal experiments and neurological and neurophysiological patients with brain damage have added to the knowledge base of this branch of psychology. Finally, psychosomatic processes such as pain processing, sleep behaviour, eating and drinking behaviour, and sexual behaviour are exemplary fields of study in biological psychology. Owing to the close connection of emotions, memories, and speech with neuronal processes, these aspects are also topics of research in biological psychology (Breedlove, Rosenzweig and Watson, 2007). Goals and Effectiveness The fundamental goal of the psychological optimisation of an event is, from the perspective of the organiser, increasing the communicative effectiveness and, from the perspective of the participant, optimising the customer experience. The format of each event, irrespective of whether it is a public or corporate event, pursues a certain communicative goal. This can, for example, be the goal of entertaining the event participant in the leisure industry or the facilitation of product knowledge and brand loyalty in a business context. The reflection of the separate event elements against the backdrop of psychological effectiveness in <?page no="103"?> Goals and Effectiveness 103 comparison with the use of resources determined in this way can lead to a psychologically optimised and thus more efficient event concept. 5.3.1 Enhancement of efficiency of live communication Events, with dramaturgy, staging, and storytelling, are an instrument of communication that can impart not only information but also experiences. In contrast to factual information - so-called semantic knowledge - events are saved in the episodic memory. This causes experience-oriented messages to be remembered longer, and in addition, the emotions associated with the experience are conserved. So-called live communication allows direct contact with all human sensory channels, in contrast to alternative communication media. The goal is to achieve congruent, multisensory communication. To utilise the potential of professional live communication, as many senses as possible should send congruent information to the brain in order to create a neurological amplification effect - so-called multisensory enhancement. In addition, diverse manipulation effects and phenomena are directly transferred to the event context. For example, various theories, ranging from classical approaches such as the broken-window theory (Wilson and Kelling, 1982) to priming and framing effects to the current behavioural economics findings such as the so-called IKEA effect (Norton, Mochon and Ariely, 2012), prove the immediate relevance of the presentation of (marketing) events and should be considered. 5.3.2 Specific relevance for professional event management Experiences are not objective but instead represent the subjective awareness procedures of the recipient. Accordingly, each stimulus must be planned and its effects predicted as reliably as possible. This is where event psychology and the targeted multisensory communication come into play. Experiences are unique and depend on the situational framework that we create and, at best, control. A multiplier effect is only conditionally possible because the experience cannot be given directly to uninvolved third parties; instead, it can only be reported. Thus, experiences must come into being in the location where they are planned. However, it is important that the event experience starts from the beginning of the communication, that is, the pre-event phase. A good possibility is provided as early as the haptic congruency of the invitation. For example, the invitation to a sailing event can be printed on a piece of sailcloth, or the invitation to a wine event can appear on a piece of oak branded with the event information. The message and story of the event begin in the preliminary stages. <?page no="104"?> 104 Event Psychology - An Interdisciplinary Approach 5.3.3 Specific relevance for brand communication In the case of brand communication, the corporate identity must be experienced as much as possible through the event. Multisensory communication is one of the significant means of providing such experience. The congruency of the individual sensory perceptions - content congruency - is especially important but often is not applied correctly in practice. The haptic perception should concur with the visual and olfactory perceptions, but such attempts often fail due to overlooked details. For example, a brand presentation that aims to convey high quality can be contradicted by writing utensils that appear cheap or an event location with an incongruent smell. 5.3.4 Specific relevance for trade fairs Trade fairs are a typical live-communication instrument, and accordingly, the findings can be used in this field. However, it is of great importance to remember that the customer only spends a short time at the stand and thus must be convinced in the shortest time possible. The presentation of the trade fair stand itself serves as a type of acquisition instrument to obtain the attention of the trade fair visitor. If the presentation is not attractive in the true sense of the word - even inviting - then there is not even direct communication with the potential customer. A coherent and concise appearance that wins visitors’ attention and communicates the brand or company message in the shortest possible time is necessary. That is why trade fair stands present a special challenge because all the elements must display their properties in the shortest time possible. Accordingly, reflection on psychological effectiveness is indispensable, and there is no room to lose potential effectiveness. Influence on Event Participants 5.4.1 General conditions Manipulation can be specified as influencing decisions without the decisionmaker’s awareness. People’s decisions can be selectively influenced with the help of manipulation effects. These effects originate in several disciplines, such as social or cognitive psychology and are examined in applied fields, such as advertising psychology and behavioural economics. However, transfers to the event context can also take place and are needed. A person must make certain decisions while participating in an event. These could be, for example, the decision to participate in the event, how long to stay at the event or how much money to spend at the event. Manipulation effects can specifically influence these types of emotional and cognitive processes, which are made before, during and after the event. Thus, in ideal circumstances, there are advantages for the organiser, the process and the success of the event. <?page no="105"?> Influence on Event Participants 105 Another aspect of manipulation is that the more information is available about a target audience, the more specific the influence is. Manipulation effects, both general and specific to an individual, can influence the perception and behaviour of people. The effects can also be subliminal, subtle, and not directly perceived by the participant. With regard to the entire positive event experience, it is important that some thought is given to when the target audience will encounter what stimuli and what reactions such encounters will create. This enables reflection about the set goals and, if necessary, adaptation. Other effects, such as price policy differentiations, are, in contrast, noticeable and familiar to the participant due to the advertising psychology used in retail. In any case, it is important to avoid reactance effects - when the participant feels that his or her free decisionmaking ability is limited. Gentle and low-reactance behavioural influence is also known as nudging in social fields. Successful direction requires the necessary background knowledge from a psychological point of view. In addition, the goals, such as what the participant takes from the event, and the aspired output or outcome should be kept in mind. When both requirements are met, the planner can deliberate how to achieve higher participant involvement, which in turn depends on the individual. The multisensory address is, with regard to meeting both requirements, the most appropriate instrument and guarantees the most efficient use of the available resources. However, as soon as the sensory channels are not addressed congruently with the content, the available communication effect falls short. This type of potential remains undetermined at many events. A clear, multisensory congruent coding of brand or company messages is the necessary prerequisite for a targeted sensory address. 5.4.2 Examples of psychological manipulation effects There are diverse manipulation effects from psychology and behavioural economics that can be used in event contexts. For example, the already mentioned IKEA effect again highlights that the event participants should become active in some aspect of the event. The collective result (such as a model, finished concept or decision) will always be rated as better and more valuable when the participant is involved than when the participant was not active himor herself. To name another example of psychological pricing, the framing effect can be used when judging a price. Of the following choices, which is likely to be considered more appealing? Variant A: A musical producer demands a surcharge of NN% on the weekend, or Variant B: A musical producer gives a discount of NN% on weekdays? In Variant A, the reference price for the customer is the price on weekdays and thus reflects the economic value. Accordingly, the customer perceives the surcharge as an unfair additional cost because the provision of services for the musical can obviously be carried out for price X on weekdays. In the converse per- <?page no="106"?> 106 Event Psychology - An Interdisciplinary Approach ception of Variant B, the weekend price is the preferred price and is perceived as normal. The lower weekday price is psychologically seen as reduced. In Variant B, both weekend and weekday visitors are more satisfied, while the weekend visitors in Variant A feel that they are being treated unfairly. Another typical psychological effect is the so-called intrusion error. Since our human memories are not read-only, they can be rewritten with alternative plausible information, or memory gaps can be filled with untrue information. Concrete manipulation instruments in the event context can be in the manner of press releases, post-reporting or after-show videos that are used to specifically instil memories of the organiser after the presentation. In addition to these examples, there are numerous effects, heuristics and biases in various fields (see Table 3) that are beyond the scope of this chapter. It is difficult to clearly differentiate the different effects. Some effects are overlapping, and the theories behind them are disjointed. A detailed explanation of each effect is not possible in this publication, but references for further readings are attached in the Appendix. Tab. 3: Summary and categorisation of selected psychological effects and phenomena with potential relevance in the event management context General psychological phenomena Decision-making, belief and behavioural biases Memory biases Social biases Action bias Ambiguity effect Bizarreness effect Above-the-average effect / illusory superiority Anchoring Attentional bias Confirmation bias Actor-observer bias Assembly bonus effect Attraction effect / decoy effect Consistency bias Audience effect / social facilitation Barnum-Forer effect Availability bias Context effect Authority bias Bias blind spot Ben Franklin effect Cross-race effect Automation bias Birthday-number effect Choice-supportive bias Cryptomnesia Bandwagon effect Boomerang effect Decision fatigue Egocentric bias Broken-window theory Cocktail-party effect Declinism Fading affect bias Bystander effect Contrast effect Denomination effect Google effect Cheerleader effect Dissimilarity between objects Empathy gap Hindsight bias Courtesy bias <?page no="107"?> Influence on Event Participants 107 General psychological phenomena Decision-making, belief and behavioural biases Memory biases Social biases Domain dependence Focusing effect Humour effect False consensus effect Door-in-the-face technique Functional fixedness Intrusion error False uniqueness bias Dunning-Kruger effect Hot-hand fallacy Levels-of-processing effect Fundamental attribution error Duration neglect Hyperbolic discounting List-length effect Groupthink Endowment effect Illusory correlation Misinformation effect Herd instinct False-fame effect Illusory truth effect Modality effect Illusion of transparency Foot-in-the-door technique Law of the instrument Mood-congruent memory bias Ingroup bias Framing effect Mental accounting Pareidolia Naïve cynicism Halo effect Money illusion Picture superiority effect Outgroup homogeneity bias Golem effect Mere-exposure effect Peak-end rule Naïve realism Hard-easy effect Narrative bias Positivity effect Overconfidence effect Hostile media effect Negativity bias Primacy-recency effect Pygmalion effect IKEA effect Observational selection bias Processing difficulty effect Reciprocity Liking bias Omission bias Regressive bias Shared information bias Name-letter effect Ostrich effect Rosy retroperspection Snob effect Novelty effect Overconfidence effect Self-generation effect Social comparison bias Placebo effect Paradox-of-choice effect Self-reference effect Social desirability bias Principle of scarcity Planning fallacy Self-relevance effect Social proof Prospect theory Present bias Source confusion Stereotyping Rhyme-as-reason effect Pro-innovation bias Spacing / lag effect Tamagotchi effect <?page no="108"?> 108 Event Psychology - An Interdisciplinary Approach General psychological phenomena Decision-making, belief and behavioural biases Memory biases Social biases Sunk-cost fallacy Reactance Spotlight effect Trait ascription bias Superadditivity / multisensory enhancement Recall bias Suggestibility Women-are-wonderful effect Survivorship bias Salience bias Tachypsychia Worse-than-average effect Selective perception Telescoping effect Status quo bias / default effect Testing effect Survivorship bias Tip-of-thetongue phenomenon Third-person effect Verbatim effect Unit bias Von Restorff effect Veblen effect Zeigarnik effect 5.4.3 Examples of sensory manipulating effects A common example is to name the prerequisite of the visual perception, for example, the lighting at an event. Every event needs light, whether natural light or artificial light. This fact is not only a physical necessity but also a means of influencing people. There is, on the one hand, the perceptual level that affects the subjective perception of the participants. Due to the change of the colour temperature of the lighting, it is possible to manipulate, for example, the perceived physical attractiveness of people or, with selective lighting, the perceived size of the framework. On the other hand, different circadian effect levels have different effects on hormone levels and biological rhythms. The lighting influences whether the participants release melatonin and thus become tired. A dim light (low colour temperature) that is perceived as warm leads to a higher melatonin release and in turn releases the cuddle-and-attachment hormone oxytocin, which is advantageous for establishing trust and thus networking. It holds true that those responsible for the event should be aware of the inherent existent effect level of different lighting possibilities in order to use and control them according to the goal of the event (Ronft, 2017a). <?page no="109"?> History and Perspectives 109 History and Perspectives 5.5.1 Definition and development After the first scientific definition of the term in 2013 (Ronft, 2013), this application-oriented discipline was manifested under the German endocentric compound term “Event-Psychologie” [Eng: event psychology] both in the industry and in academic discourse (events Magazin, 2015; Ronft, 2018b; Wrobel and Winnen, 2014). Pearce and Benckendorff also identify the important relevance of psychology for events and postulate that contemporary psychology can potentially enrich event studies and support the evolution of event phenomena (Pearce and Benckendorff, 2015). In 2018, the term “Event-Psychologie” was included in the most popular German business dictionary, Gabler Wirtschaftslexikon (Ronft, 2018a), and thus became an accepted element of contemporary business administration. Germany is at the nucleus of the stringent development of event psychology and has taken the lead in the professionalisation of this interdisciplinary approach. The growing interest in this field is reflected in the diverse industry events. Event psychology has been addressed, for example, at various events such as Eventforum Mannheim (2017), Locations-Messe Rhein-Neckar (2017 & 2019), Osnabrücker Eventplanertag (2018), MeinEVENT Bielefeld (2018), Best of Events International (2019), and IMEX (2019) and even came into the focus of the discussion at association meetings such as the EVVC-Fachtagung in 2019 (the European Association of Event Venues) and the Marketing Club in 2018 (Ronft, 2017b, 2017c, 2018c, 2018d, 2018e, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2019e). Direct knowledge transfer regarding the current and international psychological research took place at the European Conference for Visual Perception in 2018 and 2019 (Ronft and Ghose, 2018, 2019). As a result of this progress, the topic event psychology was awarded the “MICE Innovation&Trend Award 2020”, acknowledging the transfer and application of psychological science to the MICE industry. The Baden Wuerttemberg Cooperative State University (DHBW) in Mannheim and Ravensburg has already anchored event psychology in the obligatory curriculum of the business-management degree course of Event, Exhibition and Congress Management. More profound knowledge transfer for professionals can be accessed via seminars that involve both the theoretical foundation and the practical transfer that can be used directly. Seminars such as this are regularly offered by the International Event and Congress Academy (IECA) as a certification course or can be taken as in-house workshops. Agencies that work with a permanent project team especially tend to request in-house workshops based on a concrete project. Research institutes such as the Ghose Perception Lab at the Technical University Kaiserslautern are also devoted to questions that contribute to the generation of findings in a live communication context. Due to the diverse research projects of bachelor’s and master’s degree students as well as extensive research and compilations from <?page no="110"?> 110 Event Psychology - An Interdisciplinary Approach various psychological disciplines, the field has quickly been professionalised as a new subdiscipline. Many psychological effects are already intuitively used by experienced event managers. Due to the constantly increasing presence of the topic at industry events and in the relevant media, as well as the increasing number of seminar and university graduates, event psychological knowledge will permeate the MICE industry in the future. 5.5.2 Protagonists developing event psychology In part, protagonists from the scientific area, that is, universities as well as students, are dealing with the development of event psychology. However, industry media, associations, agencies and clients of the MICE industry are also concerned with it. Participants in event psychology day seminars are self-employed event managers, representatives of well-known agencies and those responsible for awarding contracts to external agencies. The latter in particular actively deal with how much a pitch concept submitted by an agency promises actual psychological effectiveness. For anyone who is not afraid of scientific sources, reading psychological journals is recommended. It is possible to obtain a glimpse in the abovementioned media and then to specifically expand one’s own areas of application in the specific subdisciplines. Furthermore, relevant presentations and conferences offer good options for addressing the topic and experiencing exchanges with other interested parties. Due to the interdisciplinary characteristic of event psychology, many fields of research are producing relevant new insights. Scientific journals publish new studies on a daily basis that can be carried over to the event context. Scientific theses deal with corresponding topics. Similarly, the event industry constantly generates new and transferable experiences. It is a challenge to select and bundle these different sources. The next central developmental is the release of a standard work on the topic of Ronft (2020). This will summarise the compiled knowledge of practical experts and scientific authors from more than ten universities for the first time. The establishment of these interdisciplinary perspectives in the international discussion will represent a further milestone. 5.5.3 Multisensory communication as a limitation of digital transformation? Humans perceive information from their environment with the five senses for affective and cognitive perception. For an emotional brand connection, enhancement effects such as multisensory enhancement can be used. Instruments of multisensory live communication, such as events and fairs, aim to specifically use these effects. Digital communication generally limits people to oneor twodimensional communication. Here, the relevant visual and audio communication <?page no="111"?> Summary 111 is in the foreground, and the other senses can hardly be addressed congruently. Therefore, it is especially important to use the framework of live communication as soon as this issue appears. Accordingly, one should not make a mistake and neglect available communication potential, especially regarding a sustainable brand commitment. The multidimensional human interaction possibilities take digital communication to its limits and show the true meaning of event psychology. The multidimensional interaction possibilities show the real meaning of event psychology. The chances and limitations of multisensory communication in the digital century were discussed at Kongress Kommunikation 2019 (Ronft, 2019d). Summary The interdisciplinary approach of event psychology makes it possible to fall back on existing and future scientific findings and thus to constantly improve events. It displays a huge field of theories, models and empirical findings that can be transferred and change the job description of an event manager. The planning of a trouble-free event is the basic goal, but the true planning and predicting of visitors’ perceptions, emotions and memories is ultimately the central aspect of modern and successful event planning. Questions  Which psychological disciplines could be relevant for professional event management?  Which manipulation effects can be transferred to the field of event psychology?  Why should multisensory coding be congruent?  Why is the application of event psychology interesting in a trade fair context? Further Readings  Griffin, D., and Kahneman, D. (2002) Heurisitics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgement: Cambridge University Press.  Kahneman, D. (2013) Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.  Ronft, S. (2020) Eventpsychologie. Veranstaltungen wirksam optimieren: Grundlagen, Konzepte, Praxisbeispiele. Wiesbaden: SpringerGabler. siehe https: / / www.springer.com/ de/ book/ 9783658288877.  Zimbardo, P. G., Johnson, R. L., and McCann, V. (2014) Psychology: Core concepts. 7th edn. Harlow: Pearson. <?page no="112"?> 112 Event Psychology - An Interdisciplinary Approach Bibliography Allport, G.W. (1985) ‘The historical background of modern social psychology’, in Lindzey, G. and Aronson, E. (eds) Handbook of social psychology, 3rd edn. New York, NY: Random House, pp. 1-56. Breedlove, S.M., Rosenzweig, M.R. and Watson, N.V. (2007) Biological psychology: An introduction to behavioral, cognitive, and clinical neuroscience. 5th edn. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer. Camerer, C., Loewenstein, G. and Prelec, D. (2005) ‘Neuroeconomics: How Neuroscience Can Inform Economics’, Journal of Economic Literature, 43(1), pp. 9-64. doi: 10.1257/ 0022051053737843 Evans, A.N. and Rooney, B.J. (2008) Methods in Psychological Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Events Magazin. (2015) ‘Event-Psychologie: Mehr Effizienz durch Eingriffe ins Kopfkino’, events. Das Management-Magazin für Live-Kommunikation (4), pp. 8-14. Fleury-Bahi, G., Pol, E. and Navarro, O. (eds) (2017) Handbook of Environmental Psychology and Quality of Life Research. Cham: Springer International Publishing (International Handbooks of Quality-of-Life). Galotti, K.M. (2009) Cognitive Psychology: In and Out of the Laboratory. Toronto: Nelson Education. German Psychological Society (DGP) (2019) DGPs: Sections. Available at: https: / / www.dgps.de/ index.php? id=48 (Accessed: 13 September 2019). Grondin, S. (2016) Psychology of Perception. Cham: Springer International Publishing. Kahneman, D. (2013) Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Kahneman, D. and Tversky, A. (1979) ‘Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk’, Econometrica, 47(2), p. 263. doi: 10.2307/ 1914185 Norton, M.I., Mochon, D. and Ariely, D. (2012) ‘The IKEA effect: When labor leads to love’, Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(3), pp. 453-460. doi: 10.1016/ j.jcps.2011.08.002 Pearce, P. and Benckendorff, P. (2015) ‘The Psychology of Events’, in Page, S.J. and Connell, J. (eds) The Routledge handbook of events. (Routledge handbooks). London: Routledge, pp. 165- 185. Revelle, W., Wilt, J. and Condon, D.M. (2011) ‘Individual Differences and Differential Psychology’, in Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Stumm, S. von and Furnham, A. (eds) The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Individual Differences. (Wiley-Blackwell handbooks in personality and individual differences). s.l.: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 1-38. Ronft, S. (2013) ‘Eventpsychologie’, in Dinkel, M., Luppold, S. and Schröer, C. (eds) Handbuch Messe-, Kongress- und Eventmanagement. Sternenfels: Verl. Wissenschaft & Praxis, pp. 90-94. Ronft, S. (2017a) ‘Die Wirkung des Lichts im Kontext von Corporate Events’, in Dinkel, M., Schenk, M. and Ronft, S. (eds) Mannheimer Beiträge zur Betriebswirtschaftslehre: Veranstaltungstechnik im Kontext von Corporate Events (01). Mannheim, pp. 31-38. Ronft, S. (2017b) Marken erlebbar machen: Multisensuale Kommunikation bei Veranstaltungen. EVENT- FORUM Mannheim, Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg. 26 January. Ronft, S. (2017c) Eventpsychologie: Impulse für die Eventoptimierung, LOCATIONS CAMPUS. 7 March. Ronft, S. (2018a) Definition: Eventpsychologie. Available at: https: / / wirtschaftslexikon.gabler.de/ definition/ eventpsychologie-100238/ version-369616 (Accessed: 13 September 2019). <?page no="113"?> Bibliography 113 Ronft, S. (2018b) ‘Multisensuale Erlebnisse sind das scharfe Schwert der Live-Kommunikation! ’, events. Das Management-Magazin für Live-Kommunikation (3), pp. 20-23 (Accessed: 19 September 2018). Ronft, S. (2018c) Events sind mehr als nur Veranstaltungen: Multisensuale Kommunikation durch Eventpsychologie, Eventplanertag Osnabrück. 19 April. Ronft, S. (2018d) Perspektive Eventpsychologie: Veranstaltungen multisensual optimieren [Keynote], MeinEVENT. 4 July. Ronft, S. (2018e) Perspektive Eventpsychologie: Manipulative Effekte für eine effiziente Kundenkommunikation [Keynote] Marketing Club Rhein-Neckar. 9 October. Ronft, S. (2019a) Perspektive Eventpsychologie: Manipulationspotenziale entdecken & Events psychologisch optimieren, Best-of-Events International MICE-FORUM. 17 January. Ronft, S. (2019b) Eventpsychologie: Multisensuale Erlebnisse als wirkungsvolle Instrumente der Live-Kommunikation. LOCATIONS Rhein-Neckar, 14 February. Ronft, S. (2019c) Eventpsychologie in Lehre und beruflicher Weiterbildung, Meeting of German-speaking event lecturers. IMEX. 21 May. Ronft, S. (2019d) Multisensuale Markenkommunikation als Grenze der digitalen Transformation. Kongress Kommunikation Aalen University. 27 June. Ronft, S. (2019e) Eventpsychologie: Toolbox manipulativer Effekte für Ihr Event. EVVC MFT Fachtagung. 15 September. Ronft, S. (ed.) (2020) Eventpsychologie. Wiesbaden: SpringerGabler. Ronft, S. and Ghose, T. (2018) Investigating effects of color temperature on conflict handling behavior. Poster presentation European Conference of Visual Perception (ECVP), Trieste (Italy), 28 August. Ronft, S. and Ghose, T. (2019) Counter conceptual lighting enhances uncooperative and unassertive conflict handling style. Poster presentation European Conference of Visual Perception (ECVP), Leuven (Belgium), 27 August. Scheier, C. and Held, D. (2009) Was Marken erfolgreich macht: Neuropsychologie in der Markenführung. 2nd edn. (Wirtschaftssachbuch). München: Haufe Verlag. Smith, E.R. and Mackie, D.M. (2007) Social psychology. 3rd edn. Hove: Psychology Press. Stokols, D. and Altman, I. (eds) (1987) Handbook of environmental psychology. New York, NY: Wiley (A Wiley-interscience publication). Tversky, A. and Kahneman, D. (1992) ‘Advances in Prospect Theory: Cumulative Represen-tation of Uncertainty’, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 5(4), pp. 297-323. Available at: http: / / www.jstor.org/ stable/ 41755005. Wilson, J.Q. and Kelling, G.L. (1982) ‘Broken Windows: The police and neighborhood safety’, The Atlantic. Available at: https: / / www.theatlantic.com/ magazine/ archive/ 1982/ 03/ brokenwindows/ 4465/ . Wrobel, A. and Winnen, L. (2014) ‘Eventpsychologie’, in Eisermann, U., Winnen, L. and Wrobel, A. (eds) Praxisorientiertes Eventmanagement: Events erfolgreich planen, umsetzen und bewerten. Wiesbaden: Springer Gabler, pp. 375-395. <?page no="115"?> 6 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” Chunlei Wang and Xingdan Wang Few studies have examined the theoretical construction and concrete realisation of event functions in personal development and the construction of a good life from the perspective of “life theory”. This chapter studies the principles of “the event view as a kind of world view” and their theoretical and practical significance. The findings indicate that as a new way to understand the world, the “event view” can provide people with basic perspectives to observe and analyse problems in seven dimensions, namely, the experience and the attached meaning (corresponding to the value of events), the scene (corresponding to the specific time and space), the ritual (corresponding to the symbolic meaning), the mixed objectives (corresponding to the attributes of events/ things), the multiple stakeholders (corresponding to the related people), the whole process (corresponding to the management process) and the reconstruction (corresponding to the change of elements). Special events have specific functions in personal development and better life construction. The authors argue that expanding events to a wider area of life service will help to enhance the status of tourism and the event industry and can also enrich the teaching and research content in the fields of tourism, conventions, exhibition and events. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: world view, “event view”, phenomenology, lifeworld, experience, scene, experiential learning Introduction The origins of special events can be traced back thousands of years (Bowdin et al., 2006). It can even be said that event management has existed since the beginning of human history, as anthropologists have argued that group hunting in primitive societies and ancient people’s “fireside chats” constitute events (Gallo, 2016; Wang, 2018). In modern commercial society, to solve the problems associated with information asymmetry, business cooperation, sales channels, customer relations, etc., various events associated with buying and selling have emerged and have been subjected to continual innovation. At the same time, with the overall improvement of people’s living standards worldwide, all kinds <?page no="116"?> 116 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” of events oriented towards life services have been launched continuously to meet people’s needs to improve their material and cultural lives. Overall, events are gatherings that can meet special objectives of the organiser and also create a special experience for the participants who leave their daily life or work behind. The variety of events that occur in people’s lives not only help individuals define and enhance the meaning of life but also promote the development of communities, social cultures, religions and countries (Bowdin et al., 2006; Getz, 1997). Predictably, colourful events play an increasingly important role in human personal development and daily life (Baum, Lockstone-Binney and Robertson, 2013). Eventology is a science that studies how to create positive benefits for all members of society by means of “special events” (Goldblatt, 2010). It is through special events and ceremonies that we continue to document our shared history, our experiences with friends and families. Different colourful celebrations held by people are conducive to creating new milestones and lasting memories that make our lives valuable and memorable for later generations (Goldblatt, 2010). Dürkheim (1912/ 1965) believed that when people gather, there is a common process of experience intensification, which he called “collective effervescence”. Unfortunately, although the core phenomenon of an event is experience and the meaning attached to it, the research on the experience, existence and ontological dimension of special events in academia is very limited, and phenomenology and other theories have not been systematically applied in the field of event management (Ziakas and Boukas, 2014). At present, the Chinese government is vigorously advocating and promoting the “construction of a better life”, which requires organic unity of social construction and individual self-construction. There are two basic ways to create a better life. One is to start from the logic of life and implement the structural reform of the “social supply side” in a broad sense. The other is to exert lifestyle effects, including improving people’s ability to create and feel a happy life atmosphere (Wang, 2017). The ability to perceive and create happiness needs to be self-cultivated by the subject in the practice of life. This also involves the education and guidance of family, school and society. This process leads to the establishment and adjustment of an outlook on the world and on life and values. As a proof, Bakhtin’s study found that in the late middle ages, the citizens of Rome, Venice, Paris and other major cities spent approximately three months a year living a carnival life together. During festivals, people were freed from the serious life mandated by religious rules and regulations; broke the strict hierarchical order; communicated casually with anyone; dressed as they wished; danced, talked, and laughed freely; and indulged in satisfying their appetite and other sensual gratification (Bakhtin, 1940). Based on the above background of the theoretical and practical study, the purpose of this chapter is to explore the academic soundness and connotations of “the event view as a kind of world view”, referring to the relative theories of phenomenology, sociology and other disciplines as well as the factor analysis on <?page no="117"?> Literature Review 117 special events, to identify the specific functions of special events in constructing personal development and a better life. Regarding the “event view”, the purpose is to provide a new perspective of observation and analysis of problems. The research logic of this chapter is shown in Figure 5. Fig. 5: Research logic of this chapter Literature Review Parks (2005) combined the process of formation of a world view with the constructive developmental theory of Robert Kegan and divided the development of an individual world view into three independent but interactive forms: cognitive form, dependent form and community form. In the cognitive form, individuals focus on forming a personalised cognitive system and gradually take over the cognition and decision of meaning. In the dependent form, individuals pay attention to the importance of the relationship between themselves and those around them and try to balance the relationships between themselves and others. In the community form, individuals properly integrate themselves into the life network. Due to people’s different social status and perspectives of observation, different world views will be formed. The world view can describe an existence with a stable (or mostly identical) and holistic perception, and provides a framework for the production, maintenance and application of knowledge. Therefore, the relevant literature was reviewed in the following four dimensions: human existence, life transition, group life and experiential learning. <?page no="118"?> 118 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” 6.2.1 Special events and people’s existence Festivals and special events have long played an important role in people’s daily lives. In most societies, both ancient and modern, people need only a small excuse for celebration, and some common events in daily life can also be celebrated as festivals or carnivals (Shone and Parry, 2004). By holding these events, the participants can realise that they are doing and thinking the same things and thus obtain a special energy as their emotions are aroused by the assembled groups (Dürkheim, 1912/ 1965). Fei Xiaotong (2010), one of the most influential sociologists in China, believed that “only when people live together can there be a society, and sociology looks at how people organize themselves to live together and form a social structure” (p. 286). In other words, society is an inseparable entity in which individuals and the community (society) cooperate with each other, with life as the ontology and destination. The concept of life has three dimensions, namely, life, activity (or action) and sociality. Life is the carrier and premise of life, activity (action) is the existent form of life, and sociality expresses the relational existence and field of people’s lives (Wang, 2017), as shown in Figure 6. Although the concept of “activity (action)” in Figure 6 is broader than the special events discussed in this chapter, it indicates that special events are a form of human existence. In addition, “activity” is a historical category that expresses the universal form of existence of human life, while “action” refers to the concrete embodiment of human activities, which is often connected to a certain situation and is a sociological concept. “Activity” and “action” can occasionally be used interchangeably but with the same meaning (Wang, 2017). Fig. 6: The relationship between people, life and society (Source: Based on Wang, 2017) Life is the unity of private and public life. Only when private life is connected with “quasi-life” and participates in the social public sphere, can it realise the self-nature of life and the transcendent social functions of daily life (e.g., participating in a community, public welfare, and democratic consultative social management; Wang, 2017). Anthropologists first began to pay attention to the impact of festivals on society as early as 1936, when Fortes studied the relationship between festival rituals and social cohesion in the Gold Coast hinterland of Australia (Fortes, 1936). Another interesting proof is that through the study of Finnish rock paintings, Shikla and Hu (1997) analysed the relationship between animal sacrifice and a shamanistic world view. They suggested that hand signs in Finnish rock paintings may be symbols related to shamanism, indicating the presence of a patron saint. Similarly, a picture of a moose in a rock painting could be a “success picture” drawn before a hunt begins. <?page no="119"?> Literature Review 119 6.2.2 Special events and life transformation Whether rich or poor, everyone participates in and even organises numerous events in their lives. Every time an individual experiences a special event, especially those marking important life milestones, his or her life will be sublimated, leaving a special memory with different degrees of influence (Wang, 2018). To support this point, a theoretical explanation can be found in the French folklorist Arnold Van Gennep’s definition of “rite of passage” and the Scottish anthropologist Victor Turner’s understanding of “social change”. According to Van Gennep (1909/ 1960), “rite of passage” refers to the continuous transition of an individual’s life from one phase to another, including a pre-liminal phase (separation), a liminal phase (transition), and a post-liminal phase (re-incorporation). Turner (1982) suggested that human beings require time and separation from their social obligations to process and adjust to change. When people spend this time together, divested of the trappings and responsibilities of their previous social positions and as equal participants in the transition to the new phase, deep bonds are formed that may be foundational to the new phase of life they are about to enter. In fact, in addition to the different stages of life development, many special events in daily life, especially rituals, can prepare us to enter into another kind of space, time and role, and we can call this change the transforming function of events. Ritual sociology is the sociology of crowds, members of groups, congregations and audience gatherings (Collins, 2004). In a particular ritual, all subordinate identities may be temporarily stripped away from a hierarchy, seniority system, classification or structure. All participants follow the rules of the ritual itself, which will lead people to the depths of their natural existence: Who am I? 6.2.3 Special events and group life People are social animals or creatures. When their individual tendencies are very positive, group communication can make them even better (Wang, 2018). By participating in and organising events, individuals can reshape their relationships with other members of a group, meaning that individuals are also influenced by events. Group dynamist Shaw (1971) believed that group members regarded the people in the group as “we” rather than “they”, and the interaction between group members often produced dramatic effects. For example, the presence of learned people with other learned and well-read people promotes the growth of group members’ intelligence, and the presence of “bad boys” with other “bad boys” generally increases group members’ antisocial tendencies. According to social psychologist Robert Zajonc’s theory of the social arousal effect, being in a group can enhance an individual’s dominant response and thus improve the accuracy of people completing simple tasks (Kahneman, 2011). In addition, individuals affected by groups may also encounter free riding, desocialisation, group polarisation, group thinking, minority influence and other situations. Taking carnivals as an example, people enjoy fun and entertainment <?page no="120"?> 120 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” regardless of their social status, wealth, gender and age; “no one belongs to anyone, and no one can control anyone”, and this situation promotes the harmony of different social classes (Xu, 2009). 6.2.4 Special events and experiential learning The world view is the product of cognition, while experience is the basic way for humans to know the world. Therefore, experiential learning plays a very important role in emotion, attitude and other aspects. It can also help individuals, especially the educated, to establish correct outlooks on life, world views and values (Wu, 2016). As Lippman stated, “we are told about the world before we see it. We imagine most things before we experience them. And those preconceptions, unless education has made us acutely aware, govern deeply the whole process of perception” (Lippman, 1965). As a carrier of personal experience and “being there”, special events have special functions in personal education and learning. They can run through each stage of experiential learning, thus playing an important role in the formation and change of the world outlook of individuals, especially adolescents (Wang, 2018). In 2014, by analysing the experiences of middle-class Japanese housewives participating in events organised by social enterprises, Leung, Zietsma and Peredo (2014) developed a new identity work model. This model describes how the actors who develop the role value orientation in a new field trigger the process of learning and meaning construction, thus leading to a spiral cycle of role boundary expansion. The process of new identity formation is divided into five stages: action, learning, sense making, role boundary expanded action and changed self-perception. The Construction of “the Event View as a World View” 6.3.1 The theoretical basis In the practice of production and life, people form their views and opinions on various concrete objects in the real world. Over time, they gradually generate general views and fundamental views on the nature of the world and the relationship between people and the objective world, which is the world outlook or world view. The world view can describe an existence with a stable (or mostly identical) and holistic perception and provide a framework for the production, maintenance and application of knowledge. However, due to people’s different social status and perspectives, different world views will be formed. 6.3.2 The “event view as a kind of world view” The concept of “the event view as a world view” can be found in Bakhtin’s carnival theory. Through the study of Rabelais’ novels and carnival culture in medieval and Renaissance times in Europe, he revealed and described an im- <?page no="121"?> The Construction of “the Event View as a World View” 121 portant phenomenon of human social life: in real life, especially in a class society, people generally live two lives: one is daily life, and the other is carnival life. People in these two kinds of lives inevitably produce two different world views. Bakhtin clearly regarded the feelings about the world generated by the public in carnival life as a world view that is fundamentally opposed to the world view of the authorities and the church (Tong, 1996). In other words, special events, including carnival, provide a specific scene in which people can form and change their world views. 6.3.3 The core of special events: the experience and the attached meaning According to phenomenology, the core of events is experience and its attached meanings, which provides a framework and ideas for constructing an ontology of understanding and strengthening special events and original theory with explanatory power. Ziakas and Boukas (2014) analysed why phenomenology, including its conceptual basis and thought flow, is needed in the research of events and management and proposed an analytical framework for phenomenological research in event management (Table 4). For example, “What role does event experience play in the lifeworld of the participants? ” and “How does the event experience bring meanings to people and stakeholders? ” are the central questions being studied. Tab. 4: A framework of phenomenological research on event experience and meanings (Source: adapted from Ziakas and Boukas, 2014, p. 67). Dimensions Central questions Processes How does the event experience bring meaning to people and stakeholders? What meanings are most important, how do they vary between different stakeholders? Personal impacts What role does the event experience play in the participants’ lifeworld? How does the assigned meaning affect people’s lives? Authenticity What makes the event experience authentic in the view of participants and stakeholders? Event design How can the elements of the event design best be synthesised to optimise the intended experience and meaning? Leveraging strategies How can the experiences and meanings be used to amplify and enhance the outcomes for the host community? <?page no="122"?> 122 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” 6.3.4 Rituals and the symbolic meaning of an event In 1990, Goldblatt, a leading scholar in the field of international events studies, argued that “special events” are always carefully planned, always exciting, and always inspiring because they provide a reason to celebrate. Therefore, “ceremony and ritual were important factors in the design, planning, management and coordination of special events” (Goldblatt, 1990, p. 5). Liu (2016a) proposed that the essence of special events is participation, and participation requires experience, while experience requires design. He summarised 14 characteristics of special events, including occurrence, time/ duration, range, participation, purpose, importance, attention, aggregation and rituality. Among these, rituality is essentially the same as the “symbolic value” mentioned by Getz. In his opinion, “ritual is an order explicited or implicited in a culture. No matter what events you attend, whether you see any rituals or not, they are out there”. Any ceremony has a kind of symbol, meaning not only the specific symbol but, more importantly, the symbol of the whole; that is, the specific situation becomes abstract and highly generalised and then produces a metaphysical meaning beyond time and space. 6.3.5 Special events and the accumulation and integration of cognitive elements American sociologist Randall Collins argued that “all the history of human society is composed of situations, from where all our views about the world and all the materials accumulated come” (Collins, 2004, p. 22). Liu (2016b) proposed that “if ‘Period’ represents time domain, ‘Place’ represents region, ‘People’ represents participants and ‘Process’ represents situation, then an event is composed of four basic elements: time domain, region, people and situation”. Although the author does not agree with the view that “process equals situation”, he does agree that “situation” is an important component of special events. Special events provide a constant stream of specific contexts for the accumulation and integration of ideas and materials that Collins discussed. Wang (2018) stated that special events start from the problem (specific needs/ goals). The primary factors are experience, rituals and situations/ scenarios, among which “experience” is the key to determining what meaning an event can bring to participants and stakeholders, “ritual” is the fundamental reason that events can create and transmit special meaning, and “situations/ scenarios” provide the basic space-time background for the event. From the participants’ perspective, when an individual appears in front of others, this creates a situational definition. Regardless of how passive the role of others may be, they will effectively influence this situational definition through their own response to the individual. Goffman (1959) believed that when an individual is presented to others, he or she usually has some reason to carry <?page no="123"?> The Construction of “the Event View as a World View” 123 out active actions/ activities to express the impression that he or she intended. 6.3.6 The four-dimensional analysis framework of “objective-stakeholder-process-change” As an influential governance model, “governing by network” is a structural reflection of environmental evolution and organisational change. The network that it depends on is generalised and is a combination of a social network, an inter-enterprise network and a tangible network (Goldsmith and Eggers, 2004). Based on this theory, Wang and Chen (2012) proposed a new framework for event impact studies. They believed that the concept and analysis tools of governing by network could integrate various methods, such as stakeholders, process analysis and the triple-bottom-line method. Thus, it is very suitable to study the impacts of special events. Within the framework, multiple stakeholders, the whole process and diversified objectives correspond to stakeholder management, the whole process management of events and management by objectives, respectively. Morgeson, Mitchell and Liu (2015) explicitly proposed the event system theory (EST). In their article “Event System Theory: An Event-oriented Approach to the Organizational Sciences”, they suggested that the dynamism of organisations can be revealed through important events at each level of the organisation. If an event is novel, disruptive and critical, it becomes very prominent. More importantly, events can occur at any level of the enterprise or organisation, and their effects may remain at this level or shift up and down within the organisation to change behaviours, characteristics, and events or spawn new ones. Moreover, due to differences in the duration and time of the event, or with the evolution of the event power, this influence may last for a long time. Although EST is proposed from the perspective of organisational behaviour, its principle is also applicable to the analysis of individual behaviour and development. The framework of “diversified goals, multiple stakeholders and the whole process”, which originated from the theory of governing by network and the “organisational dynamics” of the event system theory, provides a good analytical framework for people to observe things with event thinking; that is, everything involves goals, stakeholders, processes and changes. In summary, the carnival theory by Bakhtin (1940), the phenomenological theory by Husserl (1936/ 1970) and Heidegger (1927/ 2008), the event management theory by Goldblatt (2010), the interaction ritual chains by Collins (2004), the social dramatic theory by Goffman (1957), the theory of governing by network by Goldsmith and Eggers (2004) and Morgeson, Mitchell and Liu’s event system theory (2015) all help to provide systematic theoretical support for the concept that “the event view is a world view” (see Table 5). <?page no="124"?> 124 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” Tab. 5: The core theoretical support for “the event view is a kind of world view” Construction of the “Event View” From the perspective of development values, special events can include seven core elements, namely, experience and meaning, ritual, context, goal, stakeholders with participants as the core, process and change. Therefore, as a new kind of world view, the “event view” provides seven main dimensions for people to observe and analyse the basic view of things: the experience and meaning (corresponding to the value of things), ritual (corresponding to symbolic significance), scene (corresponding to the specific time and space), mixed objectives (corresponding to the attributes of things), the multiple stakeholders (corre- Theory The core inspiration for constructing an “event view” Literature sources Carnival theory Special events, including carnival, provide a specific scene for the formation and change of people’s world views. People will form different world views when they participate in or even organise events. Bakhtin, 1940 Phenomenology The core of special events is the experience brought to the participants and the attached meaning, which will affect the participants’ lifeworld and world outlook. Ziakas and Boukas, 2014 Event management For individuals, special events are experiences with rituals to achieve specific goals. In other words, “rituals” are the fundamental reason for events to create and convey special meanings. Goldblatt, 2010 Interaction ritual chains The whole history of human society is composed of situations. On the one hand, situations are important components of special events. On the other hand, special events provide specific situations for the accumulation and integration of people’s views and materials about the world. Collins, 2004 Social dramatic theory Life is similar to a theatre where everyone plays different roles. Colourful events provide a platform for people to play different roles. Goffman, 1959 Governing by network The basic framework of the impact of special events on organisations or individuals suggests that everything involves mixed objectives, multiple stakeholders and the whole process. Goldsmith and Eggers, 2004 Event system theory Similar to organisations, human dynamics can be reflected through important events at different stages and levels of life development. Morgeson, Mitchell and Liu, 2015 <?page no="125"?> Construction of the “Event View” 125 sponding to the related stakeholders), the whole process (corresponding to the management process) and reconstruction (corresponding to the change of elements). Thus, the basic framework of the “event view” can be constructed as shown in Figure 7. Fig. 7: The basic framework of “The event view” To understand the lifeworld with the “event view”, we can categorise the following basic views: [1] Special events provide a specific experience basis for the formation and change of people’s world outlook. [2] For participants, special events are “ritualistic experiences with specific goals” (Goldblatt, 1997). Rituals bring individuals or groups into a certain situation through language, behaviour or symbols. Therefore, the core of events is the experience and attached meaning, and rituals often create and convey symbolic meaning. [3] People’s life, work and study are composed of scenes, settings or circumstances. Every special event provides a specific situation and scene for the accumulation and integration of people’s views and materials about the world. <?page no="126"?> 126 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” [4] When we talk and act, we should first have a purpose. In our work and life, we should first have an objective. The objective is the primary starting point for planning and organising any event and it determines the attributes of the event, such as whether its aim is public welfare or profitability and whether it is a business event or a leisure event. [5] As the world is diverse, each event involves multiple stakeholders, mainly including the organiser, participants, suppliers, volunteers, and sometimes government management departments. The organiser needs to coordinate the demands and relations of all parties involved. [6] The whole process of a special event requires professional management from the creative beginning to the successful end, as anything must have a solid beginning and a good ending. [7] Events promote the change of individuals, families or organisations and even give birth to new things. In this process, the objective, stakeholder and process of events or things will evolve continuously and even generate new events or things. The Connotations of “the Event View as a World View” 6.5.1 Experience and meaning As the core of events, experience and its attached meaning are among the fundamental starting points for us to analyse and judge something. The lifeworld can refer to perceptual experience relative to individual and private nature and to the transcendental lifeworld relative to universality and public nature. In Husserl’s (1936/ 1970) view, only the latter constitutes the original meaning of the lifeworld. He believed that the lifeworld is a world of meaning and value, a world around which people are born, and that it is effective relative to the subjects who perceive it, understand it and judge it (Yi, 1994). It can be seen from Table 4 that according to event thinking, the main question that we need to consider is how experience brings meaning to the subject and the stakeholders, including the differences among different stakeholders. What role does the experience play in the participants’ lifeworld? How can elements that can optimise the expected experience and meaning be best integrated? What makes the experience seem real or unreal in the eyes of people and stakeholders? How can experience and meaning be used to realise and amplify the effects of things? 6.5.2 Scene Regarding the scene, the first interpretation refers to the scene in drama, film and other works of art, that is, a specific picture of life formed by a certain task <?page no="127"?> The Connotations of “the Event View as a World View” 127 or action or by the relationship between characters in a certain time and space. The second interpretation refers to the situation in general. From the perspective of the development of the plot, common scene types include narrative scene, lyric scene, atmosphere scene, subjective scene and imagery scene. In the book “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life”, Goffman (1959) proposed that “it is all too likely that when we find ourselves in settings devised by others, we compose our behaviour, and even our purposes and feelings, so as to be in compliance with settings enclosing us.” Goffman argued that people create the scenes for their social performances, as well as creating the performance and its props, somewhat as an extension of their backstage preparation. Collins (2004) believed that interaction rituals are the most basic activities of human beings and that the entire history of human society is composed of situations. From the perspective of service, the core meaning of scene, scenario and situation is much the same. The servicescape was once defined as the built environment where a service is located. Obviously, this definition and the resulting service scene framework are built on the “tangible environment” dimension. Bitner, Brown and Meuter (2000) included “social environment” in the extended servicescape model. They also divided the categories of service organisations according to the usage and complexity of servicescape, which can help identify the main differences of service organisations in scenario management (see Table 6). Tab. 6: Classification of service organisations based on the differences of uses and forms of servicescape (Source: adapted from Bitner, Brown and Meuter, 2000; Fernandes and Neves, 2014). Uses of servicescape Forms of servicescape Complex Simple Self-service (customers themselves)  golf course  surfing club  ATM  information desk of shopping mall  post office  internet service  express delivery Interactive services (customer and staff)  hotel  restaurant  health centre  bank  flights  school  dry cleaning shop  hot-dog stand  hair salon Remote service (employees themselves)  telephone company  insurance company  public services  numerous professional services  tele-shopping service desk  self-service voice message service <?page no="128"?> 128 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” However, products and functions are demanded in an era of shortage. In contrast, in an era of severe surplus of products and even services, the demand is no longer rigid, especially for the new generation that believes that the right to use can replace ownership. Therefore, many business leaders have proposed that scene itself is a service, specifically including the following meanings: scene and service need to be carefully designed and integrated; the immediacy of scene and service requires adequate collaboration; both scene and service mean implementation and need to be customer-oriented; scene and service are content, not form; and scene and service are dynamic and constantly deepening. 6.5.3 Rituals China is a land of ancient rites and ceremonies that provide rich materials for special events and ritual studies. Ancient Chinese etiquette was formed in the era of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. At the time of Yao and Shun, there was already a clear etiquette system, namely, the Five Rites System, including sacrificial rites, funeral rites, military rites, hospitable rites and marital rites, to cope with affairs of sacrifice, death, military, hospitality and family, respectively. An old Chinese saying goes as follows: “Taking a bath and burning incense, playing Guqin and appreciating chrysanthemum.” This means that before playing the Chinese seven-stringed zither, an individual should bathe and burn incense to create an atmosphere and an artistic conception, not only to express respect for music but also to help play music well. This is similar to the tea ceremony, with tedious details showing a kind of piety, including grinding tea leaves, wiping cups, filling a pot with water, and pouring tea. Without these rituals, it is impossible to achieve a state of “peace and quiet”. Similarly, with the help of the sense of ritual and ceremony, life can be slower, more solemn and more colourful, so people can have different experiences in daily life. Xu Heng, a famous statesman and educator in the Yuan dynasty in ancient China, once said, “People have food and clothing to make a living, and practice courtesy to nourish their minds.” It can be seen that a “sense of ritual” enables people to treat life seriously, treat others politely and charitably, and deal with the daily and unexpected events of life at a leisurely pace to live steadfastly. Wang (2008) believed that it is not enough for a person to only have this life; people also need a poetic world, and where there is a sense of ritual in life, it is often poetic. For a special event, the key to ritual is to bring emotional energy to the participants. According to Collins’s theory of interaction ritual chains (2004), the core mechanism of an interaction ritual is a high degree of mutual concern and emotional attachment. The combination can lead to the formation of a sense of membership among the participants, associated with cognitive signs, and bring them emotional energy that has powerful incentive effects, making them feel confident, enthusiastic and more willing to engage in events that they consider morally permissible. Whoever has experienced this emotional energy wants <?page no="129"?> The Connotations of “the Event View as a World View” 129 to experience it again. Mutual concern refers to a high degree of subjectivity, and emotional attachment refers to stimulating the participants’ nervous systems through the coordination of the body. 6.5.4 Mixed objectives The English word “event” comes from the Latin “evenire”, meaning “something that happens especially when it is unusual or important”. In social life, special events that are carefully planned often give us a sense of purpose and bring people together to achieve a common positive goal. Goldblatt (2010) described this process as the cultural progress achieved through eventology, which studies how to create positive benefits for all members of society through special events. For events, one of the most important outputs is to bring all of humankind together through planned events. In this sense, the basic requirement of a special event is to have a clear goal. Therefore, the key success factor of event management, is “Why”. The theme of IMEX Frankfurt 2017 was “Purposeful Meetings”, which represented a trend in the international event industry. Chu (2015) proposed that “Purposeful meetings require that in the field of meetings and events, we need more people who can purposefully bring mission and meaning to things. This is a kind of ability, but also a kind of value, because such a person is more capable of uniting everyone. If the organiser could give speakers, sponsors, attendees and the media a sense of purpose and meaning and make them all feel it’s their own business, that’s the real success of an event. I’m sure there will be more of them in the future.” 