Introduction Configurations of the Third MA RTIN K AGEL Univ ersity of Georgia I. «Nothing is more momentous in any situation than the appearance of a third person,» Charlotte maintains in the opening chapter of Goethe’s 1809 novel Elective Affinities. «I have known friends - brothers and sisters, lovers, husbands and wives - whose circumstances were completely reversed, whose