6.5.5 Multiple stakeholders Throughout history, people have recognised the special power of celebrations to inspire hope and encourage them to live. Goldblatt (2010) told an interesting story in his book “Special Events: A New Generation and the Next Frontier” (6 th edition). He interviewed five earth scientists who spent nearly a year living in a closed laboratory called the Biosphere in the Arizona desert. Asked how they managed to live in such a lonely environment of science for so long, the scientists replied, “We survived because of science. We lived because of celebrations. Every month we celebrated birthdays, anniversaries, births of new creatures and our personal and professional triumphs. These celebrations sustained our spirits.” The size of events varies, as does the number of people they affect. Each event brings a common emotional call or symbolic meaning to people in a particular area. When discussing the force of collectivity, Dürkheim stated that: “For this reason all parties - be they political, economic, or denominational - see to it that periodic conventions are held, at which their followers can renew their common faith by making a public demonstration of it together. To strengthen emotions that would dissipate if left alone, <?page no="130"?> 130 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” the one thing needful is to bring all those who share them into more intimate and more dynamic relationship” (Dürkheim, 1912, translated by Fields, 1995, p. 212). Therefore, “collectivity” could be regarded as the initial meaning of multiple stakeholders of special events. In addition, almost every special event involves organisers, participants, service providers, and even sponsors and public service departments. In other words, the stakeholders of an event are diverse, and only by working together can a high-quality event be held successfully. 6.5.6 The whole process The whole process means the process from the creative impulse or idea of an event to the evaluation. If an event is considered a product, it can be explained by the product life-cycle theory. The so-called product life-cycle management refers to the information and process in the whole life cycle of product management, from demand analysis, planning, design, production, distribution, operation, use, and maintenance to recycling and reuse. It is not only a technique but also a philosophy. The whole process management in the field of industry focuses on the seamless connection of all processes, making all departments work together, ensuring the integrity and continuity of the main information in space and time, and realising the integrated management of business. The whole process in the “event view” reminds people to do everything well from the beginning to the end and to practise the corresponding risk management in every stage. The whole process of the “event view” is also suitable to explain our lives. If life were merely a heap of trifles, that explanation would be unacceptable. Most people want a sense of direction and hope to live their lives as a definite journey rather than drifting aimlessly. According to John Curtingham, the meaning of life is “Individuals are involved ... in activities that are truly worthy of participation. These activities reflect his or her rational choice as an autonomous individual” (Curtingham, 2007, pp. 2-5). 6.5.7 Reconstruction The term “refactoring” was first proposed by Fowler (1999) in “Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code” and referred to an adjustment in the internal structure of software with the purpose of improving its reliability and reducing its modification costs without changing its observable behaviour. Applied in the area of event management, it can be understood as constant revision and adjustment. The original meaning of “event” is “happening”, so special events are born dynamic, even in the relevant interpretation of the literary world. In May 2012, Terry Eagleton published a new book with Yale University Press, “The Event of Literature”. He believed that an “event” is a kind of existence in the process of motion <?page no="131"?> Theoretical and Practical Implications 131 and generates an influence (Dan, 2013). For special events, reconstruction means the evolution of the power structure within the organiser, which may come from changes in the objective, stakeholders or process, resulting in the continuous improvement of events and even the production of new activities. Theoretical and Practical Implications Belonging to basic research in the field of special events, this chapter is of positive significance in promoting the original theoretical construction of event science. Baum, Lockstone-Binney and Robertson (2013) argued that as “event studies” moves from a field towards a discipline, event educators and researchers are facing many challenges, including the following: (1) to compete with peers in terms of academic identity, explanatory models must emerge in the field of “event studies” that are conducive to conceptualising new and relevant knowledge, thus forming the basic components of the field (Baum, Lockstone- Binney and Robertson, 2013), and (2) although special events have received unprecedented attention in teaching and research (Rojek, 2014), event research is still very short of theories with their own disciplinary characteristics due to the increasing pressure of academic competition and scholars’ or colleges’ emphasis on timely publication of papers in high-level journals. On the other hand, event research is expanding into social and environmental impacts, heritage management, incentive tourism and participants’ experience in a broader sense (Getz, 2012; Mair, 2012). However, there are still very few studies about the theoretical construction and concrete realisation of events’ functions in personal development and the construction of a better life from the perspective of “life theory”. Regarding the relationship between special events and a better life, there is still a lack of empirical research results, and the relevant empirical analysis has focused mainly on the field of happiness and the happiness index (Wang, 2012). The “event view” constructed in this chapter has practical guiding significance for the construction of a better life in China. The outlook on development under the guidance of correct value rationality helps us understand and achieve a better life, and the sense of acquisition, happiness and security that can be perceived by people is the real meaning of a better life. Moreover, practising the “event view” and participating in rich and colourful events helps to enhance people’s sense of existence, and engagement and provides a new perspective for people to pursue a better life in concrete ways. In addition, expanding event science to a broader area of life will be conducive to improving the industrial status of the event industry, including the sectors of business meetings and trade shows, and enriching the teaching and research content of tourism and events. The undergraduate programme of convention and exhibition economy and administration in China, for example, adheres to the idea that <?page no="132"?> 132 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” event management can introduce the internationally recognised event management body of knowledge (EMBOK). Doing so could expand the platform function of event management programmes in the development of other industries and expand employment opportunities for students. Therefore, the convention and exhibition economy and administration programme not only trains students, especially convention and trade show professionals, for business events in a narrow sense but also educates event management talent in a broader social life field. As Getz and Page (2016) pointed out, event education projects can survive in the long term only by developing towards the top of the pyramid of event education and enriching event research from more theoretical perspectives. Summary Starting from the analysis of the relationship between special events and human existence and referring to the carnival theory by Bakhtin (1940), the phenomenological theory by Husserl (1936/ 1970) and Heidegger (1927/ 2008), the event management theory by Goldblatt (2010), the interaction ritual chains by Collins (2004), the social dramatic theory by Goffman (1959), the theory of governing by network by Goldsmith and Eggers (2004) and Morgeson, Mitchell and Liu’s event system theory (2015), this chapter preliminarily constructed the basic framework of “the event view as a kind of world view”. It then analysed the connotations, providing a new perspective and original theory for event research. Special events are not life itself. Therefore, it is necessary to be sure to observe daily life with an “event view” in theoretical construction. This is the innovation of this chapter and also the most debatable aspect. Future research must echo more theories of various disciplines, further improving the theoretical construction through more case analyses and empirical research. From the perspective of “life theory”, studying the functional realisation and theoretical construction of special events in personal development and the construction of a better life will not only provide a new perspective for the study of a better life but also enrich the research content of tourism, festivals and special events. Around the construction of a better life from the perspective of events, there are still many topics worthy of further study. In particular, the following three aspects have strong practical significance: (1) empirical research on the impact of participating in or organising events on people’s happiness, perceptions of a better life and community cohesion (Andriotis, 2009; Wang, 2018); (2) specific ways to realise the functions of special events in the construction of a better life, such as the relationship between various recreational events and urban and rural cultural construction (Mair, 2012; Wang, 2018); and (3) case studies on the functions of special events in social governance and the construction of a better life. In fact, the above situation also applies to tourism research. <?page no="133"?> Questions 133 Questions  Since special events are not life itself, is it certain that those who have an “event view” will lead a better life?  Are there specific ways to realise the functions of special events in the construction of a better life? For example, many Chinese cities are now implementing “garbage sorting” policies. Can special events be used to educate and influence residents?  Around the construction of a better life from the perspective of events, what are the main theoretical topics worthy of further study? Further Readings  Collins, R. (2004) Interaction Ritual Chains. Princeton: Princeton University Press.  Goffman, E. (1959) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday/ Anchor Books.  Laing, J. and Frost, W. (2017) Rituals and Traditional Events in the Modern World. London: Routledge.  Goldblatt, J. (2013) Special Events: Creating and Sustaining a New World for Celebration. 7th edn. London: John Wiley & Sons.  Meadows, M. (2019) Everyday Evolution: Practical Perspectives on Personal Growth, Permanent Changes, and Progress in Life. Schaumburg, IL: Meadows Publishing Solutions. Bibliography Andriotis, K. (2009) ‘Sacred site experience: a phenomenological study’, Annals of Tourism Research, 36(1), pp. 64-84. Bakhtin, M. (1940/ 1996) Introduction to “The Creation of Francois Rabelais and the Folk Culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Bakhtin Essays. Translated from the Russian by J. Tong. Beijing, China: China Social Science Press. Baum, T., Lockstone-Binney, L. and Robertson, M. (2013) ‘Event studies: finding fool’s gold at the rainbow’s end? ’, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 4(3), pp. 179-185. Bitner, M. J., Brown, S. W. and Meuter, M. L. (2000) ‘Technology infusion in service encounters’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(1), p. 138. Bowdin, G. A., Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R. and McDonnell, I. (2006) Events Management. 2nd edn. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. <?page no="134"?> 134 Theorising the “Event View” as a Kind of “World View” Chu, Y. C. (2015) The characteristics of event professionals. Available at: https: / / mp.weixin.qq.com/ s/ H6ioCkMCq69fx36b4Cq9hA (Accessed 18 March 2019). Collins, R. (2004) Interaction Ritual Chains. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Curtingham, J. (2007) Is Life Meaningful? Translated from the English by N. Wang. Nanning, China: Guangxi Normal University Press. Dan, H.S. (2013) Return the literature to itself: Terry Eagleton’s “Literary Events”. Available at: http: / / www.guancha.cn/ culture/ 2013_04_12_138204.shtml (Accessed 12 April 2019). Durkheim, E. (1912/ 1965) The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life Translated from the French by J. Swain. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Durkheim, E. (1995) The Elementary Forms of Religious Life Translated from the French by K.E. Fields. New York: The Free Press. Fei, X.T. (2010) Complete Works of Fei Xiaotong, Volume 17 (2000-2004). Hohhot, China: Inner Mongolia People’s Publishing House. Fernandes, T. and Neves, S. (2014) ‘The role of servicescape as a driver of customer value in experience-centric service organizations: the Dragon Football Stadium case’, Journal of Strategic Marketing, 22(6), pp. 548-560. Fortes, M. (1936) ‘Ritual festivals and social cohesion in the hinterland of the Gold Coast’, American Anthropologist, 38(4), pp. 590-604. Fowler, M. (1999) Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co. Inc. Gallo, C. (2016) The Storyteller’s Secret. New York: St. Martin’s LLC. Getz, D. (1997) Event Management & Event Tourism. New York: Cognizant Communication Corporation. Getz, D. (2012) ‘Event studies: discourses and future directions’, Event Management, 16(2), pp. 171-187. Getz, D. and Page, S. J. (2016) ‘Progress and prospects for event tourism research’, Tourism Management, 52(4-5), pp. 593-631. Goffman, E. (1959) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday/ Anchor Books. Goldblatt, J. J. (1990) Special Events: The Art and Science of Celebration. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Goldblatt, J. J. (2010) Special Events: Twenty-first Century Global Event Management. 6th edn. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Goldsmith, S. and Eggers, W.D. Governing by Network: The New Shape of the Public Sector 3rd edn. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press/ Ash Center, 2004. Heidegger, M. (1927/ 2008) Being and time Tanslated from the German by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. New York: HarperPerennial/ Modern Thought Husserl, E. (1936/ 1970) The crisis of European sciences and transcendental phenomenology. An introduction to phenomenological philosophy Translated from the German by D. Carr. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern Univ. Press Kahneman, D. (2011) Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Leung, A., Zietsma, C. and Peredo, A. M. (2014) ‘Emergent identity work and institutional change: The quiet revolution of Japanese middle-Class housewives’, Organization Studies, 35(3), pp. 423-450. <?page no="135"?> Bibliography 135 Lippman, W. (1965) Public Opinion. New York: Free Press. Liu, C.Z. (2016a) What are the characteristics of special events? . Available at: http: / / blog.sina.com.cn/ s/ blog_3c9d72430102w9t0.html (Accessed: 5 April 2019). Liu, C.Z. (2016b) Elements of special event: what constitutes an event? Available at: http: / / blog.sina.com.cn/ s/ blog_3c9d72430102wa13.html (Accessed: 7 April 2019). Mair, J. (2012) ‘A review of business events literature’, Event Management, 16(2), pp. 133-141. Morgeson, F. P., Mitchell, T. R. and Liu, D. (2015) ‘Event system theory: An event-oriented approach to the organizational sciences’, Academy of Management Review, 40(4), pp. 515-537. Parks, S. (2005) The Journey Towards Mature Adult Faith: A Model. in Wilson, M.E. and Wolfwendel, L.E.(eds), ASHE Reader on College Students Development Theory. Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing. Rojek, C. (2014) ‘Global event management: A critique’, Leisure Studies, 33(1), pp. 32-47. Shaw, M. E. (1971) Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behavior. London: McGraw Hill Publishing. Shikla, A. L. and Hu, X.H. (1997) ‘Finnish rock painting, animal sacrifice ceremony and Shamanism world view’, National Art, 1, pp. 172-182. Shone, A. and Parry, B. (2004) Successful Event Management: A Practical Handbook. London: Cengage Learning EMEA. Turner, J. C. (1982) Towards a Cognitive Redefinition of the Social Group. In: Tajfel, H. (ed.) Social Identity and Intergroup Relations, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Van Gennep, A. (1909/ 1960) The Rites of Passage Translated from the French by M. B. Vizedom and G.L. Caffee) Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wang, C.L. (2018) The Art of Event Management in Everyday Life. Beijing, China: Science Press. Wang, C.L. and Chen, P. (2012) ‘Impacts of special events: International research progress and a new analytical framework’, Journal of Beijing International Studies University, 11, pp. 1-12. Wang, X.B. (2008) Loving You Is Just Like Loving Life. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Splendid Articles Publishing House. Wang, Y.L. (2017) The Way Home: Return to A Life-oriented Society. Beijing, China: Social Sciences Academic Press. Wang, Z.H. (2012) ‘Empirical study on the impacts of large-scale sports events on the happiness index of residents in the host region’, Sports Science, (3), pp. 28-38. Wu, J.R. (2016) ‘Research on the application of experiential learning in primary school mathematics teaching’, Book Digest, (16), pp. 174-175. Xu, W. (2009) ‘Interaction between folk opera and traditional ceremony: a case study of Errenzhuan artists performing in rural funerals’, Heilongjiang Ethnic Series, 6, pp. 159-163. Yi, J.Q. (1994) ‘The return of rationality to the life world: an important turn of philosophy in the 20th century’, Chinese Social Sciences, 2, pp. 115-127. Ziakas, V. and Boukas, N. (2014) ‘Contextualizing phenomenology in event management research: Deciphering the meaning of event experiences’, International Journal of Event & Festival Management, 5(1), pp. 56-73. <?page no="137"?> 7 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations Helmut Schwägermann This chapter discusses the increasing influence of China’s outbound meetings and events on the international meetings industry, especially on event destinations. It presents results from various studies on this topic and discusses the potential strategies of destination management organisations (DMOs) for this new market. Finally, it presents the case of Berlin, where the local DMO, the Berlin Convention Office (BCO), decided to hold a series of workshops with the goal of establishing a special China competence among its members, who represent the Berlin meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions (MICE) industry. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: destination marketing organisations (DMOs), outbound events, event destinations, strategies, China competence Introduction China’s market for business events has grown and developed dramatically over the last twenty years. Most researchers, scholars and event companies have concentrated on China’s enormous home market and focused on the inbound aspects. In contrast, since 2010, Hochschule Osnabrück and Shanghai University of Business and Economics (SUIBE) have focused their research on the development of China’s outbound meeting and event activities and the consequences for the meetings business worldwide. Our research assumptions at that time were that Chinese delegates, exhibitors, visitors and event organisers would also play an important role in the international meetings and event industry, that they would influence many decisions and that they would be quite important customers for a selected group of meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions (MICE) destinations a few years later. We identified several driving factors as predictors for future development and generated a comprehensive qualitative forecast model for China’s outbound meeting activities, which was presented in 2013 at the International Congress and Convention Association (ICCA) Shanghai Congress and published later. <?page no="138"?> 138 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations This model was named the China Outbound Event Model (COEM) (Schwägermann and Zhang, 2016). In the meantime, we have observed an increasing level of Chinese event activities worldwide, beginning with incentive trips to the Asia-Pacific countries. Additionally, in the course of this development, Chinese participants are increasingly visiting European event destinations, which may even be the site of events organised by Chinese companies and organisations. In 2013, the majority of the international meeting industry already felt that international event destinations needed a special China strategy (Schwägermann and Zhang, 2016), and some destination management organisations (DMOs) reacted to the challenge of this new market and started to develop a China strategy. This chapter analyses the background of the Chinese outbound event business, discusses strategic options for European MICE destinations and considers the case of the establishment of a China strategy by the MICE destination Berlin. When we use the term events in this chapter, we are focusing on business events, which include meetings, corporate events and trade fairs that have a professional audience. The term business events has a meaning similar to that of the term MICE. As the Berlin Convention Office (BCO) prefers to use the term MICE instead of business events, the former term is mostly used in this chapter. It should be noted that in the COEM as well as in this chapter, we do not explore the effects of Chinese outbound events on the foreign exhibition sector, as this sector is handled mostly by the city’s exhibition company and not by the DMO. However, we analyse participation at foreign exhibitions as a driving factor for meetings and corporate events (which are the core of MICE) in destinations. In this context, an event destination or MICE destination is described as a geographical location that is selected by an event organiser as the location for one of his or her next events. It can also be characterised as an agglomeration of companies and organisations involved in producing and marketing the overall event services within a geographical area, mostly cities. Destination management describes the strategic management and marketing of a tourism and event destination. A DMO is described as “the leading organizational entity which may encompass the various authorities, stakeholders and professionals and facilitates tourism sector partnerships towards a collective destination vision” (WTO, 2016). This chapter consists of seven parts: after this introduction, we introduce the COEM. In part three, we classify the driving factors of this model; in part four, we report on our studies on the Chinese event market; and in part five, we discuss various other studies. In part six, we introduce the concept of strategies for destinations, whereas part seven presents the case study “Developing a China Strategy” for the Berlin MICE industry. Part eight contains the summary and the outlook. <?page no="139"?> The China Outbound Event Model (COEM) 139 The China Outbound Event Model (COEM) The COEM was developed between 2011 and 2013. At that time, China’s outbound events were just a vision or a concept. No major outbound event activities could be traced, nor were any statistics or reliable studies available. Therefore, at that time, it was not possible to generate a quantitative forecast model, as we lacked reliable statistics. However, as we were convinced that it was only a matter of a few years before we would witness a substantial number of those outbound events, we decided to focus on the framework of this development, i.e., to develop a qualitative model and identify several so-called driving factors for outbound event business from China. The term driving factor is used in this chapter to describe the relation between two variables in which the driving factors are the causative factors (which can also be called predictors), and the outbound meetings activities are the effects of altering these driving factors. In other words, we tried to identify a set of variables to predict the potential future of Chinese outbound business events. The COEM can therefore be classified as a qualitative forecast model that explains the reasons and the direction of the forces behind the outgoing event activities. The model also refers to the well-known fact that events are deeply interrelated with other sectors, such as the economy, science and culture and that they reflect the development in these sectors as a special live-communication tool. For the analysis and forecast of the Chinese outbound event market, in general, three aspects are of interest: 1) volume (how many events, how many participants, 2) structure/ quality (what kind of events, what kind of participants, special Chinese decision factors) and 3) the direction of the business, i.e., which region/ country/ city might profit from this new business. However, as has been said before, volume or other quantitative elements can currently be documented only by examples. In addition, last but not least from the viewpoint of destinations: are there any special success factors concerning Chinese event activities (Schwägermann and Zhang, 2016)? In our definition, the outbound event business refers to participating in foreign events (as exhibitors/ visitors/ delegates/ members of the organising committee, etc.) and organising events in foreign countries. We focused on Chinese meetings and corporate events, whereas exhibitions are qualified as driving factors. The following COEM consists of nine driving factors for the outgoing event business. At the same time, these driving factors can be seen as critical success factors for foreign event destinations. The idea behind the model is that the more a foreign event destination delivers positive results at many or most of these driving factors, the more likely it is to succeed in attracting Chinese event business in the future. <?page no="140"?> 140 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations The research assumptions for the driving factors were as follows (Schwägermann and Zhang, 2016, pp. 3): [1] Business events in China: A growing and experienced event industry in China enhances the chance for acting outside China. [2] Economy and trade: The growing Chinese economy and trade are the basis for a flourishing event market. The structure and volume of the trade will reveal relevant industry sectors and the regional direction for China’s outgoing event business. [3] Government policy: The Chinese government’s influence on international meetings will be eased but is still more important/ decisive than many Western observers believe. [4] Non-governmental organisations in China: Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), the main organisers of meetings worldwide, will gradually emerge as more or less state-independent bodies, although this will not be an easy path. The meetings market, where NGOs and associations are the organisers, will be the most dynamic sector in China’s event market. We also expect a strongly growing Chinese influence on international associations. [5] Sino-foreign cooperation in science, research and development (R&D) and education: More international cooperation projects between Chinese and foreign universities and other research institutions will generate more meetings to be held in the cooperating countries. Innovation, R&D, and joint education and research projects between universities and other research institutions will lead to more meetings and conventions and to a larger number of delegates from China and the cooperating countries. [6] Participation in foreign trade fairs and exhibitions: The more Chinese companies are involved in trade fairs abroad, the more likely it is that their meetings activities will be held at these trade fair locations and countries. [7] China’s outbound business tourism: China has surpassed Germany as the international travel champion. Some of the destination selection criteria of general outbound tourism will also be paramount for travel generated by business events. [8] Meeting destination selection criteria: In addition to the various factors quoted above, not all destinations are suitable for the Chinese potential. The destination selection is a multi-stage process with many influencing factors. General destination selection criteria, such as convenience of travel (ease of access), price and the general attractiveness of the country and the city, play a more important role than they do for travellers from other countries, as Chinese businesspeople still have less travel experience than their international peers. [9] China competence and a welcoming culture: For their business travel and conferences, most Western businesspeople prefer destinations, venues and hotels in Asia where English-speaking services are available and where - in general - they can enjoy some Western amenities such as food, newspapers <?page no="141"?> Classification of the Driving Factors 141 and television channels. Chinese congress delegates and meeting organisers have the same preferences - only in reverse. Fig. 8: China-Outbound Event Model (Source: Schwägermann and Zhang, 2016) To illustrate the mechanism of the model, we take factor 6, participation in foreign trade fairs and exhibitions, as an example:  The more Chinese companies have taken part as exhibitors in the foreign trade fairs and exhibitions of a certain country/ city, the more experience MICE service providers, such as hotels, technical support, etc. have gained with Chinese customers.  The major companies might not only book a stand at an exhibition but also hold accompanying events, such as press conferences, or organise dealer meetings.  These major companies, which want to export to Europe, quite likely will open a subsidiary/ European headquarters in Germany and consequently also organise independent events of all kinds for their staff and customers. Classification of the Driving Factors As stated before, the nine driving factors determine the potential of a destination to attract Chinese events. Many destinations are interested in exploiting or even augmenting this potential by developing a special China strategy. However, many of the factors are so-called external factors, which cannot be influenced by the destination, and few of them are internal factors, which can be more or less influenced. Hence, it makes sense to divide the nine factors into three categories, <?page no="142"?> 142 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations which we call source factors, relation factors and destination factors. This classification can be meaningful for the development of a China strategy.  Source factors Source factors are those factors that are predominantly or exclusively influenced by the source country itself, in our case China. They include mainly factor 1 (business events in China), factor 3 (governmental policy) factor 4 (development of NGOs in China) and factor 8 (destination selection criteria by Chinese decision makers). These factors are decisive for the volume and quality of the Chinese event business. They are part of the so-called “macroenvironment”, which cannot be controlled or influenced by the destination or DMO.  Relation factors Relation factors are those factors that describe the relation or the exchange between China and the destination country. They include factor 2 (economy and trade), factor 5 (co-operation in science and education), factor 6 (participation in foreign trade fairs) and factor 7 (outbound business tourism). They indicate the relative strength of activities related to China for each country and support the opportunity of incoming event business from China for some countries. Some of these factors might be influenced indirectly by the destination/ DMO.  Destination factors Destination factors include those factors that can be influenced by the destination itself. In addition to the general success factors for event destinations, factor 9, China competence, can be the key for the destination’s China strategy. As a consequence of this classification system for destinations’ China strategy, we suggest that DMOs should carefully observe and analyse the development of the source factors. In recent years, we have watched these factors develop in ways that indicate a growing outbound event business from China in the future. Destinations should also understand the relationship of the factors and can try to influence their national governments to strengthen relevant factors. The Belt and Road Initiative, which is better known as the “New Silk Road”, was launched in 2013 and has the potential to contribute to the long-term development of the corridor economies. However, it also presents substantial challenges (Worldbank, 2019). The inland port of Duisburg in Germany is rapidly becoming the main European stop for Chinese goods arriving on the New Silk Road, challenging Hamburg’s dominance as Germany’s premier port (Gray and Schlautmann, 2018). Of course, some MICE destinations will conclude that their overall relation to China is quite weak. In this case, it is advised that they seek different strategic options rather than hoping for and investing in Chinese business. Destination factors should be carefully analysed, opportunities should be exploited and the <?page no="143"?> Our Studies on the Chinese Outbound Events Market 143 destination should try to overcome its weaknesses. We discuss these aspects in the case study below. Our Studies on the Chinese Outbound Events Market As stated before, the market for Chinese outbound events is still in its infancy, and no reliable market data are available, only observations and examples. Therefore, researchers who are interested in this subject must conduct their own field research. In the following, we report on some of these studies and their main findings. 7.4.1 Quantitative online study with ICCA members (2013) As one of the few university members of ICCA, the leading association of the international meeting industry, we not only made use of the comments and feedback of our colleagues to construct our model but also used the ICCA members as a basis for a quantitative study. The ICCA headquarters in Amsterdam supported our study. As the 2013 ICCA congress took place for the first time in the P.R. China (Shanghai), we assumed we would find sufficient interest in this topic. The general research aim of this study was to analyse the general attitudes and special assessments of ICCA members towards the development of the meeting market in China. Specifically, we wanted to know whether the international meeting community shared our vision of the emerging Chinese outbound market and how well the ICCA members felt prepared for and/ or already had a special China strategy for this new market. We received answers from nearly 200 ICCA members, which represented a return rate of more than 20%. Forty percent of ICCA members already had experience with events from China. On a Likert scale from 1 to 7, where 1= strongly disagree, and 7=strongly agree, they thought (5.7) that China event business would become more important for them in the future. They also believed (5.8) that they needed a special China strategy (Schwägermann and Zhang, 2016). In parallel to the quantitative ICCA study in 2013, we also conducted a quantitative online study with Chinese event planners (in co-operation with the Shanghai-based event exhibition IT&CM), but failed to collect sufficient data, as we did not receive enough responses. We realised that only a few Chinese event companies were active in this niche market at that time. 7.4.2 Qualitative study with Chinese event planners (2016/ 17) In a second attempt, we changed our research approach and developed a qualitative in-depth study of Chinese event planners. This study was conducted by the Sino-German Event Research Institute, which was founded by Hochschule <?page no="144"?> 144 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations Osnabrück (Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences) and its partner Shanghai University of Business and Economy in 2014. The target group of this study was Chinese event companies that already had experience with events abroad. In total, 39 personal expert interviews were conducted between October 2016 and January 2017. The main results of this study were as follows:  Incentives and business visits dominate the types of events with which the Chinese event planners were involved.  The most relevant industries with which the Chinese event planners were involved included medical, finance/ insurance, pharmaceutical, IT, automobile and fast-moving consumer goods.  Safety was the most important destination decision factor, followed by prices, service quality, surroundings and hospitality. Some of the questions focused on Germany as an event destination and showed the following results:  Germany is by far the leading event destination in Europe.  Germany is regarded as the European business centre with strong economic power.  Germany has a large amount of exhibition space/ is a great exhibition country.  Germany offers good service/ a mature PCO environment. At the same time, these Chinese event planners pointed to several aspects (which can be interpreted as special decision factors) that should be improved in Germany (Schwägermann, Lan and Werner, 2017):  Simplify the visa process  Add more Chinese service staff  The price is high  There is a language barrier  Better understand the Chinese working style  The speed in responding to Chinese customers is too low  Make the appropriate reception programme  Offer more and a greater variety of Chinese food Other Studies To develop a destination strategy, all relevant data and information should be recorded and processed, as the results can represent important cornerstones for a unique positioning or strategy. Thus, in this section, we present the main results and/ or lines of thought of various studies that are closely related to our subject. <?page no="145"?> Other Studies 145 7.5.1 ICCA statistics The ICCA is the leading source for statistics of international association meetings. The number of international meetings that took place in China developed from 323 in 2008 to 449 in 2018 after a peak of 465 in 2013 (ICCA statistics 2008-2017; 2018 ICCA country & city ranking). The slower growth of these figures in recent years reflects the new normal of China’s economy, where the growth of the GDP (6.6% in 2018) is slowing down compared to the overheated double-digit growth in the preceding years but remains robust by international standards (OECD, 2019). 7.5.2 China Meeting Statistical Analysis Report According to official Chinese statistics (see Fig. 9), the share of corporate meetings rose from 50% in 2010 to 72% in 2016. Fig. 9: The Chinese Meeting Market 2010-2016 (Source: China Meeting Market Statistical Analysis Report, 2017) At the same time, the share of government-related meetings dropped from 17% to 8%, whereas the association market was relatively stable at a low level. This underlines the suggestion that European destinations should concentrate on Chinese corporate business (China Meeting Statistical Analysis Report, 2017). 7.5.3 Other China MICE-related studies Several studies have been published on this topic. In 2016, the market research institute TNS conducted a qualitative study (20 respondents) on Europe as a MICE destination ex China that provided some insights into the market requirements and offered best practice cases (TNS, 2016). In 2017, Visit Britain issued a China MICE market study that was based on 41 interviews and stated Enterprises Associations Government Institutions <?page no="146"?> 146 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations that “the growth of the Chinese market presents a significant opportunity to the UK business events sector” (Visit Britain, 2017). In its “Länderinformationen China 2018”, the German Convention Bureau provided information about the image of Germany in China, the travel activities of Chinese people in Germany and some economic indicators. In the largest Chinese incentive group thus far, more than 2,600 participants visited seven cities in 2017 (GCB, 2018). 7.5.4 Chinese outbound tourist (city) consumption (WTCF) Factor 7, outbound business tourism, can be regarded as one of the most important driving factors for hotels and other sectors of the MICE industry of a destination. The World Tourism Cities Federation (WTCF) has already published its fourth Market Research Report on Chinese Outbound Tourist (City) Consumption (2017-2018) and concentrates on major changes in the structure and behaviour of Chinese outbound tourism. According to this study, the number of China’s outbound tourists reached 130.51 million in 2017, a year-on-year growth of 7%, whereas the total overseas consumption of Chinese tourists in 2017 reached 258 billion US dollars (approximately 1.69 trillion Yuan), an increase of 5% (WTFC, 2018). Asia (61.3%) and Europe (60.7%) are the most popular destinations for Chinese travel abroad (WTFC, 2018). China’s outbound tourists prefer Britain, France and the United States. London, Paris, New York, Los Angeles, Edinburgh, San Francisco, Washington, Berlin, Rome and Milan are among the top ten cities for long-term outbound tourism (WTFC, 2018). In this study, business-related travel can be identified by the travel purpose which can be multiple. According to the authors, 17.7% planned to participate in a large event or festival, 12.8% planned to take part in a business meeting or other commercial activity, and 11.7% planned to study or take part in a study tour or school inspection. That is, more than 40% of the travel purposes had an event, business or educational background (WTFC, 2018). Additionally, this study underlines the growing relevance of Chinese MICE-related travel. 7.5.5 The Competitive Index for International Convention Destination In the literature and within the various industry associations, there is a lack of strategic approaches for the management of meeting and convention destinations. Therefore, we report here on one of the few exceptions, which was launched recently. In 2018, the Australian-based event consultant Gaining Edge published a new concept: The Competitive Index for International Convention Destinations. In contrast to the country and city rankings of the ICCA, which provides information about the number of international meetings that have been held in a certain destination, this index is offered as a new standard tool for determining how much business the destinations could or should be hosting (Gaining Edge, 2018). <?page no="147"?> Other Studies 147 The index offers a tool for comparing the relative competitive strengths of destinations that also provides insight into how those relative strengths relate to business outcomes. This relation is called “fair share” by the authors (Gaining Edge, 2018). The competitive index compares top destinations in terms of eleven categories/ business drivers, which the authors group into so-called “hygiene factors”, i.e., capacity (convention facilities and hotels) and access, “competitive advantages” such as cost and destination appeal and finally “key differentiators” such as logistics, business environment and safety (Gaining Edge, 2018). Within this index system of eleven categories, Berlin is ranked third in only two categories, convention facilities and association community, but it does not appear at all in any other categories. Although we can check the general approach and method, there is no possibility of verifying the results. However, in our view, this new “fair share” approach offers some new insights for the managers of destinations. Destination managers might start to think about their general performance in relation to their potential. 7.5.6 Nation Brand Index Last but not least, the preference for Germany as an event destination is supported by other, more general studies, such as the Nation Brand Index. In 2018, the international market research company Ipsos conducted more than 20,000 interviews in 20 countries, including China, on various image aspects of countries. The most relevant aspect of this study for our concern is the following. Germany again ranks first of 50 nations, repeating its wins from 2008, 2014, and 2017. Germany’s leading advantage is its consistent strengths across multiple dimensions: it is ranked among the top four in four reputational categories, with its key strengths lying consistently in exports (the global public views “Made in Germany” products as the best to buy) and immigration-investment but also, importantly, in the culture and heritage sub-categories. Chinese respondents were most convinced of the quality of Germany’s exports, governance, people, and immigration/ investments (all ranked first in China) (Ipsos, 2018). As marketing research has shown over the years, buying decisions are supported or often even dominated by feelings. Therefore, the positive image factors for Germany should not be underestimated. 7.5.7 Key insights from all studies The key insights from these various studies are as follows:  China has developed into one of the top 10 meeting countries worldwide.  Most of the driving factors from the China Outbound Event Model (COEM) have developed positively; i.e., they will support the trend for outbound events from China in the long run. <?page no="148"?> 148 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations  The corporate market dominates the Chinese meeting market, which is also reflected in the first major Chinese events in Europe.  China and Germany have strong and stable relations in various dimensions (see also the COEM), which are underpinned by a positive image factor for Germany.  However, Germany, or cities such as Berlin, are not the only destinations that are interested in a larger share of this new market. There is strong worldwide competition among MICE destinations for the most interesting and lucrative customers and their events. In addition, each destination has special advantages and disadvantages.  Therefore, destinations need to develop a unique strategy for this new market. Strategies for Destinations As mentioned before, in the 2013 ICCA study, the majority of the international meeting industry believed that event destinations need a special China strategy in order to succeed in this new market. The following sections attempt to explain what the term strategy might mean for event destinations and how it can be transformed into action. Generally, a strategy can be regarded as a path or a way to achieve an aim. Some authors see strategy as “the long-term direction of an organisation” (Johnson et al., 2011, p. 4). Morrison (2013) also emphasises the long-term character of the term strategy and believes that tourism strategy is interchangeable with the term tourism plan (p. 43). Authors such as Porter underline that a “competitive strategy is about being different. It means deliberately choosing a different set of activities to deliver a unique set of value.” According to Porter, the essence of a strategy is to perform activities differently than rivals (Porter, 1996, p. 64); he adds: “Strategic positions can be based on customers’ needs, customers’ accessibility, or the variety of a company’s products or services” (Porter, 1996). Bieger (2008) postulates that a destination strategy must make a clear statement about the target markets as well as the services that are offered there (Bieger, 2008). Following Porter, he also notes that the destination has to develop a competitive strategy, which results in either price leadership or differentiation in relation to the competition (Bieger, 2008). In their study “Destination Next”, Destinations International (DMAI) offers a strategic road for the next generation of global destination organisations. Among others, they developed a scenario model, which was composed of two critical factors: the strength of destination as well as the level of community support and engagement (DMAI, 2018). <?page no="149"?> Case Study Berlin: Developing a China Strategy 149 As MICE destinations are in competition for attractive national and international customers, they have to analyse their market position towards customers generally and Chinese customers specifically in order to determine their strategic choices. In a strategic situation analysis, destinations should combine the marketbased view with the competence-based view (Meffert, Burmann and Kirchgeorg, 2008). That is, they should research the (external) macroand micro-environment and identify the opportunities and risks that the market offers. At the same time, they have to analyse the (internal) strengths and weaknesses, i.e., the competencies of the destinations and the DMO itself. On this basis, DMOs are in a position to develop a unique China strategy that responds to the challenges of this new market and enables DMOs to plan and act accordingly. Case Study Berlin: Developing a China Strategy In this section, we report on the case of the city of Berlin, Germany, which decided to develop a MICE-related China strategy. 7.7.1 The start visitBerlin is Berlin’s destination management and marketing organisation that manages and markets Berlin as the destination for general tourism as well as for business tourism, which includes the MICE sector. The BCO is a branch of visitBerlin and is in charge of the marketing and management of MICE in Berlin. In 2016, the BCO decided to develop a special China strategy for the Berlin MICE industry. As a first step, an external consultant formulated a general concept that was underpinned by facts and figures from various studies on the nine categories of the COEM and concentrated on specific China-Germany as well as China-Berlin issues. The chapter identified the potential China stakeholders in Berlin, proposed various topics that should be covered and revealed strengths and weaknesses as well as initial ideas for a China-specific workshop series. On this basis, the BCO set up a China project team that consisted of the Director of Conventions, the Marketing Manager Convention Asia, who already offered a China desk within the BCO, and external consultants from both academia and an event agency. This project team met several times, confirmed the target and direction of the process and prepared inputs for the workshop series, which was called “China MICE Competence Workshops” (CMCW). Essential information from various studies was extracted and interpreted. A needs analysis for the Berlin MICE industry was prepared in response to the question of whether the Berlin MICE industry was interested in investing time in an issue that did not promise any immediate business or other return. <?page no="150"?> 150 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations 7.7.2 Analysis of Sino-German and Sino-Berlin relations According to the classification of factors in the COEM (cf. part 3), the analysis started with Sino-German relations, as they provided information about Germany’s situation in comparison to other European countries. It was recognised that only a few elements of these relations could be influenced by the destination or the DMO. The special relations between China and Berlin were also brought into focus.  First, political relations between China and Germany are very stable and have no major specific conflict. Since this chapter was completed, we have witnessed the US-Chinese trade frictions, which have led to reduced business in many aspects: both trade figures and tourism figures are declining.  Sino-German trade: China ranks first for imports and fifth for exports (Statista, 2018).  It is worth mentioning that various European and German institutions have already developed “China strategies” to which our industry could refer (BMBF, 2015; Stepan et al., 2018; EU, 2019).  According to AUMA, since 2013, China has been the first-ranked exhibiting country in Germany. In 2017, nearly 14,000 Chinese exhibitors took part in German trade fairs. China also ranks as the most important non-European country for trade fair visitors (as we have described in the model, we see exhibitions as one of the driving factors for meetings and corporate events). As a result of this market research, the team was convinced that the Chinese market offers long-term opportunities for a German MICE destination such as Berlin. 7.7.3 Marketing and service quality goals for the workshops At the beginning of the strategy development, the project team formulated marketing goals as well as service quality goals for its China strategy. M a rketing g oa ls: “Berlin shall be perceived by the Chinese event industry as a leading European event destination with a superior China affinity and competence. Therefore, Berlin will attract the attention of the Chinese event industry with selected activities”. Service qua lity g oa ls: “The Berlin MICE industry offers a superior China competence and commits itself to continuing education and training in this field. Event locations and other MICE-related services in Berlin are well prepared for Chinese travellers and groups” (internal draft for the workshop series, 2016, translation by the author). <?page no="151"?> Case Study Berlin: Developing a China Strategy 151 However, was Berlin already prepared for this new market? How realistic were the goals? The team decided to set up a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis to gain a realistic view of the extent to which Berlin was “China-ready” and, if not, what could be done to quickly achieve such readiness. 7.7.4 SWOT analysis for Chinese event activities A SWOT analysis summarises the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that are likely to impact strategy development (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011). In an internal session, the China project team developed the following SWOT analysis of Berlin as a MICE destination for Chinese event activities. Strengths: a) Berlin in general  Capital of Germany/ largest city/ worldwide awareness  Headquarters of many GOs/ NGOs/ associations  Strong R&D units/ universities/ education  Berlin is Germany’s top start-up city  Berlin is attractive to young people as a “hip city”  Berlin is a partner city of Beijing b) Berlin as a MICE destination (with a focus on China)  Berlin is the first-ranked meeting destination in Germany and among the top 5 worldwide (ICCA, 2019)  Messe Berlin ranks sixth within Germany (AUMA, 2018)  Berlin is one of Europe’s leading cities for congresses and has one of the most diverse scientific landscapes in Europe (visitBerlin, 2019)  The number of Chinese tourists in Berlin has grown by more than 350% over the last ten years (visitBerlin, 2018)  IFA 2018: (Consumer electronics) 678 exhibitors from PR China (AUMA, IFA 2018)  ITB (2018): (Tourism) 570 exhibitors from PR China (AUMA, ITB 2018)  The BCO has a contract with the official representative of the German Convention Bureau in Beijing, which is also available for BCO members Weaknesses  Few direct flights to China (delayed opening of new Berlin airport (10/ 2020? ))  Low awareness/ appeal of Berlin in China (compared to Paris, London and Rome)  No headquarters of major industries in Berlin <?page no="152"?> 152 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations  No headquarters of major brands in Berlin  Other cities (Hamburg, Düsseldorf) have better working relations with China  No special China competence of the Berlin MICE industry Opportunities  China’s growing outbound event market offers attractive new business for Berlin’s MICE industry for the mid-term and long-term perspective  Germany has very good relations with China in various aspects  Berlin, as a leading German event city, has very good chances to develop as one of the preferred event destinations for Chinese decision makers Threats  Not to act at all. As a consequence of the SWOT analysis, the project team decided on a weakness/ opportunities (WO) strategy (Johnson, Whittington and Scholes, 2011) with the goal of taking advantage of the opportunities of the growing Chinese MICE market by overcoming the weaknesses that could be addressed in the short term, but with middle and long-term consequences. The following strategic option was formulated by the team: Berlin’s event industry builds a special China competence and welcoming culture and gains the first-mover advantage among European MICE destinations. 7.7.5 China competence for a MICE destination Factor nine of the COEM (China competence of destinations) already gave some indication of what Chinese customers expect from destinations and the MICE industry. However, what is China competence in general, and how can it be interpreted to transform a MICE destination? The Mercator Institute for China Studies (MERICS) (Stepan et al., 2018) in Berlin defines China competence as “all skills and knowledge that are crucial for successful co-operation with China. This includes language skills, intercultural skills, a basic understanding of China’s economy, politics, modern history and society and job-related knowledge” (Stepan et al., 2018, p. 8, translation by the author). In light of this definition, the team realised that there was little China competence available among most members of the BCO. As MICE destinations as well as their respective partners, such as hotels, event agencies, PCOs and logistics and <?page no="153"?> Case Study Berlin: Developing a China Strategy 153 technical support companies, are part of the service industry, we decided to divide the China competence of Berlin’s MICE into  Service production competence  Marketing competence In doing so, we followed the logic of the customer decision journey (McKinsey & Company, 2009) and the delegate journey (Schultze, 2017). The main part of service production takes place once the customers are already in Berlin, i.e., within the hotels, agencies, etc. It was evident that the management and the staff of the companies had to receive special China training in order to meet the expectations of Chinese customers. Concerning marketing competence, the BCO as the marketing platform for the Berlin MICE industry would offer joint activities aimed at the Chinese market as a first step. In both cases, intercultural competence was the key. Additionally, the team differentiated between short-term activities, which could be handled directly and implemented within the upcoming action plans of the BCO, and longterm issues, such as infrastructure and guidance systems in the Chinese language, which would need intensive coordination with many China-oriented stakeholders of the city of Berlin. Therefore, it was decided to develop a series of workshops for the BCO members to enhance their China competence in line with the MERICS definition. 7.7.6 Potential and needs analysis of the Berlin MICE industry Before starting with the organisation of the workshops, the team decided to conduct a potential and needs analysis of Berlin’s MICE industry. Approximately 100 BCO members (hotels, event locations, event agencies, etc.) were asked in an online survey about their interest in the Chinese market and the subject areas that the workshops should cover. The main results of the Berlin MICE survey were as follows:  25% of the BCO members already had experience with Chinese customers (business tourists, exhibitors, delegates, etc.)  The majority thought that the China event business would be stronger in the future  One-third of the members (especially international hotel chains) had already started marketing to the Chinese (tourism) market  60% wanted to take part in the workshops The second part of the survey asked about expectations for a China competence workshop in order to meet the needs of the participants. The following were the main areas of interest (BCO, 2016):  Expectations of Chinese customers on locations und organisation <?page no="154"?> 154 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations  Intercultural competencies (different values, language)  Business etiquette (dos and don’ts, booking behaviour, negotiations, etc.)  How does the Chinese economy function (structures, government, Communist Party, etc.)?  Chinese MICE market (structures and analysis, most important brands/ customers’ agencies, etc.)  Potential for Berlin (experience with MICE business in Germany and Berlin, future development)  How do I reach Chinese customers (contact, communication, acquisition)?  Marketing activities (important exhibitions, MICE platforms/ portals in China) From the survey, the project team learned that there was sufficient interest in the workshop idea. Additionally, the fields of interest matched the team’s own ideas and market research. 7.7.7 China certification for destinations The project team analysed some China accreditation and certification programmes, such as China Ready or Welcome China, that were offered to destinations. Could a certification enhance the chances of Berlin to be recognised as a China-ready destination? Both companies offer a combination of China-related trainings and accreditations/ certifications that can be used to market to Chinese customers and “that boost the ‘Chinese appeal’ of both individuals and organizations”, as China Ready expresses it (China Ready & Accredited, 2019). Welcome China offers special help for tourist offices to “be the first to understand and satisfy Chinese customer’s expectations and preference” (Welcome China, 2014). However, the project team decided to organise the training on its own with the assistance of German and Chinese consultants for the intercultural training. Moreover, we took advantage of the already existing China competence within the team and among some BCO members, such as the managing director of TAO Incoming, who shared their experience in various case studies. 7.7.8 China MICE competence workshops The project team decided to start with a (free of charge) kick-off workshop in which the team and the programme of the workshops were introduced as well as the concepts of China strategy and China competence. The participants were asked for their feedback on the proposal for the workshop series; thus, the team could select and adapt the programme ideas that best fit the interest of the majority of the participants, who were in marketing or sales. The participants in the following two workshops had to pay a certain fee to cover part of the costs and to demonstrate the value of the workshops. The workshops <?page no="155"?> Case Study Berlin: Developing a China Strategy 155 took place in the afternoon of a working day so that we could reach a maximum of participants. The workshops comprised the following topics:  The Chinese event market  Relations between China and Germany, with a focus on Berlin  Needs of Chinese customers/ exchange of experience/ case studies  Intercultural training (delivered by Mandarin Sino-Consult)  Case study Huawei/ customer journey with Chinese customers (delivered by TAO Incoming)  WeChat marketing/ setting up a WeChat account/ groups  Live WeChat conference with the BCO’s Chinese representative in Beijing  Future marketing activities in co-operation with GCB  Future China activities by the BCO: development of a China strategy  What is next? Preparing and organising the workshops can be regarded as the first steps of a China strategy. In our view, the BCO can identify the following interim results:  Several background papers have been elaborated and distributed.  Three workshops for the Berlin MICE industry have been organised.  Awareness and knowledge of the Chinese MICE market have risen substantially.  A Berlin MICE WeChat group has been established.  Checklists for Chinese MICE guests have been developed, and a Chinese-related literature list has been distributed.  An informal meeting (round table) series, which takes place every two months at the locations of interested partners, has been established with presentations on selected topics.  China MICE-related information is now shared on a database that is accessible to members.  Joint participation in MICE exhibitions in China will take place, starting in 2020/ 21.  The BCO already sends periodical WeChat posts in Chinese.  In addition to the website offered by visitBerlin for general tourism (http: / / www.laibolin.com), a Chinese version of the BCO website and most relevant communication tools is in the planning phase.  At the informal meetings, China stakeholders from other areas, such as universities or the Berlin Chamber of Industry and Commerce, have been invited to present their China activities. Thus, the BCO and the MICE industry have the opportunity to learn from other areas, build new business networks and obtain information about the China activities of the MICE industry. <?page no="156"?> 156 China Outbound Events - A Challenge for European MICE Destinations  In formulating a long-term goal, the China MICE competence initiative can be a cornerstone for creating a Berlin-wide China community, which will in turn serve as a basis for comprehensive China activities. Summary and Outlook In summary, the chapter comes to the following conclusions:  In accordance with the general development in China, after years of two-digit growth, the Chinese event industry shows stable development at a high level.  The COEM discusses various driving factors that influence the volume, structure and direction of Chinese event activities abroad.  The differentiation into source factors, relation factors and destination factors helps MICE destinations focus their strategies.  Studies on various aspects of Chinese-German relations reveal excellent opportunities for the German MICE market.  To develop a China strategy for the Berlin MICE industry, the BCO established a project team, formulated marketing and service production goals, conducted a SWOT analysis and established a series of China competence workshops.  Thus, the case study of Berlin shows how a China strategy for the MICE sector can be established. Questions  Within the China Outbound Event Model, what is the difference between source factors, relation factors and destination factors?  How can the high participation of Chinese companies in German exhibitions lead to Chinese events?  How would you describe the term “China competence”?  What is a SWOT analysis?  Why should German destinations start marketing to the Chinese corporate market?  What is a weaknesses/ opportunities strategy, and how was it applied in the Berlin case? <?page no="157"?> Further Readings 157 Further Readings  Schwägermann, H., Mayer, P. and Ding, Y. (eds) (2016) Handbook Event Market China. Berlin/ Boston: De Gruyter/ Oldenburg. Bibliography AUMA Ausstellungs- und Messeausschuss der Deutschen Wirtschaft (no date) AUMA - Verband der deutschen Messewirtschaft. Available at: https: / / www.auma.de/ de (Accessed: 19 July 2019). AUMA (2013) China erstmals größter ausländischer Aussteller (08 July 2023). Available at: https: / / www.pressebox.de/ pressemitteilung/ auma-ausstellungs-und-messe-ausschuss-derdeutschen-wirtschaft-ev/ China-erstmals-groesster-auslaendischer-Aussteller-in-Deutschland/ boxid/ 609535 (Accessed: 19 July 2019). AUMA (2019) Messebilanz 2018. Available at: https: / / www.auma.de/ de/ medien/ meldungen/ presse-2019-14 (Accessed: 25. July 2019). AUMA (2019) ITB. Available at: https: / / www.auma.de/ de/ ausstellen/ messen-finden/ messedaten? tfd=berlin_itb-berlin_169634 (Accessed: 25 June 2019). AUMA (2019) IFA Berlin. Available at: https: / / www.auma.de/ de/ ausstellen/ messen-finden/ messedaten? tfd=berlin_ifa_163155&art=tpv (Accessed: 25 June 2019). Berlin Convention Office, BCO (2016) Survey China MICE workshops. Unpublished internal paper. Bieger, T (2008) Management von Destinationen. 7th edn. München: Oldenbourg Verlag. Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (2015) China-Strategie des BMBF 2015-2020, Bonn. 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Available at: https: / / openknowledge.worldbank.org/ bitstream/ handle/ 10986/ 31878/ 9781464813924.pdf (Accessed: 23 July 2019). World Tourism Cities Federation, WTCF (2018) Market Research Report on Chinese Outbound Tourist Consumption. Available at: http: / / www.wtcf.org.cn/ uploadfile/ 2018/ 0913/ 20180913025210427.pdf (Accessed: 21 October 2019). World Tourism Organization (WTO) (2016) Terminology within Destination Management and Quality. Available at: http: / / cf.cdn.unwto.org/ sites/ all/ files/ docpdf/ terminologydm.pdf (Accessed: 14 October 2019). <?page no="161"?> 8 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation Markus Große Ophoff, Kai-Michael Griese and Kim Werner Increasing digitalisation is affecting the competitiveness of organisations within the event industry, which means that existing value chains should be reviewed and, if necessary, adapted to secure their existence. At the same time, value chains that are becoming more transparent are raising the pressure to consider objectives in terms of sustainable development (e.g., reduction of CO 2 emissions). Previous empirical studies have considered the level of implementation of digitalisation and the sustainability of events and event organisations separately. From an integrative point of view, this chapter examines how organisations can be described in a simultaneous consideration of the levels of digitalisation and sustainability. For this purpose, four different clusters are explained using a matrix. The case study of the darmstadtium, a convention centre in Darmstadt, Germany, illustrates an exemplary cluster. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: event organisations, sustainability, digitalisation, sustainable development, sustainable standards, sustainable policies Introduction Over the last few decades, the volume, range, meaning and significance of conferences, conventions, and business events around the world have grown rapidly and significantly (Rogers and Davidson, 2016). For example, the US meetings industry contributed over 115 billion US$ to the GDP and directly and indirectly supported jobs for more than 1.7 million Americans in 2012 (CIC, 2014). Another example is Messe Frankfurt in Germany. Its trade shows, conventions and other events generate a total turnover of 3.6 billion euros per year, induce annual inland revenue of 657 million euros and secure 33,260 jobs throughout Germany (Penzkofer, 2017). At the same time, the event industry is strongly impacted by recent global developments, such as increasing digitalisation and the call for more sustainable development (GCB, 2013, 2019). <?page no="162"?> 162 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation Sustainable Development The gathering of people affects people, environment and economies, for example, through the use of resources, waste creation and emissions, or noise (Allen et al., 2011). The event industry must take the responsibility to ensure sustainable resource use and protection of natural environments and can act as a powerful catalyst to do so. Event organisers have the opportunity to not only minimise potential negative impacts but also influence change and inspire those involved to live more sustainably (Allen et al., 2011; Jones 2014). The United Nations Environment Programme defined a sustainable event as one that is “designed, organised and implemented in a way that minimises potential negative impacts and leaves a beneficial legacy for the host community and all involved” (United Nations Environment Programme, 2012, p. 1). Sustainability efforts within the event sector have largely increased in recent years (e.g., Jones, 2014; Mair and Laing, 2012; Werner, Griese and Hogg, 2017). In this context, the event industry generally approaches the topic of sustainable events from the perspective of corporate social responsibility (CSR) (e.g., Dickson and Arcodia, 2010; Werner et al., 2017). CSR is a management concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns into their business operations and interactions with their stakeholders. CSR is generally understood as being the way through which a company achieves a balance of economic, environmental and social imperatives (also known as the “triple bottomline approach”) while at the same time addressing the expectations of shareholders and stakeholders (UNIDO, 2017). Digitalisation Organisations within the event industry, which are often small and medium-sized businesses, are facing major challenges regarding digitalisation (Ernst & Young, 2016; GCB, 2013; Giberti and Weintraub, 2017). Digital customer interfaces break up traditional value chains, leading to a stronger interconnectedness of economic sectors (Bloching et al., 2015). Most management executives are aware of the importance of digitalisation. However, the majority do not have a clear strategy for dealing with the issues and challenges involved (Göbel, 2015). The reason is that digitalisation in a company is often represented by the IT department as the primary point of contact (Büst et al., 2015). Smaller event organisers face particular challenges because the risk of misinvestment (e.g., expensive software) is considered high, and the resource base is limited. At the same time, it is becoming increasingly evident that digital transformation requires new skills among employees that are only partially available on the job market (Bensberg et al., 2017a, b; Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2015; Giberti and Weintraub, 2017). In connection with legal issues (e.g., data protection), small and medium enterprises have doubts about implementing a digital transformation (Schröder et al., 2015). Digitalisation within businesses unfolds mainly through so-called enabler technologies. These include digital data (e.g., big data), networking among relevant <?page no="163"?> The Level of Sustainability 163 market players (e.g., cloud computing), automation (e.g., robotics) and digital customer access (e.g., social networks) (Bloching et al., 2015). The digital transformation of event organisations thus refers to the use of these enabler technologies to improve operational processes and to enhance the connections to other industrial sectors (see, for example, BMWi, 2015, Fitzgerald et al., 2013; Lange and Santarius, 2018). In the past, the topics of digitalisation and sustainability were generally discussed separately in the event literature (e.g., Andersson, 2016; Coppeneur-Gülz and Rehm, 2018; Laurell and Björner, 2018). Exceptions include the economic aspects of digitalisation, which are often discussed in the context of cost savings through more efficient value chain processes or the potential for setting up new business models (e.g., Treffler, 2019; Giberti and Weintraub, 2017). In contrast, environmental and social aspects at the interface between sustainability and digitalisation have largely been neglected in the past (see Griese et al., 2019; Schebek, 2016). This chapter examines event organisations at the interface between digital transformation and sustainable development. It is one of the first event studies to take an integrative view and consider both the level of digitalisation and sustainability. The results may serve as a basis for event organisers to identify future strategies. The chapter first describes starting points that can help to determine the level of sustainability and digitalisation of events and event organisations. Afterwards, the two dimensions are considered integratively. As an example, the darmstadtium, a convention centre located in the Frankfurt/ Rhine-Main metropolitan region in Germany, is presented and evaluated on the basis of both dimensions. The chapter concludes with a summary and an outlook. The Level of Sustainability There are several approaches in the literature to describe the level of sustainability of an event or event organisations. The following remarks elaborate some of the different perspectives. 8.2.1 Sustainable event policies Public policies can be defined as goal-directed processes by governments and their agencies that seek to address specific problems or areas of public concern (Getz, 2012). These policies can be expressed through the laws, regulations, decisions or promises of governments and are influenced by the political environment and the values and ideologies of those in power in the particular country (Holmes et al., 2015). In the event context, many governments around the world have started to develop events-led strategies, i.e., a range of policy measures designed to promote events in order to better coordinate their involvement and <?page no="164"?> 164 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation allocation of resources (Allen et al., 2011). These strategies often target a wide range of different events (Getz, 2005), from small community events to largescale international events, and seek to both support existing events and attract new events. Previous research has largely expressed criticism that event policies are often decided at a national level by governments without considering the needs of the organiser or the wide range of stakeholders involved (Whitford, 2004). Whitford (2009) highlighted that these national event policies can often not (or can only partly) be applied to regional or local contexts. Overall, Getz (2009) argued that the links between public policy and events are not well studied and understood. He called for future events policy to have a more sustainable and responsible approach to public sector involvement in events. Based on this approach, the level of sustainability is influenced by the goal-directed process of governments and their agencies. If they plan a high level of sustainability in order to address specific public concerns, an event could be very sustainable. Given the positive economic outcome of most events, particularly large-scale sporting events but also large conventions and congresses, the primary interest of governments in these events relates to the potential to attract visitors to the destination and to foster direct and indirect spending (Getz 2009; Hall 2012). As such, the primary focus of most governments is the economic contribution of events. Getz (2009) proposed a more holistic view of events and called for governments to take a triple bottom-line approach to event policy. He suggested a new sustainable events paradigm consisting of three phases: conceptualisation, diffusion and institutionalisation. Within phase one, the conceptualisation phase, governments increasingly understand the need to evaluate events more holistically than just economically. In phase two, the diffusion phase, this new perspective is communicated to the public and those in power, and they thus start to understand and consider this more sustainable approach. Finally, in phase three, the institutionalisation phase, politicians and the public embrace sustainability and embed its principles in laws and regulations (Getz, 2009; Holmes et al., 2015). While Getz (2009) argued that most governments are still in phase one, he also pointed to several examples of local and national governments starting to take sustainability and the triple bottom line into account in their event policies. In contrast, Hall (2012) called for a shift in indicators and objectives rather than a paradigm shift within event policies. He stated that most large-scale event policy has “a simplistic growth focus and even the triple bottom line approach is geared towards maintaining a growth focus” (Hall, 2012, p. 128). Hall (2012) summarised three main approaches to sustainability, namely economic, balanced and ecological economic, and their application to events (see Table 7). Each of these approaches has a different focus pertaining to sustainability, with strong implications in terms of how events are organised and planned and how policy is practised and defined. The economic approach focuses on economic <?page no="165"?> The Level of Sustainability 165 growth, for example, the contribution of events to the GDP, increasing visitor numbers, expenditure and ROI. The balanced approach seeks to balance economic impacts with environmental and social ones and promotes the triple bottom line of events. However, a strong economic focus is still apparent. Finally, the ecological economic approach focuses on systemic impacts and opportunity costs and uses economic, social and environmental indicators as part of a qualityof-life approach. Hall (2012) regarded the ecological economic approach as the only one that can maintain and enhance natural capital. However, he also foresaw that it has a slim chance of being adopted given political and corporate investment interests. Tab. 7: Different event approaches to sustainable policies (Source: adapted from Hall, 2012, p. 124) Approach Policy Characteristics Economic understanding of event impacts  focus on contribution to economic growth  strong emphasis on the use of events to enhance international profile  focus on self-regulation and competitiveness Balanced understanding of events in terms of economic, environmental and social impacts  implementation of the triple bottom-line concept  multiple evaluations and assessment, but perceived economic benefits remain a focus  use of standards and management systems approaches Ecological economic understanding of events as being grounded in natural capital.  focus on systemic effects of events  indicators are connected with quality-of-life approach  strong focus on opportunity costs  evaluation of environmental and sustainability dimensions before hosting or bidding for events While Hall’s (2012) focus was on mega-events, it can be argued that these approaches are also applicable to large-scale business events given their strong economic contribution that is targeted by governments and event policies. In response to Getz’s (2009) call for a paradigm shift, Dredge and Whitford (2010) proposed a more nuanced understanding of the complex processes and interdependencies involved in order to account for, and accommodate, the intricacies of events and resulting event policy. As such, event policy makers need to better understand the complexity of stakeholder interests, the context within which events are staged, and the advantages and disadvantages of hosting different events. The authors called for a “broader agenda on events policy research that embraces a wide range of epistemologies, ontologies and methodologies that can elucidate both policies of and policies for event planning and management” (Dredge and Whitford, 2010, p. 12). <?page no="166"?> 166 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation Based on this approach, the level of sustainability of events is especially influenced by three phases: conceptualisation, diffusion and institutionalisation. The more phases are realised, the higher the level of sustainability. 8.2.2 Implementing sustainable event policies At the micro-level, organisations have an increasing awareness of the need for and the benefits of sustainable behaviour. Organisations seek to act responsibly at an environmental, economic and socio-cultural level, consistent with international norms of behaviour (Jones, 2014). Jones (2014, p. 18) highlighted that a genuine CSR programme “… is closely tied up with corporate ethics and responsible governance”. As such, an (event) organisation must be held accountable for its actions and needs to be able to critically measure its economic, social, and environmental impacts as well as its overall performance. To do so, sustainability management policies and standards can be implemented as useful and effective tools to reach the sustainability goals of an organisation and to document the efforts. As such, a sustainability policy should be the first step for organisations when planning a sustainable event. This policy indicates the commitment of the organisation to sustainable development principles and describes the actions the organisation is willing to take to embed sustainability in the entire event management process (SEA, 2017). Thus, the policy can assist in clarifying sustainability priorities and enable better planning of how to spend time and resources. It can also help to detect and reduce risks (such as ethical issues, corrupt bidding processes, or labour disputes) in the event management process (McKinley, 2019). Sustainability policies can be worded broadly, using non-binding language, or quite specifically, listing “must-do” actions of the organisation (Jones, 2014). However, before a policy is set up, the scope should be determined. Will the policy apply to the whole organisation, to all events or just to some selected events? (McKinley, 2019). It is impossible for a policy to address every conceivable environmental impact associated with an event. Therefore, it is important to clearly identify what is and is not covered and what will be prioritised (for example, a focus on waste reduction and energy saving). The focus should be placed on areas that are within the control of the organisation or that can at least be influenced. Conducting some research on the main issues and environmental impacts that the event(s) of the organisation might attract will also help policy makers to understand the underlying processes and to better plan and prepare the policy. Similarly, available resources of time and money should be identified. Finally, identifying and involving key stakeholders as well as obtaining their buyin is critical to a successful sustainable event. Stakeholders can play an important role in promoting and endorsing (or - in stark contrast - impeding) sustainable event actions (McKinley, 2019). The final policy should include (Jones, 2014; McKinley, 2019) the following: <?page no="167"?> The Level of Sustainability 167  A clear statement of purpose that also describes the values of the organisation (such as diversity or transparency).  The goals and SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timespecific) objectives regarding the sustainability outcomes, including the indicators against which they will be assessed.  Any external or internal commitments, including requirements to comply with legal obligations as well as any accords or agreements that businesses may have signed on to (for example, the UN Global Compact; UN, 2019).  An overview of consultation processes, training of staff and education of key stakeholders  Key operational areas and how they relate to the three sustainability domains  A description of how progress will be reported and communicated  Details on compliance with targets  An overview of the monitoring and review process Once the policy is set up, it is important to engage both staff and key stakeholders in its implementation (for example, through education and training) and to communicate the policy to sponsors, speakers, attendees and other event stakeholders so they are aware of what to expect and how the policy affects them. The policy should also be integrated into the procurement processes of the organisation so that it is reflected in RFPs and contract agreements (McKinley, 2019). Having a sustainability policy in place is a requirement of many (event) sustainability standards - as will be outlined below. These standards allow the environmental, economic and socio-cultural impacts of events to be reported and managed. 8.2.3 Sustainable event standards A large variety of sustainable event standards have been developed for business common practice, particularly in the last 15 years (e.g., Große Ophoff, 2016; Werner et al., 2017). The standards serve primarily as guidelines and provide orientation for businesses when organising sustainable events. Table 8 presents an overview of selected sustainable standards within the event industry. Four of the standards are then outlined in more detail below. Events Industry Council Sustainable Event Standards (EIC) The Events Industry Council (EIC) Sustainable Event Standards have been developed by more than 100 leading industry practitioners. At present, they exist only in a provisional form to allow for a final phase of industry participation. During the provisional period, the EIC will solicit feedback from early adopters of the standards. This feedback may result in changes to the final standards that will be released in 2020. The standards are designed to be applied throughout the event industry, focusing on environmental and social impacts rather than country-specific regulations and programmes. They replace the former APEX/ <?page no="168"?> 168 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation ASTM Environmentally Sustainable Meeting Standards (Events Industry Council, 2019). The EIC Sustainable Event Standards increase user-friendliness, strengthen social responsibility and honour innovation and exemplary performance. They also provide flexibility through a points-based system that meets the needs of a global audience. In total, seven different standards representing different sectors of the industry have been established: event organiser, accommodations, audio-visual and production, destination, exhibitions, food and beverage and venue. Event organisers, for example, will be assessed only in categories relevant to their event portfolio. For example, if they do not host exhibitions, they will not be assessed in this area. For an organisation to be certified, four steps must be undertaken (Events Industry Council, 2019): [1] Applicants must endorse the Principles for Sustainable Events. These are voluntary standards available on the EIC’s website. [2] Applicants must complete the industry-wide requirements. [3] Applicants will be required to demonstrate their achievement of the criteria. Based on the percentage of completion and on the maximum number of points for each specific sector, certification will be awarded as follows: bronze certification (50% of available points), silver certification (65% of available points), gold certification (80% of available points), or platinum certification (90% of available points). [4] Applicants may also apply for additional points for innovation or exemplary performance to help them achieve a higher level of certification. Green Globe Standard Another international standard is the Green Globe Standard, the first international sustainable certification for the travel and tourism industry. The Green Globe Standard is a structured evaluation of the sustainability performance of tourism and event businesses and their supply-chain partners. Businesses can monitor improvements and document their achievements leading to certification of their sustainable operation and management. The Green Globe Standard includes 44 core criteria supported by over 380 compliance indicators and covers four main areas (Green Globe, 2019a): (i) sustainable management (e.g., a sustainability management system, legal compliances, employee training, communication strategy); (ii) social and economic criteria (e.g., community development, local employment, employee protection); (iii) cultural heritage (e.g., protection of sites, incorporation of culture); and (iv) environmental criteria (e.g., conserving resources, reducing pollution). Certification is confirmed once more than 50% of the indicators related to the criteria are achieved. The evaluation process is carried out via an independent auditor. In Germany, there are currently 68 member organisations, of which the great majority are congress and convention centres (Green Globe, 2019b). <?page no="169"?> The Level of Sustainability 169 The German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) The German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) was founded in 2007 by 16 initiators from different fields of the construction and real estate industry in order to promote sustainable construction in the future (DGNB, 2019a). The DGNB evaluation system provides an assessment of the sustainability of buildings and urban districts. The certification system is based not only on ecological aspects but also on a holistic view of the entire life cycle of a building. The sustainable overall performance of a building is assessed on the basis of approximately 37 different criteria that have been allocated to six categories (DGNB, 2019b): (1) the ecological quality (e.g., emission-related environmental impacts, total primary energy requirements); (2) the economic quality of the building (e.g., building-related costs, suitability for third-party use); (3) the socio-cultural and functional quality (e.g., thermal comfort, acoustic and visual comfort, accessibility); (4) the technical quality (e.g., noise protection, adaptability of the technical systems); (5) the quality of the process during the construction and commissioning of the building; and (6) the site quality (e.g., the image and condition of the location, transport connections). If a performance requirement is met, the DGNB awards the DGNB certificate in bronze, silver, gold or platinum (DGNB, 2019b). ISO 20121 The ISO 20121 management system is based on the 2009 version of the British Standard “BS 8901”, which was prepared in anticipation of the 2012 London Olympics. Experts from more than 25 countries and several leading associations in the event industry helped to develop the standards. ISO 20121 is regarded as “a practical tool for managing events so that they contribute to the three dimensions of sustainability - economic, environmental and social” (International Standard Organization, 2012). The standard seeks to address events of all forms and sizes and to offer benefits to all actors involved in the organisation of an event at all stages of the supply chain, including event organisers, the workforce, suppliers (such as caterers, stand constructors, transport companies), participants and regulatory bodies (International Standard Organization, 2019). ISO 20121 can be applied to a single organisation, an event organiser or a single event or venue (Jones, 2014). ISO 20121 is not a checklist but requires a systematic approach to addressing sustainable development issues within the event planning process, including venue selection, operating procedures, supply-chain management, procurement, communications, and transport (Jones, 2014). It monitors the entire event process, from pre-event to post-event, and adopts a “Plan-Do-Check-Act” approach to implement the principle of sustainability. As a result, it is not the event that complies to ISO 20121; rather, it is the management system operated by the organisation (International Standard Organization, 2019). ISO 20121 was the first international standard designed entirely for the event industry. <?page no="170"?> 170 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation Tab. 8: Overview of selected sustainability standards in the event industry Standard Description EIC Sustainable Event Standards The standards are designed to be applied throughout the event industry, focusing on environmental and social impacts rather than country-specific regulations and programmes. www.eventscouncil.org DGNB The evaluation basis is a holistic view of the entire life cycle of a building. The DGNB system does not evaluate individual measures but rather evaluates the overall performance of a building. www.dgnb.de/ en EMAS EMAS is a management instrument developed by the European Commission for companies and other organisations to evaluate, report, and improve their environmental performance. https: / / www.emas.de EMASplus EMASplus is based on the EMAS system and extends environmental management with a social and economic perspective into an integrated and holistic management system. www.kate-stuttgart.org/ Green Globe The Green Globe certification is a structured assessment of the sustainability performance of travel and tourism businesses and their supply-chain partners. www.greenglobe.com Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) The Event Organisers Sector Supplement of the GRI covers key sector-specific issues, including site selection, transport of attendees or sourcing of materials, supplies and services. www.globalreporting.org Global Destination Sustainability Index (GDS- Index) The Global Destination Sustainability Index (GDS-Index) is a sustainability benchmarking and improvement programme for meetings and events destinations around the world. It uses 70 indicators that evaluate destinations across four key areas: city environmental performance; city social performance, supplier performance, and city management performance. The indicators align with the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the United Nations (UN). https: / / www.gds-index.com/ ISO 20121 ISO 20121 offers guidance and best practices to help manage business events and control their social, economic and environmental impact. https: / / www.iso.org/ iso-20121-sustainable-events.html As demonstrated in Table 8, a number of different sustainable event standards exists. This makes it increasingly hard - for both consumers/ clients and event organisations - to distinguish between the standards and to select the “right” standard for individual needs and targets. Additionally, most of the standards are non-binding, and they are often formulated rather broadly. For example, <?page no="171"?> The Level of Digitalisation 171 Große Ophoff (2016) criticised ISO 20121 as a rather “abstract management tool” that does not include many substantive requirements for events. Specific requirements for the sustainable organisation and implementation of events are listed only in the non-binding Appendix, which contains rather broad suggestions. Große Ophoff (2016, p. 23) stated: “If you replaced the word ‘event’ with ‘car wash site’ [in ISO 20121], you would immediately get a 98% analogical norm for sustainable car wash sites”. Similarly, the practicalities of incorporating these often very complex and extensive standards, particularly for smaller events or event organisations, are questionable since the organisations often have neither the manpower nor the budget to do so (Ashdown, 2010). In addition, only a limited amount of the sustainability standards are specifically designed for the different event sectors (e.g., business events, sport events, festivals). As such, most standards focus quite generically on all forms and sizes of events and fail to consider the individual needs of each sector. While there is a level of homogeneity among the sectors, they all have specific needs that should be considered. Dickson and Arcodia (2010, p. 242-243) proposed that event associations “work together as a group to establish a standard set of [sustainable] policies and guidelines which could then be adjusted to suit each sector”. Nevertheless, these standards allow organisations to report and manage the environmental, economic and socio-cultural impacts of events. Additionally, different organisations (for example, the EIC) have recently taken action to better and more specifically adapt the standards to the needs of the event industry and to make them more trustworthy. Overall, the standards can be helpful to assess the level of sustainability of events. The better the standard and realisation of the standard, the higher the level of sustainability. The Level of Digitalisation Even though the concept of digitalisation is well established in the literature as an important dimension for organisations (e.g., Leyh and Bley, 2016), little research has analysed the level of digitalisation within the event industry. In this context, it is important to consider the diversity of the industry, which includes a wide array of different actors, from small event agencies to large trade-fair corporations operating globally. Anecdotally, the event industry is often described as conservative and rather slow to adapt to technological and digital change (e.g., Giberti and Weintraub, 2017). Jochen Witt, CEO of JWC, a management consultancy firm specialising in trade fairs, stated: “We definitely believe that organizers are ready to embrace new technologies. … When it comes to visitor registration and floor planning, many organizers are fairly advanced, or at least have a clear strategy. Areas many organizers are struggling with is what technology to use for data mining, digital offerings 24-7, and even onsite matchmaking” (Witt, 2017, cited in Giberti and <?page no="172"?> 172 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation Weintraub, 2017, p. 111). Giberti and Weintraub (2017) pointed to a wide variety of single businesses offering digital solutions for events and event organisers, such as mobile technology (e.g., apps, AR, games), website optimisation, data analytics, marketing and advertising technology or online education technology. However, they noted: “What’s still missing is a concerted, industry-wide effort to adopt technology proactively, as opposed to reactively” (Giberti and Weintraub, 2017, p. 67). At the same time, they foresaw “magical opportunities” ahead if industry actors continue to embrace change and draw upon the opportunities provided by digital technologies. In the following, some starting points for assessing different levels of digitalisation are described. 8.3.1 Trend studies The future of the event industry has been investigated in numerous studies (e.g., Aventri / Eventmanagerblog.com, 2019; GEVME, 2019; Solaris, 2018, 2019). One example is the study “Future Meeting Space” from the German Convention Bureau (GCB, 2016a, b). This study highlighted six trends in the motivation of organisers and participants to organise or attend future events:  Interaction: Participants want to be more active at events and help shape them.  Flexibility: Different group sizes with different formats require rooms of different sizes with changeable settings as well as intuitively operable and individually bookable equipment.  Shorter preparation times: Shorter innovation cycles and current topics demand short preparation times.  Time efficiency: Either travel time and event duration are kept short, or an opportunity is created to use the time during events for day-to-day business.  Security: The growing sensitivity of personal data must be taken into account as well as the safety of travellers throughout their journey.  Experience: Only an event that creates a special emotional experience will be remembered. These trends were also examined in the form of scenario development. In the future, a multitude of different types of events will take place and will be in demand. The following six scenarios were identified (GCB, 2016b): Interactive Forum An event with 50 to 200 guests starts with a joint frontal lecture, after which small groups work on individual topics. The focus is on the interaction of all participants. <?page no="173"?> The Level of Digitalisation 173 Spatially Distributed Congress Several regional conferences or congresses take place simultaneously at several locations. They are broadcast live from each location, which guarantees communication among participants. This scenario particularly addresses the desire for time efficiency, safety/ security and the creation of experiences. Co-working Congress The co-working conference or congress lasts several days and provides enough space and time to build up and maintain a sustainable network while at the same time carrying out the necessary day-to-day work. Short duration and time efficiency are the benefits of this scenario. Analogue Congress The analogue conference or congress deliberately takes place in a secluded location. The aim is to focus on the content; the connection to the outside world plays no role. This scenario above all addresses the requirements for safety/ security and experiences. Hybrid Congress The hybrid congress is a “real” conference or congress that is also broadcast in the virtual space. The existence of a parallel virtual world enables the participants to be present both physically and digitally. The scenario is particularly time-efficient and eventful. “Virtual Goes Real” A community that normally exists exclusively in social media meets outside the network to make personal and direct contact. This scenario combines interaction elements with a short-term nature and experience values. Based on the study results, it is clear that, depending on the development scenario, an event can have a higher or lower level of digitalisation. 8.3.2 Business Index Digital Another way of describing the level of digitalisation can be derived from the “Business Index Digital” (BMWi 2017). The DIGITAL economic index of the German Ministry for the Economy and Energy (BMWi) regularly measures the level of digitalisation of companies (BMWi, 2017). In a study by Griese et al. (2019), this index was considered for the first time in the context of the sustainable development of companies. To determine the level of digitalisation of companies, three main areas were measured with the help of 13 questions. <?page no="174"?> 174 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation These 13 questions included questions pertaining to business success in digital markets, the reorganisation of companies in the context of digitalisation and the usage intensity of digital technologies and services (Griese et al., 2019). On the basis of a standardised five-point Likert scale, managers of companies were able to make assumptions about the progress of their entrepreneurial efforts. The 13 questions used by Griese et al. (2019) to measure the level of digitalisation are presented in Table 9 and have been adapted to the event industry. Tab. 9: Indicators to measure the level of digitalisation of event organisations (Source: adapted from Griese et al ., 2019, p. 13) Corporate success Digital and technological affinity Satisfaction with the level of digitalisation of their own organisation Level of digitalisation of their events and general product portfolio Impact of digitalisation on corporate success Amount of total revenues generated by ICT 3 Digital re-organisation of the organisation Amount of ICT-based processes Integration of digitalisation into current strategic orientation Estimated integration of digitalisation into strategic orientation in five years’ time Current share of total investment in digitalisation Estimated share of investment in digitalisation over the next five years Intensity of use of digital technologies and services Use of digital mobile devices Use of digital infrastructures Use of digital services such as big data, cloud computing, etc. 8.3.3 Level of digital transformation Another approach to describing the digital status quo of event organisations is based on strategic levels of transformation. The concept of digital transformation considers the managerial perspective of event organisers. From this point of view, “digital transformation is all about connectivity and re-combination of assets, as previously separate devices, activities, people and firms become interconnected” (Stief et al., 2016, p. 1834). The transformation includes different strategic levels (see Table 10). 3 information and communication technology <?page no="175"?> The Level of Sustainability and Digitalisation 175 Tab. 10: Different strategic levels of transformation (Source: based on Stief et al ., 2016) Strategic level Transformation In terms of events, for example: 1 Internal and external processes Redefine the processes (e.g., online registration) when organising events to become more efficient 2 Products and services Development of new kinds of services for event participants (virtual event landscape) to increase the customer experience 3 Business models Complete digital transformation of business models In this context, the digital level of event organisations considers “the implementation and application of information and communication technology into a company’s existing business activities leading to altered or completely new process, products or business models in order to capture new opportunities and growth potential from technological developments” (Stief et al., 2016, p. 1837). The main drivers of the transformations from a managerial point of view are competition and customers. In summary, the higher the strategic level of digital transformation, the higher the level of digitalisation of an (event) organisation. The Level of Sustainability and Digitalisation In the previous sections, some starting points for describing event organisations in terms of their level of digitalisation and sustainability have been outlined. In the past, the two areas were often considered separately. If the two areas are connected with each other, four different clusters can be identified (see Griese et al., 2019). Cluster 1: low digitalisation, high sustainability “The sustainable event organisation with only a few smart and digital processes” Cluster 2: low digitalisation, low sustainability “The traditional event organisation” Cluster 3: medium-high digitalisation, low sustainability “The digital event organisation with smart processes and services” Cluster 4: high digitalisation, high sustainability “The digital and sustainable event organisation with smart and sustainable processes and services” For the event industry, questions concerning future event planning arise, particularly pertaining to the possible development stages of event organisations, with different <?page no="176"?> 176 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation levels of sustainability and digitalisation. Based on Schmidt et al. (2017) and Griese et al. (2019), potential transformation and development paths (DPs) for medium to long-term strategic planning of event organisations can be derived (Fig. 10). Development path 1 (DP1) illustrates the digital transformation of a company, i.e., the increase in the digitalisation level of an event organisation. A low level of digitalisation on three levels stands for high growth potential. Business success in digital markets can be increased by ICT-supported value creation. For example, event organisers have the opportunity to better integrate data analytics (e.g., heat maps for trade-fair stands, matchmaking) into their value creation processes. The reorganisation of business processes in the context of digitalisation also forces new investments to be made. Fig. 10: Development paths of event organisations (Source: Adapted from Schmidt et al. , 2017, Griese et al. , 2019) Figure 10 demonstrates, as expected, that the cluster of “digital and sustainable organisations” (top right in Fig. 10) also uses more technologies than, for example, the cluster of “traditional event organisations” (bottom left in Fig. 10). The amount of technology used within an event organisation or for certain events is thus another indicator of the level of digitalisation. Development path 2 (DP2) is the path from a traditional to a sustainable business. For example, by enhancing their level of social responsibility, businesses can increase their corporate success (Javed et al., 2016). A balanced weighting of the three pillars of sustainability also has a more positive effect on the company than simply focusing on only one pillar of sustainability (Nollet et al., 2016). In <?page no="177"?> The Level of Sustainability and Digitalisation 177 the event industry, the creation of sustainable event policies (see section 1.2.2) and participation in a sustainable event standard (see section 1.2.3) may serve as starting points to increase the sustainable actions of organisations. On development path 3 (DP3), a company executes a digital transformation. The difference from DP1 is that the company already operates very sustainably. Development path 4 (DP4) is the path from a digital to a digitally sustainable company. The main difference from DP1 is that the company already owns processes and products designed to be very digital. Finally, development path 5 (DP5) involves parallel digital and sustainable transformation. This turns a traditional business into a digitally sustainable business with both sustainable and smart digital processes and services. For this purpose, efforts on DP1 and 3 as well as 2 and 4 are necessary. The discussion about a high(er) level of digitalisation also shows that conflicts between the two dimensions are possible. This is the case, for example, when increasing digitalisation and automation lead to job losses (see Geschwill and Nieswandt, 2016). In this case, the interdependency between the two dimensions can be described as negative. As such, it might be questionable whether a truly sustainable company should define the greatest possible level of digitalisation as its long-term goal. Based on the elaborations above, the following questions can be raised: What do these different development paths mean for event organisations, the future planning of events and the discussion about increased sustainability and digitalisation? First, it quickly becomes clear that some DPs require a significant increase in the digitalisation of events. Virtual reality, streaming, social media, digital event tools, interactive boards, holography, digital interpreters and gamification are just some of the keywords that underline this trend. What they all have in common is that they require digital applications that consume additional energy and, due to the often complex technical equipment needed, additional resources. The digital transition is currently generating a substantial increase in the direct energy footprint of ICT (The Shift Project, 2019). This footprint includes the energy for the production and use of equipment (e.g., servers, networks, terminals), which is rapidly increasing by 9% per year. The capture of a disproportionate part of the available electricity increases the demand on electric production, which is already struggling to decarbonise. The share of digital technologies in global greenhouse gas emissions has increased by half since 2013, from 2.5% to 3.7% of global emissions. The demand for raw materials, such as rare and critical metals that are essential for both digital and low-carbon energy technologies, is also growing (The Shift Project, 2019). On the other hand, digitalisation can prevent environmental pollution. This is particularly the case when highly energy-intensive air travel is replaced by digital alternatives. With the energy expenditure of a flight from Zurich to New York, <?page no="178"?> 178 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation one could conduct a video conference in HD quality for more than 1,000 working days (Niebert, 2019). As such, a chance for greater sustainability through digitalisation is seen particularly in the improved organisation of travel, i.e., by enhancing the use of public transport and - in the future - offering autonomous vehicles as a supplement. Applications on mobile phones are already capable of combining very different means of transport, from trains and local buses to rental bicycles and car sharing, into a meaningful sequence, thus offering more sustainable transportation options to and from event venues. For the future design of events, it is therefore particularly important to think about and connect the two major areas of sustainability and digitalisation. In this way, new digital solutions can be developed, new customer experiences be generated and additional environmental pollution be avoided. Case Study: The darmstadtium , a Sustainable Convention Centre in Germany The darmstadtium, opened in 2007, is a meeting place for science, business and culture in Darmstadt, Germany, in the heart of the Frankfurt/ Rhine-Main metropolitan region. For decades, Darmstadt has enjoyed close links with science through its industries and research institutes. The darmstadtium is a venue created with the primary aim of bringing science and business together (darmstadtium, 2019a). The total area of the venue is 18,000 sqm, and it offers 21 conference rooms of varying sizes that can also be combined to meet different requirements. The heart of the venue is the “spectrum”, a congress hall that can be divided into two or three smaller halls. Elevating platforms in the seating areas allow the hall(s) to be transformed quickly from a dance floor for galas and exhibitions into an ascending auditorium for congresses. The surrounding foyer areas are ideal for exhibitions accompanying main events or other functions (darmstadtium, 2019a). In 2018, the darmstadtium hosted 291 events with approximately 151,000 visitors and made a total revenue of approximately 5.79 million euros. Of these events, scientific conventions and meetings were particularly strong (darmstadtium, 2019c). <?page no="179"?> Case Study: The darmstadtium, a Sustainable Convention Centre in Germany 179 Fig. 11: darmstadtium (Source: www.darmstadtium.de / feedback werbeagentur GmbH (permission from darmstadtium obtained)) Sustainability aspects were taken into account during the planning phase of the building. The construction of the venue and the development of its energy concept were carried out in close cooperation with the architecture, design and energyefficient building faculty of the Technical University of Darmstadt (Wöhler, 2016). The in-house biomass boiler is an important part of the energy supply. The roof surfaces of the darmstadtium are equipped with more than 400 solar modules for the production of solar power. The photovoltaic system generates approximately 70,000 kilowatt-hours per year, avoiding approximately 33 tons of carbon emissions per year. Since 2018, more than 80,000 bees have been living on the roof deck of the darmstadtium. After four months, they had already produced 75 kg of honey (darmstadtium, 2019b). Strict internal corporate guidelines for the purchase of goods and services have been implemented and favour the use of sustainable products, from office materials to hygiene articles. In addition, employees and suppliers were trained as “sustainability advisors” (in a 1.5-day seminar offered by the German Convention Bureau; GCB, 2017) and became highly familiar with sustainability procedures. CO 2 emissions can be compensated for through cooperation with a local supplier of electric energy, Entega (darmstadtium, 2019b). The use of public transport is strategically promoted. The venue is located within a short distance of the main train station and can be reached by long-distance and local trains. In cooperation with Deutsche Bahn (German Railway) the darmstadtium offers specific price-reduced rail tickets for selected congresses and conventions. Attendees with electric cars can charge their vehicles free of charge at <?page no="180"?> 180 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation the darmstadtium’s own electric filling station. E-bikes can also be rented, or the DarmstadtCard for public transportation can be used (darmstadtium, 2019a, b). Sustainable Certification Green Globe The darmstadtium has received the Green Globe Certification three times (2011, 2013 and 2015; Green Globe, 2016) and achieved 90% of the possible points in 2015. However, the management strategically decided not to apply for further Green Globe certification and to focus on the DGNB and EMASplus certifications instead (darmstadtium, 2019d). DGNB certification The darmstadtium is the first DGNB-certified congress venue in Germany. In the area of ecological quality, the darmstadtium scored points for its rainwater collection system and the treatment of this water for green spaces and toilets as well as its intelligent energy utilisation system. The economic quality of the congress centre is particularly high due to the use of sturdy and durable materials such as bamboo for the flooring. In terms of socio-cultural and functional quality, the accessibility of the congress centre is also very relevant in view of future demographic development. Overall, the darmstadtium fulfilled 66.6% of the criteria and received the DGNB certificate in silver (darmstadtium, 2019b; DGNB, 2019c). EMASplus At present, the darmstadtium is working towards EMASplus certification and regards this standard as the one best fitting the venue as well as its customers and stakeholders (darmstadtium, 2019d). Digitalisation Due to its redundant 20-gigabit Internet connection, the darmstadtium provides very fast connectivity. LTE is available in all areas of the building, even the underground car park (darmstadtium, 2019e). For its high technological standards, the darmstadtium received (for the second time) the 2019 INCON Digital Infrastructure Award, which recognises conference venues that work innovatively to enable top-class networked meetings (darmstadtium, 2019f; INCON, 2019). In 2014, the darmstadtium was the first venue in the world to win this award. Through the early use of technological innovations, the darmstadtium is regarded as a pioneer and benchmark for the event industry (darmstadtium, 2019e). In summary, the darmstadtium is a very sustainable event venue. The variety of technologies used in the building also indicates a high level of digitalisation. Therefore, the authors classify the darmstadtium in the cluster of digital and sustainable events with smart and sustainable processes and services. <?page no="181"?> Summary and Outlook 181 Summary and Outlook This chapter has provided an integrative view of the sustainable and digital development of event organisations. It first presented an overview of sustainable policies and standards to describe the level of sustainability in the event industry. The chapter then considered different approaches to describing the level of digitalisation. The case study of the darmstadtium illustrated an example of the organisational context with reference to a high level of sustainability and digitalisation. The chapter has also discussed how an increased level of digitalisation might affect the planning and organisation of future sustainable events. Digitalisation will provide both benefits (such as reduced environmental pollution through reduced air and car travel) and challenges (such as the increase in the direct energy footprint through ICT) for sustainable events in the future. Sustainable actions and initiatives are currently receiving wide attention in the event industry. For example, many organisations have started initiatives to adopt the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (see https: / / www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/ sustainable-development-goals/ ) in their actions, such as the International Congress and Convention Association (ICCA) during their recent annual congress in Houston, USA, or Visit Monaco Convention Bureau at the IBTM World 2019 trade show in Barcelona. It will be interesting to see how the event industry will respond to the benefits and challenges of both digitalisation and sustainability in the future, particularly at the interface of both dimensions. The goal of sustainability activities should be to achieve a particularly high standard. Digitalisation can lead to improvements in the area of sustainability as well as to deterioration. In addition, direct personal encounters at events can be a unique selling point. In the case of digitalisation, the question of the right scope and the right measures for digitalisation must therefore be answered specifically for each individual event or for each individual event organiser. Integrative views of digitalisation and sustainability are still scarce. Future research could identify relevant indicators and describe the different levels of digitalisation of events and event organisations. Moreover, there is a need for a quantitative validation of the digital level of businesses. Overall, more work by the event industry and more research by event scholars is needed in the future to improve sustainable policies and standards and to analyse how digitalisation can be used for enhanced sustainable event practice. <?page no="182"?> 182 Event Organisations at the Interface between Sustainability and Digitalisation Questions  How can the level of sustainability of an event organisation be determined?  How can the level of digitalisation of an event organisation be determined?  What are the development paths for the organisers of sustainable and digital events?  Discuss the pros and cons of digitalisation for the future organisation of sustainable events. How do you expect the industry to address the challenges involved? Further Readings  Giberti, M. and Weintraub, J. (2017) The face of digital: how digital technologies are changing the $565 billion dollar events industry. Lioncrest Publishing  Holmes, K.; Hughes, M.; Mair, J. and Carlsen, J. (2015) Events and Sustainability. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.  Jones, M. (2014) Sustainable event management: A practical guide, 2 nd edn. London: Routledge.  Getz, D. (2009) ‘Policy for sustainable and responsible festivals and events: institutionalisation of a new paradigm’. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1(1), pp. 61-78.  Werner, K., Griese, K.-M. and Hogg, J. (2017) ‘Service dominant logic as a new fundamental framework for analyzing event sustainability: A case study from the German meetings industry’. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 18 (3), pp. 1-26. Bibliography Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R. and McDonnell, I. (2011) Festival and special event management. 5th edn. Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Andersson, G. (2016) ‘Sustainability processes and certification in the Swedish event tourism industry’, Journal of Environmental and Tourism Analyses, 4(1), pp. 5-29. Ashdown, H. (2010) The Sustainable Future of Music Festivals: How can new policy instruments and voluntary guidance tools help music festivals become more sustainable? Master Thesis, Lund University, Sweden. Aventri / Eventmanagerblog.com (2019) The future of event marketing. 2nd edition. Available at: www.aventri.com/ offers/ the-future-of-event-marketing (Accessed: 12 October 2019). <?page no="183"?> Bibliography 183 Bensberg F., Griese, K.-M. and Schmidt, A. (2017a) ‘Die Bedeutung der Digitalisierung in der arbeitsmarktgerichteten Unternehmenskommunikation - eine empirische Untersuchung mittelständischer Unternehmen’, in Stumpf, M. (ed.) EUKO 2017 - Kommunikation und Digitalisierung Proceedings zur 17. interdisziplinären Tagung des Forschungsnetzwerkes Europäische Kulturen in der Wirtschaftskommunikation - European Cultures in Business and Corporate Communication (EUKO), 19th-21st October, KCM Schriftenreihe, 3, Frankfurt am Main, pp. 28-29. Bensberg, F., Griese, K.-M. and Schmidt, A. 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Vorausschau und Technologieplanung, Verlagsschriftenreihe des Heinz Nixdorf Instituts Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jürgen Gausemeier (ed.) Strategische Produktplanung und Systems Engineering, 374, pp. 307-328. Schröder, C., Schlepphorst, S. and Kay. R. (2015) Bedeutung der Digitalisierung im Mittelstand. Institut für Mittelstandsforschung. Available at: http: / / www.ifm-bonn.org/ uploads/ tx_ifmstudies/ IfM-Materialien-244_2015.pdf (Accessed: 24 August 2019). Solaris, J. (2019) Ten event trends for 2020. Available at: https: / / www.eventmanagerblog.com/ event-trends-2020 (Accessed: 20 November 2019). Solaris, J. (2018) Ten event trends for 2019. Available at: https: / / www.eventmanagerblog.com/ event-trends-2019 (Accessed: 12 September 2019). Stief, S., Eidhoff, A. and Voeth, M. (2016) ‘Transform to Succeed: An Empirical Analysis of Digital Transformation in Firms’, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Open Science Index 114, International Journal of Economics and Management Engineering, 10(6), pp. 1833-1842. Sustainable Event Alliance, SEA (2017) The Event Sustainability Roadmap. Available at: http: / / sustainable-event-alliance.org/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2011/ 12/ The-Events-Sustainability- Roadmap1.pdf (Accessed: 05 September 2019). The Shift Project (2019) Lean ICT towards digital sobriety. Available at: https: / / theshiftproject.org/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2019/ 03/ Lean-ICT-Report_The-Shift-Project_2019.pdf (Accessed: 15 June 2019). <?page no="187"?> Bibliography 187 Treffler, E. (2019). Digitale Trends für Eventagenturen - Teil 1. Available at: https: / / doo.net/ de/ knowhow/ 2019/ 07/ 02/ trend-fur-eventagenturen-kosteneinsparung/ (Accessed: 05 September 2019). United Nations, UN (2019). United Nations Global Compact. 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(2009) ‘A framework for the development of event public policy: Facilitating regional development’, Tourism Management, 30(5), pp. 674-682. Wöhler, L. (2016) ‘Das darmstadtium - Ihre Nachhaltige Veranstaltungslocation’, in Große Ophoff, M. (ed.) Nachhaltiges Veranstaltungsmanagement - Green Meetings als Zukunftsprojekt für die Veranstaltungsbranche. München: oekom Verlag, pp. 173-180. <?page no="189"?> 9 Festivals and “New Retail”: A Case Study of the “Double 11” Shopping Festival in China Hui Huang and Hanzhi Zhang In the past 20 years, e-commerce has developed rapidly in China. With the progressive improvement of technology, a growing number of consumers choose to buy goods from the internet. In 2009, Taobao initiated special discounts to promote sales on November 11 (also referred to as “Singles Day”), and the event was an unexpected success. Soon, “Double 11” (11/ 11) became an established online sales promotion day. Gradually, not only special discounts and promotional sales but also many activities began to be offered on this special day. Consumers interact with “Double 11” in a variety of ways. The success of “Double 11” has given rise to an enormous economic and social phenomenon. This chapter discusses the evolution of the “Double 11” festival from a typical commercial promotion day to a “carnival”. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: shopping festivals, “New Retail”, “Double 11”, carnival, e-commerce, promotion Introduction Shopping festivals have existed for a long time and have appeared in various forms in many countries and regions (Rui, 2015). They are usually offline, with a large ranges of goods and reduced prices, and are held on certain days. “Black Friday”, for example, is the day following Thanksgiving (the fourth Thursday of November) in the United States, when major retailers open very early (and more recently during overnight hours) and offer special discounts and promotional sales. There is a different type of shopping festival in China called “Double 11”, November 11, when special discounts are offered by online merchants to promote sales. It is known as the most successful shopping festival in the modern history of business. In contrast to traditional festivals, where buyers and sellers meet in person, “Double 11” is online and consequently unlimited by space and opening hours. “Double 11” has evolved from a typical promotion day, “11.11”, to a “carnival” (Yuan, 2013). For consumers, there are different stages of participation: activities to prepare for “Double 11”, ways to participate in “Double 11”, and the emo- <?page no="190"?> 190 Festivals and „New Retail“: A Case Study of the „Double 11“ Shopping Festival ions that they experience at the end of “Double 11”. These aspects inspire us to rethink the “festival” concept itself in China. What groups participate in this festival? What forces are behind it and promote it? What are the characteristics of this type of festival? Will those characteristics be stable in the future, or will such festivals face great challenges? The “Double 11” Shopping Festival With the development of the economy and the improvement of technology, a growing number of people in China choose to shop online. In 2009, Taobao initiated an event in which certain merchants provided special discounts to promote sales on November 11, which was an unexpected success (Rui, 2015). Taobao is the largest retail and business network in the Asia Pacific region. It was founded by Alibaba Group in May 2003. After the first event, Taobao set “11.11.” as an established online sales promotion day (also called “Singles Day” in China). From then on, “11.11.” became the representative shopping festival. Soon, the success of “Double 11” led to imitation by other e-commerce platforms such as JingDong, Suning, Amazon, and Gome, which held similar promotional activities. Gradually, the forms and contents of the discounts became increasingly abundant on this special day. Consumers interact with “Double 11” in several ways, such as downloading red envelopes and discount coupons from online stores, taking part in offline activities and watching live broadcasts produced by some brands. In recent years, additional activities have emerged, such as experiencing VR while shopping and even a “Double 11” gala evening. “Double 11” has now developed into a national festival with abundant demonstrations in China. In 2016, a survey indicated that more than 60% of internet users wished to participate in “Double 11” that year (iiMedia Research, 2016). In addition, people of all ages become involved, with the post-1985 generation contributing the greatest consumption, followed by the post-1980s generation and post-1970s generation (Trend Consulting, 2016). The scale of “Double 11” has increased in size each year. Taking the Taobao platform as an example, over 30 thousand brands took part in the 2016 “Double 11”, including more than 1,500 famous overseas brands (Zhan, 2015). The total consumption amount reached 120.7 billion RMB (TianMao Official, 2016). Background of Online Shopping in China The period from 1999 to 2002 was the stage when online shopping first emerged in China. “8848.com”, founded in 1999, was the earliest B2C website in China, and Eachnet was founded in the same year as a pioneer Chinese C2C website. <?page no="191"?> Background of Online Shopping in China 191 The period from 2003 to 2005 was also crucial. In May 2003, Taobao was founded, and it acquired 10 thousand users in only 20 days (Bai, 2009). In the same year, eBay invested 180 million dollars in Eachnet (Bai, 2009). However, Eachnet charged the sellers, leaving a developing space for Taobao, which adopted a free policy. In less than one year, the competition between the “elephant” and the “ant” ended with a surprising triumph for Taobao. During the competition, Taobao created a unique C2C operating model, including developing an instant chat app to replace communicating by e-mail and inventing a reliable third-party payment tool (Alipay). Invented in 2014, Alipay is a significant instrument that solves trust issues (Zheng, 2005). Before 2004, consumers risked receiving unwanted goods or not receiving them after paying, while online merchants were afraid of not receiving payment if they did not charge in advance. Alipay created a mechanism in which the money paid by consumers is kept in the app until consumers confirm receipt of the purchased item. The seller receives the payment once the buyer makes the confirmation. The reliable third-party payment tool perfectly solves the greatest problem of online shopping, and its thorough refund regulations guarantee the safety of both sides. This method of payment, especially Alipay, unexpectedly promoted the specialisation of the Chinese online market, paving the way for the outbreak of online shopping. The next year, 2005, saw a huge increase in the growth of the consumption market. By August 2005, the consumption growth rate in China had been higher than 12% for 16 months (Bai, 2009). The period between 2006 and 2007 saw frequent acquisitions, mergers, and entrances into the online shopping market. Several shopping websites competed, and Taobao became the largest Asian shopping website. Particularly worth mention is the start of a new B2C business - Taobao Mall, later renamed TianMao (TM) - which showed the possibility of creating an internet brand with products intended to be sold online. A new consumer-orientated consumption stage had begun. Despite the global financial crisis in 2008, the online retail industry continued to increase rapidly in China. In 2009, Taobao initiated “Double 11”, which went on to become an important part of the Chinese online market. Fig. 12: The development of online shopping in China <?page no="192"?> 192 Festivals and „New Retail“: A Case Study of the „Double 11“ Shopping Festival The Transformation from “Singles Day” to “Shopping Festival” 9.4.1 The evolution of the “Double 11” Chinese Online Shopping Festival “Double 11” is a special time for online shopping. Remarkably, its turnover (all e-commerce platforms) in one day constitutes more than 3% of the total GDP of Zhejiang Province (4730.0 billion yuan), 177.4 billion yuan (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2017; China Economic Net, 2016). This proportion has shown an ongoing increase (see Figure 13). Fig. 13: Annual turnover of “Double 11” and yearly transaction amount (in hundred million RMB) (Source: Alibaba Group, 2019 (https: / / www.alibabagroup.com/ cn/ news/ press)) “Double 11” has accelerated the development of facilities for online shopping. For instance, to solve the problem of delivering numerous packages in a short time, more couriers are employed and more vehicles are put to use. Better experiences encourage consumers to shop online more frequently. 9.4.2 Diversification of participants In 2009, TaoBao initiated “Double 11”, and JingDong held “Double 11” in 2010. Gradually, nearly every e-commerce platform held promotional activities on November 11. To date, the “Double 11” market has shown a situation of tripartite competition. As shown in Figure 14, TM had the largest market share, 68.2%, in 2016, followed by JD (22.7%). The remainder is largely from Suning, Gome, Store Number 1, Amazon and so on. <?page no="193"?> The Transformation from “Singles Day” to “Shopping Festival” 193 Fig. 14: Share of “Double 11” online market in 2016 (Source: China E-Business Research Centre, 2016) 9.4.3 “Double 11” becomes “Global Carnival” “Double 11” has left a far-reaching impression as an online shopping festival, bringing both great economic benefits and profound social concerns. The Chinese government has stated that it will support the development of e-commerce; therefore, “Double 11” receives encouragement from the government. On 31 October 2015, Prime Minister Li Keqiang held the third economic situation symposium of economists and business executives. Jack Ma, the founder of the Alibaba Group, spoke at the conference and mentioned that building “Double 11” into a Chinese shopping festival was impracticable under the traditional commercial modes (Liu, 2016). The prime minister commented: “You have created a new shopping era” (Liu, 2016), reflecting the government’s supportive attitude towards “Double 11”. In 2015, TianMao started to hold a “Double 11” evening gala that could be watched on television and streaming websites. In this way, commercial capital added celebratory elements to “Double 11”. However, the traditional media had other news to cover, and the discussion of “Double 11” decreased slightly. In the same year, the title of “Double 11” changed from “Shopping Festival” to “Global Carnival”. The word “shopping” was abandoned to eliminate the stereotype that “Double 11” was intended only for shopping. The world “global” was added to indicate that “Double 11” was free from the limits of geographical boundaries. 68,20% 22,70% 2,20% 1,90% 1,30% 1,00% 2,70% TianMao JingDong Suning Gome Store Number 1 Amazon Othe <?page no="194"?> 194 Festivals and „New Retail“: A Case Study of the „Double 11“ Shopping Festival “Double 11” as a “festival”: Real or False? “Double 11” is undoubtedly an important shopping occasion, with thousands of online merchants and millions of consumers participating. However, as a “festival”, the characteristics of “Double 11” remain unknown. Therefore, a survey was designed to explore the form, characteristics and range of “Double 11” in detail. By analysing the collected statistics, this survey also attempted to corroborate whether “Double 11” is a “festival” or “carnival” as reported by the media and the public. 9.5.1 Research design The questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first part collected basic information about the interviewees, including age, gender, employment, education level, salary and frequency of shopping online. This part helped to ensure the variety of the sample. The second part contained seventeen direct questions with single-choice or multiple-choice answers. Some questions were about the cognition of “Double 11” and the level of understanding of “Double 11”. The remaining questions were related to participation in “Double 11” and the respondent’s attitude towards it, including the three stages of online shopping: preparation for shopping, participation in shopping, and post-shopping. Finally, the questionnaire explored real-life “festival” activities. 9.5.2 Demographic data The questionnaires were filled out online, and aimed to determine the situation of online shopping and attitudes towards it. There were 631 valid questionnaires. Of the respondents, 207 were male, 420 were female and 4 chose “other”. Regarding the age groups, there were 102 post-1960s, 125 post-1970s, 158 post- 1980s, 224 post-1990s, 13 post-2000s and 9 other. For the level of education, there were 26 graduates from junior middle school and under, 63 from middle high school, 484 university or college graduates and 58 postgraduates (and above). A total of 163 respondents were still students, and 468 were employed. Their living expenses and salaries varied. 9.5.3 Advance preparation The results of the survey showed that more than 90% of the respondents had participated in “Double 11”, and most of them prepared for it in advance. Consumers’ preparations vary. According to the survey, 59.23% of the respondents paid a deposit for discounted goods that they wished to buy; 48.64% set aside some time on the eve of November 11 to surf relevant websites while awaiting the arrival of “Double 11” (Double 11 starts at 0 o’clock in the morning of November 11); 41.41% searched reviews of goods to obtain more information and to decide whether to buy; 38.52% discussed what they wanted to buy with their friends; and 10.43% asked for friends’ help in purchasing their targeted goods. <?page no="195"?> “Double 11” as a “festival”: Real or False? 195 The results of analysing consumers’ shopping behavioural preferences illustrate the same idea. Making a shopping list is the most popular practice (67.74%), followed by comparing the preand post-sale prices of the same products (22.47%), comparing the prices of similar products (20.71%) and setting aside a budget in advance (18.62%). In addition, 9.79% of the respondents compared the prices of the same product on different e-commerce platforms. The results show that most consumers are actively involved in preparing for this event and want to find the most cost-efficient shopping method by calculating and comparing prices. 9.5.4 High popularity and degree of attention “Double 11” enjoys high popularity. The answers show that 99% of the respondents knew of the existence of “Double 11” on November 11. The answers indicate that approximately 80% were motivated to shop on November 11. Overall, people born after 1980 had acquired more information about “Double 11” and were more likely to react to it. “Double 11” receives a high degree of attention. According to the survey, coupons, red envelopes and pre-sales were the most well-known activities among the respondents, with proportions of 87%, 67.74% and 58.43%, respectively. This finding reflects that the majority knew that there are at least three kinds of discount activities on “Double 11”. However, far fewer respondents knew of the existence of experiential activities such as VR shopping and brands’ live broadcasts, and only 24.4% knew about the evening gala. This finding demonstrates that most people still pay attention to promotional activities regardless of new shopping experiences and activities. The other supporting point is that people seek the relevant information several months before November 11. Because of the effect of advertising, different forms of advertisements are delivered online and offline. Online advertisements usually exist on social media platforms and video websites, and offline advertisements are delivered widely and frequently in public places. According to the statistics, only 7.87% of the respondents were unaware of any advertisements. In addition, public discussions are an effective way of spreading information. The number of consumers who hear about promotional activities from people around them is almost equal to the number who see the advertisements in malls and retail stores. New and traditional media also contain much information about “Double 11”. Approximately 85,400,000 results can be found on Baidu, the largest Chinese search engine. Approximately 1,510,000 articles about “Double 11” are published on WeChat. The Weibo page that published the total TianMao turnover of “Double 11” 2016 received 10,097 reposts, 6,830 comments, and 11,033 “likes” (Mo, 2016). The results of the survey also indicate that 32.42% of the respondents saw information about “Double 11” in newspaper advertisements. All these findings vividly demonstrate that “Double 11” is popular in China and that most people know about it and participate in it. <?page no="196"?> 196 Festivals and „New Retail“: A Case Study of the „Double 11“ Shopping Festival 9.5.5 Attitudes and feelings towards “Double 11” The results of the survey show a positive attitude towards “Double 11” in general. Of the respondents, 47.51% looked forward to Double 11, and 53.29% participated in “Double 11” in 2017. However, more than half of the respondents did not have high mood fluctuations before/ during/ after November 11. Figure 15 elaborates the respondents’ feelings. Fig. 15: Mood fluctuations, divided by gender With the aim of determining whether relationships exist between people’s attitudes and their age, gender, etc., a further analysis was performed. From the perspective of age, younger groups were generally prone to mood fluctuations because of “Double 11”. The post-1990s group was more excited than the other groups, and the post-1960s group was basically the most indifferent towards “Double 11”. Fig. 16: Mood fluctuations, divided by age groups <?page no="197"?> Conclusion 197 From the perspective of occupation, students were slightly more excited than employed participants. In addition, more students felt annoyed, while more employees felt disappointed. Fig. 17: Mood fluctuations, divided by occupation Conclusion In conclusion, the term “Double 11” is well known to the public. Nearly everybody in (mainland) China has heard of it. Moreover, “Double 11” is popular as a shopping festival. The number of participants has continually increased. Over time, a variety of activities have arisen both online and offline, aimed at promoting goods, providing better shopping experiences and creating a pleasant atmosphere. Among these activities, incentives such as downloading red envelopes with a certain discount are most favoured, while experiencing activities offline is less popular. The most special event is the evening gala, which features performances by celebrities. In addition, the attention to and participation in offline activities are lower than those for online activities. It is worth mentioning that in 2016, people from 217 countries and regions participated in “Double 11” (Mo, 2016). This evidence shows that “Double 11” has a strong influence. According to the analysis of the survey, “Double 11” is less popular as a “carnival” because more than half of the respondents did not experience particular mood fluctuations associated with it. Further analysis of the survey statistics indicates that “Double 11” is more likely to be acknowledged as a “carnival” in certain groups, specifically among younger people, females and students. Some respondents indicated that their emotional needs were satisfied. Therefore, it can be inferred that with the growing number of new generations, more people will recognise “Double 11” as a “carnival”. <?page no="198"?> 198 Festivals and „New Retail“: A Case Study of the „Double 11“ Shopping Festival Questions  “Double 11” inspires us to rethink the “festival” concept. What groups participate in this festival? What forces are behind it and promote it? What are the characteristics of this type of “festival”?  How do you think these types of festivals will evolve in the future? What are some of the challenges in the future? Further Readings  Lin, G. and Zhou, R. (2008) Research on the business space of big cities. Beijing: The Commercial Press.  Zukin, S., Kasinitz, P. and Chen, X. (2016) Global Cities, Local streets: Everyday Diversity from New York to Shanghai. Shanghai: Tongji University Press.  Wu, Y. (2009) The shape and propagation of China’s national image. Shanghai: Fudan University Press.  Yan, M.Y. (2010) Mega Event Destination Participants Behavior Research - A Case Study of Hangzhou. Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University. Bibliography Alibabagroup (2019) Press releases. Available at: https: / / www.alibabagroup.com/ cn/ news/ press (Accessed: 12 August 2019). Bai, S. (2009) ‘Return to rational inventory in exploring Chinese online 10 years development course’, Beijing Business Today, 26 August. China e-Business Research Center. (2016) A Report on 2016 China Consumer Network Consumption situation and Online Shopping Guide. Available at: http: / / www.100ec.cn/ zt/ 16zgxfz/ (Accessed: 11 March 2019). China Economic Net. (2016) Since 2016, Small Double 11 has entered a stage of "billion times". Available at: http: / / www.ce.cn/ xwzx/ gnsz/ gdxw/ 201611/ 11/ t20161111_17733136.shtml (Accessed: 15 March 2019) iiMedia Research. (2016) A Report on the "Double 11" Consumption Behavior of Chinese Internet Users in 2016. Available at: http: / / www.iimedia.cn/ 46062.html (Accessed: 16 March 2019). Liu, Y. (2016) A Report on 2016 Chinese Internet Consumers in 2016: Available at: http: / / news.efu.com.cn/ newsview-1188831-1.html. (Accessed: 01 April 2019). Mo, D. (2016) ‘The release of “Chinese consumer’s network consumer insight reports and online shopping guide in 2016” ‘, Computer and network, pp. 10-11. Rui, S. (2015) ‘Shopping day is how to create based on Taobao double 11 cases’, Market weekly, Vol.11, pp. 62-64. TianMao Official (2016) The turnover of “Double 11” in Tmall Double 11. Available at: http: / / m.weibo.cn/ 1768198384/ 4040779007809741 (Accessed: 16 March 2019) <?page no="199"?> Bibliography 199 Trend Consulting (2016) A Report on the "Double 11" Consumption Behaviour. Available at: http: / / www.trendsbigger.com/ p/ 8.html (Accessed: 11 March 2019) Xinhuanet. (2016): Highlights of 2015 Double 11. Available at: http: / / news.xinhuanet.com/ 2015- 11/ 11/ c_1117110851.htm (Accessed: 11 March 2019) Yuan, N. (2013) ‘Thinking about the phenomenon of shopping network “11.11 carnival” ‘, Market Marketing, 444, pp. 134-135. Zhan, H. (2015) 30 thousand brands offline stores participated in 2015 “Double 11”. Available at: http: / / www.askci.com/ news/ chanye/ 2015/ 10/ 13/ 19223zdup.shtml (Accessed: 11 March 2019) Zheng, W. (2005) ‘Online payment on the eve of shuffle cards’, China E-Commerce Business, 11, pp. 18-21. <?page no="201"?> 10 Slow Events: Assessing the Potential for the Event Industry of the Future Kim Werner, Christina Bosse and Kai-Michael Griese The Slow Movement has gained considerable recent attention as a social movement that seeks to counteract increasing globalisation, commercialisation and marketisation in Western societies. The movement has already dispersed into many other economic areas and sectors, such as Slow Travel and Tourism or Slow Cities. However, its application in the context of events is scant. This chapter seeks to provide further insights into the Slow Movement and to analyse the role of events within this context. The chapter first provides an overview of the philosophy behind the Slow Movement and reviews the literature on the movement itself as well as related approaches. Based on this literature review, a definition of Slow Events is developed. The findings are then applied to a practical case study. Overall, this study identifies Slow Events as a promising concept for the future event industry. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: Slow Events, Slow Food, Slow Travel and Tourism, Slow Cities, Slow Movement Introduction In times of ever-shorter innovation cycles of products, the time factor is of great importance for organisations. Companies that can change their value chain quickly and flexibly can gain competitive advantages and operate successfully in the market (e.g., Bhatt et al., 2010). The digitalisation of the economy has further accelerated this development. However, this steady acceleration of the economy also has serious disadvantages. As the market in an industry changes increasingly rapidly, the opportunities for companies to gain a market share in the short term increase. At the same time, this situation makes it more difficult for companies to reach a stable market position. Constantly shortening product life cycles means that R&D costs can have a negative impact on returns. To address these challenges, one contemporary approach is based on “slowing down” economic activities and is often referred to as the Slow Movement (e.g., Griese and Halstrup, 2013; Schneidewind and Palzkill-Vorbeck, 2011; Stengel, 2011). <?page no="202"?> 202 Slow Events: Assessing the Potential for the Event Industry of the Future The Slow Movement has gained considerable recent attention as a social movement that seeks to counteract increasing globalisation, commercialisation and marketisation in Western societies (Nilsson et al., 2011). The Slow Movement has its roots in Slow Food, an ecological and gastronomic movement founded in Italy in the 1980s with three main fields of action: the preservation of gastronomic traditions; the promotion of network building between producers and consumers; and the enhancement of consumers’ knowledge of food, nutrition and the environment (Nilsson et al., 2011). Over the last few years, the movement has dispersed into many other economic areas and sectors, such as Slow Travel and Tourism or Slow Cities (e.g., Dickinson, Lumsdon and Robbins, 2011; Maltese et al., 2017; Miele, 2008). Events, however, have not yet been the focus of analyses within the Slow Movement. As such, events have been viewed mainly as part of research in the tourism literature, particularly focusing on Slow Food and Slow Cities (e.g., Chung et al., 2017; Duignan et al., 2018; Nilsson et al., 2011). A strategic focus on Slow Events and an analysis of whether and how events can incorporate characteristics of the Slow Movement is, however, lacking. The aim of this research is (1) to analyse the existing Slow Movement literature in terms of events to (2) propose and define Slow Events as a new approach for the sustainable development of future events. More specifically, this chapter addresses the following research questions (RQs): (RQ 1) What are the main characteristics of the Slow Movement? (RQ 2) What makes an event a Slow Event? Section 2 provides a short overview of the context and background of the Slow Movement. Then, a literature review offers insights into the main fields into which the Slow Movement has dispersed, namely, Slow Food, Slow Travel and Tourism, Slow Cities and Slow Events. Based on the analysis of the extant literature, a definition of Slow Events is developed in section 4. The theoretical findings are then applied to the case study of Bad Essen, a town in northwestern Germany and a member of the Cittàslow network (section 5). The potential of Slow Events as a marketing tool is discussed in section 6. The chapter concludes with a summary and an outlook. Context and Background: The Slow Movement The Slow Movement, or Slow Philosophy, has recently received increasing attention and can be regarded as a life philosophy and a social movement that has already affected many local communities worldwide (Calzati and Salvo, 2017; Honoré, 2004). It implies a fundamental change in the concept of the consumption of goods and services as part of a lifestyle characterised by commitment, a strong sense of responsibility and the search for well-being in both pri- <?page no="203"?> Literature Review 203 vate and business life (Calzati and Salvo, 2017). It is important to note that slowness does not necessarily refer to stillness. Rather, it offers alternatives to the rapid and advanced manifestations of Western capitalistic societies (Osbaldiston, 2013). Recent studies have highlighted that people in many Western societies have started to exchange materialistic values in favour of a new lifestyle characterised by more time, less stress and a better work-life balance (Hamilton, 2004). A number of researchers have thus suggested slowness as a promising way to confront the problems of contemporary life (Honoré, 2004; Parkins and Craig, 2006). However, there has also been some scholarly debate regarding whether slowness can be regarded as an actually manifested way of living (e.g., Lindholm and Lie, 2013). Calzati and Salvo consider the Slow Philosophy beneficial for constructing a slow society, i.e., “a society which gives greater attention to quality of life, ethical responsibilities and the value of solidarity between diverse social groups” (Calzati and Salvo, 2017, p. 34). As such, the concept of slowness could help to implement different lifestyle models and more intelligent consumerism, thus leading to the affirmation of a new humanism for a more supportive society (Salvo, 2011). While the Slow Movement has received considerable interest and has dispersed into a variety of other fields, particularly in the areas of food (e.g., Lee, Scott and Packer, 2014; Lindholm and Lie, 2013), cities (e.g., Ekinci, 2014; Lowry and Lee, 2011) and tourism (e.g., Clancy, 2017; Dickinson and Lumsdon, 2010), its application to the events literature appears to be scarce. This is somewhat surprising given that events affect almost every aspect of life - social, cultural, economic, environmental and political (Bowdin et al., 2012). This chapter thus seeks to provide an overview of the current role of events within the Slow Movement literature. Literature Review To obtain an overview of research in the context of the Slow Movement and the implied role of events, a thorough review of the literature related to the Slow Movement and related terms and concepts was carried out. Due to the focus of this book on the future of events, we used “Scimago Journal & Country Rank” journals in the tourism, leisure, events and hospitality industry. The journals were systematically reviewed for the terms “slow” and “slow events”. This search resulted in a total of 101 articles that underwent a qualitative content analysis and coding process using the software ATLAS.ti 8. As a result, we identified two different perspectives: (1) five approaches within the Slow Movement that appear to be strongly interrelated and connected and (2) different characteristics of the Slow Movement that help define Slow Events. The following sections provide further insights into the five approaches. The characteristics of Slow Events are discussed thereafter. <?page no="204"?> 204 Slow Events: Assessing the Potential for the Event Industry of the Future 10.3.1 Slow Food The term “fast food” is well known, especially in conjunction with restaurants such as McDonald’s or Burger King, which offer food around the clock within a very short time. The concept and the appearance of the food are the same, regardless of where in the world the restaurant is located. So-called “McDonaldisation” describes the principles of unification and standardisation with regard not only to the food industry but also to other spheres of life (Hartley, 1995; Ritzer, 1983). As a countermovement, the idea of Slow Food appeared in Italy in the 1980s. Slow Food had its beginnings in Rome. To demonstrate against the opening of a McDonald’s restaurant in the heart of the city, some Italian residents prepared a small market where they offered traditional Italian food to people passing by. They intended to position themselves against mass production and to highlight the importance of traditional food. Today, the Slow Food movement has over 100,000 members in more than 150 countries around the world (Slow Food International, 2019). A review of the literature revealed the following characteristics of the Slow Food approach (Nilsson et al., 2011; Parkins, 2004):  It focuses strongly on eco-gastronomic aspects.  Its objectives are to maintain traditional gastronomy and biological diversity.  It highlights the advantages of building networks among producers as well as between producers and consumers.  It suggests providing information about the food to consumers, such as the environmental aspects of the production, the origin of the product and its nutritional value.  It highlights the idea of considering the process of eating in a decelerating form. In summary, restaurants and food providers who follow the Slow Food philosophy commit to using products from the regional environment utilising traditional recipes to prepare meals, and cooking with attention to detail based on the specific needs of each individual consumer. As such, Slow Food stands for conscious eating with a special indulgence and the consumption of high-quality food. 10.3.2 Slow Travel and Tourism The literature review demonstrated that Slow Travel and Tourism, as an empirical phenomenon, has received increasing attention (e.g., Dickinson, Lumsdon and Robbins, 2011; Lumsdon and McGrath, 2011; Oh, Assaf and Baloglu, 2016). It also became apparent that the terms Slow Tourism and Slow Travel are often used interchangeably and synonymously in the extant studies - with both terms aiming for the same theoretical construct (see for example UNWTO, 2012). <?page no="205"?> Literature Review 205 Lumsdon and McGrath (2011) proposed Slow Travel as a way of journeying far from the mainstream. Deceleration and the avoidance of long distances to minimise negative environmental impacts are important aspects of the Slow Travel philosophy. Examples of Slow Travel modes include walking, hiking, using busses, cycling or taking the train, in contrast to car or air travel. In addition, Slow Travellers’ experiences are not limited to activities and adventures at the holiday destination. Rather, Slow Travellers regard the journey itself as a beneficial and pleasant experience. Lumsdon and McGrath concluded that Slow Travel could constitute a beneficial approach to meet the challenge of ecologically sustainable development in the tourism industry (see also Dickinson, Lumsdon and Robbins, 2011; Lane, 2009). Gardner (2009) regarded Slow Travel as a tourist mindset that minimises the use of air travel while simultaneously aiming for strong connections to local cultures and native people through interaction with them. Instead of attempting to experience as much as possible in a short period of time, Slow Travellers are encouraged to slow down and to consciously appreciate their surroundings. In the same context, Honoré (2004) suggested the idea of slowness as the basis for Slow Travel. He found that the fast-moving lifestyle of Western cultures (including fast-paced consumption and the continuous striving for more experiences) led to a lower quality of life. Given the constant time pressures in all aspects of modern life, Honoré called for a new understanding of time that questions continuous efforts to accelerate. Similarly, Foley (2015) emphasised the importance of maintaining the ability to dissociate oneself from the idea of always using time effectively and productively. The UNWTO (2012, p. 24) particularly highlighted the exchange relationship between host and guest and pointed to the positive economic impact: “Slow tourism allows a different set of exchanges and interactions than those available in the hurried contexts of mainstream tourism, economic benefits to the host and cultural benefits to the tourist.” Based on the importance assigned to environmental responsibility and sensitivity, Dickinson et al. (2011) distinguished between “hard slow travellers” and “soft slow travellers”. These preferences affect the preparation and planning of a holiday, for example, the chosen mode of transport. However, the two typologies do not constitute two distinct characteristics but rather two extremes of a continuum. Xu et al. (2018) examined Slow Travel and Tourism using the example of tram travel in Hong Kong. They found that tourists enjoyed discovering Hong Kong in a rather slow manner and used the tram for the experience itself rather than as a medium to get to a specific place. Similarly, Wilson and Hannam (2017) analysed the frictions of campervan travel and its slowness as a multi-sensory and embodied aspect of contemporary mobility. <?page no="206"?> 206 Slow Events: Assessing the Potential for the Event Industry of the Future In summary, Slow Travel and Tourism are associated with a variety of aspects in the extant literature. The short review highlighted that particular aspects such as deceleration and slowness play an important role and affect the choice of transportation to and from the holiday destination. It is not consumption and a tight schedule full of experiences that matters to Slow Tourists. Rather, Slow Travel and Tourism happens in a framework that offers travellers room to consciously perceive the journey, to enjoy the journey itself, thus adding a new quality of travelling. 10.3.3 Slow Cities The Slow Food approach formed the basis for “Cittàslow”, a network of Slow Cities founded in 1999 in Italy by Paolo Saturini, mayor of Greve, Tuscany. The Italian word “Città” (city) in conjunction with the English word “slow” stands for “Slow City”. The network is open only to communities with fewer than 50,000 residents. Today, more than 250 towns in 30 countries are members of the Cittàslow network (Cittàslow, 2019a). The members of the network seek to preserve and develop local identity and distinctiveness in many areas of life and business as a response to the globalised and increasingly hectic world. The Cittàslow Manifesto states (Cittàslow, 2019b): We are looking for “towns where men are still curious of the old times, towns rich of theatres, squares, cafes, workshops, restaurants and spiritual places, towns with untouched landscapes and charming craftsmen where people are still able to recognize the slow course of the seasons and their genuine products respecting tastes, health and spontaneous customs... .” As part of the philosophy, Cittàslow mentions the following aspects and values as integral to the network (Cittàslow, 2019b):  promoting dialogue and communication between local producers and consumers  environmental conservation  food production using natural and environmentally friendly techniques  improving the quality of life for the residents  sharing local identity  working towards sustainability  supporting local food and crafts communities  enhancing social justice and solidarity  sharing social responsibility To become part of the network, a variety of criteria must be fulfilled. These criteria refer, for example, to the infrastructure, energy and environmental poli- <?page no="207"?> Characteristics of Slow Events 207 cies, urban quality, hospitality and social cohesion of the prospective member town and its residents (Cittàslow Germany, 2019). Slow Cities have been the subject of a number of studies. For example, Ekinci (2014) examined the Cittàslow philosophy in Turkey and stressed the need to counteract the consequences of modernisation, such as the loss of traditions and culture or the excessive waste of natural resources. Nilsson et al. (2011) regarded Slow Cities as a promising concept to return to an original and individual character far from the homogeneous appearance of most globalised cities around the world. Similarly, Park and Kim (2016) highlighted the fact that Slow Cities strongly support sustainable tourism development. In conclusion, the Slow City approach can enhance awareness of the cultural heritage and the local identity of residents. As such, Slow Cities can improve the quality of life of local people and visitors alike (Presenza, Abbate and Micera, 2015). 10.3.4 Slow Events A review of the literature confirmed our first impression: Slow Events have not received much attention in the literature to date. Events have been used to illustrate the many manifestations of the Slow Movement, mostly in studies relating to Slow Food (e.g., Chung et al., 2017; Duignan et al., 2018; Nilsson et al., 2011). To this end, researchers often use the terms Slow Food Festivals or Slow Food Events (Folorunso Adeyinka-Ojo and Khoo‐Lattimore, 2013; Frost and Laing, 2013; Jung et al., 2015; Williams et al., 2015). For example, Jung et al. (2015) regarded food festivals as a means to support and recommend regional and local food vendors and to connect festival activities and food topics in an attractive way. Moreover, they stressed cooperation with local residents to create an authentic experience for visitors. Duignan et al. (2018) investigated grassroots (food) festivals and considered them a form of alternative festivals on a local level, focusing on authenticity, community and slower consumption. A sole focus on events as part of research investigating Slow Movement topics has, however, not been applied thus far. Moreover, studies using the term slow in the context of events are extremely rare. Considering that events add significant value to individuals, businesses and whole societies (Prebensen, 2017) and account for a large proportion of our leisure activities, further research would be of value. Characteristics of Slow Events Our review in the previous section points to a wide variety of different studies related to the Slow Movement. In this context, scientists have focused on central topics in the tourism sector: food, travel and tourism and cities. While there is <?page no="208"?> 208 Slow Events: Assessing the Potential for the Event Industry of the Future not much research pertaining to Slow Events, the review of the literature found some characteristics in relation to the Slow Movement. These general characteristics are summarised in Table 11 and transferred to Slow Events. Tab. 11: Characteristics of the Slow Movement as a basis for the definition of Slow Events Characteristics of the Slow Movement Examples: Author (Year) What does it mean for Slow Events? Authenticity Brunet et al. (2001); Lumsdon and McGrath (2011); Nilsson et al. (2011); Meng and Choi (2016a, 2016b); Chung et al. (2017); Kato and Progano (2017) The Slow Event embraces the local culture, e.g., local (slow) food, services, local traditions, and local actors Environmentally friendly Breakey and Breakey (2014); Duignan et al. (2018) The organisers try to avoid negative environmental impacts. Experience Lumsdon and McGrath (2011); Lee, Scott and Packer (2014); Pawlusiński and Kubal (2018) Slow Events offer a special experience. Government Brunet et al. (2001); Hall (2013); Ekinci (2014); Cohen et al. (2016) Slow Events can be supported by government policies. Local Business Nilsson et al. (2011); Presenza, Abbate and Micera (2015) Slow Events support the local economy (stakeholders). Motivation Lumsdon and McGrath (2011); Oh, Assaf and Baloglu (2016); Meng and Choi (2016a) There are special motivations to visit Slow Events from a visitor point of view Size Dubois and Ceron (2006); Dickinson and Lumsdon (2010); Higham and Cohen (2011); Weaver (2012); Becken (2017) Slow Events have a small size to avoid the risks of “mass events” and negative impacts on the environment. Slow Lumsdon and McGrath (2011); Foley (2015); Presenza, Abbate and Micera (2015); Varley and Semple (2015); Park and Kim (2016) Slowness (time) is an integral characteristic of Slow Events. The literature review demonstrated that all approaches related to the Slow Movement are based on similar ideas and characteristics. These include, for example, authenticity, which means that experiences are pure and unfalsified (Meng and Choi, 2016a, 2016b). In addition, cultural and local experiences play an important role, i.e., being close to the native culture and traditions of a country and connecting with the local residents. Another emphasis is on local and regional products and services. For example, products being bought are from the regional or <?page no="209"?> Slow Events: The Case of Bad Essen 209 local environment, restaurants use ingredients from the surrounding area, and visitors focus on domestic providers. Additionally, the focus is on organic products, traded in a fair way so that local growers benefit and the community is able to generate additional income. Ecological aspects are another core topic. Residents and visitors act in environmentally friendly ways by avoiding waste, saving energy and reducing greenhouse gases. Instead of mass production, mass tourism and clone towns (Duignan et al., 2018), the focus is on individual and authentic experiences. This focus also helps residents and visitors to perceive the environment more consciously. As such, deceleration and slowing down as an antithesis to fast-paced experiencing and consuming is a core element of the Slow Movement. This leads to a stronger identity of local residents with their area as well as increased social cohesion among community members. Based on the characteristics outlined above, we define Slow Events as follows: Slow Events are events that are designed, organised, and implemented in an authentic and individual way to decelerate stakeholders based on collaborative experience, regional services/ products and (slow) food. A Slow Event also has a relatively small size, minimises potential negative environmental impacts and leaves a beneficial legacy for the host community and all involved. Since research in the context of Slow Events is scarce, we now use a case study to further analyse the characteristics of events in the context of the Slow Movement. As such, events that take place in the small town of Bad Essen, a Cittàslow member in northwestern Germany, are investigated. We seek to analyse whether the terms and characteristics showcased above play a role in the context of (Slow) Events. Slow Events: The Case of Bad Essen 10.5.1 Bad Essen Bad Essen is a community in Lower Saxony, northwestern Germany, with approximately 15,000 residents. As a small spa town, Bad Essen intends to offer space for tranquillity, enjoyment and deceleration. The preservation of the cultural heritage and the historically developed identity serves as an important principle for the town (Bad Essen, 2019b). Since 2016, Bad Essen has been a member of the Cittàslow network (Bad Essen, 2019a). <?page no="210"?> 210 Slow Events: Assessing the Potential for the Event Industry of the Future Fig. 18: Historical town centre of Bad Essen, 2019 (Source: Tourist Office Bad Essen (permission obtained)) Fig. 19: The salina of Bad Essen, 2019 (Source: Tourist Office Bad Essen (permission obtained)) 10.5.2 The Historical Market: A Slow Event in Bad Essen The “Historical Market” was first initiated in August 1975. Today, the event is made up of more than 155 market stands in the historical centre of Bad Essen (see Fig. 20). The purpose of this event is to showcase how residents lived and worked during the end of the 19 th and the beginning of the 20 th century. In line with the characteristics of the Slow Movement and our definition of a Slow Event (see above), the Historical Market serves as a good practical example of a Slow Event for the following reasons:  Authenticity: Food plays a central role in the Historical Market. Often, the food on offer follows the Slow Food philosophy, and the products being used <?page no="211"?> Slow Events: The Case of Bad Essen 211 are from the regional environment. For example, restaurants from the village offer traditional meals, and products are traded in a fair way. The preparation and organisation of the Historical Market is carried out mainly by local people. They determine the design of the event - in contrast to commercial events, which are often organised by external organisations.  Slow: Visitors are able to experience the Historical Market in a conscious, slow, and decelerated way. Because there is no time pressure and no pressure to consume, visitors can focus completely on their own experiences.  Relatively small size: The Historical Market is characterised by a relatively small size and a smaller number of visitors. This creates a personal and cosy atmosphere.  Local Business: Slow Events result in economic benefits for local businesses. By cooperating with local shops and restaurants, the Historical Market helps to boost the economy even beyond the event itself. In addition, donation activities increase the social welfare of the residents.  Government: The local government supports the Historical Market (financial input).  Motivation: Visitors are often well educated and prepared to spend more money to buy high-quality and sustainable products. The marketing of a Slow Event must be appropriate for the target group so that potential visitors know what to expect.  Experience: Slow Events have a special atmosphere. In Bad Essen, the event takes place in the historical square, embedded in an authentic atmosphere and surrounded by historical half-timbered houses.  Environmentally friendly: During the preparation, implementation and follow-up of the Historical Market, attention is paid to eco-friendliness. In this context, it is the “little things” that can make a difference, for example, avoiding disposable articles. Fig. 20: Historical Market in Bad Essen, 2019 (Source: Tourist Office Bad Essen (permission obtained)) <?page no="212"?> 212 Slow Events: Assessing the Potential for the Event Industry of the Future Slow Events and their Potential as a Marketing Tool Slow Events attract not only local visitors from the host village itself but also external visitors. Hence, they can be an excellent marketing tool for destinations. Particularly from the perspective of city marketers, Slow Events (such as the Historical Market in Bad Essen) have the potential to transfer a positive destination image, support a unique selling proposition and represent a new sustainable event concept. They can be strategically used to create lasting impressions for visitors, support the Slow Movement and build on recent developments for a more balanced, sustainable and responsible handling of the natural surroundings, resources and environment (e.g., Park and Kim, 2016; Park and Lee, 2019; Werner, Bosse and Griese, 2019) Therefore, city marketers should try to organise and offer Slow Events to create a unique selling proposition for the city. There are several examples and possibilities of building the “slow” character of an event, for example, by working with regional artists and exhibitors or offering workshops with an educational character for visitors. It is important to provide an event programme, which allows deceleration and gives visitors the possibility to “slow down”. To maintain the authentic character, it is, however, important to note the following: The economic profit should not be the focus of a Slow Event - which is a considerable contrast to conventional and commercial events. Visitors to a Slow Event should be able to notice this difference. Summary Hectic rush and stress, growing environmental burdens, social injustice or standardisation of worldwide processes and, related thereto, the loss of cultural heritage caused by globalisation are only some of the tensions and problems of the present day. The Slow Movement addresses these challenges. The literature review has demonstrated that the Slow Movement is a prominent topic that has been considered by many scholars. A considerable number of studies have been published on different approaches, including Slow Food, Slow Travel and Tourism and Slow Cities. Within the tourism industry, the concept of Slow Travel and Tourism represents a modern idea and concept of travel and a way of rethinking existing behaviour patterns. Based on our literature review and our case study of Bad Essen, we conclude that more attention should be paid to Slow Events. They constitute a major component of our leisure experiences and have a chance to become a promising concept for the future event industry. <?page no="213"?> Questions 213 Questions  What is the Slow Movement, and what are its main characteristics?  How can a Slow Event be defined?  With regard to your daily life, think about how you could act on the principles of the Slow Movement and which of your behaviour patterns already conform to them.  Can you think of any other examples of a Slow Event? Further Readings  Lumsdon, L. and McGrath, P. (2011) ‘Developing a conceptual framework for slow travel: a grounded theory approach’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(3), pp. 265-279.  Dickinson, J.E. and Lumsdon, L. (2010) Slow travel and tourism. London: Earthscan.  Oh, H., Assaf, A. G., and Baloglu, S. (2014) ‘Motivations and Goals of Slow Tourism’, Journal of Travel Research, 55(2), pp. 205-219. Bibliography Bad Essen (2019a) Bad Essen ist Cittàslow. Available at: https: / / www.badessen.de/ staticsite/ staticsite.php? menuid=344&topmenu=172 (Accessed: 15 August 2019). Bad Essen (2019b) Geschichte und Portrait. Available at: https: / / www.badessen.de/ staticsite/ staticsite.php? menuid=386&topmenu=35 (Accessed: 15 August 2019). Becken, S. (2017) ‘Evidence of a low-carbon tourism paradigm? ’ Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(6), pp. 832-850. doi: 10.1080/ 09669582.2016.1251446 Bhatt, G. et al. (2010) ‘Building and leveraging information in dynamic environments: The role of IT infrastructure flexibility as enabler of organizational responsiveness and competitive advantage’, Information & Management, 47(7-8), pp. 341-349. Bowdin, G. et al. (2012) Events Management. 3rd edn. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Breakey, N.M. and Breakey, H.E. (2014) ‘Tourism and Aldo Leopold’s “cultural harvest”: creating virtuous tourists as agents of sustainability’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 23(1), pp. 85- 103. doi: 10.1080/ 09669582.2014.924954 Brunet, S. et al. (2001) ‘Tourism Development in Bhutan: Tensions between Tradition and Modernity’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 9(3), pp. 243-263. doi: 10.1080/ 09669580108667401 Calzati, V. and Salvo, P. de (2017) ‘Slow tourism: A theoretical framework’, in Clancy, M. (ed.) Slow Tourism, Food and Cities: Pace and the Search for the Good Life. (Routledge advances in tourism). Florence: Taylor and Francis, pp. 33-48. Chung, J.Y. et al. 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(2019) The role of “slow events” for sustainable destination development - a conceptual and empirical review, Presentation at IMEX 2019 Faculty Engagement Programme. 22 May. Williams, L.T. et al. (2015) ‘A taste of ethical consumption at a slow food festival’, Appetite, 91, pp. 321-328. doi: 10.1016/ j.appet.2015.04.066 Wilson, S. and Hannam, K. (2017) ‘The frictions of slow tourism mobilities: Conceptualising campervan travel’, Annals of Tourism Research, 67, pp. 25-36. doi: 10.1016/ j.annals.2017.07.021 Xu, J.B., Yan, L. and Mak, C.K.Y. (2018) ‘Visitor experience of the Hong Kong trams as an unconventional attraction’, International Journal of Tourism Research, 20(5), pp. 605-612. doi: 10.1002/ jtr.2209 <?page no="217"?> PART B <?page no="219"?> 11 Value Co-creation and the Impact on Marketing and Event Management Curricula Aliosha Alexandrov and Kai-Michael Griese The marketing mix paradigm was developed by Borden (1964) and McCarthy (1960). The “4Ps” (product, price, promotion and place) of the marketing mix still dominate the academic marketing debate. Even though the marketing mix paradigm is popular and still in use, it has historically been subject to criticism. This chapter discusses the service-dominant logic (S-D logic) as the new alternative to the traditional marketing mix. The key component of the S-D logic is value co-creation, which helps us better understand the marketing processes. Through several examples, we discuss how value co-creation should be included in university curricula, especially in the area of marketing and event management. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: value co-creation, service-dominant logic, marketing, curricula, marketing mix Introduction For nearly 60 years, the “4Ps” (product, price, promotion, place) of the traditional marketing mix have been an essential element of marketing and event management courses all over the world, and they still dominate the marketing debate at universities. Generations of students have learned this concept and its applications for business development. However, a new marketing concept has recently emerged, the service-dominant logic (S-D logic), in which the central idea is the co-creation of value. This new concept is the result of new business models, new forms of interactions among economic actors, and a new understanding of how value is created. As a result, the S-D logic has become one of the most researched marketing topics. Based on this development, marketing and event management curricula should accommodate the S-D logic framework or at least start a discussion by including it in the textbooks. This chapter introduces the S-D logic and the primary idea of value co-creation to discuss learning in terms of future-oriented marketing and event management curricula. The chapter begins with a description and discussion of the traditional marketing mix and then explains value co-creation. Finally, it discusses the impact of value co-creation on marketing and event management curricula. <?page no="220"?> 220 Value Co-creation and the Impact on Marketing and Event Management Curricula The Marketing Mix Paradigm: A Review The marketing mix paradigm was developed by Borden (1964) and McCarthy (1960) and includes the components product, price, promotion and place. Hunt (1976) explained the original version based on different concentric circles. He said that the “… inner circle contains the consumer, since this is the focal point of marketing effort. The second circle contains the marketing mix (‘controllable factors’) of price, place, promotion, and product. Finally, the third circle contains the uncontrollable factors of political and legal environment, economic environment, cultural and social environment, resources and objectives of the firm, and the existing business situation” (Hunt, 1976, p. 20). Although the paradigm is popular and still in use, it has historically been subject to criticism (e.g., Chikweche and Fletcher, 2012; Grönroos, 1994; Layton, 2008). Missing scientific theory perspective Due to its simplicity (Grönroos, 1994), the 4Ps concept became a very useful practical instrument and an “indispensable element of marketing theory and operational marketing management” (Constantinides, 2006, p. 408); however, the marketing mix paradigm is not linked to a scientific theory. The 4P classification is only partly manifested. Grönroos (1994, p. 348) said that the marketing mix is “… a list of categories of marketing variables, and to begin with, this way of defining or describing a phenomenon can never be considered a very valid one.” Missing external perspective Constantinides (2006) pointed out that the marketing mix paradigm does not include humans as an important variable in the process. He argued that the 4Ps include a mass-market orientation in which the manufacturer creates the value. In contrast to a customer-oriented approach, Grönross (1994) described the product-oriented approach of the marketing mix. Missing integrative perspective The marketing mix paradigm also lacks an integrative perspective in relation to other concepts. For example, social marketing and consequences for cultures and services are not part of the paradigm (e.g., Constantinides, 2006). Despite its shortcomings, the 4Ps framework still enjoys strong popularity for several reasons. First, business majors at universities are organised around business functions (e.g., management, accounting, finance, marketing). Graduates are prepared to enter the workforce and apply their knowledge in a company. Therefore, it is natural for business schools to take the perspective of the company when educating students, and the 4Ps follow this company-centric approach. Another reason for the popularity of the 4Ps framework is its simplicity. Many people, customers, students, and even professionals struggle to explain what <?page no="221"?> The Marketing Mix Paradigm: A Review 221 marketing is. A trivial answer is usually centred on the perception that marketing is sales or advertising, which is an incomplete explanation. The 4Ps provide a conceptualisation of marketing that is easy to grasp. As an educational tool, the framework is a good starting step that helps students quickly understand the nature of marketing. This simplicity, however, comes at a cost because it does not cover all social and business aspects of marketing. To overcome this problem, the 4Ps should be broadened as students progress through their education, but that does not often happen, and the 4Ps remain the building blocks of most marketing texts. It is fair to say, however, that the 4Ps have been expanded in most marketing textbooks beyond their initial product-oriented meaning. For example, product refers not only to tangibles but also to goods, services, brand, and warranty; promotion includes advertising, public relations, and sales; price includes monetary aspects, time and cognitive effort and usually is covered through different strategies depending on the goal of the company; and place is typically covered briefly because in many business schools, it is a separate major related to supply management and logistics. Nevertheless, marketing is at a junction that necessitates going beyond the 4Ps. Emerging changes make it difficult for the 4Ps to accommodate new forms of value creation. Three brief examples illustrate the limitations of the 4Ps. First, the new economic environment requires that companies create shared value, meaning they are concerned not only with profit for themselves but also with the wellbeing of society (Kramer and Porter, 2011; Porter and Kramer, 2019). According to Porter and Kramer, considering the changing social reality, creating shared value is the only way for capitalism to survive. Companies should create value in such a way that it benefits not only them but also society as a whole. Customers are becoming more demanding and expect global companies to show global social responsibility (Holt et al., 2004). The second example is the digitalisation of our society. When customers use “free” services such as search engines or social media platforms, they pay with personal information (e.g., private and shared/ posted information) (Koukova, Kannan and Kirmani, 2012; Kumar and Reinartz, 2016). The value for the users of social media comes from the interaction with other users on the platform. In the digital world, place also becomes of lesser importance. Thus, a company that provides social media services is faced with a situation in which it does not directly create value for its customers, does not collect monetary benefits directly from them, and has no control over where customers access their services. As a result, the boundaries of the 4Ps become blurred and require redefinition. The final example is related to events. Event management has gained its own status due to the realisation that its particulars require special attention (Bowdin et al., 2012). Events can be viewed as value-creation spaces (Crowther and Donlan, 2011) where people meet to create value for one another. All actors involved with an event (e.g., participants, organisers, sponsors) derive their own value from the space that the event provides. Lusch and Nambisan (2015) outline <?page no="222"?> 222 Value Co-creation and the Impact on Marketing and Event Management Curricula the following critical elements of service innovation, which clearly align with events: (1) innovation in the sense of collaboration in an actor-to-actor network; (2) the transfer of specialised competences for the benefit of another actor or the self; (3) generativity unleashed by increasing resource liquefaction (i.e., the ability to decouple and quickly transfer information); and (4) resource integration. These four elements exemplify the value generation process at events and demonstrate that the 4Ps cannot easily accommodate such types of value creation. Value Co-creation as the Cornerstone of the Service-Dominant Logic In 2004, Vargo and Lusch published “Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing,” which became one of the most influential papers in marketing and has been cited more than 14,500 times (Google Scholar, Sept. 2019). In this article, they introduced the S-D logic and their idea of value co-creation. 11.3.1 Overview: Axioms and foundational premises Table 12 describes the eleven foundational premises (FPs). Five of them have the status of “axioms.” Tab. 12: Axioms and foundational premises of the service-dominant logic and understanding of value co-creation (Source: adapted from Vargo and Lusch, 2016; Werner et al ., 2017) No. Foundational premise Axiom 1/ FP 1 Service is the fundamental basis of exchange (service as the application of skills and knowledge). FP 2 Indirect exchange masks the fundamental basis of exchange. FP 3 Goods are a distribution mechanism for service provision. FP 4 Operant resources are the fundamental source of strategic benefit. FP 5 All economies are service economies. Axiom 2/ FP 6 Value is co-created by multiple actors, always including the beneficiary. FP 7 Actors cannot deliver value but can participate in the creation and offering of value propositions. FP 8 A service-centred view is inherently beneficiary oriented and relational. Axiom 3/ FP 9 All social and economic actors are resource integrators. Axiom 4/ FP 10 Value is always uniquely and phenomenologically determined by the beneficiary. Axiom 5/ FP 11 Value co-creation is coordinated through actor-generated institutions and institutional arrangements. <?page no="223"?> Value Co-creation as the Cornerstone of the Service-Dominant Logic 223 Value and its co-creation are the cornerstones of the axioms and foundational premises. Instead of viewing markets as fragmented into products and services between companies, customers, and stakeholders, the S-D logic generalises markets as constituting exchanges between actors in a network that co-creates value through bundling resources. In other words, value co-creation is the currency that fuels markets. This general approach allows bridging disciplines such as marketing, management, economics, sociology and others into a larger picture that is held together by the central role of value co-creation. 11.3.2 Value and value co-creation The concept of value co-creation has sparked a plethora of research in recent years in management and marketing (Aarikka-Stenroos and Jaakkola, 2012; Jaakkola and Alexander, 2014; Payne et al., 2008; Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004a; b; Vargo et al., 2008). The idea has had a profound effect, resulting in unprecedented academic motivation and enquiry. It should be recognised, however, that the S-D logic has problems. One issue arises from the original definition of value co-creation by Vargo and Lusch (2008), which is a loose, non-unique interpretation of what value and co-creation mean. Vargo and Lusch state explicitly that co-creation is different from co-production (i.e., when customers participate in firm activities) and that co-creation means a realisation of value-in-use. That is, value is co-created when one actor offers a value proposition and another actor utilises the offer, thus creating value. Nevertheless, many authors have assumed that co-creation means customers participating in product/ service design. The measurement of value co-creation has also resulted in different approaches. For example, Yi and Gong (2013) view value co-creation as consisting of two reflective sub-dimensions (i.e., participating behaviour and citizenship behaviour), and Ranjan and Read (2016) view it as a two-dimensional construct but consisting of co-production and value-in-use dimensions, which, in contrast, are defined as formative measures. These two measurement approaches are quite different and indicate that there is still an ongoing debate about the meaning of the value co-creation concept. Grönroos (2011b) and Grönroos and Voima (2013) explicitly address the confusion that arises from the broad definition of value and co-creation. By critically examining the previous literature, they posit that the broad definition of value that allows the integration of actors and institutions into a single S-D logic of markets results in different interpretations of value, which can lead to contradictions. For example, in terms of time, exactly when co-creation occurs is not clear, and co-creation also contradicts the marketing concepts that state that the customer is the focal point of the company. The authors propose a resolution by suggesting that value can be viewed simply as an actor being “better off” after an exchange and that the customers, not the company, are the sole creators of value. They leave open the question of what value means for a company. According to Saarijärvi et al. (2013), the vague definition of the term “value co- <?page no="224"?> 224 Value Co-creation and the Impact on Marketing and Event Management Curricula creation” arises from the unspecified meaning of each of these words. They recommend specifying (1) what kind of “value” and value for whom; (2) what kind of resources are included in “co-”, for example, B2B, B2C, C2B, and CC; and (3) through what kind of mechanism value is “created.” The above serves to illustrate that the S-D logic still needs refinement, and although the motivation behind it remains high, there is no clear consensus on some of its components. This by no means should discourage further inquiries but should be considered when applying it in its current state of development, and to event management in particular. The importance of the S-D logic and value co-creation was recognised by the American Marketing Association (AMA), which in 2017 developed a new definition of marketing (AMA, 2017): “Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large.” The new marketing definition recognises that the fundamental unit of exchange is offerings (propositions) of value and goes beyond the previous myopic understanding of marketing. It also focuses on multiple actors covering the micro-, meso-, and macro-levels. The latest marketing definition is already included in many marketing textbooks, although it is taught together with the 4Ps. For comparison, below is AMA’s marketing definition from 2004 which still had a firmcentric focus (Gundlach and Wilkie, 2009): “Marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating and delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders.” Based on the considerations of value, co-creation is part of an interaction between multiple actors (Grönroos, 2011a) and, therefore, of a value-creation process (Goolaup and Mossberg, 2017). Consumers as co-creators are always part of this value-creation process (Vargo and Lusch, 2004, 2008, 2011). Compared with the mass-market orientation of the marketing mix value, co-creation actively includes actors. Operant resources such as tangible goods are part of this integration. Furthermore, operant resources such as knowledge or competencies are part of the process (Werner et al., 2019). 11.3.3 Levels of value co-creation The creation of value depends on the context of exchange, and the same exchange may create different values in different contexts. Chandler and Vargo (2011) suggest a classification of different contexts based on a network approach borrowed from sociology. They loosely suggest three levels of contexts for exchange processes: micro-level, meso-level, and macro-level. These three levels can help describe and explain exchange processes more holistically. <?page no="225"?> Value Co-creation as the Cornerstone of the Service-Dominant Logic 225 Micro-value co-creation level Based on the S-D logic, service exchange always starts with an actor-to-actor interaction on the micro-level to exchange competencies, skills and knowledge. The purpose of each actor is to obtain a service by giving something directly back (Chandler and Vargo, 2011; Löbler and Hahn, 2013). B2C and B2B occupy the micro-level. Overall, the micro-level can help to analyse specific actor-toactor interactions and the role of these actors as resource integrators who impart their operant resources (e.g., skills or knowledge). New event formats such as world café or open space have already received attention in the event industry (Biskup, 2016; Werner, 2018). However, the microlevel perspective can consider only a small part of the complex exchange processes among actors in a one-to-one dyadic exchange. Events provide much richer value through the whole social network engaged with the event; therefore, there is a risk of neglecting other stakeholders by focusing only on the microlevel (Drengner and Köhler, 2013). Meso-value co-creation level On the next level, there are more than two actors who are collaborating. They also co-create value with a minimum of a triad (e.g., three actors involved). This area is the value-creation space (Chandler and Vargo, 2011; Löbler and Hahn, 2013). The unique element of an exchange at the meso-level is that it is indirect. Actor A can be connected to actors B and C, but B and C are not connected. In such a triad, actors B and C can still exchange value indirectly through actor A. An example of value co-creation at the meso-level is when customers buy smartphones from a particular company, but when they lose their power chargers, they buy power chargers from another company. Thus, the smartphone company creates indirect value for an independent manufacturer of power chargers. The organisers of an opening event for a new product, such as a car or a smartphone, usually invite different stakeholders, including media and social influencers. The subscribers to the media or the followers of the social influencers thus benefit from the message of the event being passed to them without directly communicating with the company. In another example, attendees of an event indirectly benefit hotels and transportation companies; thus, the sponsors of the event create indirect value for third parties that may not directly be part of the event. Macro-value co-creation level The macro-level represents direct and indirect exchanges between groups of actors (triads) in the whole network (Chandler and Vargo, 2011; Drengner and Köhler, 2013). At the macro-level, these groups of actors exchange value directly or indirectly. Such groups can be brands, cities, clubs, etc. The macro-level cocreation of value includes networks with rules and processes to create meanings (e.g., Lusch and Vargo, 2014). Depending on the network (e.g., universities), <?page no="226"?> 226 Value Co-creation and the Impact on Marketing and Event Management Curricula there are different norms and values that describe the framework for value cocreation. In terms of events, for example, data protection or risk management/ security and ethical and moral norms can be of interest to event operators (Werner et al., 2017). The Future of Marketing and Event Management Curricula The S-D logic is more encompassing than the 4Ps framework, which makes it a good candidate for a fundamental theory of marketing. Teaching a general theory, however, should be approached with the understanding that it could abstract markets in a way that makes them more inaccessible to students and regular people. The parsimony of the 4Ps framework, albeit with its limitations, is replaced by a more comprehensive theory with a higher level of complexity (i.e., eleven fundamental premises, five of which have the status of axioms, and three levels of value creation) and with some terms, such as co-creation, still being defined. Special care, therefore, is warranted to ensure that the S-D logic is well understood. The following analogy illustrates a possible scenario that may arise from approaching a concept in a general way instead of with more narrowly defined elements. The function of a car or a motorcycle is clearly understood by most people: they are means of transportation. In contrast, when substituting them with a more general concept such as a vehicle, it is more difficult to associate the concept with a specific meaning, even though it encompasses all cars, motorcycles, and other means of transportation. When a more general concept such as a vehicle is evoked, although all-encompassing, it does not bring a particular instance to mind. The educational process, therefore, should include ample examples to help students understand and learn how to apply a more general concept such as the S-D logic. The transition from a parsimonious framework to a general theory should be guided carefully because people unfamiliar with marketing may have difficulty conceptualising it. Several authors have already applied the S-D logic to events, and their approach could be used as a stepping stone when designing marketing curricula based on the S-D logic framework. Van Winkle and Bueddefeld (2016) examine four festivals in Canada through the S-D logic. Although they do not directly use the three-level approach, the results are revealing. Through interviews and qualitative analysis, the authors are able to identify several value areas that were consistent for all four events. They find that the context for value creation includes social, cultural, physical, and place themes. The resources that are combined to create value come from personal cognitive, affective, and conative elements that are combined with the value propositions from the festival, including arts presentation, services and other experiences. Similarly, Rihova et al. (2015) suggested that based on the S-D logic, value in tourism emerges on three levels. The first level is related to personal experiences; the second level is related to the experiences in the “social bubble” of the tourist <?page no="227"?> The Future of Marketing and Event Management Curricula 227 group; and the third level is the community, where value can also be created. Although not explicitly specified, these examples naturally suggest value co-creation at levels roughly corresponding to the micro-, meso-, and macro-levels. Werner et al. (2017) examine the value co-creation process at an event related to sustainability organised by the Centre for Environmental Communication in Osnabrück, Germany. It is one of the few studies that examines value co-creation at the micro-, meso-, and macro-levels, following the S-D logic framework. Through interviews and qualitative data analysis, the authors identify several themes at each level that generate value. At the micro-level, they find that the event organisers provide a high level of knowledge and competence, the organisers and the participants interact among themselves and exchange knowledge and ideas (Werner et al., 2015a, b), and the organisers provide a platform for value co-creation. At the meso-level, the event is a platform on which stakeholders and other network actors can interact, the organisers facilitate the stakeholders’ resources to create value for other network actors, and the organisers actually operate as role models. At the macro-level, the organisers implement regulations, guidelines and norms; the organisers apply the regulations and the norms; and the organisers consider the cultural norms and values of all participating actors when planning the event. Considering the pioneering but diverse approaches of the research examples, we suggest a more standardised approach when discussing the S-D logic in student curricula. We suggest that applying the S-D logic as an education exercise should occur in two steps. First, identify what actionable steps result from the five axioms. This approach would allow a better understanding of what should be done within the S-D logic framework. Table 13 identifies the actions that can be associated with each axiom. Tab.13: Interpretation of the five axioms for events Axiom Description Actionable steps Axiom 1 Service is the fundamental basis of exchange. All exchanges result in value, which can be described as being “better off” after the exchange. Axiom 2 Value is co-created by multiple actors, always including the beneficiary. Identify the actors in all context levels (micro, meso, and macro) Axiom 3 All social and economic actors are resource integrators. Identify what resources are integrated to create value for the beneficiaries. Axiom 4 Value is always uniquely and phenomenologically determined by the beneficiary. Identify what value is received by the beneficiaries and who the beneficiaries are. Axiom 5 Value co-creation is coordinated through actor-generated institutions and institutional arrangements. Identify the available institutional arrangements that result in generating value. <?page no="228"?> 228 Value Co-creation and the Impact on Marketing and Event Management Curricula The next step is to apply the identified actionable steps from the five axioms to a particular event, covering the micro-, meso-, and macro-levels. That would allow the event management to be decomposed into subcomponents within the S-D framework. The next section illustrates how specific events are decomposed into actors and the values they create within the S-D logic framework. The examples, an academic conference and a launching event for a new smartphone, are presented in Table 14 and Table 15. The examples are not exhaustive due to the complexity of the events but are illustrative from an S-D logic point of view. From a marketing curricula point of view, it would be valuable to include the three levels of the S-D logic in future marketing and event management education. Tab. 14: Example: An academic conference from the S-D logic perspective Actor (beneficiary) Value Resource integration Micro-level Conference members Increasing academic expertise Professional interest combined with newly acquired research knowledge from peers. Improving co-author network Combining one’s own and others’ professional interest for future work. Having fun Socialising with other conference members in informal settings (coffee, lunch, etc.). Conference presenters Popularising one’s own research Combining others’ need for academic growth with the results from the presented research. Improving one’s own research Combining the research results with feedback from other researchers. Meso-level Conference sponsors Increased visibility The conferences organisers connect sponsors to conference members. Value generation The conference provides booths where members can place orders with sponsors. Conference organisers Membership growth Connecting conference presenters and members results in increased interest in future conference membership. Professional status Facilitating exchange of new knowledge between academicians. Macro-level City hosting the event Gaining nationwide status The conference organisers help bring people from different places. Generating revenue The conference helps the city generate revenue from lodging, transportation, etc. Academic discipline Motivating research within the discipline The conference motivates best research practices and encourages collaboration among universities. <?page no="229"?> Summary 229 Tab. 15: Example: A new smartphone launch event from the S-D logic perspective Actor (beneficiary) Value Resource integration Micro-level Visitors Being the first to know Early adopter interest combined with the company’s desire to promote a new smartphone. Having fun Socialising with other visitors in informal settings (coffee, lunch, etc.). The company Increased awareness Combining visitors’ desire to be informed with the launch of the new products. Deeper exposure of its own expertise The length of the event and the desire of visitors to be informed allows the company to achieve deeper engagement by showcasing the new product and elaborating on its technological expertise. Meso-level Social influencers Serving their followers Combine their followers’ desire for novelty with information acquired about the new product. Meeting other influencers Social influencers often combine and cross-access each other’s followers with common themes. Macro-level Event organisers Generating revenue Combining the firm’s desire to increase awareness with the visitors’ desire for new information, the organisers generate profit from both. City hosting the event Generating revenue The event helps the city generate revenue from lodging, transportation, etc. Serving its population By connecting the firm and the visitors, the event makes its city residents satisfied and proud of living in a prominent city. Summary The impact of value co-creation on marketing and event management curricula was discussed mainly in terms of the micro-, meso-, and macro-levels and in relation to events. Examples (such as the Centre for Environmental Communication in Osnabrück) show that value co-creation processes result in completely new challenges for organisers of marketing activities (e.g., developing platforms <?page no="230"?> 230 Value Co-creation and the Impact on Marketing and Event Management Curricula where different stakeholders interact or implement regulations, guidelines and norms). The traditional marketing mix with the 4Ps does not consider these new challenges. Using the discussed examples, there are many approaches to revising the existing marketing and event management curricula, especially the possibility of improving the missing external perspective and the missing integrative perspective of the marketing mix by using the S-D logic and its fundamental new idea of value co-creation. Questions  What are the weaknesses of the traditional marketing mix?  Can you describe value co-creation based on an event?  How can value co-creation be part of marketing curricula? Further Readings  Grönroos, C. and Voima, P. (2013) ‘Critical service logic: Making sense of value creation and co-creation.’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 41(2), pp. 133-150.  Ranjan, K. R. and Read, S. (2016) ‘Value co-creation: Concept and measurement.’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44(3), pp. 290-315.  Vargo, S. L. and Lusch, R.F. (2008) ‘Service-dominant logic: Continuing the evolution.’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36, pp. 1-10. Bibliography Aarikka-Stenroos, L. and Jaakkola, E. (2012) ‘Value co-creation in knowledge intensive business services: A dyadic perspective on the joint problem solving process’, Industrial Marketing Management, 41(1), pp. 15-26. AMA (2017) The definition of marketing. Available at: https: / / www.ama.org/ the-definition-of-marketing-what-is-marketing/ (Accessed: 8 September 2019). Biskup, D. (2016) ‘mastermind: Einblick in die neuen und klassischen Veranstaltungsformate’, degefest Verband der Kongress- und Seminarwirtschaft e.V., 2018-1, pp. 8-27. Borden, N. H. (1964) ‘The concept of the Marketing Mix’, Journal of Advertising Research, 4, pp. 2-7. Bowdin, G., Allen, J., Harris, H., McDonnell, I. and O’Toole, W. (2012) Events Management. London, UK: Routledge. <?page no="231"?> Bibliography 231 Chikweche, T. and Fletcher, R. (2012) ‘Revisiting the marketing mix at the bottom of pyramid (BOP): From theoretical considerations to practical realities’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 29(7), pp. 507-520. Constantinides, E. (2006) ‘The marketing mix revisited: Towards the 21st century marketing’, Journal of Marketing Management, 22(3), pp. 407-438. Crowther, P. and Donlan, L. (2011) ‘Value-creation space: The role of events in a service-dominant marketing paradigm’, Journal of Marketing Management, 27(13-14), pp. 1444-1463. Drengner, J. and Köhler, J. (2013) ‘Stand und Perspektiven der Eventforschung aus Sicht des Marketing’, in Zanger, C. (ed.) Events und Sport: Stand und Perspektiven der Eventforschung. Wiesbaden, Germany: Springer Verlag, pp. 89-132. Goolaup, S. and Mossberg, L. (2017) ‘Exploring consumer’s value co-creation in a festival context using a socio-cultural lens’, in Lundberg, E., Armbrecht, J., Andersson, J.D. and Getz, D. (eds) The value of events. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, pp. 39-45. Grönroos C. (1994) ‘Quo vadis marketing? Toward a relationship marketing paradigm’, Journal of Marketing Management, 10(5), pp. 347-360. Grönroos, C. (2011a) ‘A service perspective on business relationships: The value creation, interaction and marketing interface’, Industrial Marketing Management, 40, pp. 240-247. Grönroos, C. (2011b) ‘Value co-creation in service logic: A critical analysis’, Marketing Theory, 11(3), pp. 279-301. Grönroos, C. and Voima, P. (2013) ‘Critical service logic: Making sense of value creation and co-creation’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 41(2), pp. 133-150. Gundlach, G.T. and Wilkie, W.L. (2009) ‘The American Marketing Association’s New Definition of Marketing: Perspective and Commentary on the 2007 Revision’, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 28(2), pp. 259-264. Holt, D. B., Quelch, J. A. and Taylor, E. L. (2004) ‘How global brands compete’, Harvard Business Review, 82(9), pp. 68-75. Hunt, S. D. (1976) ‘The nature and scope of marketing’, Journal of Marketing, 40, pp. 17-28. Jaakkola, E. and Alexander, M. (2014) ‘The role of customer engagement behavior in value cocreation: A service system perspective’, Journal of Service Research, 17(3), pp. 247-261. Koukova, N., Kannan, P. K. and Kirmani, A. (2012) ‘Multiformat digital products: How design attributes interact with usage situations to determine choice’, Journal of Marketing Research, 49(1), pp. 100-115. Kramer, M. R. and Porter, M. (2011) ‘Creating shared value’, Harvard Business Review, 89(1-2), pp. 62-77. Kumar, V. and Reinartz, W. (2016) ‘Creating enduring customer value’, Journal of Marketing, 80(6), pp. 36-68. Layton, R. A. (2008) ‘The search for a dominant logic: A macromarketing perspective’, Journal of Macromarketing, 28(3), pp. 215-227. Löbler, H. and Hahn, M. (2013) ‘Measuring value-in-context from a service-dominant logic’s perspective’, Review of Marketing Research, 10, pp. 255-282. Lusch, R. F. and Nambisan, S. (2015) ‘Service innovation: A service-dominant logic perspective’, MIS Quarterly, 39(1), pp. 155-175. <?page no="232"?> 232 Value Co-creation and the Impact on Marketing and Event Management Curricula Lusch, R. F. and Vargo, S.L. (2014) Service-dominant logic: Premises, perspectives, possibilities. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. McCarthy, E. J. (1960) Basic marketing: A managerial approach. Homewood, IL: R.D. Irwin. Payne, A. F., Storbacka, K. and Frow, P. (2008) ‘Managing the co-creation of value’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36(1), pp. 83-96. Porter, M. E. and Kramer, M. R. (2019) Creating shared value. Managing Sustainable Business. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 323-346. Prahalad, C. K. and Ramaswamy, V. (2004a) ‘Co-creation experiences: The next practice in value creation’, Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18(3), pp. 5-15. Prahalad, C. K., and Ramaswamy, V. (2004b) ‘Co-creating unique value with customers’, Strategy & leadership, 32(3), pp. 4-9. Ranjan, K. R. and Read, S. (2016) ‘Value co-creation: concept and measurement’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44(3), pp. 290-315. Rihova, I., Buhalis, D., Moital, M. and Gouthro, M. 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(2016) ‘Institutions and axioms: An extension and update of service-dominant logic’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44, pp. 5-23. Vargo, S. L., Maglio, P. P. and Akaka, M.A. (2008) ‘On value and value co-creation: A service systems and service logic perspective’, European Management Journal, 26(3), pp. 145-152. Werner, K. (2018) ‘Partizipative Veranstaltungsformate: Welchen Nutzen und welche Vorteile bringen Sie? ’, in degefest Verband der Kongress- und Seminarwirtschaft e.V Veranstaltungen neu denken., 2018-1, pp. 12-15. Werner, K., Dickson, G. and Hyde, K. F. (2015a) ‘Coopetition and knowledge transfer dynamics: New Zealand’s regional tourism organizations and the 2011 Rugby World Cup’, Event Management, 19(3), pp. 365-380. Werner, K., Dickson, G. and Hyde, K. F. (2015b): ‘Learning and knowledge transfer processes in a mega-events context: The case of the 2011 Rugby World Cup’, Tourism Management, 48, pp. 174-187. Werner, K., Griese, K.-M. and Hogg, J. (2017) ‘Service dominant logic as a new fundamental framework for analyzing event sustainability: A case study from the German meetings industry’, Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 18(4), pp. 318-343. <?page no="233"?> Bibliography 233 Werner, K., Griese, K. M. and Hogg, J. (2019) ‘The service-dominant logic, value co-creation and the impact on universities’ event management curricula’, in Gehrke, G. and Thilo, I. (eds) Trends in Event Education, Wiesbaden: Springer. Yi, Y. and Gong, T. (2013) ‘Customer value co-creation behavior: Scale development and validation’, Journal of Business Research, 66(9), pp. 1279-1284. <?page no="235"?> 12 Cooperative Transnational Event Management Education: A Case Study of International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) Xing Lan and Yi Ding As an effective means of cultivating international talent in higher education, Sino-foreign cooperative education is conducive to the introduction of international advanced educational concepts and teaching methods. However, such efforts have gone astray in a number of higher learning institutions in China as they pay little attention to establishing core competences on both sides, resulting in “a fancy shell without actual effect”. This chapter holds that absorbing high-quality educational resources from other countries (optimised interaction policy) on both sides can produce competitive advantages for cooperative projects. A typical case, the Sino-German joint programme “International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS)”, is discussed in the chapter to demonstrate the success resulting from the close integration of advantages on both sides. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: cooperative education programmes, core competences, internationalisation, practice-oriented talent, educational concepts, teaching methods Introduction Beginning in the 1980s, Sino-foreign cooperative education 4 underwent a germination period, followed by the exploration period in the 1990s and the development period (Weng, 2009) at the beginning of the twenty-first century, marked by the issue of “The Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese- Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools” in March 2003. The regulations clarify that Chinese-foreign cooperative education is no longer a “supplement” but is an important component of China’s educational system; thus, its status has significantly improved. Article three of the regulations stipulates: “The state encourages Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools to which high-quality foreign educational resources are introduced”, emphasising the significance of high-quality foreign educational resources. A review of the history of cooperative 4 Sino-foreign cooperative education mainly involves the fields of higher education and vocational education; this chapter focuses only on cooperation in higher education. <?page no="236"?> 236 Cooperative Transnational Event Management Education: A Case Study programmes shows that higher learning institutions in China pay little attention to establishing core competences by reasonably allocating educational resources on both sides, resulting in “a fancy shell without actual effect”. This problem has affected the effects and reputation of Sino-foreign cooperative education. In the face of an increasingly competitive market, improving the competitive advantages of Sino-foreign cooperative education to cultivate international talent in line with market demand is worthy of serious discussion. The Core Competences of Sino-foreign Cooperative Education 12.2.1 Differentiation and analysis of concepts related to core competence of universities With regard to the core competences of universities, opinions vary in the field of education. Some scholars believe that the term refers to the talent cultivation mode (Zhang and Yin, 2018), others think it means talent cultivation and academic research (Zhang, 2015), and others argue that it is “the ability to maintain sustainable competitive advantages” (Zhu, 2004). In view of different understandings of the concept of the core competences of universities, it is necessary to clarify the relationship between related concepts, particularly based on the initial concept of core competences in management. Core competences are a collection of the unique skills and technologies that enable an organisation to provide unique benefits to its customers and to achieve competitive advantages. Competitive advantages are the advantages that enable an organisation to surpass its competitors, thus allowing the organisation to provide more value to the market (Hannagan, 2002). Therefore, competitive advantage and core competence are closely linked concepts with a cause-and-effect relationship. The competitive advantage is the “effect”, which is external and explicit and can easily be observed by the market and customers. The core competence is the “cause”; in its role, competitive advantage exists. In contrast to competitive advantage, it is internal and implicit. In addition, the formation of competitive advantage requires core competences and the support of resources (including tangible and intangible resources). Obviously, the formation of competitive advantages depends on two major factors: core resources and core competences. Competitive advantages embody the unique strengths of a university, while core resources and core competences are fundamental factors. Each university with competitive advantages has its own unique resources and core competences. The core competences of a university are a collection of its unique capabilities based on its strategic resources, which enables the university to realise its competitive advantages and provide society with unique talent, scientific research results and other products. <?page no="237"?> The Core Competences of Sino-foreign Cooperative Education 237 12.2.2 The core resources and core competences of Sino-foreign cooperative education The resources of Sino-foreign cooperative universities can be divided into two parts. One includes tangible resources (Wang, 2018), such as funds, faculty and staff, teaching equipment and students, and the other includes intangible resources, such as the brand, reputation and quality of the teachers on both sides. In fact, there is little difference in resources between Sino-foreign cooperative universities and domestic universities. For example, the majors in Sino-foreign cooperative education use the same teaching equipment as the majors in noncooperative education at the same university. This chapter does not discuss such resources but focuses mainly on the unique resources of Sino-foreign cooperative education. Sino-foreign cooperative universities boast rich and unique resource advantages. First, advanced foreign teaching concepts, school operational modes, teaching materials, courses, teaching methods, evaluation methods and talent can be introduced through cooperative programmes to form distinctive international teaching resources, which are conducive to the cultivation of international talent. Foreign courses, teaching materials, and teaching methods of foreign teachers form a completely different teaching environment than that of domestic universities. This kind of environment is a challenge for students, but it is beneficial for their growth. It helps to cultivate students’ intercultural communication ability and shortens the adaptation period when they find a job (Sun, 2018). In addition to the language environment, the advanced teaching concepts and school operational modes of foreign universities are high-value resources that embody the essence of “high-quality resources”. Some scholars have pointed out that China’s higher education institutions are lacking not necessarily in human, financial or material resources but in advanced educational concepts, university systems, and school operational modes. In the past, much attention has been paid to human, financial and material resources in the process of introducing foreign resources, while the introduction of a basic school operational philosophy, university system, school operational modes and other resources have been neglected. Certainly, this assessment is not comprehensive (Tang, 2018). Due to the differences in school management concepts, school characteristics and strategies for school development, the school operational modes of foreign universities are diverse and personalised. Thus, Chinese institutions should be careful and prudent when choosing a foreign university as a partner. They should assimilate the foreign school operational mode that aligns with their reality and avoid “a fancy shell without actual effect”. Moreover, the advantages of international resources are inaccessible for noncooperative educational institutions and general professions. By giving full play to the accumulated educational strength and industrial relations in the countries and regions where the foreign partners are located, the international channels for the cultivation of high-quality talent in China can be consolidated and expanded. <?page no="238"?> 238 Cooperative Transnational Event Management Education: A Case Study If Sino-foreign cooperative programmes obtain the authoritative evaluation and certification of the country of the foreign partner, they will establish a legal status for the stable development of the programmes. Furthermore, the high-quality international learning environment is valuable for Chinese students. Therefore, if foreign cooperative universities make full use of these core resources, cooperative programmes will be equipped with unique core competences. 12.2.3 The importance of optimised interaction for the formation of the core competences of Sino-foreign cooperative education With these unique resources, Sino-foreign cooperative education has the potential to cultivate international and high-quality talent, and its core competences may help realise this aim. However, how should core competences be formed? For higher learning institutions, core competences are the ability to manage resources and are reflected mainly in personnel management, teaching management and strategic management (Zhu, 2004). Core competences can be formed by adopting an “optimised interaction policy” between the two sides. First, optimised interaction is a guiding ideology based on dialectical analysis. Some Western advanced school operational modes that emphasise the cultivation of talent and the combination of theory and practice are certainly “one size fits all”. However, their external environment, culture and ideology are different from those of China. Therefore, China cannot simply copy the foreign school operational mode. Instead, China must assimilate the foreign school operational concept and the essence of the foreign resources to form high-quality teaching resources that are in line with China’s national situation, increasing the operability of the mode in China’s educational practice. Optimised interaction can avoid “a fancy shell without actual effect”. Second, optimised interaction can facilitate the integration of management abilities. The same high-quality resources may form different competitive advantages, which depend primarily on the rational orientation of the school by the manager of the Sino-foreign cooperative programme. The manager should determine the orientation of the school based on the needs of the market and the strengths of the school resources. A teaching-oriented Sino-foreign cooperative university should aim to develop practice-oriented talent. Correct positioning ensures the reasonable distribution of resources and guides subsequent personnel management, teaching management, scientific research management and strategic management. Through optimised interaction between Chinese and foreign universities, the multiplication effect will be created among various resources by the mutual cooperation, interaction and coordination of those management approaches, ultimately contributing to the formation of competitive advantages in Chinese and foreign cooperative higher learning institutions in terms of talent cultivation and scientific research results. Third, the essence of optimised interaction lies in mutual exchange, which is a process of mutual adaptation and adjustment between two sides. Core compe-tences <?page no="239"?> cannot be achieved overnight. There is no guarantee that cooperation will proceed smoothly even if much research and preparation have been carried out in advance. In the process of cooperation, both sides need to constantly review the results of cooperation, correct deviations and make the results consistent with their own goals to ensure the achievement of the common goal. In summary, a tree diagram is constructed to illustrate the optimised interaction between Chinese and foreign cooperative universities (see Figure 21). Fig. 21: Tree diagram of optimised interaction between Chinese and foreign cooperative universities Case Study: The Practice of Optimised Interaction at International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) The Sino-German joint programme IEMS was one of the first batch pilot programmes approved by the Ministry of Education in 2003. In 2004, the implementation of this Sino-German cooperative programme was approved. Since the establishment of the programme, it has achieved fruitful results in the quality of students and social benefits and holds a dominant position in event education. After more than ten years of exploration and mutual adjustment, IEMS has been widely recognised in the event and exhibition industry and education field. In 2009, its talent cultivation mode was awarded the “First Prize of Shanghai Excellent Teaching Achievements”. In the same year, the students of IEMS won 239 Case Study: The Practice of Optimised Interaction <?page no="240"?> 240 Cooperative Transnational Event Management Education: A Case Study the “China Professional Skills Competition for Exhibition University Students”. In 2010, the China Convention and Exhibition Society (CCES), a national industry organisation, awarded the programme the annual award for “Exhibition Higher Learning Institutions with Successful Cooperation in Running Schools”. In 2011 and 2016, the title of “Shanghai Demonstration Project of Sino-foreign Cooperation in Running Schools” was awarded by the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission. The students of IEMS are also favoured by the market, with the initial employment rate of all previous graduates exceeding 90%; in addition, more than 85% 5 of the graduates’ initial employment units or jobs are closely related to their majors or professional skills. Employers and industry associations have high evaluations of the students’ professional ethics, cultural literacy, professional competences and skills, believing that they “have an accurate understanding of the business of the exhibition industry and quickly get into work…, are willing to do hard work and possess team spirit” (Shanghai UBM Sinoexpo International Exhibition Co., Ltd.). Industry representatives also state that IEMS students have “excellent professional knowledge, knowledge of the international event industry and a good command of English” (Shanghai Convention and Exhibition Industries Association). Other comments highlight state the students’ “eloquent rhetoric and insights...” and “their impeccable English expression skills, professional presentation skills and the way of global thinking reflect the key qualities of future event industry leaders” (International Congress and Conference Association, ICCA). The success of the IEMS programme was not achieved overnight. Unremitting efforts to adopt an optimised interaction policy created its competitive advantages and core competences. 12.3.1 Positioning Sino-German cooperation With a solid foundation in economics, management, literature (English) and law (international business law), Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE) is a university that specialises in developing “practice-oriented talent in international economics and trade”. In selecting a partner, the school accurately orientates itself based on its own characteristics, focuses on the essence of high-quality resources rather than a virtual name and chooses a partner with a similar disciplinary foundation and talent cultivation philosophy. Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences is a legal institution of higher education with the natural advantages of conducting event theory teaching, practical teaching and school-enterprise cooperation; it is characterised by developing practice-oriented talent among undergraduates majoring in event management. The management and economics disciplines are well established, and the majors 5 Statistics from Department of Student Affairs of Event and Tourism School in 2018. <?page no="241"?> are reasonably set and share some common aspects with those of SUIBE. Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences focuses on developing students’ practical ability, application ability and comprehensive quality, which is similar to the concept of talent cultivation at SUIBE. Based on the clear positioning of developing “international and practice-oriented talent”, it was chosen as the foreign partner for the construction of a new major. 12.3.2 Integration, transformation and innovation of high-quality resources between China and Germany By virtue of the optimised interaction strategy, the Chinese managers formed an innovative mode of developing “international and practice-oriented talent” by rationally using and allocating the resources brought by Sino-German cooperation through assimilating the advanced teaching methods and concepts of Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences. As the largest power in the exhibition industry worldwide and with a well-developed industrial background, Germany brings a concept of event and exhibition education to China that has filled a gap in China’s exhibition and event education. IEMS has improved constantly and rapidly in teaching materials, faculty, teaching methods and teaching evaluation. Students can directly acquire international event and business management knowledge, greatly shortening the exploration phase of a new major. The original textbooks and handouts selected by the German side were implemented. The German teachers lecture in English and are responsible for course assessment and scoring. Students are asked to write a graduation internship report of 5,000 words and a graduation thesis of 12,000 words in English, as required by the partner university in Germany. To absorb the foreign advanced teaching mode, each course is supported by a Chinese cooperative teacher who participates in the study and lectures, answering questions and providing guidance for the students once the German lecturers have returned to Germany. The guidance and defence of the final thesis are also jointly carried out by both the Chinese and German teachers. In terms of teaching standards, standards for the teaching quality assurance system, and learning and assessment requirements for the students to acquire the German bachelor’s degree, the programme strictly enforces the standards of Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences and ensures a high quality of teaching, ensuring that the German degree has the same academic value for students in China as for students in Germany. Obviously, the teaching by German teachers has unique advantages in developing international talent, and from a cultural perspective, the participation of Chinese teachers is conducive to the understanding of Chinese students’ thinking patterns and learning approaches. While paying attention to the promotion of international standards and management, this method also focuses on the combination of China’s realities and the actual situation of the industry, hence forming a unique and effective talent training mode in the IEMS programme. Case Study: The Practice of Optimised Interaction 241 <?page no="242"?> 242 Cooperative Transnational Event Management Education: A Case Study 12.3.3 The optimised interaction between the cooperative universities Investing in international high-quality resources The German partner actively explores the international practice arena and has solved the problem of domestic students’ need for experience and application of international background knowledge. Foreign high-quality practical resources are of great significance in improving education and teaching; however, it is not easy to introduce those resources in China, as it requires much energy and time to open channels, find suitable partners and forms of cooperation, and integrate resources into the cooperative programme. Therefore, this programme lays a foundation for developing international talent. In 2008, the “Future Leaders Forum” at IMEX (an international trade show for the event industry) in Frankfurt was introduced under the auspices of international industry associations and exhibitions, offering an opportunity for Chinese students majoring in event management to have close contact with successful people from the event industry around the world, listen to the insights of industry experts and present their ideas for event planning and management in English. To enable the students to have a higher level of contact with and understanding of the international event, convention and exhibition industry, Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences has worked closely with a variety of associations, such as the International Congress and Conference Association (ICCA). ICCA offers outstanding students the chance of a scholarship with full funding to attend the annual association conference, which has contributed to strengthening the international branding and image of IEMS. In addition, Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences opened its doors to Chinese students at a very early stage, with Chinese exchange students spending a semester in Germany every year, enabling outstanding students to go abroad to learn and practice with students from all over the world and to experience the real international business environment. In 2008, the first group of 16 students was sent to Germany for study and exchange; since then, the number of students going to Germany has increased to 22 every year, accounting for more than 20% of the whole class. At the same time, the two sides actively promote the exchange of foreign students to Chinese universities, increasing the opportunities for international academic exchanges between domestic and foreign students. Facilitating Chinese students’ international experience Owing to the optimised interaction with German partners, numerous students have received scholarships from the German government, which has created a valuable opportunity for Chinese students to expand their international horizons. Due to the remarkable cooperation results, the Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst (DAAD) has offered scholarships to the IEMS programme every <?page no="243"?> year since the programme started. This has undoubtedly enhanced the core competences of IEMS. Building a practice-oriented talent training platform Only by complementing each other’s advantages can universities on both sides achieve the maximum benefits of Sino-foreign cooperation. Excessive reliance on the superior resources of the non-Chinese university and a lack of subjective initiative from the Chinese university make it difficult to obtain the effect of twice the results with half the effort, as only one side’s advantages are employed. To create synergies with the German partner, the Department of Event Management of the Chinese university also strives to build a practical platform for practice-oriented talent training and has developed intense contacts with the domestic exhibition and event industry to build a comprehensive and systematic practical teaching platform. From the moment they enter the school, students receive various forms of practical education at different intensity levels and learn step by step until they graduate. This practical teaching system, aligned with the national conditions and the high-quality resources introduced by the German university, bring out the best qualities on each side and produce excellent results in high-quality talent training. Developing Chinese teachers with international educational resources The German partner fully shares resources for the cooperative programme by providing international teaching and welcoming Chinese teachers to pay an academic visit and for further study. Since the establishment of the cooperative programme, the Department of Event Management of the Chinese university has sent approximately 20 teachers to Germany and other countries for further study or to give lectures, thus improving the international cooperation experience of the Chinese teachers, strengthening their English teaching ability, and enhanced the teaching and research cooperation between the Chinese and the foreign universities. Promoting in-depth participation in the domestic exhibition and event industry The Department of Event Management at SUIBE employs enterprise executives and industry experts to participate in the formulation of talent training objectives, professional theory teaching, professional practice teaching and talent training evaluation. Industry experts bring cutting-edge industry theories and information into the classroom, extend the practical activities to real exhibition sites and business management operations, or join the faculty on campus to give lectures and participate in other activities. By in-depth participation in professional teaching, these enterprises have learned the competitive advantages of the cooperative programme and the knowledge structure and professional advantages of the students. They take the initiative to set up higher education re- Case Study: The Practice of Optimised Interaction 243 <?page no="244"?> 244 Cooperative Transnational Event Management Education: A Case Study ward funds and carry out school-enterprise cooperation in all dimensions to cultivate event talent. This approach effectively enriches the optimised interaction of the cooperative programme. 12.3.4 Feedback on, evaluation of and adjustment of the cooperation Both sides attach great importance to feedback on and evaluation of the effect of cooperation. This programme has often been evaluated and reviewed by the Ministry of Education and the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission. In 2007, a panel of the Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst (DAAD) conducted a three-day rigorous evaluation of the IEMS programme and concluded that it “sets a good example for German universities to export academic education for China’s economic construction... Its positioning is accurate. This achievement reflects the high level of education and academic standards of both Chinese and German teachers... Its future success cannot be underestimated.” The programme has been accredited by the ZEvA (Zentrale Evaluations- und Akkreditierungsagentur), an authoritative accreditation agency of German higher education, three times since its beginning. The latest accreditation was successfully achieved in 2017 and will last until 2024. The exchange and cooperation mechanism between the two sides ensures feedback on the effects of cooperation and the adjustment of the development direction. The two sides have established a five-level cooperation and exchange mechanism. Thus, they share experiences at five levels, namely at university level, school / faculty level, major level, teacher level and student level. A special project management committee was set up to facilitate the exchange at the five levels during each academic year. Regular meetings and seminars are held to ensure timely communication and discussion and to identify issues concerning management and teaching. Summary Guided by the optimised interaction strategy, the IEMS programme has fostered core competences in the field of event education and gained competitive advantages. The two sides will continue to carry out this strategy by enhancing the role of Chinese teachers in developing “international and practice-oriented” event talent, strengthening the Chinese teachers’ ability to teach in English, exploring and implementing Sino-German cooperative teaching and creating more opportunities for Chinese teachers to give reports in Germany. In addition, the Chinese side will strive to widen and deepen its cooperation with the German university through the establishment of a Sino-German centre for event research based on the current situation, jointly compiling articles and textbooks about event management topics and deepening the connotations of school-enterprise cooperation to maintain the core competences of IEMS in the long term. <?page no="245"?> Questions 245 Questions  What are the advantages of offering a double degree for both the university partners and the students?  Since Sino-foreign cooperation involves contact between two different cultures and systems, it is inevitable that there will be frictions and even conflicts. Discuss the main conflicts that you think might occur. How do you think they can be resolved? Further Readings  Del Mar Benavides-Espinosa, M. and Roig-Dobón, S. (2011) ‘The Influence of Cultural Differences in Cooperative Learning through Joint Ventures’, Service Business, 5(1), pp. 69-85.  Kwarteng, A, Dadzie, SA, Famiyeh, S. and Aklamanu, A.M.K. (2018) ‘Institutional dimensions and conflict resolution strategy in international joint ventures: An empirical examination’. Thunderbird International Business Review, 60(4), pp. 591- 604.  Schwägermann, H., Mayer, P. and Yi, D. (2016) Handbook Event Market China. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Oldenbourg. Bibliography Hannagan, T. (2002) Management Concepts & Practices. Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education Limited. Sun, X. (2018) ‘Discussion on the Advantages and Disadvantages of Sino-foreign Cooperation Education in Colleges under the Background of Contemporary Globalization Education’, Education Teaching Forum, 31. Tang, J. (2018) ‘Optimization of Teaching Administration under the Sino-foreign Cooperative Education Mode’, Education Teaching Forum, 49. Wang, Y. (2018) ‘Research and Analysis on the Problems and Countermeasures of Introducing High-Quality Educational Resources in Sino-Foreign Cooperative Education in Universities’, Course Education Research. Weng, Y. (2009) ‘Research on the Background and Motivation of Sino-foreign Cooperation in Running Schools in Higher Education’, Education Teaching Forum, 05. Zhang, D. and Yin, J. (2018) ‘Analysis on the Connotation and Internal Determinants of the Core Competitiveness of Majors of Local Universities’, Education Modernization, 05. Zhang, X. (2015) ‘A Discussion on the Construction of Key Disciplines in Local Comprehensive University Based on the Core Competitiveness’,. Higher Education Forum, 10. Zhu, M. (2004) ‘Major Factors Affecting the Kernel Competitiveness of Local Universities’, Theory and Practice of Education, 23. <?page no="247"?> 13 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management: Student Perceptions of a Business Simulation Game Mattheus Louw and Thomas Temme Business simulation games have been used extensively as a teaching tool in a range of academic courses. This research focused on students’ perceptions of how a business simulation game enhanced their learning in a strategic management course. Questionnaires were sent to a class of 68 students, of whom 50 responded. The following three main categories of information emerged from the analysis of the data: personal development, understanding of the strategic management course, and the simulation experience. Within these three categories, themes and subthemes were identified. The most interesting aspects of the business simulation exercise were found to be the fast pace of the game, a lack of teamwork, the absence of basic management experience and the limited participation of some group members. The key business skills that students acquired by playing the business simulation game included strategic planning, decision-making, critical thinking, teamwork and interpersonal communication. The business simulation game thus improved their understanding of strategic management concepts and principles and generally enhanced their understanding of the complexities of managing a business. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: business simulation games, strategic management, teamwork, learning experience Introduction For many years, business simulation games have been seen as a valuable teaching tool, as they are enjoyed by students and teachers alike. Business simulation games allow for the involvement of students so that instead of just experiencing passive learning, they experience active learning by means of their personal involvement in the learning process. New management skills can be developed with the use of business games in combination with traditional methods of teaching, such as lecturing (Gilgeous and D’Cruz, 1996). Given the value of business simulation games for teaching, this research first explores what business simulation games are, their history and what types of games are available and then investigates how a business simulation game such as the Topsim Easy Management Game can enhance student learning. <?page no="248"?> 248 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management Historical Development and Basic Principles of Business Games Business simulation games are regarded as a constructive way of focusing on management simulation and business processes. Business terminology is used in the course of the game to make it resemble a real-life business environment (Blažič and Novak, 2015). Originating in the post-Second World War era, simulations, especially role plays and negotiation games, became popular in the civilian sector and focused mainly on political simulations. This led to growing implementation in the field of political studies in higher education. In the mid- 1950s, the first games with a business and economic orientation were developed. The complexity of market models and the scope of possible decisions grew rapidly, with games being targeted mainly at high-level management. In the 1960s, and 1970s, increasingly specialised functional business games were developed (Schwägele, 2015). Advances in technology had a strong impact on the development of simulation games. Increasingly powerful computers, particularly desktop computers, and, from the 1990s onwards, the rapid proliferation of the internet led to a marked increase in the complexity and flexibility of business games (Faria et al., 2009). There are several ways to define business or management games. Despite some attempts to address the differences between the terms business and management, the terms are used interchangeably in the context of this study (Gilgeous and D’Cruz, 1996). Greenblat’s definition emphasises the use of business games to simulate elements of the real world (Greenblat, 1988). Another approach involves cooperating or competing decision-makers pursuing their objectives within given rule systems (Greene and Sisson, 1959). According to Blažič, business games are training techniques in which the participants sequentially consider problems and make decisions in a hypothetical model of an organisation with a consequential impact on a simulated real-world system. With the recent growing use of entertainment elements in education, business games are considered a serious activity in which education rather than pure entertainment is the primary goal (Blažič, Ribeiro and Arh, 2012). Business games can be classified in various ways. The first comprehensive attempt at classification was conducted by Greenslaw, Herron and Rawdon (1962). Biggs identifies two main groups of classification parameters based on either technical or usability qualities (Biggs, 1990). Distinctions based on the mode of game setup lead to two further main types of business games: IT-based business simulations and board games (Ellington, Fowlie and Gordon, 1998). Most modern IT-based business games are usually played via the internet. In many IT-based business games, a competitive industry with one or several markets is simulated. The simulation typically involves two to ten competing companies. In addition to the model of the industry, a business game also models the basic relations and processes within each company. The environment in such an <?page no="249"?> Historical Development and Basic Principles of Business Games 249 industry is very dynamic, and during a game, the relevant industry and company parameters are subject to change. Moreover, the strategies and decisions of all teams impact one another. The participants are organised in teams. Each team represents one company in the simulated market and generally consists of four to six members. The initial situation of all companies is often identical, but in some simulations, it may differ. The target group of participants determines the appropriate level of game complexity and of the simulation’s content focus (Bartscher, 2018). Typical target groups can be found in the corporate world at different hierarchical levels, in universities at the graduate or postgraduate level, and in schools. From a content perspective, business games may focus on general management in national, international or global markets. Furthermore, they may concentrate on specific business functions such as marketing, finance, logistics or HR. In these cases, the participants are faced with a wide scope of detailed management decisions within the specific business function (Schwägele, 2015). The growing use of internet-based business games has enormously widened the organisational frame in which such games are played. They are not as tightly restricted to organisational borders as was previously the case but may be set up and run jointly by different partners on a worldwide basis. Consequently, the scope of the learning objectives has widened. The traditional objectives of such games, such as the application of theoretical business and management knowhow, entrepreneurial thinking, decision-making, training in analytical competencies, teamwork and leadership skills, have been supplemented by intercultural aspects or the learning of business languages. Throughout the game, the participants must successfully manage their virtual company. Management success, company performance and the development of the external company environment are displayed by means of a reporting system. Business games are typically structured by business periods after each of which reports are updated. Each business period is subject to a standard procedure in which the participants initially analyse the external environment and the internal situation of their virtual company and, on that basis, make management decisions. After all companies have made their decisions, the game instructor runs the simulation, and all teams receive feedback on their performance. Furthermore, they are informed about new developments in the external environment. On that basis, the next business period will be played. Moreover, between business periods, the instructor has the option of providing additional feedback and further explanation to the participants. Games actively involve the participants by means of exploration, competition and cooperation. These motivating elements support learning processes as they offer the opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge from traditional classes in a gaming environment. In addition to improving business and management skills, personal competencies such as problem-solving, critical thinking, self-regulation and information skills are also supported (Blažič, Ribeiro and Arh, 2012). <?page no="250"?> 250 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management Fig. 22: Typical decision process within a business period This is evident from the different types of learning facilitated by business simulations:  Cognitive Learning: The participants understand the basic facts and concepts that form the necessary basis for decision-making. This understanding is often expanded from the business game environment to real-world business situations.  Affective Learning: This term describes the participants’ perception of what they have learned. Very often, this results in an enduring positive attitude towards the business game.  Behavioural Learning: On the basis of learned facts and concepts, as well as new information gained, the participants are able to make good decisions and to adapt their behaviour (Faria, 2001). Modern business games can be applied very flexibly so that precise adjustment to the specific needs of target groups is possible. Management games provide a risk-free environment. Consequently, the participants may make realistic, reallife management and business decisions without facing the threat of real-life consequences (Gilgeous and D’Cruz, 1996). Organisational Aspects of the Business Game The module “Strategic Management” is part of the curriculum in the International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) bachelor’s degree programme, which is a joint programme between the Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE) in Shanghai, China, and Osnabruck University of Applied Sciences, Germany. One of the learning outcomes in this module is for the students to participate in a business management simulation game to enhance their strategic management learning. After completing the business simulation game, students should be able to  make strategic business decisions in a realistic environment;  learn principles of strategic and business administration by designing strategies and goals and implementing the goals in decisions;  practice strategic thinking; and <?page no="251"?> Organisational Aspects of the Business Game 251  experience decision-making processes within a team while managing time constraints. To achieve these outcomes, the business simulation game “Topsim Easy Management” is played by the students. Topsim Easy Management is a computerbased, competitive business game in which students form business teams that assume the leadership of a company in the backpacking industry. The game provides the participants with the opportunity to learn rapidly without risk and to gain real-world strategic management experience. The game is structured in two distinct phases, namely, a decision phase in which the participants must make operational decisions for their company and an evaluation phase in which the participants are required to analyse the results of the previous period and test their overall business strategy against current economic conditions. As the game is played online, it offers the options of being run as a distance or a presence course. As part of the strategic management course, the business simulation game is played for six business periods (including a test round) over a period of ten days. One of the main objectives of the business game simulation exercise is to integrate the business game into the university’s strategic management module. This is done to provide students with the opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge from lectures in a dynamic market environment and to enhance their understanding of theoretical concepts such as PESTEL analysis, Porter’s five forces analysis, SWOT analysis, competitors’ analysis, and competitive strategies. Moreover, the intention of the business simulation game is to enable students to understand the permanent interaction between different departments within a company as well as the permanent interaction with the outside world. In the business simulation game, students are faced with a dynamic business situation. The increasing complexity of the simulation, the unknown behaviour of competitors and the unknown development of the external business environment all compel students to deal with ambiguity. During the course of the game, all company departments are assessed by means of detailed business reports. Analysis of these reports makes students aware of the importance of a sound understanding of the information to enable them to make high-quality management decisions, to support the development of strategic goals and to make strategic decisions. Students’ knowledge of strategic management and business administration is expanded by this interaction. As business simulation games have not previously been used in the strategic management module of the event management programme at SUIBE, this chapter seeks to examine the role of business simulation games in enhancing student learning. <?page no="252"?> 252 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management Problem Investigation and Research Objectives The purpose of the research was, therefore, to investigate how business simulation games enhance student learning at a tertiary institution. To carry out this purpose, the following research objectives were formulated:  To identify the type of personal learning that takes place when students interact with the business simulation game;  To ascertain the effectiveness of the business simulation game as a vehicle for teaching strategic management concepts;  To describe the students’ business simulation game experience; and  To make recommendations regarding the use of business simulation games in the strategic management module. Research Method As the purpose of the research was to understand how business simulation games enhance student learning at tertiary institutions, interpretivism (Struwig and Stead, 2013) was considered the most appropriate research paradigm to apply in the research process. Interpretivism focuses on the meaning of social phenomena as provided by insiders or research participants rather than focusing on quantities related to the phenomena (Collis and Hussey, 2009). Furthermore, interpretivism applies qualitative approaches to understand the meanings behind social phenomena (Collis and Hussey, 2009). The case study research methodology seeks to answer descriptive and explanatory research questions and seeks not to exercise control over research participants but rather to understand their perspectives and to understand contemporary phenomena (Yin, 2003). As a result, the case study methodology was chosen as the most useful research methodology for the research. Given that the research sought to investigate how business simulation games enhance student learning at a tertiary institution in China, the chosen case for the research was the event management programme at SUIBE. The population of the study comprised all second-year students studying strategic management in the IEMS bachelor’s degree programme, as mentioned above. The event management programme group comprised 68 students. Questionnaires consisting of 14 questions were emailed to the students. The research data were gathered via the students’ responses to the interview questions. Students were given two weeks to respond to the questions by emailing the responses to the strategic management lecturer. The analysis of the research data drew upon Collis and Hussey’s (2009) model of a general analytical procedure for qualitative data. This method uses coding of themes and concepts to organise the data. The coded data were then organised into categories that exhibit similar themes and patterns. Lincoln and Guba’s four <?page no="253"?> Description of the Participants 253 criteria, credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability, were considered when assessing the quality of the analysis (1985, cited in Collis and Hussey, 2003). Consent was obtained from all participants who responded to the questionnaire, and they were informed that their participation was voluntary. Description of the Participants After the conclusion of the business game simulation exercise, the students were emailed a questionnaire consisting of 14 questions. Of the 68 students in the class, 50 students - 34 females and 16 males - responded to the questions. This translated into a response rate of 74%. A large percentage of the assessment of the business simulation game is based on the accumulated equity of a group at the end of the simulation period. In addition, the groups are also assessed on class presentations based on the business game. Groups need to achieve a score of 60% to pass, and the highest score a team can achieve is 100%. The eight groups that participated in the game obtained an average score of 77% in the business simulation game, with the highest score being 94% for group seven and the lowest score being 69% for group six. Tab. 16: Biographical data (Explanation of codes: R=Respondent; F=Female; M=Male. For example, R1-M-5 means respondent 1, who is a male and a member of group 5). Code No. Gender Business simulation group Result of business simulation game (%) R1-M-5 M Group 5 77 R2-F-7 F Group 7 94 R3-M-1 M Group 1 70 R4-F-2 F Group 2 84 R5-F-4 F Group 4 71 R6-M-4 M Group 4 71 R7-F-4 F Group 4 71 R8-F-3 F Group 3 77 R9-M-1 M Group 1 70 R10-F-6 F Group 6 69 R11-F-7 F Group 7 94 R12-M-1 M Group 1 70 <?page no="254"?> 254 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management Code No. Gender Business simulation group Result of business simulation game (%) R13-F-4 F Group 4 71 R14-M-5 M Group 5 77 R15-F-4 F Group 4 71 R16-F-2 F Group 2. 84 R17-M-5 M Group 5 77 R18-M-6 M Group 6 69 R19-M-1 M Group 1 70 R20-F-3 F Group 3 77 R21-M-7 M Group 7 94 R22-F-4 F Group 4 71 R23-M-5 M Group 5 77 R24-F-3 F Group 3 77 R25-M-5 M Group 5 77 R26-F-3 F Group 3 77 R27-F-3 F Group 3 77 R28-M-1 M Group 1 70 R29-M-8 M Group 8 80 R30-M-8 M Group 8 80 R31-F-3 F Group 3 77 R32-F-2 F Group 2 84 R33-F-1 F Group 1 70 R34-F-2 F Group 2 84 R35-F-3 F Group 3 77 R36-F-3 F Group 3 77 R37-F-7 F Group 7 94 R38-F-1 F Group 1 70 R39-F-4 F Group 4 71 R40-F-5 F Group 5 77 <?page no="255"?> Findings 255 Findings Fifty respondents shared their perceptions of the business simulation game and its effect on the strategic management course. The following three main categories emerged from the questionnaires: personal development, strategic management course understanding, and simulation experience. Within the mentioned categories, themes and subthemes were identified. 13.7.1 Category 1: Personal development The first category identified was personal development, which required the participants to explain how playing the business simulation game assisted them in developing personal business skills. The first theme under this category was business skills, which was subdivided into the subthemes below:  Decision-making;  Interpersonal skills;  Leadership and communication;  Teamwork and delegation;  Market and competitor analysis;  Strategic planning;  Organisational skills;  Critical thinking;  Problem-solving;  Time management;  Negotiation;  Flexibility; and  Pricing. Code No. Gender Business simulation group Result of business simulation game (%) R41-F-2 F Group 2 84 R42-F-3 F Group 3 77 R43-F-7 F Group 7 94 R44-F-7 F Group 7 94 R45-F-3 F Group 3 77 R46-F-4 F Group 4 71 R47-F-7 F Group 7 94 R48-M-7 M Group 7 94 R49-F-7 F Group 7 94 R50-F-4 F Group 4 71 <?page no="256"?> 256 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management Table 17 below shows the frequencies of the subthemes under various themes in the personal development category. Tab. 17: Personal development category, themes, subthemes and frequencies Category Theme Subthemes Frequency Personal development Business skills Decision-making 31 Interpersonal skills 16 Leadership and communication 21 Teamwork and delegation 29 Market and competitor analysis 11 Strategic planning 24 Organisational skills 9 Critical thinking 9 Problem-solving 11 Time management 2 Negotiation 3 Flexibility 2 Pricing 4 Business simulation concepts Sound understanding 29 Personal decision-making 31 Unclear concepts 4 Simulation guide 2 Group decision-making 38 Teamwork and planning Team participation 9 Decision-making process 24 Leadership in group 5 Division of tasks 34 Motivation Motivation strategy 6 Desire for team success 4 Confidence in each other 12 Personal belief 3 Motivating factors 2 <?page no="257"?> Findings 257 Theme: Business skills The first theme under the personal development category was business skills. Figure 23 below shows the different business skills identified by the participants as well as the frequency at which they were mentioned. Fig. 23: Business skill subthemes and their frequencies Some of the most frequently acquired business skills and competencies identified as a result of playing the business simulation game were those of decision-making, teamwork and delegation, and strategic planning. The abovementioned business skills had a frequency of 31, 29 and 24, respectively (see Fig. 23). This is an indication that through meticulous planning and teamwork, the participants learned how to make business-related decisions in an uncertain environment. The participants also had an opportunity to work in teams and delegate work, as stated by respondent R47-F-7, who indicated that she “learned how to analyse data, analyse competitors and make strategic business decisions”. This could be directly associated with the high performance score of 94% that group seven obtained when playing the business simulation game. By working in teams, the participants also developed their leadership and communication skills through interaction with their peers. This was best described by respondent R4-F-2, who mentioned that “…the business simulation game assisted me to better communicate with my teammates, listening to them patiently and respecting their different opinions”. On the other hand, some participants indicated a lack of understanding of business skills during the business simulation. For instance, respondent R28-M-1 said that “to be honest, in the game… there was no thorough understanding of the specific operations of decision-making”. This statement could be associated with the below-class-average performance score of 70% obtained by group one when playing the business simulation game. <?page no="258"?> 258 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management Theme: Business simulation concepts The second theme under the personal development category was business simulation concepts. This theme indicated the extent of the participants’ understanding of the business concepts mentioned in the business simulation game. This theme had the following subthemes:  Sound understanding;  Personal decision-making;  Unclear concepts;  Simulation guide; and  Group decision-making. Fig. 24: Business simulation concepts subthemes and their frequencies Some of the most frequently identified business simulation concepts with their corresponding frequencies were group decision-making (38), individual decisionmaking (31) and sound understanding (29), as shown in Figure 24. The abovementioned results indicate that the participants made group decisions based on the group’s understanding of the business simulation concepts. A large number of the participants indicated that they had a sound understanding of the business concepts used in the business simulation game, as indicated by respondent R16-F-2, who stated that “initially, I did not know much about many business concepts, but gradually, I developed a sound understanding of some business and group decision-making”. This comment could be directly correlated with the high performance score of 84% obtained by group two when playing the business simulation game. Other participants, however, indicated that some of the business concepts were unclear. An example is respondent R39-F-4, who said that although she “learned something about business decisions, it was not a good understanding”. This comment correlates with the group’s performance score of 71% obtained when playing the business simulation game. The low frequency rate for the simulation guide is an indication that very few participants found that the guide was a helpful tool to prepare for making decisions in the business simulation game. Very few 29 31 4 2 38 0 10 20 30 40 Frequency Business simulation concepts Group Decision making Simulation guide Unclear concepts Personal decision-making Sound understanding <?page no="259"?> Findings 259 participants (frequency 4) had an initial understanding of the business concepts used in the game. Theme: Teamwork and planning The third theme was teamwork and planning, which required the participants to explain how they organised themselves to plan and make sound business decisions as a team. The following subthemes emerged from the teamwork theme:  Team participation;  Decision-making process;  Leadership in group; and  Division of tasks. Fig. 25: Teamwork and planning The respondents’ most frequently identified subthemes were “division of tasks” and “decision-making process” with frequencies of 34 and 24, respectively, as shown in Figure 25. The participants understood that they had to divide the workload among the team members to make sound business decisions. This was illustrated by respondent R32-F-2, who said that the team split tasks amongst the team members: “We divided the team into departments, and each person was responsible for the task he or she was good at”. Respondent R19-F-2, another member of group 2, added that splitting the tasks in their group made the decision-making process easy during the business simulation: “When it came to the time of making decisions, everyone expressed their opinions, and then we made decisions based on the data and analysis of each person”. The two comments could be directly associated with the high group performance score of 84% that the group obtained when playing the business simulation game. The leaders of the eight groups were initially appointed by the lecturer of the strategic management course based on their past academic achievements. As seen in Figure 25, this could have resulted in very few participants indicating that they had developed any kind of leadership skills. Team participation was also seen as low in some groups. The participants were seen as reducing their efforts when working in a team, knowing that the rest of the team would contribute to 9 24 5 34 0 10 20 30 40 Frequency Teamwork and planning Team participation Decision-making process Leadership in group Division of tasks <?page no="260"?> 260 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management the team’s success, as stated by respondent R9-M-1: “Sadly, I think just some of us are fully engaged in the business game. But others are not doing the analysis, not looking at the reports and not participating in the calculation”. Theme: Motivation The fourth theme under the personal development category was motivation. This theme required students to explain how group members motivated each other to successfully complete the business game and asked them to specify whether the motivation levels changed in various rounds of the business simulation game. The following subthemes emerged from the motivation theme:  Motivation strategy;  Desire for team success;  Confidence in each other;  Personal belief; and  Motivating factors. Fig. 26: Motivation themes The participants were motivated to play and do well in the business simulation game since it counted towards their final class mark, and they were also eager to apply their business acumen in a business simulation setting. The motivation themes of “confidence in each other” and “motivation strategy” were the subthemes most frequently identified by the participants, with frequencies of 12 and 6, respectively, as shown in Figure 26. This means the confidence team members had in each other contributed to the overall success of their business. This is seen in the comments of respondent R24-M-7, a member of group 7, who stated, “We believed in each other, and the result of each round boosted our confidence. Our goal was to be the best all the time”. Respondent R47-F-7 from the same group added that the team’s motivation strategy was to encourage each other in the case of poor performance in a round of playing the business simulation game. The respondent stated that “sometimes, we didn’t achieve our target, but we comforted each other, confident that if we worked hard, we could achieve our <?page no="261"?> Findings 261 goal in the next round”. The two comments could be directly associated with the excellent performance score of 94% that the group obtained when playing the business simulation game. Tab. 18: Course understanding category, themes and subthemes. Category Themes Subthemes Frequency Course understanding Strategic management learning benefits Theory and practice 15 Content understanding 14 Team decision-making 13 Strategy development 9 Understanding principles 6 Goal setting 7 Strategic management concepts and tools PESTEL analysis 32 SWOT analysis 43 Porter’s generic model 12 Hybrid model 7 Value chain analysis 31 Quality control 5 Cost leadership/ control 18 VRIO framework 7 Some participants, however, indicated that there was no motivation of group members. For instance, respondent R33-F-1, a member of group 1, indicated that they did not have a strategy to keep the members motivated, as shown by the following comment: “No motivation strategy. It is up to the team members who are interested to participate in the game”. This comment could also explain the low score of 70% that the group obtained when playing the business simulation game. The participants also indicated low levels of motivation after obtaining poor results playing a business round. This could be the result of low personal confidence and the absence of strong team leadership, as shown in the following comment by respondent R6-M-4: “Since we began to lose money after round one, we began to lose motivation” and the response from respondent R23-M-5: “Our bad result made our group members upset. Though members were trying to cheer others up, this atmosphere still existed”. From the above, it is clear that some respondents found it challenging to work in groups because of the differences in their motivation to succeed and their varying levels of business knowledge and interest in playing the business simulation game. <?page no="262"?> 262 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management 13.7.2 Category 2: Course understanding The second category was course understanding. In this category, the participants were asked to explain how playing the business simulation game was beneficial to them in the strategic management course (see Table 18). Theme: Strategic management learning benefits The first theme under the course understanding category was the strategic management learning benefits, which was subdivided into the following subthemes:  Theory practice;  Content understanding;  Team decision-making;  Strategy development;  Understanding principles; and  Goal setting. In this theme, the participants were asked to give their opinions of how beneficial they thought playing the business simulation game was in their learning and understanding of strategic management. Fig. 27: Strategic management learning benefits Most participants identified the subthemes of “theory and practice” and “content understanding” as important, with frequencies of 15 and 14, respectively, as shown in Figure 27. This illustrates that the participants had an enhanced understanding of the content of the strategic management course after participating in the business simulation game. This was clarified by respondent R13-F-7, a member of group 7, who stated that “I understood strategic management better because of playing the business simulation game. I understood basic concepts vividly now”. It was also evident that the participants could apply the theory to practice, as mentioned by respondent R49-F-4: “The business game increased <?page no="263"?> Findings 263 my interest in strategic management and gave us a chance to apply strategic management theory to practice”. The comment by respondent R13-F-7 could be directly associated with the high performance score of 94% that the group obtained when playing the business simulation. The participants also clearly indicated that team decision-making was important in understanding the strategic management concepts. This was stated by respondent R32-F-2, who was a member of a group that obtained good results when playing the business simulation game: “This game helps me understand the content of the course better but also gives me the opportunity to combine knowledge with others”. Working in teams, therefore, requires the participants to identify interdependencies and accomplish the equal distribution of responsibilities, manage decisions, and constantly communicate among themselves. All of these factors are typically required in a dynamic business environment. Theme: Strategic management concepts and principles The second theme under the course understanding category was strategic management concepts and principles. In this theme, the participants had to indicate whether they had applied any of the strategic business management concepts and principles taught in the strategic management course while playing the business simulation game. Under the strategic management concepts and principles theme, the following subthemes emerged:  PESTEL analysis;  SWOT analysis;  Porter’s generic model;  Hybrid model;  Value chain analysis;  Quality control;  Cost leadership; and  VRIO framework. Most participants indicated that during the business simulation game, they had most frequently applied the concepts of SWOT, PESTEL analysis, and value chain analysis. These subthemes had frequencies of 43, 32 and 31, respectively, as Figure 28 shows. The participants applied these concepts and principles to analyse the business situation and the external environment to make sound business decisions. This is clearly explained by respondent R12-F-6, who stated, “After playing the business simulation game, I had a good understanding of the basic business concepts, and using the PESTEL model was helpful to us … to make sound business decisions”. <?page no="264"?> 264 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management Fig. 28: Strategic management concepts and principles However, some participants indicated that their understanding of the strategic management concepts improved as the game progressed. Respondent, R8-F-4 mentioned, “At first, I didn’t understand business concepts such as value chain analysis … but through book materials and the news in the game, I learned the meaning of these concepts and applied them to the next stage of the game”. Nevertheless, a few participants indicated a lack of understanding of some strategic management concepts even after playing the business simulation game. 13.7.3 Category 3: Business simulation experience The third category was business simulation experience. In this category, the participants were asked to provide information on their experience of the business simulation exercise (see Table 19). Tab. 19: Themes and subthemes under the business simulation experience Category Theme Subthemes Frequency Business simulation experience Lessons learned Decision-making 4 Communication 3 Applying theory to practice 37 Negotiation 3 Management skills 10 Strategy making 3 Data/ report analysis 23 Research 11 Excellent aspects of the simulation Close to reality 16 Simplified 4 Comprehensive 3 <?page no="265"?> Findings 265 Gives feedback and news updates 2 Provides a report and visible charts 4 Unpredictability 1 Areas of improvement Members of the group 5 Videos in the game 1 Mergers and acquisitions 2 Simulation needs videos 1 Need more rounds 4 Theme: Lessons learned The first theme under the business simulation experience category was the lessons learned. This required the participants to explain the general lessons learned as a result of playing the business simulation game. This theme was subdivided into the following subthemes:  Decision-making;  Communication;  Applying theory to practice;  Negotiation;  Management skills;  Strategy making;  Data/ report analysis; and  Research. Fig. 29: Lessons learned <?page no="266"?> 266 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management The majority of the participants mentioned the subthemes of “applying theory to practice” and “data/ report analysis” most frequently. These subthemes had frequencies of 37 and 23, respectively, as shown in Figure 29. The participants understood the importance of analysing business reports and other relevant data to make sound business decisions. Similar to theme one under the course understanding category, the participants’ understanding of the strategic management concepts and principles improved by applying the course theory to the practical business simulation game. This was clearly illustrated by respondent R35-M-8, who mentioned that “… it helped me learn to apply the abstract theories to practice, making me have a better understanding of the process to make a business decision and the factors that should be taken into consideration during business”. This comment directly correlates with the high performance score of 80% that the group obtained when playing the business simulation game. Respondents learned many lessons relating to strategic management (frequency 3) and business in general (frequency 10). This is supported by respondent R16- F-2, who stated, “I have learned how to set price, how to use strategy to be more competitive and how to make plans for the company from both a shortand long-term perspective”. Respondent R13-F-4 stated, “The business simulation game teaches me that business is very complex, and many factors affect the market and results; sometimes the details are very important”. Theme: Excellent aspects of the business simulation game In theme two of the business simulation experience category, the participants were asked to describe the attractive aspects of the business simulation game. Under this theme, the following subthemes were identified:  Close to reality;  Simplified;  Comprehensive;  Gives feedback and news updates;  Provides a report and visible charts; and  Unpredictable. The subtheme “close to reality” was the most frequently identified, with a frequency of 16. This indicates that the participants enjoyed a real-life experience of running a business by playing the business simulation game. This aspect was clearly shown in the comments of respondent R35-M-8, who said that “it’s close to reality; sometimes I feel like we do own a company”. This experience could be directly correlated with the high performance score of 80% that the group obtained in playing the business simulation game. Other aspects of excellence of the business simulation were mentioned, and their corresponding frequencies were included: simplified (4), comprehensive (3), gives feedback (2), provides report and visible charts and (4) unpredictable (1). <?page no="267"?> Findings 267 On the “comprehensive” subtheme, frequency 3, the participants enjoyed the fact that the business simulation game provided enough information for them to make sound business decisions. This can be inferred from comments made by respondent R49-F-4, who mentioned that the game “makes me learn to use a comprehensive view to see the whole market and business”. On the subtheme “reports and visible charts”, frequency 4, the participants learned to analyse and interpret the reports and charts made available in the business simulation game to make sound business decisions. According to respondent R50-M-7, “The game provides enough information to make decisions about the business… provides reports and charts such as a histogram, which is convenient to compare performance with others”. From this comment, it is evident why the group obtained an excellent score of 94% in the business simulation game. Regarding the aspect of the game being able to provide feedback and updates, the participants indicated that they knew how to use the business results to make sound strategic decisions in the business simulation game. According to respondent R22-M-1, the simulation “… constantly updated business news. This business game has domestic and foreign markets. An adequate business report can be used to do analysis”. Respondent R18-F-4 also mentioned that the simulation is “interesting and gives feedback in time”. Theme: Areas of improvement Theme three covered the suggestions for improvement regarding the business simulation game and the way in which it was played. In this theme, the participants were asked to suggest what needed to be improved or changed to make the business simulation game a better learning experience. The subthemes were as follows:  Members of the group;  Videos in the game;  Mergers and acquisitions;  Simulation needs videos; and  Need more rounds. The most frequently identified subtheme was “members of the group” with a frequency of 5. This indicated the view of some participants that the groups should not have more than eight members. As suggested by respondent R18-M- 6, “I think maybe 9-10 people in a group might be too much; sometimes, we just finished the work easily.” The participants were of the opinion that the introduction to the business game could be more comprehensive, with respondent R43- F-7 stating, “There should be some videos to introduce the game”. Another suggestion to improve the business simulation game experience was to make the game more complex with more decision-making options, as stated by respondent R30-M-8: “…As far as I’m concerned, companies in the game can have more <?page no="268"?> 268 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management functions, such as mergers and acquisitions of small businesses”. Some participants indicated that the business simulation experience could be improved if the participants were given more time to prepare before the start of the game, as indicated by respondent R32-F-2, who said, “A little more preparation time can be given to students, like for reading the introduction reports and important elements which can affect the success of the company”. Finally, the subtheme “need more rounds” was also mentioned by the participants (frequency 5). The participants suggested that having more than five rounds of the business simulation game could improve the learning experience and give respondents more time to rectify previously incorrect business decisions. For instance, respondent R50-F-4 said that “…five rounds are too short. The duration of one period is also too short”. Recommendations and Conclusion Imparting strategic management knowledge and teaching business and decision-making skills by means of the business simulation game is often a challenge. This is particularly relevant when the participants do not play the business simulation game in their native language or lack prior knowledge of strategic management concepts and basic business analytical models. The approach taken and the level of complexity in this particular simulation were found to be successful in that no students stated any dissatisfaction with the game or found it to be not challenging enough. The most interesting aspects of the business simulation exercise were found to be the fast pace of the game, especially at the beginning; inadequate knowledge of some of the management and financial concepts used in the game; a lack of teamwork; an absence of basic management experience; and limited participation of some group members. The key business skills gained from playing the business simulation game included the following  Strategic planning;  Decision-making;  Critical thinking;  Teamwork;  Organisational planning;  Problem-solving;  Negotiation;  Interpersonal communication;  Time management; and  Business analysis. <?page no="269"?> Questions 269 Based on the research, the following improvements are recommended to enhance the learning experience:  The participants should be given a practice session with extensive feedback to familiarise themselves with the different aspects of the business simulation game. This could include how to analyse and understand the different business reports to mitigate the business risks in the game.  A system of peer evaluation should be instituted with marks allocated according to group members’ level of participation. This measure would ensure that there are no “free riders” and that all the participants contribute to the success of the group.  The number of participants per group should be reduced to a maximum of eight to ensure active participation by all.  The number of business simulation game rounds played should be increased to more than the present five rounds played.  The complexity of the business simulation game should be explored to ensure that the level of complexity is commensurate with the cognitive skills of the participants.  The use of a mobile version of the business simulation game should be investigated.  The business simulation game should be used in the future to support the teaching of the strategic management course. In summary, the business simulation was an opportunity for the participants to apply strategic management theory in practice and to gain numerous business skills such as teamwork, leadership and decision-making. Lecture-based learning supported and reinforced the participants’ understanding of the game. This was viewed as a means to encourage active learning to complement more traditional passive learning methods. Questions  Discuss the types of learning that may be facilitated by business games.  Identify a student who has participated in a business simulation game. Ask the student to identify and describe the business skills he or she acquired from playing the simulation game and compare his or her response with the findings of this research.  Provide at least five additional recommendations on how the learning experience of students can be enhanced by playing a business simulation game. <?page no="270"?> 270 Enhancing Student Learning in Event Management Further Readings  Duke, R. (2014) Gaming: The Future’s Language. Bielefeld: W. Bertelsmann.  Greenblat, C. S. (1988) Designing games and simulations. An illustrated handbook. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.  Klabbers, J. (2009) The Magic Circle. Principles of Gaming & Simulation. 3rd edn. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Bibliography Bartscher, T (2018) Nissen, Regina, Unternehmensplanspiel - Ausführliche Definition, Gabler Wirtschaftslexikon. Available at: https: / / wirtschaftslexikon.gabler.de/ definition/ unternehmensplanspiel- 49591/ version-272821 (Accessed: 31 August 2019). Biggs, W.D. (1990) ‘Introduction to Computerized Business Management Simulations’, in Gentry, J. (ed.) Guide to Business Gaming and Experiental Learning. East Brunswick: Nichols / GB Publishing, pp.23-34. Blažič, A.J. and Novak, F. (2015) ‘Challenges of Business Simulation Games-A New Approach of Teaching Business’, E-Learning-Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management, pp.227-259. doi: 10.5772/ 61242 Blažič, A., Ribeiro, C., Fernandes, J., Pereira, J. and Arh, T. (2012) ‘Analysing the required properties of business simulation games to be used in e-learning and education’, Intelligent Information Management, 4(6), pp. 348-356. doi: 10.4236/ iim.2012.46039 Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business Research: A practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students. Basingstroke: Palgrave MacMillan. Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2009) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students. 3rd edn. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave. Ellington, H., Fowlie, J. and Gordon, M. (1998) Using games and simulations in the classroom: a practical guide for teachers. London: Kogan Page Limited. Faria, A. J. (2001) ‘The changing nature of business simulation / gaming research: A brief history’, Simulation & Gaming, 32 (1), pp. 97-110. Faria, A.J., Hutchinson, D., Wellington, W.J. and Gold, S. (2009) ‘Developments in business gaming: A review of the past 40 years’, Simulation & gaming, 40(4), pp. 464-487. Gilgeous, V. and D’Cruz, M. (1996) ‘A study of business and management games’, Management Development Review, 9(1), pp. 32-39. Greenblat, C.S. (1988) Designing Games and Simulations. London: Sage Publications Greene, J. Sisson, R. (1959) Dynamic Management Decision Games. London: Chapman & Hall. Greenslaw, P.S. Herron, L.W. and Rawden, R.H. (1962) Business Simulation in Industrial and University Education. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Schwägele, S. (2015) Planspiel - Lernen - Lerntransfer, Eine subjektorientierte Analyse von Einflussfaktoren. Thesis. Otto Friedrich University, Bamberg, Germany. ZMS-Schriftenreihe, 7, ISSN 2192- 7502. Available at: https: / / d-nb.info/ 1082537268/ 34 (Accessed: 31 August 2019). Struwig, F.W. and Stead, G.B. (2013) Research planning, designing and reporting. 2nd edn. Cape Town: Pearson. Yin, R.K. (2003) Case study research: design and methods. 3rd edn. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. <?page no="271"?> 14 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management: Case studies from Chinese Universities Ye Ding, Li Zhang and Chunlei Wang The cultivation of innovative and entrepreneurial talent is becoming increasingly important. Against the background of innovation and entrepreneurship, colleges and universities should reasonably determine the mode of talent cultivation according to their own faculties’ competitiveness, discipline advantages and local event industry development. Taking “International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS)”, a double-degree transnational event management programme, as a case study, this chapter introduces how to develop an innovation and entrepreneurship education mode in event management. IEMS follows a platform-based approach by building platforms for innovation and entrepreneurship, school-enterprise cooperation and international communication, thus forming a progressive structure. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: innovation, entrepreneurship education, event education, Chinese universities Introduction Entrepreneurship is a personal skill set and motivation that draw a person to engage his or her abilities and efforts in the creation of new products and services, with a business value determined by the ability to match the market demand (Bellotti and Gloria, 2012). Entrepreneurship, through the creation of new ventures or by taking place within existing firms, represents one of the major engines of economic growth (Einar and Sørheim, 2006). This development has been apparent at many US universities for decades and is currently also accelerating in Europe and in China. Universities can contribute to entrepreneurship both indirectly, through the education of students, and directly, by the commercialisation of research and by attracting new students. The subdivision of university professional education and the specificity of its training objectives originated during the industrial age in the West and reflect the characteristics of standardisation, replicability, mass production and quality control in the field of education. In the present era, the driving force of social and <?page no="272"?> 272 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management economic development relies not on an increased number of production factors but rather on a large number of creative individuals and more personalised expression. The developers of university professional education programmes need to focus on the personal characteristics and learning requirements of each student. In the process of learning a specific subject or field, other, similar disciplines should be integrated. The ability of professional education to respond to the ever-changing external environment should also be strengthened. The training objectives, curriculum system, and teaching and evaluation methods should be changed to adapt to the definition of innovative talent in the era of the knowledge economy. Entrepreneurship education is the process of providing individuals with the ability to recognise commercial opportunities, self-esteem, and knowledge and the skills to use them. The question of whether it is possible to educate individuals to become entrepreneurs has been raised (Fiet, 2001; Sexton and Upton, 1987). Numerous reports about successful programmes at individual institutions, often measured by the number of companies started, have led to increased expectations. It has been found that graduates with an entrepreneurship degree are more likely to start new businesses and have stronger entrepreneurial intentions than other graduates (Kolvereid and Moen, 1997). The number of relevant institutions and the amount of resources invested in entrepreneurship education programmes at universities are rapidly increasing (Katz, 2003; Vesper and Gartner, 1997). All these developments can be seen as recognition of the importance of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship education has been established in developed countries in Europe and America for decades. China has integrated the concept of “innovation” into entrepreneurship education by proposing “innovation and entrepreneurship education”. In 1999, the first national entrepreneurship competition for college students was successfully launched, marking the start of entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities. In 2010, the Ministry of Education of China issued the “Opinions on Vigorously Promoting Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Institutions of Higher Learning and College Students’ Self-employment”, pointing out that college students’ self-employment will drive employment and promote the full employment of college graduates. In 2015, the State Council of China issued an important document, the “Opinions on Deepening the Reform of Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Colleges and Universities”, pointing out that college students’ scientific research, innovative spirit and entrepreneurial practice ability should be cultivated to promote their innovation and entrepreneurship. The trend of integrating innovation and entrepreneurship education with professional education has gradually developed in some colleges and universities in China, but the overall level needs to be improved (Pan, 2018). As an applied programme, event management is very suitable for innovation and entrepreneurship education. However, few studies have been devoted to entrepreneurship <?page no="273"?> Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Talent Cultivation in Universities 273 education in event management or relevant programmes. Based on analysing the relationship between innovation, entrepreneurship and talent cultivation in universities and the status quo of innovation and entrepreneurship education worldwide, this chapter introduces a possible model of innovation and entrepreneurship education in event management programmes, taking International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS), a successful Sino-German education programme, as an example. Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Talent Cultivation in Universities 14.2.1 What is entrepreneurship and innovation? As we delve into the literature on entrepreneurship education, it will be helpful to define what we mean by “entrepreneurship education”. Shepherd and Douglas (1997, as cited in Solomon, 2007, p. 169) propose this definition: “The essence of entrepreneurship is the ability to envision and chart a course for a new business venture by combining information from the functional disciplines and from the external environment in the context of the extraordinary uncertainty and ambiguity that face a new business venture. Entrepreneurship is manifested in creative strategies, innovative tactics, an uncanny perception of trends and market mood changes, and courageous leadership when the way forward is not obvious. What is taught in entrepreneurship classes should serve to instil and enhance these abilities.” The scope of the concept of innovation covers all technological, organisational, methodological, and systematic changes that drive economic and social development and the process of achieving the ultimate value. Entrepreneurship is a dynamic process driven by a large number of innovators with entrepreneurship, of which the aim is to promote innovation. Compared with innovation, entrepreneurship places more emphasis on the organic integration of vision formation and value realisation. It requires people to transform the spirit and awareness of innovation and creativity into successful social practice. This not only involves the cultivation of the innovation ability of individuals but also requires people to possess the ability to discover transformative trends, seize opportunities, build effective teams for entrepreneurship, integrate all sorts of resources, make a sustainable plan for entrepreneurship, resist risks and resolve stressful problems. Entrepreneurship focuses on practice, individuality and diversity. Although society has realised the importance of innovation and entrepreneurship, it has long lacked a correct understanding of entrepreneurship and education in this field. People often narrowly understand entrepreneurship as people starting their own businesses and limit its scope to self-employment. <?page no="274"?> 274 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management 14.2.2 Can entrepreneurship be taught? Research and practical issues of entrepreneurial enquiry are found in the literature, defining the term and distinguishing it from “normal” business activity. Similarly, research in the teaching of entrepreneurship provides a framework of differences and similarities in the perception of the ability to “teach” entrepreneurial behaviours and the manner in which this can be best achieved. These issues underlie the questions “Can entrepreneurship be taught? ” and “How is entrepreneurship currently taught? ” The issue of whether entrepreneurship can be taught is the fundamental issue of debate. Adcroft, Willis and Dhaliwal (2004) are sceptical and argue that “entrepreneurs cannot be manufactured; only recognized.” They go on to argue that management education can contribute to the technical skills of entrepreneurs but cannot contribute to the “geographic chronology” - the element of serendipity - that is central to entrepreneurial events. Garavan and O’Cinneide (1994) partially agree with these doubts when they state: “One has to ask - what can be taught that is specific to entrepreneurs? There is no body of well researched and developed knowledge which might form the basis of such programmes, a fact which has been consistently emphasized in the literature”. On the other hand, after a review of empirical studies, Gorman, Hanlon and King (1997) report that there is support that entrepreneurship can be taught, or at least encouraged, in entrepreneurship education programmes. Anselm (1993) also suggests that entrepreneurship can be learned. According to her, individuals may indeed be born with a propensity for entrepreneurship, but their level of entrepreneurial activity is higher when entry-level entrepreneurial skills are taught in US entrepreneurship education. Kuratko (2005) puts it even more succinctly: “The question of whether entrepreneurship can be taught is obsolete! ” The term entrepreneurship education can be interpreted in two ways: learning about entrepreneurship as a phenomenon or learning useful skills to become an entrepreneur. According to Klofsten (2000), three basic activities aimed at stimulating entrepreneurship should be found at a university. First, activities to create and maintain an enterprising culture at the university serve as an integral part of all courses, research, and external activities. Second, separate courses in entrepreneurship are provided to all students. Third, a specific training programme is offered to those who wish to start their own enterprises. As indicated by Klofsten (2000), these activities can benefit from complementing and enriching each other. 14.2.3 Entrepreneurship education and innovative talent training In 1947, Harvard University first started an entrepreneurship course at the business school. In 1953, New York University offered a business education lecture by Peter Drucker, and in 1968, Babson College took the lead in introducing a bachelor’s degree in entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship education has expanded from the business school and engineering school of those days to other colleges. At present, entrepreneurship education has become an important part of education in most European and American universities. <?page no="275"?> Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Talent Cultivation in Universities 275 Entrepreneurship education originates from business and engineering schools. The complex interaction of social values, economic policies and individual behaviours shapes the meaning, function and boundaries of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship education and the corresponding activities in colleges and universities must reflect society’s understanding of the development trends of the world, a recognition of complex human behaviours and regional cultural differences. Therefore, entrepreneurship is not simply about starting one’s own business or engaging in an adventure. It requires knowledge, imagination, insight, creativity and practical ability. It is about having the passion to explore the unknown and the ability to adapt to uncertain environments. It is the comprehensive application of a series of abilities. In other words, entrepreneurship is an act of self-realisation and self-transcendence. The aim of university education is not only to impart necessary expertise and skills to students. More importantly, it helps students gain a deeper understanding of the world and enables them to use their knowledge and skills to contribute to the development of society and possibly change the world in the pursuit of their self-value. The nature of entrepreneurship education is to cultivate innovative talent in a practical, personalised, and diverse way. In 1988, Colin Boll proposed that entrepreneurship education should become the third “education passport”. In 1989, during the International Seminar on Education in the 21st Century held in Beijing, UNESCO proposed that entrepreneurship education should focus on fostering students’ enterprises and developing their skills. Research in the last two years also suggests that the core of entrepreneurship education in university is fostering students’ innovative thinking, awareness and ability. First, entrepreneurship education should develop students’ basic cognition of entrepreneurship, which in itself is a kind of knowledge structure and should be considered part of the knowledge system of university students. In a society driven by innovation, entrepreneurship knowledge could reflect the mainstream and daily models of innovation in contemporary society as well as the support of social attitudes, economic policies and legal systems for creativity, risk-taking and entrepreneurship. Therefore, entrepreneurship knowledge is comprehensive. Second, entrepreneurship is more than just a commercial activity. As a unique way of thinking, reasoning and acting, entrepreneurship requires imagination, insight, and the ability to integrate resources creatively. As a result, entrepreneurship education is the best way to realise innovation education, and it plays an important role in helping university students optimise their knowledge structure and adapt to an increasingly innovative society. Chinese scholars divide the cultivation of innovation ability and its meaning into three types. The first type is the ability of individuals to use all known information, including existing knowledge and experience, to generate unique and original products that have both social and personal value. Second, innovation ability consists of two related parts: the acquisition, reorganisation and application of the existing knowledge and the research and development of new ideas, new technologies and new products. The third type should be based on a certain <?page no="276"?> 276 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management knowledge structure. Based on the above classification, the innovation abilities of university students should include the following four aspects: (1) the ability to learn, namely, to acquire, filter, absorb and digest the existing knowledge and its sources; (2) the ability to discover and identify problems, namely, to find the loopholes and blind spots in the structure of the existing knowledge frame and to improve it, which involves questioning and reconstructing the rationality of the structure; (3) the ability to offer solutions; and (4) the ability to put plans into practice. From the perspective of cultivating innovative talent and improving university students’ innovation ability, entrepreneurship education is an effective way to realise the aims below (see Figure 30). Fig. 30: Entrepreneurship education and university students’ ability to innovate As a kind of “generative education”, entrepreneurship education is different from other disciplines, such as history, society, and the humanities, in that it creates its own educational goals, content and methods during the practice of entrepreneurship. The main body of entrepreneurship education further enriches and improves it in the process. It is difficult to find a one-size-fits-all model of entrepreneurship education. The programme at each university is based on the history, culture, and educational philosophy of the school and the level of social and economic development of the region where the university is located. Development of Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in the world 14.3.1 Entrepreneurship education in the world The practice of entrepreneurship education has been established in developed countries in Europe and America for decades. Entrepreneurship education in the West can be traced back to New Enterprise Management, a course offered in 1947 for MBA students of Harvard Business School (as outlined earlier). After more than 60 years, universities in developed countries such as the United States <?page no="277"?> Development of Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in the world 277 and the United Kingdom have become the mainstay of entrepreneurship education, forming a complete entrepreneurship education system of courses, degrees, academic journals and permanent research centres. At the same time, developed countries such as Japan, the United Kingdom, and Germany have begun to prioritise entrepreneurship education, leading higher education institutions to introduce relevant courses. Entrepreneurship education has become a trend of the reform and development of higher education worldwide. The Declaration of Higher Education in the 21st Century: Prospects and Actions adopted by UNESCO at the first World Conference on Higher Education held in Paris in 1998 stated that higher education should mainly cultivate entrepreneurship skills and initiative and that graduates will be not just job seekers but first and foremost the creators of jobs. This clearly points out the mission of future higher education and again emphasises the importance of an innovative spirit and entrepreneurship education. A combination of policy incentives, relatively open immigration policies, and many other structural factors, coupled with a culture of determination and motivation, accounts for the entrepreneurial success of the United States. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2014) reported that the United States consistently exhibits one of the highest entrepreneurship rates among developed countries in North America, Europe, and Asia. Accordingly, efforts to foster entrepreneurship through education and training date back to the 1940s, when the first courses in entrepreneurship were introduced at the Harvard Business School (Katz, 2003). In the United States, a majority (51%) say they would prefer to work alone. This contrasts sharply with the attitudes of a majority of Europeans (58%) who state that they would prefer to work as an employee rather than risk starting their own business (N=27,059). The Euro-barometer survey on entrepreneurship (European Commission, 2013) reports that a lack of business experience, the difficulty of raising start-up capital, red tape, the poor economic environment and an innate “European fear of failure” often prevented Europe’s potential entrepreneurs from taking the plunge. 14.3.2 Innovation and entrepreneurship education in China In response to the worldwide trend of innovation and entrepreneurship education, China clearly states that institutions of higher education should attach importance to cultivating students’ innovative ability, practical ability and innovative spirit in The Decision on Deepening Education Reform to Comprehensively Promote Quality Education issued by the CPC Central Committee and the State Council in 1996. It is generally believed that the Ministry of Education’s determination in 2002 to take nine universities (including Tsinghua University, Renmin University of China and Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics) as pilot institutions for innovation and entrepreneurship education in China officially marked the beginning of the government’s support for innovation and entrepreneurship <?page no="278"?> 278 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management education (Wang, 2018). In 2008, the Ministry of Education adopted the proposal to establish 30 pilot zones for training models of innovation and entrepreneurship talent under the quality engineering project. In 2010, the Ministry issued the “Opinions on Vigorously Promoting Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Institutions of Higher Learning and College Students’ Self-employment”, which was considered the first overall document to promote innovation and entrepreneurship education. In 2012, the “Basic Requirements for the Teaching of Entrepreneurship Education in Ordinary Undergraduate Schools (Trial)” (The Office of the Ministry of Education [2012] No. 4) and other policy documents to promote university students’ entrepreneurship were introduced. In June 2014, nine departments, including the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security and the Ministry of Education, jointly carried out “The College Student Entrepreneurship Leading Plan (MOLSS [2014] No. 38)”, requesting the further popularisation of entrepreneurship education, stronger entrepreneurship training, convenience in the registration of businesses and the opening of bank accounts, more financial support through multiple channels, support of entrepreneurship premises and stronger public services. In general, the development of innovation and entrepreneurship education in China’s colleges and universities can be divided into the following four stages: From entrepreneurship competitions to pilots for entrepreneurship education In the late 1990s, China began to introduce entrepreneurship competition. In May 1998, with the cooperation of some universities, Tsinghua University and a magazine in Shanghai jointly held the first “Tsinghua Business Plan competition”. In 1999, the first “Challenge Cup Chinese College Student Business Plan Competition”, hosted by Tsinghua University, was successfully held. It was sponsored by the Central Committee of the Communist Youth League, the China Association for Science and Technology, and the National Federation of Students. The competition brought together nearly 400 pieces of work from more than 120 Chinese colleges and universities, which set off a wave of innovation and entrepreneurship in colleges and universities across the country, widely influencing society. With nationwide promotion of the competition, more relevant competition tutoring, entrepreneurship courses and talent training were included in the schools’ teaching activities. In April 2002, the Ministry of Education launched the pilot project of innovation and entrepreneurship education. The nine selected universities were Tsinghua University, Renmin University of China, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Heilongjiang University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Wuhan University, Xi’an Jiaotong University and Northwestern Polytechnical University China began to encourage colleges and universities to promote innovation and entrepreneurship education in different ways by establishing innovation and entrepreneurship education pilot programmes. <?page no="279"?> Development of Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in the world 279 After nearly ten years, on the one hand, China’s pilot project of innovation and entrepreneurship education has smoothly transitioned from active participation in entrepreneurship competitions to the actual implementation of entrepreneurship education. On the other hand, it has made useful explorations of China’s innovation and entrepreneurship education model, forming not only a diversified typical model of entrepreneurship education in the pilot universities but also a unique model in non-pilot universities and laying a foundation for the popularisation and promotion of entrepreneurship education in universities across the country. From teacher training to student cultivation In carrying out innovation and entrepreneurship education, the first priority is to solve the issue of teacher resources. From October 27 to November 2, 2003, the first backbone teacher training programme organised by the Ministry of Education was held at the Ruxin Conference Center of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics. More than 200 teachers from over 100 universities across the country participated, marking the official start of innovation and entrepreneurship education. In the following decade, the School of Entrepreneurship Management Training of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics successfully held ten innovation and entrepreneurship education training classes for backbone teachers. The early training courses included mainly the content of entrepreneurship education, the curriculum arrangement and guidance on how to help students turn their ideas into businesses. In addition to the content of entrepreneurship education, the training courses in recent years have also attached great importance to experience sharing among universities in terms of the education model, method, technology and innovation experimental zone. By the end of 2012, this training programme had trained more than 1,300 core teachers in entrepreneurship education for colleges and universities across China. The KAB (Know About Business) Entrepreneurship Education (China) Programme is another important initiative that promotes teacher training in entrepreneurship. Since August 2005, the Central Committee of the Communist Youth League and the All-China Youth Federation, through international cooperation, have promoted the programme in China’s universities. This is an attempt to develop entrepreneurship education in China by exploring a path of entrepreneurship education with Chinese characteristics based on international experience. By March 2012, the KAB Entrepreneurship Education (China) Programme had trained 4,045 faculty members from 1,008 colleges and universities and established KAB Entrepreneurship Clubs in 153 schools and KAB Entrepreneurship Education Bases in 185 schools, and more than 300,000 students had participated in study and practice. More than 850 colleges and universities, such as Tsinghua University, China Youth Politics College, and Zhejiang University, offered the course KAB Entrepreneurship Foundation for Undergraduates. Two sets of this <?page no="280"?> 280 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management textbook were published: one for teacher use and one for students. The development included the establishment of four major systems, namely, course construction, teacher training, quality control and communication and promotion. With the periodical backbone teacher training programmes and the KAB (China) programme, the colleges and universities have experienced annual growth in the number of teachers in their entrepreneurship education programmes, gradually improving the serious shortage of teachers. Increasing numbers of colleges and universities have begun to expand the share of entrepreneurship in the school curriculum and give entrepreneurship education an important position in talent training, thus realising the shift from teacher training to student entrepreneurship education. For example, entrepreneurship education at Nankai University covers the entire process of university study. Based on the different purposes and needs of the entrepreneurship course, students are divided into different types, and each type of student is provided with differentiated courses and practical activities. For instance, students interested in learning entrepreneurship knowledge and practising entrepreneurship are provided with elective entrepreneurship courses and “simulation company training camps”. For those who are ready to attempt entrepreneurship, the university offers pair work activities in which a more experienced student helps a less experienced one, and the school also provides follow-up services. From classroom teaching to multiple modes In China, traditionally, the teaching of most of the university curriculum is conducted in a closed classroom. This teaching mode, if applied to innovation and entrepreneurship education, will not arouse students’ interest in seeking knowledge and will not increase students’ entrepreneurship skills. In establishing the pilot programme of entrepreneurship education, colleges and universities began to explore a variety of modes. Tsinghua University, Renmin University of China, Heilongjiang University and other pilot universities have achieved remarkable results from which others can learn. For example, taking advantage of its strength in scientific research, Tsinghua University aims to popularise entrepreneurship education among its students by focusing on cultivating technical entrepreneurial talent that can improve enterprises’ capacity for independent innovation and international competitiveness by incorporating the innovation and entrepreneurship curriculum system into the context of technological innovation, technology commercialisation and hightech industries. The China Entrepreneurship Research Center and the Technology Innovation Research Center of Tsinghua University offer more than ten entrepreneurship courses. At the same time, the university and the University of California, Berkeley jointly created the Tsinghua-Berkeley Global Technology Entrepreneurship Program, tailoring courses such as Technology Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Entrepreneurship of Specific Industries, Technology Management, and Intellectual Property Rights Management and practical compulsory <?page no="281"?> Development Modes of Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in China 281 programmes in response to the rapid changes in technology entrepreneurship worldwide. This helps students become integrated into the leading technology companies in Zhongguancun Village and improve their technological entrepreneurship capacity. In addition, the university has established a specialised science and technology innovation centre and a Science and Technology Innovation Fund to provide financial support to students in scientific and technological innovation activities. The university also offers guidance and consultation on students’ entrepreneurship and innovation activities. Development Modes of Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in China 14.4.1 Modes of innovation and entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities Based on differences in the objects of innovation and entrepreneurship education, many Chinese scholars agree that the innovation and entrepreneurship education modes can be categorised into two types: focused mode and decentralised mode (see Table 20). Tab. 20: The modes of innovation and entrepreneurship education Classification Subdivided mode Important conditions Focused mode The mode of scientific research project incubation Scientific research project Mentor capability Corporate platform The mode of government & financial institutions & industry Governmental support Financial institutions’ support Intermediaries’ support Decentralised mode The mode of professional practice Laboratory platform Corporate platform Mock platform Competition platform The comprehensive mode Top-level design from top to bottom Synergy from top to bottom The focused mode emphasises specialised innovation training and innovation and entrepreneurship education for students with strong intentions for innovation and entrepreneurship. The education content is highly systematic and professional; this mode provides counselling and support for entrepreneurship pro- <?page no="282"?> 282 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management jects with a certain potential for industrialisation, emphasising the depth of innovation and entrepreneurship education. The decentralised mode, focusing on the breadth of education, emphasises that innovation and entrepreneurship education is universal education that all students need to receive and benefit from. The above two modes can be further divided into four types: the mode of scientific research project incubation, the mode of government and financial institution and industry, the mode of professional practice and the comprehensive mode. Of these types, the first and the second belong to the focused model and the third and the fourth to the decentralised model. No matter which mode is adopted, we must solve the questions of innovation and entrepreneurship education: what to do (the target issue, that is, to make the specific work of education clear), how to do it (the issue of the path, that is, a clear working method of the education), and who should do it (the main issue, namely, to define and establish a “list of responsibility” for innovation and entrepreneurship education). The Mode of Scientific Research Project Incubation This mode has two main forms. The first is “mentor’s research project + mentor guidance + student independent learning + innovation training + entrepreneurship training.” Attracting students to participate in a mentor’s research projects can cultivate students’ innovative spirit and help them identify entrepreneurship opportunities in the process of transforming scientific and technological achievements while enhancing their basic knowledge of theory. The second is “enterprises’ research projects + mentor guidance + students’ independent learning + the industrialisation of scientific research project”. Students, under the guidance of entrepreneurship instructors both inside and outside the school, conduct research and development for the technology projects proposed by enterprises, especially by alumni enterprises, or they take charge of the follow-up industrialisation in enterprises. The former mode is focused on innovation training, which is more common in graduates’ or undergraduates’ research projects; the latter emphasises entrepreneurship training, such as the enterprise research project incubation system of the DIAN (an undergraduate talent incubator based on a tutorial system) team at Huazhong University of Science and Technology. The Mode of the Government and of Finance Institutions and Industry The seven categories of stakeholders of innovation and entrepreneurship education, namely, government, enterprises, universities, scientific research institutions, financial institutions, technology intermediaries and incubators, play different roles in jointly promoting innovation and entrepreneurship education. Colleges and universities are the core of entrepreneurship education, with teachers imparting basic skills and knowledge to students and the school providing opportunities and platforms for innovation and entrepreneurship training. The government provides mainly policy and financial support; banks and venture <?page no="283"?> Development Modes of Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in China 283 capital institutions mainly fund entrepreneurship projects that are competitive and have market value. Intermediaries and incubators provide counselling and services in terms of industrial and commercial taxation and financial and legal issues as well as basic entrepreneurship skills for projects. Enterprises set up student internship platforms for universities, and research institutes play an important role in scientific research cooperation in universities. The Mode of Professional Practice There are four ways to implement this mode. The first is to “bring in” experts. This involves establishing cooperative relations with enterprises based on the school’s key laboratory (engineering centre) to build a practice platform for innovation training and hire experts from the enterprises as entrepreneurship consultants who provide support for students to practice entrepreneurship. The key laboratory of the school is an important base for the production-teaching-research cooperation between the school and enterprises because it strengthens the professionalism, equipment, talent, projects and docking enterprises of the programme. By strengthening daily management while implementing daily teaching and research tasks, the laboratory can be further developed into a base for students to practice innovation and entrepreneurship. The second way to implement this mode is to “send out” students. This means cooperating with enterprises near the school or those with cooperative relations with the school in student activities to build platforms for entrepreneurship practice. Through the method of “learning while practising”, students’ innovation and entrepreneurship skills can be improved; at the same time, their entrepreneurship experience can be enhanced. The third way is to “increase experience”. By establishing a professional mock company and building a professional simulated market on a platform for experiencing entrepreneurship, the school can enhance students’ entrepreneurial experience when students from different disciplines become an entrepreneurial team in which they can apply their individual professional expertise. The fourth way is to “join the competition”. The platforms for entrepreneurship practice and various competitions, including the National University Students Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program Contest, the “Creation of Youth” national and provincial competitions, industry-specific entrepreneurship competitions, and smaller competitions on campus, can improve students’ entrepreneurship awareness. The Comprehensive Mode The comprehensive mode emphasises the systemic nature of innovation and entrepreneurship education and the establishment of an innovation and entrepreneurship education system covering curriculum training, faculty, practice, a base platform, and a service system. The purpose is to enhance entrepreneurial awareness, popularise knowledge in this area and improve students’ ability. The course <?page no="284"?> 284 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management training focuses mainly on three aspects: first, the basic theory of entrepreneurship, including entrepreneurship management, entrepreneurial psychology, and new venture management; second, the KAB (Know About Business) course; and third, the SYB (Start Your Business) course. The focus of constructing the faculty is to create a team comprising both on-campus and off-campus teachers to take advantage of the practical experience of off-campus tutors. Common entrepreneurial instructional practices include entrepreneurship salons, seminars, forums, and training activities. The base platform provides equipment and studios for students to innovate and start businesses. The service system is divided into online and offline: the online service provides venture consulting, establishes related entrepreneurial databases, and provides space for virtual entrepreneurship. Offline tutoring services include training manuals and policy interpretation to help students understand the basic procedures and information of business, tax, finance, and law. 14.4.2 The innovation and entrepreneurship education modes of event management programmes By June 2019, nearly 200 universities on the Chinese mainland had launched undergraduate event management programmes. In addition to offering elective general training courses on innovation and entrepreneurship, several event education programmes offer specialised courses on entrepreneurship. Fig. 31: The IEMS framework of innovations and entrepreneurship talent cultivation <?page no="285"?> Case Study: International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) 285 International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) is a joint event education programme co-launched by Shanghai University of International Business and Economics (SUIBE) and Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences and is one of the first two undergraduate event management programmes approved by the Ministry of Education of China. Since 2012, IEMS has taken “we educate future leaders for the global event industry” as its mission and the cultivation of event professionals with a solid theoretical foundation, a broad international perspective, excellent professional qualities, a strong awareness of innovation and entrepreneurship, good practical skills and strong innovative ability as its goal. In the past five years, based on the effective integration of “knowledge-skillsability”, IEMS has effectively explored and practised the mode of innovation and entrepreneurship talent cultivation in the field of event education (see Figure 31). Case Study: International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) Entrepreneurship education is the process of providing individuals with the ability to recognise commercial opportunities and the insight, self-esteem, knowledge and skills to act on them. It includes instruction in recognising opportunities, commercialising a concept, integrating resources in the face of risk and initiating a business venture. It also includes instruction in traditional business disciplines such as management, marketing, information systems and finance. The purpose of this part of the chapter is to describe the design and introduction of a new programme in entrepreneurship in event management education. IEMS is used as a case study of how to develop an innovative entrepreneurship education module in event management. 14.5.1 Optimising the curriculum IEMS, through the introduction of the internationally accepted knowledge system of event management (EMBOK) and reference to event management international competence standards (EMICS), has optimised the curriculum design, forming a gradated, systematic curriculum system of innovation and entrepreneurship with the following characteristics: (1) To develop students’ event expertise and skills, IEMS has optimised the curriculum design in a stratified manner based on five modules of management, planning, marketing, operation and risk. (2) To cultivate students’ innovation and entrepreneurship abilities, IEMS has progressively added practical literacy and innovation and entrepreneurship courses at different academic levels. For example, it has added courses in event professional competence and literacy, a series of lectures on event management practices, and event entrepreneurship courses for freshmen, sophomores and seniors, respectively. <?page no="286"?> 286 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management Fig. 32: The expanded version of EMBOK (Source: Wang, 2018) <?page no="287"?> Case Study: International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) 287 IEMS actively introduced the international knowledge system of event management (EMBOK) and combined it with the development of China’s event industry (Figure 32). In doing so, IEMS has taken the lead among domestic universities in building a gradated and systematic knowledge system of cultivating innovation and entrepreneurship talent in the event industry, thus solving the problem of the separation of entrepreneurship education and subject knowledge widely faced by domestic schools in developing the event management major and referring to other schools in cultivating professional event talent. By introducing a teaching team from the industry, taking advantage of the strength of foreign teachers and optimising the subject background of professional teachers, IEMS has built a strong and diverse teaching team. The systems of the theoretical curriculum and of practical instruction are organically integrated, and the pattern of “knowledge-skill-capability” is effectively implemented throughout the teaching process. With the Sino-German scientific assessment and evaluation system as a supplement, IEMS has optimised the curriculum system of innovation and entrepreneurship talent training. Fig. 33: IEMS practical teaching system 14.5.2 Practical teaching activities IEMS focuses on the close combination of “knowledge, practice and thinking” in the process of training students. In teaching, the objectives are set by stages and the tasks by grades. Through the effective combination of various event <?page no="288"?> 288 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management practice activities, including on-campus and off-campus, domestic and international, and mock and actual practice activities, IEMS has built a system of practical teaching with clear levels as well as progressive goals. 14.5.3 Practice platform: innovation and entrepreneurship, school-enterprise cooperation and international exchange With the students’ virtual companies as platforms, IEMS has established a management and transmission mechanism for students’ innovation and entrepreneurship projects and has successfully incubated a number of independent innovation and entrepreneurship projects (see Fig. 34). Fig. 34: The mechanism of innovation and entrepreneurship platform for incubating projects Through the school enterprise fellowship, new knowledge sharing and other forms, IEMS cooperates with well-known exhibition enterprises both domestically and abroad, forming a platform for sharing education resources in Shanghai and across the country. IEMS also takes the initiative in “going out” by building a forum for future leaders in China’s event industry, the national university event major alliance for self-hosted events, which provides public platforms to connect students and enterprises. <?page no="289"?> Case Study: International Event Management Shanghai (IEMS) 289 IEMS also takes the initiative to pool international resources. The programme receives funds from the scholarship programmes of international organisations such as DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) and ICCA (International Congress and Convention Association). In the last five years, the scholarships funded more than 130 students in overseas communication activities and participation in international conferences. In addition, IEMS actively integrates itself into the international event industry, encouraging its students to enter the international arena through the Future Leaders Forum of the international event industry. IEMS students won the Asia Pacific Championship five years in a row and won the global championship in 2013. IEMS follows a platform-based approach by building platforms for innovation and entrepreneurship, school-enterprise cooperation and international communication, forming a progressive structure from “front-end incubation” to “market-driven” and “international horizon”. Thus, IEMS has opened channels connecting schools, enterprises and international communication for training in international innovation and entrepreneurship in the event industry. 14.5.4 Achievements IEMS has received domestic and foreign praise for exploration and practice in cultivating innovation and entrepreneurship talent for international events. Because of its active exploration of talent training, IEMS has won many honours, such as the “China Excellent Event School Award” and “Outstanding Contribution Award for China-foreign Cooperative Education”. In 2015, IEMS was highly praised by the expert jury that assessed and evaluated its undergraduate professional teaching. In 2016, in the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission’s second evaluation of Sino-foreign cooperative education and project construction, IEMS won the title “Shanghai Sino-foreign Cooperation Model School Project”, making it one of five Sino-foreign cooperative education programmes in the city to earn this honour. To support the innovation of the talent training model, IEMS has reached agreements for strategic cooperation with internationally renowned event companies such as VNU Asia, MCI, Shanghai UBM Sinoexpo and Messe Düsseldorf Shanghai. IEMS successfully hosted the “Future Leaders of Chinese Event Industry Forum” for four consecutive years. More than 200 industry colleagues and 10 companies participated in the competition; 10 companies jointly set up the Future Leaders of Chinese Event Industry scholarship and teaching awards; and Kunming Expo Bureau, as the main sponsor, supported the forum planning competition throughout the event, embodying the recognition and support of the event industry, government and academic circles for the innovation of the talent training model. <?page no="290"?> 290 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management IEMS’s exploration and innovation of the talent training model has received extensive attention from the media: The Campus Beauty Show, curated and organised by the “Wonderfair Student Event Company” (solely run by IEMS students), has been held for 13 consecutive years since 2006. In recent years, mainstream media such as China Youth Daily, Liberation Daily and the Morning Post, have positively reported on the event, describing the development of talent training innovation in detail. At the end of 2014, to share knowledge, spread the concept of fostering innovation and entrepreneurship talent for international events and take advantage of alumni resources, IEMS opened an official WeChat account, “IEMS- SUIBE-HSOS”, which is extensively followed. Teachers also opened an official account, “Activity Research”, to integrate industry, university and research news, which has received attention and support from educational circles and the event industry. IEMS students actively participate in various innovation and entrepreneurial activities and competitions both domestically and abroad. Since 2012, students have completed 23 university students’ innovation training programmes and 4 innovation practice projects. They won the National Second Prize, Bronze Medal (Silver Medal in Shanghai), in the Entrepreneurship Practice Award and Third Prize in the “Challenge Cup Entrepreneurship Competition and Academic Science and Technology Works Competition” organised by the Ministry of Education and the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission. In addition, they have won the international industry award many times. IEMS graduates are highly satisfied with the programme, and they show strong momentum in career development. According to the “Annual Report on Social Needs and Quality of Cultivation” commissioned by Shanghai University of International Business and Economics through MyCOS, among 2013 graduates, the students of IEMS gave the highest score in the school (84%) for the extent to which the programme satisfies their career expectations. With regard to “satisfaction with the status quo”, IEMS ranked third (90%). In 2016, IEMS students spontaneously established the WeChat account “IEMSer”, gathering “a group of fresh event people with energy”. They share their experience in competitions and their exchanges to Germany. Some outstanding graduates have shared their personal learning experiences and career development on this platform. Thus, a learning community of sharing and spreading experience has come into being. IEMS serves the development of Chinese event education and plays a demonstrable role in the training of innovation and entrepreneurship talent for China’s events. Since 2012, more than 30 universities, including Huaqiao University, Zhongshan University, Yunnan University for Nationalities, Sichuan Normal University, Beijing University of Petroleum, Shanghai Normal University, the School of Foreign Languages of Zhejiang Gongshang University, and Guangzhou <?page no="291"?> Summary 291 University, have sent groups to SUIBE to exchange and learn from the successful experience of IEMS in talent training. From 2015 to 2018, four “National Event Professional Teacher Training” courses planned and organised by IEMS were successfully held in Shanghai and Kunming, and the course enrolled over 200 students, including teachers of the event major from 80 sister schools as well as members of enterprises and associations. The training, with a focus on experience sharing and the promotion of innovation and entrepreneurship talent training for the international event industry, has been widely followed and highly praised by other universities, exerting a strong influence on China’s academic institutions and event industry. Summary The cultivation of innovative and entrepreneurial talent is intended not to train students to start their own businesses in a narrow sense but to integrate the ideas of innovation and entrepreneurship education with the training of professional talent to cultivate the excellent interdisciplinary and innovative talent needed by society (Dong, 2018). Undoubtedly, promoting the effective integration of innovation and entrepreneurship education and professional education in colleges and universities is conducive to improving graduates’ adaptability, employment competitiveness and innovation and entrepreneurship ability (Huang, Zhang and Gai, 2019). Against the background of innovation and entrepreneurship, the development of the event professional training mode needs to be repeatedly modified and improved. Colleges and universities should reasonably determine the mode of talent cultivation according to their own faculties’ competitiveness, discipline advantages and local event industry development. Taking the IEMS programme as a case study, this chapter has introduced how to develop an innovation and entrepreneurship education mode in event management. IEMS, through the introduction of the internationally accepted knowledge system of event management (EMBOK) and reference to event management international competence standards (EMICS), has optimised the curriculum design, forming a gradated, systematic curriculum of innovation and entrepreneurship. Through the effective combination of various event practice activities, including on-campus and off-campus, domestic and international, and mock and actual practice activities, IEMS has built a system of practical teaching that covers the whole process and has clear levels as well as progressive goals. IEMS follows a platform-based approach by building platforms for innovation and entrepreneurship, school-enterprise cooperation and international communication, thus forming a progressive structure. In doing so, IEMS has opened a channel connecting schools, enterprises and international communication for the training of international innovation and entrepreneurship talent in the event industry. <?page no="292"?> 292 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Event Management Questions  Why is innovation and entrepreneurship education more and more important in event management education at the university level?  What is the most important character of innovation and entrepreneurship?  How can innovation and entrepreneurship education be applied in event education in the future? Further Readings  Henry, C., Hill, F. and Leitch, C. (2017) Entrepreneurship Education and Training: The Issue of Effectiveness: The Issue of Effectiveness, 1st edn. London: Routledge Revivals.  Rae, D. and Wang, C. L. (2015) Entrepreneurial Learning: New Perspectives in Research, Education and Practice, 1st edn. London: Routledge.  Getz, D. and Page, S. J. (2016) Event Studies: Theory, research and policy for planned events. 3rd edn. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Bibliography Adcroft, A., Willis, R and Dhaliwal, S. (2004) ‘Missing and point? Management education and entrepreneurship’, Management Decision, 42(3), pp. 521-530. Anselm, M. (1993) Entrepreneurship education in the community college, Proceedings of the 38 th International Council for Small Business. Las Vegas: NV, pp. 177-192. Bellotti, F. and Gloria, D. A. (2012) ‘Designing a course for stimulating entrepreneurship in higher education through serious games’, Procedia Computer Science, 53(12), pp. 174-186. Dong, Y.J. (2018) ‘Research on the talent training model for exhibition in the context of innovation and entrepreneurship education’, Modern Agricultural Research, 11, pp. 63-64. Einar, A.R. and Sørheim, R. (2006) ‘Action-based entrepreneurship education’, Technovation, 26, pp. 185-194. European Commission (2013) Entrepreneurship in the EU and beyond. Flash Eurobarometer 354. Available at: https: / / ec.europa.eu/ commfrontoffice/ publicopinion/ flash/ fl_354_en.pdf (Accessed: 10 October 2019) Fiet, J.Q. (2001) ‘ The theoretical side of teaching entrepreneurship’, Journal of Business Venturing, 16(1), pp. 1-24. Garavan, T. N. and O’Cinneide, B. (1994) ‘Entrepreneurship education and training programmes: A review and evaluation - Part 1’, Journal of European Industrial Training, 18(8), pp. 3-12. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2014) 2013 United States report. Available at: https: / / www.gemconsortium.org/ report/ gem-usa-2013-report (Accessed: 12 August 2019). <?page no="293"?> Bibliography 293 Gorman, G., Hanlon, D. and King, W. (1997) ‘Some research perspectives on entrepreneurship education, enterprise education, and education for small business management: a ten-year literature review’, International Small Business Journal, 41(6), pp. 56-77. Huang, S.M., Zhang, L.Z. and Gai, H.H. (2019) ‘Research on the integration of innovation and entrepreneurship education and professional education in colleges’, Journal of Shijiazhuang University of Applied Technology, 3, pp. 48-51. Katz, J.A. (2003) ‘The chronology and intellectual trajectory of American entrepreneurship education 1876-1999’, Journal of European Industrial Training 24(6), pp. 337-344. Klofsten, M. (2000) ‘Training entrepreneurship at universities: a Swedish case’, Journal of European Industrial Training, 24(6), pp. 337-344. Kolvereid, L., and Moen, Ǿ. (1997) ‘Entrepreneurship among business graduates: does a major in entrepreneurship make a difference? ’, Journal of European Industrial Training, 21(4), pp. 154- 167. Kuratko, D.F. (2005) ‘The Emergence of Entrepreneurship Education: Development, Trends, and Challenges’, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 29(5), pp. 577-598. Pan, L. (2018) ‘Research on innovation and entrepreneurship education based on teaching practice of event management in higher vocational colleges’, Journal of Tianjin Vocational Institutes, (6), pp. 106-109. Sexton, D.L. and Upton, N.B. (1987) ‘Evaluation of an innovative approach to teaching entrepreneurship’, Journal of Small Business Management, 25(1), pp. 35-43. Solomon, G.T. (2007), ‘An examination of entrepreneurship education in the United States’, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 14(2), pp. 168-82. Vesper, K.H. and Gartner, W.B. (1997) ‘Measuring progress in entrepreneurship education’, Journal of Business Venturing, 12(5), pp. 403-421. Wang, C.L. (2018) Event Management Body of Knowledge (EMBOK). Beijing: China Tourism Press, pp. 204-205. <?page no="295"?> 15 Researching the Future of Event Education Gernot Gehrke Event education and its future have long been subjects of discussion among both academics and practitioners. To discuss the future of event education means knowing what its present looks like. To describe the future of event education means choosing a point of description in time and isolating relevant factors that have an impact on event education. This task cannot be easily fulfilled. This chapter focuses on relevant factors that have an impact on event education and its future. It examines the results of a research project of the author and sketches a framework for the analysis of the future of event education based on findings from system theory. Key terms and concepts covered in this chapter: Event education, trends, universities, practitioners Introduction Event education and its future have long been subjects of discussion among both academics and practitioners. Parallel to the emergence and rapid development of event education from small modules in evening classes in the 1990s to university-based (master) programmes all over the world, the question of what should and should not be a part of qualification, vocational and educational learning, or university-based programmes fuelled practitioners’ and academics’ discussions and publications (Barron and Leask, 2012). Nevertheless, the “area of education in event management still remains under-researched”. Kashef’s only recently published assessment of the UK’s research activities in this field (Kashef, 2015, p. 2) is also true for Germany, although there is good reason to believe that the growth of the event industry has led to an increase in demand for suitable professionals and an increase in the number of opportunities for education and training. According to more recent national research by the US Bureau of Labor and Statistics cited by Jiang and Schmader (2014), the “employment of meetings, conventions, and event planners is expected to grow 44 percent from 2010 to 2020, much faster than the average of all occupations” (p. 26). Jiang and Schmader stated that due to the rapid growth of the event industry in the US, “event management academic programs, as well as industry driven professional training and certification programs, have been developing globally at a rapid pace <?page no="296"?> 296 Researching the Future of Event Education in the past decade” (p. 26). Furthermore, “the number of students desiring to study event management has drastically increased in the past few years” (Jiang and Schmader, 2014, p. 26). Despite these findings, there has been almost no upto-date research on the sector of event education in Germany thus far. Until the middle of the 1990s, the event industry in Germany showed no original occupational image. In 2001, as part of the dual system of vocational education and training, two occupational images were developed, the first with a technical emphasis and the second with an emphasis on commercial issues (Verordnung über die Berufsausbildung …, 2001). Later, universities in Germany adopted the contents of these occupational images and formed new programmes for event education, mostly corresponding to parent disciplines such as tourism or general business (Gehrke, 2018). Jaimangal-Jones, Robertson and Jackson concluded that the “shaping of how education may need to change to continue its contribution to the professional and critical skills and knowledge likely to purposefully enhance success is an unclear future” (Jaimangal-Jones, Robertson and Jackson, 2018, p. 125). Background and Literature To discuss the future of event education means knowing what its present looks like. In times of the rapid growth of event management programmes at universities and the ongoing attractiveness of the industry to a myriad of students, continuous change and improvement in the vocational educational sector, and a vast variety of courses and training possibilities onand offline, this present is difficult to grasp (Gehrke, 2018). This difficulty is even more evident as the dynamic of event industry change is rapid and diverse. Getz and Page have rightly underlined a fact that seems to be true for both academics and practitioners concerned with the prospects of the event industry: “Human fascination with the future is at least equal to our curiosity about the past” (Getz and Page, 2016, p. 171). To Getz and Page, this seems consequential only because “when we talk about planning events, we are actually seeking to shape the future” (Getz and Page, 2016, p. 171). Future studies are neither prophecy nor science fiction. Getz and Page discuss an “interdisciplinary approach to gaining understanding of how today’s conditions and trends will likely shape the future.” In their view, future studies are in part impact forecasting (Getz and Page, 2016, p. 171). It has been mentioned as a critique that much of what has been published about the future is part of an industry in itself (Rust, 2009a, 2009b). If one examines trend reports of ticketing companies or event agencies promoting trends and challenges as urgent demands that precisely these companies can accommodate, one gets the impression that predicting the future of the event industry is also an industry in itself, trying to produce self-fulfilling prophecies (Buller, 2016; Buttler <?page no="297"?> Background and Literature 297 and Burger, no date; Eventbrite, 2019). This perspective underlines the importance of critical reflection on industry-based papers and reports (Gehrke, 2019). To follow the path of future studies as impact forecasting, describing the future of event education means choosing a point of description in time and isolating relevant factors that may have an impact on event education. These factors may stem from within the industry or may originate in the social environment of event education and the event industry. This chapter will not examine the influence of general societal trends such as demographic change, globalisation, connectivity or gender shifts on event education in detail. This task is far too complex to be soundly fulfilled. Instead, a social systems theory-based approach is followed to differentiate the influences of certain systems on event education as part of the education system (Albert, 2016; Stichweh, no date). This does not mean neglecting the influence of mega-trends such as the ones mentioned above as examples. Nevertheless, it helps to reduce the complexity of the task and enables us to take a closer look at the literature on (1) the state of the event industry and its probable future, (2) trends from within or outside the industry and their assumed impact on event education, and (3) the present situation of event education and its proposed future development. In the further course of the chapter, the results of research on the impact of trends on event education are presented, and a framework for researching the future of event education is proposed. 15.2.1 Foreseeing the future of the event industry? Every discussion on the future of the event industry should always at least partly be a discussion on the future of event education. Meta-trends, mega-trends and industry trends (Naisbitt, 1982; Zukunftsinstitut, 2018) are prominent features of the current discussions in the literature on event industry and of articles in magazines on the future of the event industry. Recently there have been numerous studies on trends and their implications for the event industry. International Associations like Meeting Professionals International (MPI), the International Association of Convention Centres (IACC), or the International Association of Exhibitions and Events (IAEE), similar to the European Association of Event Centres (EVVC) together with the German Convention Bureau (GCB) and The Fraunhofer Institute for Work Management, to name only a few, have published studies or launched research projects on the future of meetings or meeting rooms with regard to trends that either, in their opinion, have their origin in the event industry or are global mega-trends with an impact on the event industry (Fraunhofer IAO, EVVC and GCB, 2016; Friedman, 2013, 2015, 2016; IACC, 2017; MPI, 2012, 2016). The question of what this means for event education has not yet been addressed thoroughly. This gap seems all the more astonishing because recent books intended as introductions to the field of event management, to parts of the event industry or to the overall business almost naturally include an article on the future of their topic <?page no="298"?> 298 Researching the Future of Event Education (Ferdinand and Kitchin, 2017; Getz and Page, 2016; Raj, Walters and Rashid, 2017; Rogers, 2013; ) or dedicate the entire publication to the discussion of the event industry’s future (Yeoman, 2015). International journals regularly address the question of the future of the event industry (Jaimangal-Jones, Robertson and Jackson, 2018; Lee and Kang, 2014; Robertson et al., 2015; Yeoman, 2013) and disseminate special issues dealing with the future of events (Jaimangal-Jones, Robertson and Jackson, 2018). With regard to international events, it has been stated that “planning for the future is about understanding future possibilities, crafting strategies to take advantage of opportunities that may arise and defending against impending threats” (Ferdinand et al., 2017, pp. 335-336). 15.2.2 (Event industry) trends that have an impact? Identifying trends means reducing complexity. This is both good and bad because it helps to research certain factors and their supposed impact. On the other hand, it throws light on these factors, leaving the rest in shadow, although they might also be of even greater interest. Werner has critically questioned the usefulness of labelling certain developments trends without exactly defining what the label means (Werner, 2019). Yeoman (2013) concentrated on how consumer trends will shape future festivals and events. Describing (1) everyday exceptionalism, (2) magic nostalgia, (3) leisure upgrades, (4) mobile living, (5) performative leisure, (6) authentic experiences, (7) affluence, (8) the ageless society, (9) ethical consumption, and (10) accumulation of social capital as the top ten trends that will influence the world of festivals and events, he concluded that attention should be paid primarily to the importance of creative consumption and the importance of changing consumption patterns. Rogers (2013) concentrated mainly on technical issues that will have an impact on the future of the event industry and mentioned videoconferencing, beaming, podcasting, and teleconferencing. Ferdinand, Postma and White (2017, p. 344), with regard to Yeoman, Robertson and Wheatly, drew attention to key drivers and grouped them into three key areas, labelling them (1) evolving customer values and identities, (2) the changing politics of events, and (3) the increasing role of technology within events (Yeoman et al., 2014). Raj, Walters and Rashid (2017) commented on the future of the event industry and concentrated on trends such as (1) sustainability, (2) globalisation, (3) innovation, and (4) technology “that will impact greatly on the industry” (Raj, Walters and Rashid, 2017, p. 400). They referred to the International Association of Exhibitions and Events (IAEE), which, like many other organisations, carried out studies to identify and predict the future trends that will impact the exhibition and event industry. The IAEE updated its results in 2016 and isolated the following future trends (Friedman, 2016):  Generational issues  Big data  Data capture, recording and reporting <?page no="299"?> Background and Literature 299  Technology (mobile devices, cloud computing, high-quality video, elimination of paper, mobile apps)  Social media marketing  Year-round communities (participation in a community on a year-round basis)  Experiential trade shows (for both exhibitors and attendees)  Non-attendee engagement (engaging the non-attendee via social media)  Exhibitors (exhibitor education and booth staff training)  International trends (global show coordination or competition)  Internet connectivity (robust high-speed internet services)  Private events (major exhibitors choose between buy-in and their own events)  Complexity (understanding strategy, the differences between strategy and tactics, and how to build strategy to deal with the complexity) This list stands pars pro toto for the associations that regularly publish and update trends impacting the industry or parts of the industry. Other publications stem from authors who are closely connected to the industry and have acquired a kind of “guru status”. Event blogger Julius Solaris has a great impact on professionals all over the world with his regularly updated trends on the future of the event industry (Event MB, 2018; Event MB / Aventri, 2019). His latest publication drew attention to the following ten trends (Solaris, 2018):  Passive engagement (“Techniques and tools aimed at engaging without any action required by the attendee” (p. 10)  Content design (“The usual formula of keynote/ breakout, multiday, opening/ closing session, thousands of sessions split into tracks doesn’t work” (p. 13).  Seating matters (“Saying that you care is not enough. It has to be shown with leadership and attention to details” (p. 16).  JOMO - the joy of missing out (“Loading up our participants with information, stress, infinite walking and partying will negatively affect their capacity to bring change along” (p. 19).  Better safe than sorry (“Safety and, more specifically, brand safety for your event or event business is a primary concern in 2019” (p. 21)  Cat sponsorship (“Effective sponsorship programs are creative … aligned … tangible” (p. 23).  Slow ticketing (“Slow ticketing is about cleverly managing demand and creating opportunities for upselling rather than discounting” (p. 25).  Readiness to blockchain (“The blockchain model is very powerful for events, potentially disruptive” (p. 27).  Marketing budgets shifting more to events (“Marketing professionals are joining the party, with an incredible amount of opportunities and some risks” (p. 28).  More than planners (“The trend though is that we are becoming, as a group, more vocal about things that we don’t like” (p. 30). <?page no="300"?> 300 Researching the Future of Event Education Solaris’ descriptions are closely connected with the industry and answer relevant questions from event managers all over the world. All these different trends and compilations, whether they originate from the papers and handbooks of academics or industry associations or experts who have a great impact, are nevertheless in one way or another randomly compiled and do not fulfil the expectations of intersubjectivity and scientific systematics. However, they offer numerous links for the discussion of the future of event education. Do we have to look for new or different modules in our university curricula, new forms of educating students, and differently educated teachers, or do we have to look for differently profiled students? 15.2.3 Foreseeing the future of event education? Werner et al. recently laid out comparative global perspectives of event management education (Werner, Wang and Gray, 2018). They observed a rising number of event management programmes offered by universities and judged that most programmes still focus on operational aspects and project management and fail to consider the critical turn in event research (Werner, Wang and Gray, 2018, p. 1027). Academic event management programmes have long been criticised for focusing on operational aspects and project management. Although they have long pleaded not for a critical turn but for more attention to aspects such as event (experience) design (Gehrke, 2018). Yeoman et al. state that “the future cannot be forecasted with a high degree of certainty and precision, however, understanding the environment and context as explanation is a purposeful way to examine the future” (Yeoman et al., 2014, p. 271). However, the further development of event education is not only a question of how the event industry and the system of event education interact. As events do not exist in a vacuum (Reic, 2017), neither does the event industry nor event education. The educational system is, e.g., an object of many political initiatives. The OECD recently published the OECD Learning Framework 2030, observing, e.g., that “curriculum change assumes that education is an ecosystem with many stakeholders” and identifying five common challenges (OECD, 2018): [1] Curriculum overload (shift the focus of our students from “more hours for learning” to “quality learning time”) [2] Curricula reforms suffer from time lags between recognition, decision making, implementation and impact. The gap between the intent of the curriculum and the learning outcome is generally too wide. [3] Content must be of high quality if students are to engage in learning and acquire deeper understanding. [4] Curricula should ensure equity while innovating; all students, not just a select few, must benefit from social, economic and technological changes. [5] Careful planning and alignment are critically important for the effective implementation of reforms (OECD, 2018). <?page no="301"?> Methods and Methodology 301 These challenges may also be addressed in the course of adapting and designing future event education programmes. To give another and last example of how numerous impacting trends are, attention is here directed to the change within the group of students, who “are becoming more and more heterogeneous in terms of qualifications. … We are therefore calling for university structures to be better adapted to the growing individuality of the students (Böttcher, 2019). As the OECD put it: “… Different assessment practices might be needed for different purposes. New assessment methods should be developed that value student outcomes and actions that cannot always be measured” (OECD, 2018, p. 7). Methods and Methodology Palys and Atchison (2014) referred to Campbell and Fiske (1959), who argued that “by using multiple methods to measure multiple attributes or concepts, researchers could dramatically improve the validity of their observations since they could establish that the measure and not the method was responsible for producing the observed results” (Palys und Atchison, 2014, p. 392). Campbell and Fiske referred to this procedure as a multi-trait-multi-method matrix (Campbell and Fiske, 1959). Kelle (2014) strongly pleaded for “mixed methods” (p. 153) referring to “Mixed Methodology”. He showed that the combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches and methods is currently very common and good practice in social sciences. In this pragmatic tradition or paradigm, we used whatever methodological tools are required to answer the research questions under study. The concept of triangulation was also introduced by Campbell and Fiske (1959): “In contrast with the single operationalism … we are advocating a methodological triangulation …” (Campbell and Fiske, 1959, p. 102). Palys and Atchison referred to Denzin, “who built upon these ideas when he coined the term triangulation, which is a research strategy that permits us to validate our observations by drawing upon multiple sources or perspectives within the same investigation” (Palys and Atchison, 2014, p. 392). Denzin described four different kinds of triangulation: a theoretical triangulation, an investigator triangulation, a methodological triangulation, and a data analysis triangulation (Denzin, 2017a, 2017b). With Palys and Atchison, we “believe that the best answers to any research problem come when we consider multiple viewpoints, perspectives, positions, and standpoints instead of one” (Palys and Atchison, 2014, p. 393). Following the path of triangulation (Palys and Atchison, 2014), the research team extensively reviewed the relevant online and offline literature and sources on the event industry and event education. Additionally, a multi-methodological exploratory research design consisting of a focus group discussion (Berg and Lune, 2017) with experts from the sectors of event education and the event industry, a <?page no="302"?> 302 Researching the Future of Event Education Delphi survey (Rowe et al., 2011) with university event educators, and an online survey was developed. Data collection started in September 2017 with the focus group discussion and continued in 2018/ 19 with the Delphi survey. This chapter presents some of the results of this research in the context of other recent research in this field. Results and Discussion Based on a systematic review of documents, both of scientific publications in books or journals and of the growing market of grey literature, twelve trends were isolated as the predominant ones in these publications. These trends were described as having a great and growing impact on the event industry: [1] Designing event experiences [2] Interaction, participation, and co-creation [3] Collaborative and interactive technologies [4] Augmented and virtual reality [5] Meeting room design [6] Safety and security [7] Diversity of teams and guests [8] Soft skills of event managers [9] Digitalisation of working processes [10] Sustainability [11] Event law and compliance [12] Quality management One could argue that these trends, although they were derived from systematic research, represent only a subjective selection. Consequently, in a second step, a Delphi panel of event educators commented on these trends to judge their impact. As the panel is still running, only examples of the results are presented. In this case, the findings show that the evaluation of trend impact today and five years from now does not differ much between these two experts. For a more detailed presentation of the results, refer to Gehrke (2019). Before the start of the Delphi panel, selected trends were discussed in a focus group consisting of experts from the educational sector and the industry. The focus group discussion was filmed and video recorded. In publications on event education, many authors have pleaded for “closer ties between industry and academia to identify commonalities and to design improved event management curricula to meet the needs of the event industry, in the present and for the future” (Robertson et al., 2014, p. 2). A deepening of this relationship “has the <?page no="303"?> Results and Discussion 303 potential to provide a better experience for event attendees through their engagement with more skilled, qualified and dedicated professionals” (Robertson Tab. 21: Comparison of trend evaluation by members of the Delphi panel (D1 and D2) - impact today (on a scale from 1 “very low“ to 5 “very high“) and impact in five years (+ = growing, 0= remaining, -= declining) Trend Impact today Impact in five years D1 D2 D1 D2 Designing event experiences 3 4 + 0 Interaction, participation, and co-creation 3 2 + + Collaborative and interactive technologies 2 1 + + Augmented and virtual reality 1 1 + + Meeting room design 3 2 0 + Safety and security 3 4 + 0 Diversity of teams and guests 2 2 + + Soft skills of event managers 3 2 0 + Digitalisation of working processes 2 3 + + Sustainability 3 + 0 Event law and compliance 3 4 0 0 Quality management 2 4 + 0  The concept of event design is on the rise.  In event projects, an increasing number of design-dominated approaches can be observed.  In terms of education, this would mean, e.g., paying more attention to methods of consumer research to understand what people expect of an event. Regarding event experience design, practitioners in our focus group said that  Event design and experience design as trends are very influential.  Target audience motivation is at the centre of event management (not design).  Even at trade fairs, experiential items for visitors are regarded as more important than the products exposed (controversially discussed).  Small things such as endless loo queues are of enormous relevance for the event experience and are the basis for the decision whether to come again or not.  These trends require investing more in event evaluation, especially in customer satisfaction surveys. <?page no="304"?> 304 Researching the Future of Event Education Regarding the difference between congresses, events and trade fairs, both practitioners and event educators in our focus group said that  Customer expectations regarding the event experience would not differentiate between events, trade fairs, and congresses.  The event experience is the centre of customer expectations. This is only one example of how to deal with one of many trends that could be the focus when evaluating whether and how event curricula should or should not be altered. Nevertheless, so far, this example lacks consideration of the conditions of the educational system, academics, students, administration and curricula. Sakschewski rightly underlined the systematic characteristics of the educational system by referring to general systems theory. The educational system acts very slowly when adapting trends and processing change (Sakschewski, 2019). Like every social system, it tends towards the “functional differentiation and operative closure (self-referentiality, ‘autopoiesis’) of function” (Albert, 2016). Without referring to further details of the theory, the system-based approach shows a way to analyse the changes in event education in more detail and with greater understanding of the field’s complexity. Because system theory is not only a theory of society but also a theory of social differentiation and a theory of social evolution, it can be useful to adapt this theory for the analysis of event education, its future and its past. Although evolving under the conditions of selfreferentiality or even autopoiesis, functional systems tend towards structural coupling with other functional systems. “Particularly under the condition of functional differentiation, an increasing amount of synchronization is required” (Albert, 2016, p. 5). Organisations offer the prerequisites for structural couplings as they can handle specific systemic binary codes and specific symbolically generalised media. These attempts can be observed and be the object of research. That is why associations and their publications are of such enormous interest when researching future perspectives of event education. The theory of social systems may be the most inadequate theory to be transformed into a model, as it suggests, e.g., stable systems and observable frontiers. Neither is part of the theory of social systems. For the sake of research practice, the proposed model shows event education as a part of the education system in general. It concedes that event education is dependent on teachers, academics, students, universities as organisations, and other factors that may be of relevance. (Event) education is located between two axes, one of which is a time line to underline that event education is of course evolving over time (x-axis) and the other of which is a regional differentiation to acknowledge that event education might differ in different local, regional, national or international circumstances (y-axis). <?page no="305"?> Results and Discussion 305 Fig. 35: Framework for research on event education <?page no="306"?> 306 Researching the Future of Event Education Event education in this model is a system within other functional systems that equally tend towards functional differentiation and the operative closure of function. The model fails to recognise that every functional system is simultaneously delineated by its spatial and temporal boundaries and surrounded and influenced by its environment. Here, the focus is on event education as a system within education surrounded by its environment. Using this model as a framework for research on the future of event education, one can describe on which regional level and at what point in time one observes specific attempts of structural coupling between social systems as an attempt to irritate the event education system. “Social systems can only observe meaning within themselves, on the basis of specific codes, programs, symbolically generalized media of communication, etc.” (Albert, 2016, p. 4). The model proposes specific organisations to investigate after considering different systems and gives examples for topics and media of structural couplings. Using the model, the following are examples of the countless possible research questions:  Are the social systems of science, economy, mass media; the ecological system; or the socio-cultural systems of the political system, the legal system, or the technical system the relevant ones in terms of impacting event education, or do systems such as health, religion, or sports carry an equal or perhaps even greater impact?  How do associations of the event industry try to impact event education over time?  Do the impacts of the political system on event education differ regionally?  What topics are mostly addressed in scientific research on event education?  How do academics, students, and administrative staff within the event education system refer to questions about the future of event education over time or at a given point in time?  What do former students who are now working in the event industry think about event education? Thus, the model of a research framework gives way to examining event education and its future with a focus on the field’s complexity. The model may be a possibility for (1) more exactly formulating the research questions that need to be addressed and (2) identifying which questions have already been answered. It may also be a reminder that the inferences we draw based on collected data in scientific research do not always correspond in the way we expect them to. <?page no="307"?> Summary 307 Summary The number of publications that deal with the future of the event industry is growing. The grey literature as well as publications in journals and books concentrate on trends that may or may not have an influence on the future development of the event industry. Although the number of students is on the rise, as is the number of university programmes on event education, the area of event education and its future remains under-researched. The current research sheds light on selected aspects of the field. A system theory-based approach may offer new perspectives for identifying research questions that more precisely recognise the boundaries of the results obtained and the inferences drawn. Questions  How do publications on trends in the event industry try to shape the future of the event industry?  What trends have an impact on the event industry?  What are the main factors that influence event education?  What factors would you integrate into a framework for researching the future of event education?  Looking at the model, what research questions would you be interested in?  What should an event education curriculum look like? Further Readings  Barron, P. and Leask, A. (2012) ‘Events management education’ in Page, S.J. and Connell, J. (eds) The Routledge Handbook of Events. Hoboken: Taylor & Francis, pp. 473-488.  Gehrke, G. (2018) ‘Between Project Management and Experience Design: Event Industry and Event Education in Germany—Selected Findings from a Research Project of the University of Applied Sciences and Arts Hannover in Cooperation with the German Trade Fair Association’, Event Management, 22 (5), pp. 703-716. doi: 10.3727/ 152599518X15299559637617.  Solaris, J. (2018) Event Trends 2019. Available at: https: / / www.eventmanagerblog.com/ 10-event-trends (Accessed: 28 June 2019).  Werner, K., Wang, C. and Gray, C. (2018) ‘Comparative Global Perspectives of Event Management Education: Lessons from a Sino-German Double Degree Event Management Program’, Event Management, 22 (6), pp. 1027-1046. doi: 10.3727/ 152599518X15346132863274. <?page no="308"?> 308 Researching the Future of Event Education Bibliography Albert, M. (2016) ‘Luhmann and Systems Theory’ in Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics online. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-20. doi: 10.1093/ acrefore/ 9780190228637.013.7. 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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1082-1090. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022- 3514.57.6.1082 <?page no="312"?> 312 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Ehrlinger, J., & Dunning, D. (2003). How Chronic Self-Views Influence (and Potentially Mislead) Estimates of Performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 5-17. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.84.1.5 Ehrlinger, J., Johnson, K., Banner, M., Dunning, D., & Kruger, J. (2008). Why the unskilled are unaware: Further explorations of (absent) self-insight among the incompetent. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105(1), 98-121. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.obhdp.2007.05.002 Eiser, J. R., Pahl, S., & Yyvonne R. A. Prins (2001). Optimism, Pessimism, and the Direction of Self-Other Comparisons. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37(1), 77-84. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ jesp.2000.1438 Falk, C. F., Heine, S. J., Yuki, M., & Takemura, K. (2009). Why Do Westerners Self-Enhance More than East Asians? European Journal of Personality, 23(3), 183-203. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1002/ per.715 Furnham, A., Moutafi, J., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2005). Personality and Intelligence: Gender, the Big Five, Self-Estimated and Psychometric Intelligence. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 13(1), 11-24. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ j.0965-075X.2005.00296.x Hoorens, V. (1993). Self-enhancement and Superiority Biases in Social Comparison. European Review of Social Psychology, 4(1), 113-139. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 14792779343000040 Knee, C. R., & Zuckerman, M. (1998). A Nondefensive Personality: Autonomy and Control as Moderators of Defensive Coping and Self-Handicapping. Journal of Research in Personality, 32(2), 115-130. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ jrpe.1997.2207 Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing One’s Own Incompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1121-1134. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.77.6.1121 Moore, D. A. (2007). Not So Above Average After All: When People Believe They Are Worse Than Average and Its Implications for Theories of Bias in Social Comparison. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 102(1), 42-58. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.obhdp.2006.09.005 Neale, M. A., & Bazerman, M. H. (1985). The Effects of Framing and Negotiator Overconfidence on Bargaining Behaviors and Outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 28(1), 34- 49. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2307/ 256060 Odean, T. (1998). Volume, Volatility, Price, and Profit When All Traders Are Above Average. Journal of Finance, 53(6), 1887-1934. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ 0022-1082.00078 Otten, W., & J. Van der Pligt (1966). Context effects in the measurement of comparative optimism in probability judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 80-101. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1521/ jscp.1996.15.1.80 Suls, J., Lemos, K., & Stewart, H. L. (2002). Self-Esteem, Construal, and Comparisons With the Self, Friends, and Peers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(2), 252-261. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.82.2.252 Zuckerman, E. W., & Jost, J. T. (2001). What Makes You Think You’re So Popular? Self Evaluation Maintenance and the Subjective Side of the “Friendship Paradox”. Social Psychology Quarterly, 64(3), 207-223. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2307/ 3090112 <?page no="313"?> Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena 313 Anchoring Bergman, O., Ellingsen, T., Johannesson, M., & Svensson, C. (2010). Anchoring and cognitive ability. Economics Letters, 107(1), 66-68. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.econlet.2009.12.028 Blankenship, K. L., Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., Detweiler-Bedell, B., & Macy, C. L. (2008). Elaboration and consequences of anchored estimates: An attitudinal perspective on numerical anchoring. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(6), 1465-1476. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.jesp.2008.07.005 Bodenhausen, G. V., Gabriel, S., & Lineberger, M. (2000). Sadness and Susceptibility to Judgmental Bias: The Case of Anchoring. Psychological Science, 11(4), 320-323. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ 1467-9280.00263 Chapman, G. B., & Johnson, E. J. (1999). Anchoring, Activation, and the Construction of Values. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 79(2), 115-153. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ obhd.1999.2841 Dietmeyer, B. (2004). Strategic Negotiation: A Breakthrough Four-Step Process for Effective Business Negotiation: Kaplan Publishing. Available at https: / / books.google.com/ books? id=vZ_lnQEACAAJ Epley, N., & Gilovich, T. (2005). When effortful thinking influences judgmental anchoring: differential effects of forewarning and incentives on self-generated and externally provided anchors. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 18(3), 199-212. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1002/ bdm.495 Furnham, A., & Boo, H. C. (2011). A literature review of the anchoring effect. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 40(1), 35-42. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.socec.2010.10.008 Janiszewski, C., & Uy, D. (2008). Precision of the Anchor Influences the Amount of Adjustment. Psychological Science, 19(2), 121-127. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ j.1467- 9280.2008.02057.x Kristensen, H., & Gärling, T. (1997). The Effects of Anchor Points and Reference Points on Negotiation Process and Outcome. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 71(1), 85-94. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ obhd.1997.2713 Mussweiler, T., & Englich, B. (2005). Subliminal anchoring: Judgmental consequences and underlying mechanisms. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 98(2), 133- 143. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.obhdp.2004.12.002 Mussweiler, T., & Strack, F. (1999). Hypothesis-Consistent Testing and Semantic Priming in the Anchoring Paradigm: A Selective Accessibility Model. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(2), 136-164. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ jesp.1998.1364 Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (1987). Experts, amateurs, and real estate: An anchoring-andadjustment perspective on property pricing decisions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 39(1), 84-97. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ 0749-5978(87)90046-X Oechssler, J., Roider, A., & Schmitz, P. W. (2009). Cognitive abilities and behavioral biases. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 72(1), 147-152. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.jebo.2009.04.018 Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124-1131. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1126/ science.185.4157.1124 Wilson, T. D., Houston, C. E., Etling, K. M., & Brekke, N. (1996). A new look at anchoring effects: Basic anchoring and its antecedents. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125(4), 387-402. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0096-3445.125.4.387 <?page no="314"?> 314 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Authority Bias Browstein, M. (2016). Implicit Bias and Philosophy, Volume 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Garrett, J. (2018). Data Analytics for IT Networks: Developing Innovative Use Cases: Cisco Press. Available at https: / / books.google.com.ph/ books? id=ZyRxDwAAQBAJ&pg= PT199&dq=authority+bias+accuracy+of+opinion&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwikkYapt6DfAhVMX30KHX8gAkUQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=authority bias accuracy of opinion&f=false Hinnosaar, T. (2012). Authority Bias. Available at https: / / www.academia.edu/ 2108445/ Authority_Bias Huczynski, A. (2004). Influencing within organizations: Routledge. Juárez Ramos, V. (2019). Analyzing the Role of Cognitive Biases in the Decision-Making Process. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral Study of obedience. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4). Bandwagon effect Gisser, M., McClure, J., Ökten, G., & Santoni, G. (2009). Some Anomalies Arising from Bandwagons that Impart Upward Sloping Segments to Market Demand. Econ Journal Watch, 6(1), 21-34. Goidel, R. K., & Shields, T. G. (1994). The Vanishing Marginals, the Bandwagon, and the Mass Media. The Journal of Politics, 56(3), 802-810. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2307/ 2132194 Leibenstein, H. (1950). Bandwagon, Snob, and Veblen Effects in the Theory of Consumers’ Demand. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 64(2), 183-207. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2307/ 1882692 Nadeau, R., Cloutier, E., & Guay, J. H. (1993). New Evidence About the Existence of a Bandwagon Effect in the Opinion Formation Process. International Political Science Review, 14(2), 203-213. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 019251219301400204 Sherif, M. (1936). The psychology of social norms. New York: Harper Collins. Bias blind spot E. Pronin, D. Y. Lin, L. Ross (2002). The Bias Blind Spot: Perceptions of Bias in Self Versus Others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(3), 369-381. Gilovich, T., Epley, N., & Hanko, K. (2005). Shallow Thoughts About the Self: The Automatic Components of Self-Assessment. In Studies in Self and Identity. The Self in Social Judgment (p. 77). New York: Psychology Press. Irene Scopelliti, Carey K. Morewedge, Erin McCormick,. (2015). Bias Blind Spot: Structure, Measurement, and Consequences. Management Science, 61(10), 2468-2486. Page, A. (2009). Unconscious Bias and the Limits of Director Independence. University of Illinois Law Review, 2009(1), 237-294. Pronin, E., Lin, D. Y., & Ross, L. (2002). The Bias Blind Spot: Perceptions of Bias in Self Versus Others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(3), 369-381. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 0146167202286008 <?page no="315"?> Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena 315 Scopelliti, I., Morewedge, C. K., McCormick, E., Min, H. L., Lebrecht, S., & Kassam, K. S. (2015). Bias Blind Spot: Structure, Measurement, and Consequences. Management Science, 61(10), 2468-2486. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1287/ mnsc.2014.2096 Broken Window Theory Adams, J. (2006). The “Broken Windows” Theory. Canada: UBC. Available at http: / / search.proquest.com/ docview/ 220030885/ Childress, S. (2016). The Problem with Broken Windows Policing. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Available at https: / / www.pbs.org/ wgbh/ frontline/ article/ the-problem-with-brokenwindows-policing/ Garland, D. (2001). The Culture of Control: Crime and Order in Contemporary Society. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Gladwell, M. (2002). The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference: Back Bay. Harcourt, B. E., & Ludwig, J. (2006). Broken Windows: New Evidence from New York City and a Five-City Social Experiment. University of Chicago Law Review, 73. Keizer, K., Lindenberg, S., & Steg, L. (2008). The Spreading of Disorder. Science, 322(5908), 1681-1685. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1126/ science.1161405 Plank, S. B., Bradshaw, C. P., & Young, H. (2009). An Application of “Broken‐Windows” and Related Theories to the Study of Disorder, Fear, and Collective Efficacy in Schools. American Journal of Education, 115(2), 227-247. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1086/ 595669 Sampson, R., & Raudenbush, S. W. (2004). Seeing Disorder: Neighborhood Stigma and the Social Construction of “Broken Windows”. Social Psychology Quarterly, 67(4), 319-342. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 019027250406700401 Wilcox, P., Quisenberry, N., Cabrera, D. T., & Jones, S. (2004). Busy places & broken windows? Toward Defining the Role of Physical Structure and Process in Community Crime Models. Sociological Quarterly, 45(2), 185-207. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ j.1533-8525.2004.tb00009.x Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1982). Broken Windows: The police and neighborhood safety. The Atlantic. Available at https: / / www.theatlantic.com/ magazine/ archive/ 1982/ 03/ broken-windows/ 4465/ Contagion heuristic Griffin, D., & Kahneman, D. (2002). Heurisitics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgement: Cambridge University Press. Kramer, T., & Block, L. (2011). Nonconscious effects of peculiar beliefs on consumer psychology and choice. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(1), 101-111. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.jcps.2010.09.009 Michael, S., Roberta, F., & G, O. P. (2011). Contamination sensitivity and the development of disease-avoidant behaviour. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1583), 3427-3432. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1098/ rstb.2011.0036 Nemeroff, C., & Rozin, P. (1992). Sympathetic Magical Beliefs and Kosher Dietary Practice: The Interaction of Rules and Feelings. Ethos, 20(1), 96-115. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1525/ eth.1992.20.1.02a00040 <?page no="316"?> 316 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Nemeroff, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). The Contagion Concept in Adult Thinking in the United States: Transmission of Germs and of Interpersonal Influence. Ethos, 22(2), 158-186. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1525/ eth.1994.22.2.02a00020 Newman, G. E., Diesendruck, G., & Bloom, P. (2011). Celebrity Contagion and the Value of Objects. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(2), 215-228. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1086/ 658999 Rozin, P., Dunn, C., & Fedotova, N. (2018). Reversing the causal arrow: Incidence and properties of negative backward magical contagion in Americans. Judgment and Decision Making, 13(5), 441-450. Available at https: / / ideas.repec.org/ a/ jdm/ journl/ v13y2018i5p441- 450.html Rozin, P., & Royzman, E. B. (2001). Negativity Bias, Negativity Dominance, and Contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(4), 296-320. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1207/ s15327957pspr0504_2 Decision Fatique Anderson, C. (2003). The Psychology of Doing Nothing: Forms of Decision Avoidance Result from Reason and Emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 139-167. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033-2909.129.1.139 Baumeister, R. (2002). Ego Depletion and Self-Control Failure: An Energy Model of the Self’s Executive Function. Self and Identity, 1(2), 129-136. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 152988602317319302 Baumeister, R. F. (2003). The Psychology of Irrationality. In The Psychology of Economic Decisions: Rationality and well-being, pp. 1-15. Levav, J., Reinholtz, N., & Lin, C. (2012). The Effect of Ordering Decisions by Choice-Set Size on Consumer Search. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(3), 585-599. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1086/ 664498 Tierney, J. (2011). Do You Suffer From Decision Fatigue? New York Times Magazine. Available at https: / / www.nytimes.com/ 2011/ 08/ 21/ magazine/ do-you-suffer-from-decision-fatigue.html Decoy Effect Crosetto, P., & Gaudeul, A. (2016). A monetary measure of the strength and robustness of the attraction effect. Economics Letters, 149, 38-43. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.econlet.2016.09.031 Frederick, S., Lee, L., & Baskin, E. (2014). The Limits of Attraction. Journal of Marketing Research, 51(4), 487-507. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1509/ jmr.12.0061 Huber, J., Payne, J. W., & Puto, C. (1982). Adding Asymmetrically Dominated Alternatives: Violations of Regularity and the Similarity Hypothesis. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(1), 90-98. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1086/ 208899 Results, s. (2009). 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In Defense of Troublemakers: The Power of Dissent in Life and Business: Basic Books. O’Connor, M. A. (2003). The Enron board: the perils of groupthink. University of Cincinnati Law Review, 71(4), 1233-1320. Packer, D. J. (2009). Avoiding groupthink: whereas weakly identified members remain silent, strongly identified members dissent about collective problems. Psychological Science, 20(5), 546-548. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ j.1467-9280.2009.02333.x Park, W. W. (1990). A review of research on Groupthink. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 3(4), 229-245. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1002/ bdm.3960030402 Raven, B. H. (1998). Groupthink: Bay of Pigs and Watergate reconsidered. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 73(2/ 3), 352-361. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ obhd.1998.2766 Rose, J. D. (2011). Diverse perspectives on the groupthink theory - a literary review. Emerging Leadership Journeys, 4(1), 37-57. Available at http: / / www.regent.edu/ acad/ global/ publications/ elj/ vol4iss1/ Rose_V4I1_pp37-57.pdf Safire, W. (2004). Groupthink. The New York Times. Available at https: / / query.nytimes.com/ gst/ fullpage.html? res=9C01E2DD173CF93BA3575BC0A9629C8B63 Schafer, M., & Crichlow, S. (1996). Antecedents of groupthink: a quantitative study. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 40(3), 415-435. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 0022002796040003002 Schafer, M., & Crichlow, S. (2010). Groupthink versus High-Quality Decision Making in International Relations. New York: Columbia University Press. Sunstein, C. R., & Hastie, R. (2014). Wiser: Getting Beyond Groupthink to Make Groups Smarter: arvard Business Review Press. Taylor, K. (2006). Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control: Oxford University Press. Available at https: / / books.google.com/ books? id=D3tYeMLc4hQC <?page no="331"?> Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena 331 Tetlock, P. E. (1979). Identifying victims of groupthink from public statements of decision makers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(8), 1314-1324. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.37.8.1314 Tetlock, P. E., Peterson, R. S., McGuire, C., Chang, S. J., & Feld, P. (1992). Assessing political group dynamics: a test of the groupthink model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), 403-425. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.63.3.403 Tsoukalas, I. (2007). Exploring the microfoundations of group consciousness. Culture and Psychology, 13(1), 39-81. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 1354067x07073650 Turner, M., & Pratkanis, A. (1998). A social identity maintenance model of groupthink. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 73(2-3), 210-235. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ obhd.1998.2757 Turner, M. E., & Pratkanis, A. R. (1998). Twenty-five years of groupthink theory and research: lessons from the evaluation of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 73(2-3), 105-115. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ obhd.1998.2756 Turner, M. E., Pratkanis, A. R., Probasco, P., & Leve, C. (1992). Threat, cohesion, and group effectiveness: Testing a social identity maintenance perspective on groupthink. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(5), 781-796. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022- 3514.63.5.781 Wexler, M. N. (1995). Expanding the groupthink explanation to the study of contemporary cults. Cultic Studies Journal, 12(1), 49-71. Available at http: / / www.icsahome.com/ articles/ expanding-the-groupthink-explanation-csj-12-1 Whyte, G. (1989). Groupthink reconsidered. Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 40-56. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2307/ 258190 Whyte, G. (1998). Recasting Janis’s Groupthink model: The key role of collective efficacy in decision fiascoes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 73(2/ 3), 185-209. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ obhd.1998.2761 HALO Effect Abikoff, H., Courtney, M., Pelham, W. E., & Koplewicz, H. S. (1993). Teachers’ Ratings of Disruptive Behaviors: The Influence of Halo Effects. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21(5), 519-533. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1007/ BF00916317 Balanson, N. (2008). The ‘halo effect’ shields NGOs from media scrutiny. The Jerusalem Post. Available at http: / / www.jpost.com/ Opinion/ Op-EdContributors/ Article.aspx? id= 110648 Borkowski, N. (2015). Organizational Behavior, Theory, and Design in Health Care. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. Bradley, J. C. 2010. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Available at http: / / garfield.library.upenn.edu/ classics1990/ A1990EH31100001.pdf Chandra, R. (2004). Social development in India. Delhi, IN: Isha. Coombs, T. (2006). Unpacking the Halo Effect: Reputation and Crisis Management. Journal of Communication Management, 10(2), 123-137. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1108/ 13632540610664698 Coombs, T. W., & Holladay, S. J. (2006). Unpacking the halo effect: reputation and crisis management. Journal of Communication Management, 10(2), 123-137. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1108/ 13632540610664698 <?page no="332"?> 332 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Dean, J. (2007). The Halo Effect: When Your Own Mind is a Mystery: PsyBlog. Available at http: / / www.spring.org.uk/ 2007/ 10/ halo-effect-when-your-own-mind-is.php Dermer, M., & Thiel, D. L. (1975). When beauty may fail. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(6), 1168-1176. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0077085 Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(3), 285-290. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0033731 Eagly, A. H., Ashmore, R. D., Makhijani, M. G., & Longo, L. C. (1991). What is Beautiful is Good, But… A Meta-Analytic Review of Research on the Physical Attractiveness Stereotype. Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 109-128. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033-2909.110.1.109 Efran, M. G. (1974). The Effect of Physical Appearance on the Judgment of Guilt, Interpersonal Attraction, and Severity of Recommended Punishment in Simulated Jury Task. Journal of Research in Personality, 8, 45-54. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ 0092-6566(74)90044-0 Ellis, G. (2018). Cognitive Biases in Visualizations. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Forgas, J.P. (2011). She just doesn’t look like a philosopher…? Affective influence on the halo effect in impression formation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(7), 812-817. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1002/ ejsp.842 Foster, G., & Ysseldyke, J. (1976). Expectancy and Halo Effects as a Result of Artificially Induced Teacher Bias. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1(1), 37-45. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ 0361-476X(76)90005-9 Frank, M. (2012). What good is a halo car anyway? Popular Mechanics. Available at https: / / www.popularmechanics.com/ cars/ a8075/ what-good-is-a-halo-car-anyway- 12206624/ Gibson, J. L., & Gore, J. S. (2016). Is He a Hero or a Weirdo? How Norm Violations Influence the Halo. Gender Issues, 33(4), 299-310. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1007/ s12147-016-9173-6 Glennie, J. (2011). Hugo Chávez’s reverse-halo effect. The Guardian. Available at https: / / www.theguardian.com/ global-development/ poverty-matters/ 2011/ may/ 03/ hugochavez-reverso-halo-effect Goetz, A. (2009). The Halo Effect in Overdrive. Psychology Today. Available at https: / / www.psychologytoday.com/ us/ blog/ natural-history-the-modern-mind/ 200907/ thehalo-effect-in-overdrive Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4-27. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033- 295X.102.1.4 Jeffray, N. (2010). Interview: Gerald Steinberg. The Jewish Chronicle. Available at http: / / www.thejc.com/ news/ uk-news/ 33415/ interview-gerald-steinberg Jones, N. Corporate Donors: Ronald House Durham. Available at http: / / www.ronaldhousedurham.org/ page/ corporate-donors Kahneman, D. (2013). Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Kanazawa, S., & Kovarb, J. (2004). Why beautiful people are more intelligent. Intelligence, 32(3), 227-243. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.intell.2004.03.003 Kaplan, R. M. (1978). Is beauty talent? Sex interaction in the attractiveness halo effect. Sex Roles, 4(2), 195-204. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1007/ BF00287500 Klein, J., & Dawar, N. (2004). Evaluations in a Product-Harm Crisis. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 21(3), 203-217. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.ijresmar.2003.12.003 <?page no="333"?> Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena 333 Kurian, G. T. (2013). The AMA Dictionary of Business and Management (1st ed.): Publishing Division o f the American Management Association. Lachman, S. J., & Bass, A. R. (1985). A Direct Study of Halo Effect. Journal of Psychology, 119(6), 535-540. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 00223980.1985.9915460 Landy, D., & Sigall, H. (1974). Task Evaluation as a Function of the Performers‘ Physical Attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29(3), 299-304. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0036018 LeClaire, A. (2017). The Halo Effect: Lake Union Publishing. Levy, L. H., & Dugan, R. D. (1960). A constant error approach to the study of dimensions of social perception. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61(1), 21-24. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0042208 McCornack, S., & Cortiz, J. (2016). Choices & Connections: An introduction to communication (2nd ed.). Bedford/ St. Martin’s. Mcray, J. (2015). “Cognitive bias.” Leadership Glossary: Essential Terms for the 21st Century (1st ed.): Mission Bell Media. Monahan, F. (1941). Women in Crime. New York: Washburn. Available at https: / / books.google.com/ books/ about/ Women_in_crime.html? id=Wg4iAAAAMAAJ Moore, F. R., Filippou, D., & Perrett, D. I. (2011). Intelligence and attractiveness in the face: Beyond the attractiveness halo effect. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 9(3), 205-217. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1556/ jep.9.2011.3.2 Murphy, K. R., Jako, R. A., & Anhalt, R. L. (1993). Nature and consequences of halo error: A critical analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(2), 218-225. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0021-9010.78.2.218 Nisbett, R.E., & Wilson, T.D.). The halo effect: Evidence for unconscious alteration of judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 250-256. Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). The halo effect: Evidence for unconscious alteration of judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(4), 250-256. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.35.4.250 Ostrove, N., & Sigall, H. (1975). Beautiful but Dangerous: Effects of Offender Attractiveness and Nature of the Crime on Juridic Judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(3), 410-414. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0076472 Palmer, C., & Peterson, R. D. (2012). Beauty and the Pollster: The Impact of Halo Effects on Perceptions of Political Knowledge and Sophistication. Midwest Political Science Association. Available at http: / / cas.illinoisstate.edu/ clpalme/ research/ documents/ Beauty_and_ the_Pollster_revision.pdf Polivy, J. (2017). What‘s that you‘re eating? Social comparison and eating behavior. Journal of Eating Disorders, 5, 18. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1186/ s40337-017-0148-0 Press, O. U. (2008). The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing, Scott G. Dacko, 2008: Marketing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Provencher, V., & Jacob, R. (2016). Impact of Perceived Healthiness of Food on Food Choices and Intake. Current Obesity Reports, 5(1), 65-71. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1007/ s13679-016-0192-0 Roeckelein, J. E. (2006). Elsevier‘s Dictionary of Psychological Theories (1st ed.): Elsevier Science & Technology. Rosenzweig, P. M. (2014). The Halo Effect and the Eight Other Business Delusions That Deceive Managers. New York, NY: Free Press. <?page no="334"?> 334 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Rowson, P., Thompson, H., & Berry, J. (2012). Using a decision support optimisation software tool to maximise returns from an overall marketing budget. Journal of Database Marketing & Customer Strategy Management. (Vol. 19, 2), 138-142. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1057/ dbm.2012.10 Sigall, H., & Ostrove, N. (1975). Beautiful but Dangerous: Effects of Offender Attractiveness and Nature of Crime on Juridic Judgement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(3), 410-414. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0076472 Staff, I. (2008). Halo Effect. Investopedia. Available at https: / / www.investopedia.com/ terms/ h/ halo-effect.asp Steinberg, G. M. (2009). Human Rights NGOs Need a Monitor. The Jewish Daily Forward. Available at http: / / forward.com/ articles/ 122209/ human-rights-ngos-need-a-monitor/ Sutherland, S. (2007). Irrationality. London: Pinter & Martin. Thorndike, E.L. (1920). A constant error in psychological ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 4(1), 25-29. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0071663 Verhulst, B., Lodge, M., & Lavine, H. (2010). The Attractiveness Halo: Why Some Candidates are Perceived More Favorably than Others. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 34(2), 1-2. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1007/ s10919-009-0084-z Wade, T. J., & DiMaria, C. (2003). Weight Halo Effects: Individual Differences in Perceived Life Success as a Function of Women‘s Race and Weight. Sex Roles, 48(9/ 10), 461-465. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1023/ A: 1023582629538 Zhang, Z., & van Poucke, S. (2017). Citations for Randomized Controlled Trials in Sepsis Literature: The Halo Effect Caused by Journal Impact Factor. PLoS One, 12(1), e0169398. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1371/ journal.pone.0169398 Hard-easy effect Baranski, J., & Petrusic, W. (1999). Realism of confidence in sensory discrimination. Perception & Psychophysics, 61(7), 1369-1383. https: / / doi.org/ 10.3758/ BF03206187 Bordley, R., LiCalzi, M., & Tibiletti, L. (2014). A target-based foundation for the “hard-easy effect” bias. Università Ca‘ Foscari Venezia. Available at https: / / ideas.repec.org/ p/ vnm/ wpdman/ 94.html Burson, K., Larrick, R., & Soll, J. Social Comparison and Confidence: When Thinking You‘re Better than Average Predicts Overconfidence. Deepblue. Available at https: / / deepblue.lib.umich.edu/ bitstream/ handle/ 2027.42/ 41218/ 1016.pdf? sequence=1 Goldstein, W. M., & Hogarth, R. M. (1997). Research on Judgment and Decision Making: Currents, Connections, and Controversies: Cambridge University Press. Available at https: / / books.google.com/ books? id=9Jo5v25Yn3AC&pg=PA108 Juslin, P. (2007). An explanation of the hard-easy effect in studies of realism of confidence in one‘s general knowledge. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 5(1), 55-71. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 09541449308406514 Juslin, P., Winman, A., & Olsson, H. (2000). Naive Empiricism and Dogmatism in Confidence Research: A Critical Examination of the Hard-Easy Effect. Psychological Review, 107(2), 384-396. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033-295X.107.2.384 Merkle, E. (2009). The disutility of the hard-easy effect in choice confidence. Psychon Bull Rev, 16(1), 204-213. https: / / doi.org/ 10.3758/ PBR.16.1.204 <?page no="335"?> Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena 335 Hindsight Bias Arkes, H., Faust, D., Guilmette, T. J., & Hart, K. (1988). Eliminating Hindsight Bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73(2), 305-307. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0021-9010.73.2.305 Arkes, H. R. (2013). The consequences of the hindsight bias in medical decision making. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(5), 356-360. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 0963721413489988 Beckham, J. C., Feldman, M. E., & Kirby, A. C. (1998). Atrocities Exposure in Vietnam Combat Veterans with Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Relationship to Combat Exposure, Symptom Severity, Guilt, and Interpersonal Violence. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11(4), 777-785. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1023/ a: 1024453618638 Berlin (2000). Malpractice issues in Radiology: Hindsight bias. American Journal of Roentgenology, 175(3), 597-601. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2214/ ajr.175.3.1750597 Bernstein, D. M., Atance, C., Loftus, G. R., & Meltzoff, A. (2004). We saw it all along: Visual hindsight bias in children and adults. Psychological Science, 15(4), 264-267. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ j.0963-7214.2004.00663.x Bernstein, D.M., Erdfelder, E., Meltzoff, A. N., Peria, W., & Loftus, G. R. (2011). Hindsight bias from 3 to 95 years of age. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37(2), 378-391. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ a0021971 Biasi, B., & Weber, M. (2009). Hindsight Bias, risk perception and investment performance. Journal of Management Science, 55, 1018-1029. Blank, H., Musch, J., & Pohl, R. F. (2007). Hindsight Bias: On Being Wise After the Event. Social Cognition, 25(1), 1-9. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1521/ soco.2007.25.1.1 Blank, H., & Nestler, S. (2007). Cognitive Process Models of Hinsight Bias. Social Cognition, 25(1), 132-147. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1521/ soco.2007.25.1.132 Blank, H., Nestler, S., Collani, G. von, & Fischer, V. (2008). How many hindsight biases are there? Cognition, 106(3), 1408-1440. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.cognition.2007.07.007 Boyd, D. Innovators: Beware the Hindsight Bias. Psychology Today. Available at https: / / www.psychologytoday.com/ us/ blog/ inside-the-box/ 201508/ innovators-bewarethe-hindsight-bias Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Keys, B. A., Carter, C. S., Cohen, J. D., Kaye, J. A., . . . Reed, B. R. (2001). Context processing in older adults: Evidence for a theory relating cognitive control to neurobiology in healthy aging. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 130(4), 746-763. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0096-3445.130.4.746 Brewin, C., Dalgleish, R., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103(4), 670-68. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033- 295x.103.4.670 Fischhoff, B. (1975). Hindsight ≠ foresight: The effect of outcome knowledge on judgment under uncertainty. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1(3), 288-299. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0096-1523.1.3.288 Fischhoff, B. (2007). An early history of hindsight research. Social Cognition, 25, 10-13. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1521/ soco.2007.25.1.10 Fiske, S. (1980). Attention and weight in person perception: The impact of negative and extreme behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(6), 889-906. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.38.6.889 <?page no="336"?> 336 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Freeman, D., Pugh, K., & Garety, P. A. (2008). Jumping to conclusions and paranoid ideation in the general population. Schizophrenia Research, 102(1-3), 254-260. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.schres.2008.03.020 Harley, E. M. (2007). Hindsight bias in legal decision making. Social Cognition, 25(1), 48-63. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1521/ soco.2007.25.1.48 Harley, E. M., Carlsen, K. A., & Loftus, G. R. (2004). The ‘Saw-It-All-Along‘ Effect: Demonstrations of Visual Hindsight Bias. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(5), 960-968. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0278-7393.30.5.960 Hell, W., Gigerenzer, G., Gauggel, S., Mall, M., & Müller, M. (1988). Hindsight bias: An interaction of automatic and motivational factors? Memory & Cognition, 16(6), 533-538. https: / / doi.org/ 10.3758/ BF03197054 Hertwig, R., Fenselow, C., & Hoffrage, U. (2003). Hindsight Bias: Knowledge and Heuristics Affect our reconstruction of the Past. Memory, 11(4-5), 357-377. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 09658210244000595 Hoffrage, U., & Pohl, R. (2003). Research on hindsight bias: A rich past, a productive present, and a challenging future. Memory, 11(4-5), 329-335. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 09658210344000080 Holmes, A. J., MacDonald, A., Carter, C. S., Barch, D. M., Andrew Stenger, V., & Cohen, J. D. (2005). Prefrontal functioning during context processing in schizophrenia and major depression: An event-related fMRI study. Schizophrenia Research, 76(2-3), 199-206. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.schres.2005.01.021 Kane, M., Core, T. J., & Hunt, R. R. (2010). Bias versus bias: Harnessing hindsight to reveal paranormal belief change beyond demand characteristics. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17(2), 206-212. https: / / doi.org/ 10.3758/ PBR.17.2.206 Kane, M.J. (2010). Can people‘s minds be changed? How can we know? Skeptic, 16(1), 28-31. Louie, T. A., Rajan, M. N., & Sibley, R. E. (2007). Tackling the monday-morning quarterback: Applications of hindsight bias in decision-making settings. Social Cognition, 25(1), 32-47. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1521/ soco.2007.25.1.32 Marks, A. Z., & Arkes, H. R. (2010). The effects of mental contamination on the hindsight bias: Source confusion determines success in disregarding knowledge. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 23(2), 131-160. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1002/ bdm.632 Mazzoni, G., & Vannucci, M. (2007). Hindsight bias, the misinformation effect, and false autobiographical memories. Social Cognition, 25(1), 203-220. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1521/ soco.2007.25.1.203 Muhm, J., Miller, W., Fontana, R., Sanderson, D., & Uhlenhopp, M. (1983). Lung cancer detected during a screening program using four-month chest radiographs. Radiology, 148(3), 609-615. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1148/ radiology.148.3.6308709 Nestler, S., Blank, H., & Collani, G. von (2008). A Causal Model Theory of Creeping Determinism. Social Psychology, 39(3), 182-188. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1027/ 1864-9335.39.3.182 Oeberst, A., & Goeckenjan, I. (2016). When being wise after the event results in injustice: Evidence for hindsight bias in judges‘ negligence assessments. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 22(3), 271-279. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ law0000091 Pezzo, S. (2007). Making Sense of Failure: A Motivated Model of Hindsight Bias. Social Cognition, 25(1), 147-165. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1521/ soco.2007.25.1.147 <?page no="337"?> Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena 337 Pohl, R., & Hell, W. (1996). No reduction in Hindsight Bias after Complete Information and repeated Testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 67(1), 49-58. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ obhd.1996.0064 Pohl, R. F., Eisenhauer, M., & Hardt, O. (2003). SARA: A Cognitive Process Model to Stimulate the Anchoring Effect and Hindsight bias. Memory, 11(4-5), 337-356. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 09658210244000487 Richert, K. A., Carrion, V. G., Karchemskiy, A., & Reiss, A. L. (2006). Regional differences of the prefrontal cortex in pediatric PTSD: an MRI study. Depression and Anxiety, 23(1), 17- 25. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1002/ da.20131 Roese, N. J., & Vohs, K. D. (2012). Hindsight bias. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 411-426. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 1745691612454303 Schkade, D., & Kilbourne, L. (1991). Expectation-Outcome Consistency and Hindsight Bias. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 49, 105-123. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ 0749-5978(91)90044-T Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1973). Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), 207-232. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ 0010-0285(73)90033-9 Tykocinski, O. E., & Steinberg, N. (2005). Coping with disappointing outcomes: Retroactive pessimism and motivated inhibition of counterfactuals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41(5), 551-558. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.jesp.2004.12.001 Woodward, T. S., Moritz, S., Arnold, M. M., Cuttler, C., Whitman, J. C., & Lindsay, S. (2006). Increased hindsight bias in schizophrenia. Neuropsychology, 20(4), 462-467. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0894-4105.20.4.461 IKEA Effect Ariely, D. (2012). What Makes Us Feel Good About Our Work? TED.com. Available at https: / / www.ted.com/ talks/ dan_ariely_what_makes_us_feel_good_about_our_work Carter, T. The IKEA Effect: Why We Cherish Things We Build. Psychology Today. Available at https: / / www.psychologytoday.com/ blog/ make-your-mind/ 201209/ the-ikea-effect-why-wecherish-things-we-build Choi, J. How to Activate New Customers With the IKEA Effect. Customer.io. Available at https: / / customer.io/ blog/ Ikea-effect-onboarding.html Dibeehi, Q. (2013). Ever Heard of the IKEA Effect? Increasing perceived value while reducing costs. Beyond Philosophy. Available at http: / / www.beyondphilosophy.com/ blogs/ everheard-of-the-IKEA-effect? -increasing-perceived-value-while-reducing-costs Dooley, R. (2012). Build Product Love with the IKEA Effect. Available at https: / / www.forbes.com/ sites/ rogerdooley/ 2012/ 07/ 03/ ikea-effect/ #781f322f4b36 Landers, R. (2012). Unfolding the IKEA Effect: Why We Love the Things We Build. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(3), 453-460. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.jcps.2011.08.002 Tervooren, T. (2015). Ikea Effect: The Science Of Labor, Love, And DIY Furniture. Riskology. Available at https: / / www.riskology.co/ ikea-effect/ Vedantam, S. (2013). Why You Love That Ikea Table, Even If It’s Crooked. Available at https: / / www.npr.org/ 2013/ 02/ 06/ 171177695/ why-you-love-that-ikea-table-even-if-itscrooked <?page no="338"?> 338 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Illusion of control Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (1980). The judgment of contingency: Errors and their implications. In Advances in Environmental Psychology: Volume 2: Applications of Personal Control, pp. 111-130. Psychology Press. Available at https: / / books.google.com/ books? id=NnQcOdWDClkC&pg=PA111 Allan, L.G., & Jenkins, H. M. (1980). The judgment of contingency and the nature of the response alternatives. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 34, 1-11. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0081013 Allan, L., Siegel, S., & Hannah, S. (2007). The sad truth about depressive realism. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(3), 482-495. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 17470210601002686 Bandura, A. (1989). Human Agency in Social Cognitive Theory. American Psychologist, 44(9), 1175-1184. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0003-066x.44.9.1175 Baron, J. (2000). Thinking and deciding (3rd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. Available at http: / / worldcatlibraries.org/ wcpa/ oclc/ 316403966 Dykman, B.M., Abramson, L.Y., Alloy, L.B., Hartlage, S. (1989). Processing of ambiguous and unambiguous feedback by depressed and nondepressed college students: Schematic biases and their implications for depressive realism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(3), 431-445. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.56.3.431 Enzle, M. E., & Michael J. A. Wohl (2009). Illusion of control by proxy: Placing one’s fate in the hands of another. British Journal of Social Psychology, 48(1), 183-200. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1348/ 014466607x258696 Fast, N. J., Gruenfeld, D. H., Sivanathan, N., & Galinsky, A. D. (2009). Illusory Control: A Generative Force Behind Power’s Far-Reaching Effects. Psychological Science, 20(4), 502- 508. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ j.1467-9280.2009.02311.x Fenton-O’Creevy, M., Nicholson, N., Soane, E., & Willman, P. (2003). Trading on illusions: Unrealistic perceptions of control and trading performance. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76(1), 53-68. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1348/ 096317903321208880 Gino, F., Sharek, Z., & Moore, D. A. (2011). Keeping the illusion of control under control: Ceilings, floors, and imperfect calibration. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 114(2), 104-114. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.obhdp.2010.10.002 Gollwitzer, P.M., & Kinney, R. F. (1989). Effects of Deliberative and Implemental Mind-Sets On Illusion of Control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(4), 531-542. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.56.4.531 Hardman, D. (2009). Judgment and decision making: psychological perspectives: Wiley-Blackwell. Henslin, J. M. (1967). Craps and magic. American Journal of Sociology, 73(3), 316-330. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1086/ 224479 Hobbs, C., Kreiner, H., & Hinds, B. (2010). The Illusion of Control in a Virtual Reality Setting. North American Journal of Psychology, 12(3). Available at http: / / www.freepatentsonline.com/ article/ North-American-Journal-Psychology/ 245167898.html Jenkins, H. M., & Ward, W. C. (1965). Judgment of contingency between responses and outcomes. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 79(1), SUL 1: 1-17. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0093874 Judge, T. A., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D. (2011). Implications of core self-evaluations for a changing organizational context. Human Resource Management Review, 21(4), 331-341. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.hrmr.2010.10.003 <?page no="339"?> Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena 339 Judge, T. A., Locke, E. A., & Durham, C. C. (1997). The dispositional causes of job satisfaction: A core evaluations approach. In Research in Organizational Behavior, pp. 151-188. Knee, C.R., & Zuckerman, M. (1998). A Nondefensive Personality: Autonomy and Control as Moderators of Defensive Coping and Self-Handicapping. Journal of Research in Personality, 32(2), 115-130. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ jrpe.1997.2207 Langer, E. J. (1975). The Illusion of Control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(2), 311-328. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.32.2.311 Langer, E. J., & Roth, J. (1975). Heads I win, tails it’s chance: The illusion of control as a function of the sequence of outcomes in a purely chance task. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(6), 951-955. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.32.6.951 McKenna, F. P. (1993). It won’t happen to me: Unrealistic optimism or illusion of control? British Journal of Psychology, 84(1), 39-50. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ j.2044- 8295.1993.tb02461.x Msetfi, R., Murphy, R. A., & Simpson, J. (2007). Depressive realism and the effect of intertrial interval on judgements of zero, positive, and negative contingencies. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(3), 461-481. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 17470210601002595 Pacini, R., Muir, F., & Epstein, S. (1998). Depressive realism from the perspective of cognitiveexperiential self-theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(4), 1056-1068. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.74.4.1056 Plous, S. (1993). The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making: McGraw-Hill. Available at http: / / worldcatlibraries.org/ wcpa/ oclc/ 26931106 Presson, P. K., & Benassi, V. A. (1996). Illusion of control: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 11(3). Available at http: / / psycnet.apa.org/ psycinfo/ 1996- 06041-006 Pronin, E., Wegner, D. M., McCarthy, K., & Rodriguez, S. (2006). Everyday magical powers: The role of apparent mental causation in the overestimation of personal influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(2), 218-231. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022- 3514.91.2.218 Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193-210. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033- 2909.103.2.193 Thompson, S. C. (2004). Illusions of control. In Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory. Hove, UK: Psychology Press, pp. 115-125 Thompson, S. C., Armstrong, W., & Thomas, C. (1998). Illusions of Control, Underestimations, and Accuracy: A Control Heuristic Explanation. Psychological Bulletin, 123(2), 143-161. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033-2909.123.2.143 Wegner, D. M. (2008). Self is Magic. In Are we free? : psychology and free will. New York: Oxford University Press. Available at http: / / isites.harvard.edu/ fs/ docs/ icb.topic67047.files/ 2_13_07_Wegner.pdf Whyte, G., Saks, A. M., & Hook, S. (1997). When success breeds failure: the role of self-efficacy in escalating commitment to a losing course of action. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18(5), 415-432. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1002/ (SICI)1099-1379(199709)18: 5 <?page no="340"?> 340 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Memory biases Attneave, F. (1953). Psychological probability as a function of experienced frequency. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46(2), 81-86. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0057955 Fiedler, K. (1991). The tricky nature of skewed frequency tables: An information loss account of distinctiveness-based illusory correlations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(1), 24-36. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.60.1.24 Fischhoff, B., Slovic, P., & Lichtenstein, S. (1977). Knowing with certainty: The appropriateness of extreme confidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 3(4), 552-564. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0096-1523.3.4.552 Greenwald, A. (1980). The Totalitarian Ego: Fabrication and Revision of Personal History. American Psychologist, 35(7), 603-618. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0003-066X.35.7.603 Koriat, A., Goldsmith, M., & Pansky, A. (2000). Toward a Psychology of Memory Accuracy. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 481-537. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1146/ annurev.psych.51.1.481 Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1121-1134. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.77.6.1121 Nelson, D. L., Reed, U. S., & Walling, J. R. (1976). Pictorial superiority effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 2(5), 523-528. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0278-7393.2.5.523 Schacter, D. L., Chiao, J. Y., & Mitchell, J. P. (2003). The Seven Sins of Memory. Implications for Self. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1001(1), 226-239. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1196/ annals.1279.012 Schacter, D. L. (1999). The Seven Sins of Memory: Insights From Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience. American Psychologist, 54(3), 182-203. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0003- 066X.54.3.182 Tversky, A., & Koehler, D. J. (1994). Support theory: A nonextensional representation of subjective probability. Psychological Review, 101(4), 547-567. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033- 295X.101.4.547 Walker, W. R., Skowronski, J. J., & Thompson, C. P. (2003). Life Is Pleasant—and Memory Helps to Keep It That Way! 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Consciousness and Cognition, 6(1), 87-107. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1006/ ccog.1996.0281 Fang, X., Singh, S., & Ahluwalia, R. (2007). An Examination of Different Explanations for the Mere Exposure Effect. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 97-103. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1086/ 513050 Fombrun, C., & Shanley, M. (1990). What’s in a Name? Reputation Building and Corporate Strategy. The Academy of Management Journal, 33(2), 233. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2307/ 256324 <?page no="342"?> 342 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Grimes, A., & Kitchen, P. J. (2007). Researching mere exposure effects to advertising: Theoretical foundations and methodological implications. International Journal of Market Research, 49(2), 191-221. Available at https: / / www.mrs.org.uk/ ijmr_article/ article/ 84737 Huberman, G. (2001). Familiarity Breeds Investment. Review of Financial Studies, 14(3), 659- 680. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1093/ rfs/ 14.3.659 Jacoby, L. L., & Dallas, M. (1981). On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110(3), 306-340. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0096-3445.110.3.306 Kunst-Wilson, W., & Zajonc, R. (1980). Affective discrimination of stimuli that cannot be recognized. Science, 207(4430), 557-558. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1126/ science.7352271 Murphy, S. T., & Zajonc, R. B. (1993). Affect, cognition, and awareness: Affective priming with optimal and suboptimal stimulus exposures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(5), 723-739. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.64.5.723 Reber, R., Winkielman, P., & Schwarz, N. (1998). Effects of Perceptual Fluency on Affective Judgments. Psychological Science, 9(1), 45-48. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ 1467-9280.00008 Seamon, J. G., Brody, N., & Kauff, D. M. (1983). Affective discrimination of stimuli that are not recognized: Effects of shadowing, masking, and cerebral laterality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9(3), 544-555. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0278-7393.9.3.544 Serenko, A., & Bontis, N. (2011). What’s familiar is excellent: The impact of exposure effect on perceived journal quality. Journal of Informetrics, 5, 219-223. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.joi.2010.07.005 Swap, W. C. (1977). Interpersonal Attraction and Repeated Exposure to Rewarders and Punishers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3(2), 248-251. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 014616727700300219 Tom, G., Nelson, C., Srzentic, T., & King, R. (2007). Mere Exposure and the Endowment Effect on Consumer Decision Making. The Journal of Psychology, 141(2), 117-125. https: / / doi.org/ 10.3200/ JRLP.141.2.117-126 Winkielman, P., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2001). Mind at ease puts a smile on the face: Psychophysiological evidence that processing facilitation elicits positive affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(6), 989-1000. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.81.6.989 Zajonc, R.B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35(2), 151-175. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0003-066x.35.2.151 Zajonc, R.B. (2001). Mere Exposure: A Gateway to the Subliminal. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(6), 224-228. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ 1467-8721.00154 Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal Effects Of Mere Exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9(2, Pt.2), 1-27. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ h0025848 Multisensory Enhancement Goldman, W. P., & Seamon, J. G. (1992). Very Long-Term Memory for Odors: Retention of Odor-Name Associations. The American Journal of Psychology, 105(4), 549. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2307/ 1422910 Meredith, M. A., & Stein, B. E. (1986). Visual, auditory, and somatosensory convergence on cells in superior colliculus results in multisensory integration. Journal of Neurophysiology, 56(3), 640-662. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1152/ jn.1986.56.3.640 <?page no="343"?> Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena 343 Ronft, S. (2018b). Multisensuale Erlebnisse sind das scharfe Schwert der Live-Kommunikation! events. Das Management-Magazin für Live-Kommunikation. (3), 20-23 Stanford, T. R., & Stein, B. E. (2007). Superadditivity in multisensory integration: Putting the computation in context. Neuroreport, 18(8), 787-792. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1097/ WNR.0b013e3280c1e315 Narrative bias Betsch, C., Haase, N., Renkewitz, F., & Schmid, P. The narrative bias revisited: What drives the biasing influence of narrative information on risk perceptions? Available at http: / / journal.sjdm.org/ 14/ 141206a/ jdm141206a.html Dawes, R. (2002). Everyday Irrationality: How Pseudo- Scientists, Lunatics, And The Rest Of Us Systematically Fail To Think Rationally (1st ed.). Boulder: Taylor and Francis. Available at https: / / ebookcentral.proquest.com/ lib/ gbv/ detail.action? docID=5301946 Wilson, K. Y. (2010). An analysis of bias in supervisor narrative comments in performance appraisal. Human Relations, 63(12), 1903-1933. Wyer, R. S. (2004). Social comprehension and judgment: The role of situation models, narratives, and implicit theories. Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Overconfidence effect Adams, J. K. (1960). Confidence in the recognition and reproduction of words difficult to spell. The American Journal of Psychology, 73(4), 544-552. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2307/ 1419942 Alpert, M., & Raiffa, H. (1982). A progress report on the training of probability assessors. In Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. Cambridge University Press, pp. 294- 305 Aumann, R. J. (1976). Agreeing to Disagree. The Annals of Statistics, 4(6), 1236-1239. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1214/ aos/ 1176343654 Babcock, L. C., & Olson, C. A. (1992). The Causes of Impasses in Labor Disputes. Industrial Relations, 31(2), 348-360. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ j.1468-232X.1992.tb00313.x Baron, J. (1994). Thinking and Deciding: Cambridge University Press. Buehler, R., Griffin, D., & Ross, M. (1994). Exploring the “planning fallacy”: Why people underestimate their task completion times. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(3), 366-381. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0022-3514.67.3.366 Cannell, J. J. (1989). How public educators cheat on standardized achievement tests: The “Lake Wobegon” report. Friends for Education. Available at http: / / eric.ed.gov/ ? id=ED314454 Chambers, J. R., & Windschitl, P. D. (2004). Biases in Social Comparative Judgments: The Role of Nonmotivated Factors in Above-Average and Comparative-Optimism Effects. Psychological Bulletin, 130(5), 813-838. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033-2909.130.5.813 Chambers, J. R., Windschitl, P. D., & Suls, J. (2003). Egocentrism, Event Frequency, and Comparative Optimism: When what Happens Frequently is “More Likely to Happen to Me”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(11), 1343-1356. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 0146167203256870 Daniel, K., Hirshleifer, D., & Subrahmanyam, A. (1998). Investor Psychology and Security Market Underand Overreactions. The Journal of Finance, 53(6), 1839-1885. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ 0022-1082.00077 <?page no="344"?> 344 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Dunning, D. (2005). Self-Insight: Roadblocks and Detours on the Path to Knowing Thyself: Psychology Press. Available at https: / / books.google.com/ books? id=IAh2VRu4wGgC Fowler, J. H., & Johnson, D. D. P. (2011). On Overconfidence. Seed Magazine. Available at http: / / seedmagazine.com/ content/ article/ on_overconfidence/ Gigerenzer, G. (1993). The bounded rationality of probabilistic mental models. In Rationality: Psychological and philosophical perspectives. London: Routledge, pp. 127-171. Available at http: / / psycnet.apa.org/ index.cfm? fa=search.displayRecord&uid=1994-97037-011 Gilovich, T., Griffin, D., & Kahneman, D. (2002). Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment: Cambridge University Press. Available at https: / / books.google.com/ books? id=FfTVDY-zrCoC Gino, F., Sharek, Z., & Moore, D. A. (2011). Keeping the illusion of control under control: Ceilings, floors, and imperfect calibration. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 114(2), 104-114. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.obhdp.2010.10.002 Harvey, N. (1997). Confidence in judgment. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 1(2), 78-82. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ S1364-6613(97)01014-0 Hoffrage, U. (2004). Overconfidence. In Cognitive Illusions: a handbook on fallacies and biases in thinking, judgement and memory. Psychology Press. Available at https: / / archive.org/ details/ cognitiveillusio0000unse Johnson, D. D. P. (2004). Overconfidence and War: The Havoc and Glory of Positive Illusions: Harvard University Press. Available at https: / / books.google.com/ books? id=Ccu7OhgusaAC Judge, T. A., Locke, E. A., & Durham, C. C. (1997). The dispositional causes of job satisfaction: A core evaluations approach. In Research in Organizational Behavior, pp. 151-188 Kahneman, D. (2011). Don’t Blink! The Hazards of Confidence. New York Times. Available at https: / / www.nytimes.com/ 2011/ 10/ 23/ magazine/ dont-blink-the-hazards-of-confidence.html (Accessed: 27 September 2019) Krizan, Z., & Windschitl, P. D. (2007). The influence of outcome desirability on optimism. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 95-121. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033-2909.133.1.95 Kruger, J. (1999). Lake Wobegon be gone! The “below-average effect” and the egocentric nature of comparative ability judgments. 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Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7(6), 627-639. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ 0022-1031(71)90025-4 Ridley, M. (1997). The origins of virtue. UK: Penguin UK. Sahlins, M. (1972). Stone Age Economics. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. Saller, R. P. (2002). Personal Patronage Under the Early Empire: Cambridge University Press. Available at https: / / books.google.com/ ? id=E7RayowC-IQC&pg=PR5&dq=saller+1982#v=onepage&q=saller%201982&f=false Schwarzwald, J., Raz, M., & Zvibel, M. (1979). The Applicability of the Door-in-the Face Technique when Established Behavioral Customs Exist. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 9(6), 576-586. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1111/ j.1559-1816.1979.tb00817.x Tidd, K. L., & Lockard, J. S. (2013). Monetary significance of the affiliative smile: A case for reciprocal altruism. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 11(6), 344-346. https: / / doi.org/ 10.3758/ BF03336849 Tusing, K. J., & Dillard, J. P. (2000). The Psychological Reality of the Door-in-the-Face It’s Helping, not Bargaining. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 19(1), 5-25. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 0261927X00019001001 Snob effect Leibenstein, H. (1950). Bandwagon, Snob, and Veblen Effects in the Theory of Consumers’ Demand. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 64(2), 183-207. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2307/ 1882692 Vigneron, F., Johnson, L., & Mt, M. (1999). A review and a conceptual framework of prestigeseeking consumer behavior. Academy of Marketing Science Review, 1999, 1. Sunk-cost Fallacy Arkes, H. (1999). The Sunk Cost and Concorde Effects: Are Humans Less Rational Than Lower Animals? Psychological Bulletin, 125, 591-600. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033- 2909.125.5.591 Bazerman, M. H., Giuliano, T., & Appelman, A. (1984). Escalation of commitment in individual and group decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 33(2), 141- 152. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ 0030-5073(84)90017-5 Bazerman, M. H., & Neale, M. A. (1992). Nonrational Escalation of Commitment in Negotiation. European Management Journal, 10(2), 163-168. Available at http: / / www.gwern.net/ docs/ sunkcosts/ 1992-bazerman.pdf Bernheim, B. D., & Whinston, M. D. (2008). Microeconomics: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Brockner, J. (1992). The escalation of commitment to a failing course of action: toward theoretical progress. Academy of Management Review, 17(1), 39-61. https: / / doi.org/ 10.5465/ AMR.1992.4279568 <?page no="349"?> Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena 349 Chacón, B. U. (2012). Mayday Berlin. Junge Welt. Available at http: / / www.ugarte-chacon.com/ resources/ mayday_berlin.pdf Christensen, B. Advance Fee Scams - Nigerian Scams - 419 Scam Information. hoax-slayer.com. Available at http: / / www.hoax-slayer.com/ nigerian-scams.html Dietz-Uhler, B. (1996). The escalation of commitment in political decision-making groups: a social identity approach. 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The role of culture on escalation of commitment in new product development. Industrial Marketing Management, 43(1), 155-163. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.indmarman.2013.08.009 Moon, H. (2001). The two faces of conscientiousness: Duty and achievement striving in escalation of commitment dilemmas. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 533-540. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0021-9010.86.3.535 Nußbaum, U. (2018). Nußbaum: Es gibt keine Garantie dafür, dass der BER jemals eröffnet. bz-berlin.de. Available at https: / / www.bz-berlin.de/ berlin/ nussbaum-es-gibt-keine-garantiedafuer-dass-der-ber-jemals-eroeffnet Schaumberg, R. L., & Wiltermuth, S. S. (2014). Desire for a positive moral self-regard exacerbates escalation of commitment to initiatives with prosocial aims. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 123(2), 110-123. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.obhdp.2013.10.012 Sleesman, D. J., Conlon, D. E., McNamara, G., & Miles, J. E. (2012). 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Available at https: / / www.forbes.com/ sites/ carminegallo/ 2012/ 12/ 06/ high-tech-dropouts-misinterpretsteve-jobs-advice/ Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2005). Why Most Published Research Findings Are False. PLoS Med, 2(8), e124. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1371/ journal.pmed.0020124 Mangel, M., & Samaniego, F. (1984). Abraham Wald’s work on aircraft survivability. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 79(386), 259-267. https: / / doi.org/ 10.2307/ 2288257 Mumm, S. (2010). Women and Philanthropic Cultures, in Women, Gender and Religious Cultures in Britain, 1800-1940, Eds Sue Morgan and Jacqueline deVries.: London: Routledge. Schnitzer, S. (2002). The ecology of lianas and their role in forests. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17(5), 223-230. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ S0169-5347(02)02491-6 Shermer, M. (2014). How the Survivor Bias Distorts Reality. Available at http: / / www.scientificamerican.com/ article/ how-the-survivor-bias-distorts-reality/ Taleb, N. N. (2010). 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Neuropsychologia, 47(2), 595-598. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.neuropsychologia.2008.10.010 Anderson, J. R., Funke, J., Neuser-von Oettingen, K., & Plata, G. (Eds.). (2013). Lehrbuch. Kognitive Psychologie (7., erw. und überarb., neu gestaltete Aufl.). Berlin: Springer VS. Anderson, K. B., & Graham, L. M. (2007). Hostile Attribution Bias: SAGE Publications, Inc. https: / / doi.org/ 10.4135/ 9781412956253 Arkes, H. R., & Ayton, P. (1999). The sunk cost and Concorde effects: Are humans less rational than lower animals? Psychological Bulletin, 125(5), 591-600. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033- 2909.125.5.591 Arkes, H. R., & Blumer, C. (1985). The psychology of sunk cost. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 35(1), 124-140. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ 0749-5978(85)90049-4 Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193(5), 31-35. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1038/ scientificamerican1155-31 Attneave, F. (1953). 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Psychological Bulletin, 106(2), 265-289. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1037/ 0033-2909.106.2.265 <?page no="352"?> 352 Appendix: Further references concerning psychological effects and phenomena Bornstein, R. F., & Crave-Lemley, C. (2004). Mere exposure effect. In Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory. Hove, UK: Psychology Press, pp. 215-234. Available at https: / / archive.org/ details/ cognitiveillusio 0000unse/ page/ 215 Bornstein, R. F., & D’Agostino, P. R. (1994). The Attribution and Discounting of Perceptual Fluency: Preliminary Tests of a Perceptual Fluency/ Attributional Model of the Mere Exposure Effect. Social Cognition. (2), 103-128. Brown, J. D. (2012). Understanding the better than average effect: Motives (still) matter. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(2), 209-219. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1177/ 0146167211432763 Cacioppo, J. (2002). Foundations in social neuroscience. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Cialdini, R. 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New Scientist, 196(2630), 60. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ S0262-4079(07)62923-6 <?page no="363"?> Index (co-)create value 21 4Ps 219, 221 A accessibility 69 agglomeration 73 allostatic load 53 augmented reality 69 authenticity 207 aviation 75 B big data 69 biological psychology 102 blockchain 69 boundaryless and protean careers 39 brand communication 104 business events 137 business games 248 Business Index Digital 173 Business processes 248 business simulation games 247 business tourism 140 C career 32 carnival 189 chatbots 69 China competence 137 China MICE market 145 China Outbound Event Model (COEM) 138, 139 China strategy 138 Chinese outbound events 143 climate change 88 COEM 138, 139 cognitive psychology 101 commercialisation 202 communication instruments 97 community 207 competitive advantages 235 competitiveness 161 cooperative education 235 core competences 236 corporate social responsibility (CSR) 88, 162 critical discussions 22 CSR 88, 162 cultural heritage 207 curricula 219 Curriculum 300 darmstadtium 161, 178 D deceleration 205 destination image 212 destination management organisations (DMOs) 137 DGNB 169 <?page no="364"?> 364 Index differential psychology 101 digital transformation 163 digitalisation 21, 161, 201, 221 diversity 31 DMOs 137 Double 11 189 E e-commerce 189 economic environment 221 EIC 167 EMAS 170 EMASplus 170 EMBOK 52, 287 Entrepreneurship 271 entrepreneurship education 272 environmental psychology 101 environmental responsibility 205 event destinations 137 event education 295 event experience 97 event management body of knowledge (EMBOK) model 52 event policies 165 event psychology 97 event system theory 124 event view 115 eventology 116 Events Industry Council Sustainable Event Standards (EIC) 167 experiential learning 120 F facial recognition 69 female careers 32 female role models 38 feminisation 32 festivals 189 foundational premises (FPs) 222 FPs 222 G GDS-Index 170 gender 31 gender equality 31 gender gap 33 general psychology 100 glass ceiling 35 glass cliff 45 glass elevator 35 Global Destination Sustainability Index (GDS-Index) 170 Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) 170 globalisation 21, 202 Green Globe Standard 168 GRI 170 H health problems 58 higher education 277 higher learning institutions 235 horizontal segregation 33 I immersive experience 69 inequality 36 information and communication technology 174 innovation 272 <?page no="365"?> Index 365 innovations 69 intangible resources 237 interdisciplinarity 22 internationalisation 21 Internet of Things 69 ISO 20121 169 J job demands 56 job resources 62 job-demands resources (JD-R) model 51 k kaleidoscope career model 39 Knowledge creation 23 L leadership 34 lifeworld 121 live communication 97, 103 local identity 206, 207 M machine learning 69 management decisions 249 management simulation 248 manipulation 97 manipulation effects 105 marketing 219 marketing mix 219 marketisation 202 memories 97 metropolisation 89 micro-, meso-, and macro-levels 224 mobility 69 multisensory 97 multisensory communication 97 mutual exchange 238 N new mobility services (NMS) 84 New Retail 189 NMS 84 O operant resources 224 outbound events 137 P perceptions 97 personal development 115 personality psychology 101 phenomenology 124 placemaking 83 professional education programmes 272 project management 22 psychology 97 psychology of perception 101 psychosocial resources 56 Q quality of life 207 R regionalisation 89 responsibility 202 rite of passage 119 <?page no="366"?> 366 Index ritual 119, 124 robotics 69 S scene 126 S-D logic 219, 225 security 71 segregation 31 service-dominant logic 219 servicescape 127 sharing economies 69 shopping festivals 189 Slow Cities 202 Slow Events 202 Slow Food 202 Slow Movement 201 Slow Philosophy 203 Slow Travel and Tourism 202, 204 slower consumption 207 slowness 203 social change 119 social psychology 100 societal transformation 21 stakeholders 124 sticky floor 35 Strategic Management 250 strategies 137 stress 53 stressors 53 sustainability 161 sustainability policy 166 sustainable development 161 sustainable event standards 167 SWOT analysis 152 symbol 122 T talent cultivation 273 tangible resources 237 teaching tool 247 technology 71 The German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) 169 token status 43 total immersion 71 trends 298 triangulation 301 U unique selling proposition 212 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 181 V value chains 161 value co-creation 219 value of things 124 value-creation spaces 221 vertical labour market segregation 33 virtual reality 69 W wage inequality 32 women 32 work stress 51 world view 115 <?page no="367"?> Jürg Häusermann Konstruktive Rhetorik Der Dialog als Schlüssel zum erfolgreichen Vortrag 2019, 300 Seiten €[D] 29,99 ISBN 978-3-7398-3007-0 eISBN 978-3-7398-8007-5 Wenn Menschen sich angeregt unterhalten, leidenschaftlich diskutieren und sich Antworten auf brennende Fragen geben, ist Kommunikation erfolgreich. 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KG Dischingerweg 5 \ 72070 Tübingen \ Germany \ Tel. +49 (07071) 9797-0 Fax +49 (07071) 97 97-11 \ willkommen@uvk.de \ www.narr.de <?page no="368"?> www.utb-shop.de Das Must-have für (angehende) EventmanagerInnen Dieter Jäger Grundwissen Eventmanagement 2017, 2. überarb. Aufl. 214 Seiten, Broschur ISBN 978-3-8252-4799-7 € 24,99 Kongresse, Festivals oder sportliche Großveranstaltungen planen und organisieren - das ist für viele ein Traumberuf. Hinter diesen Events steckt allerdings eine hochprofessionelle Branche. Die zweite, überarbeitete Auflage dieses Buchs verrät Studierenden und Quereinsteigern alles Wissenswerte über Geschichte, Akteure, Organisationen und Event-Formate. Zudem vermittelt es griffig das Grundwissen rund um die Eventplanung, -umsetzung und -evaluierung. <?page no="369"?> Kim Werner | Ye Ding (Eds.) Events - Future, Trends, Perspectives Events - Future, Trends, Perspectives Werner | Ding (Eds.) An international approach! 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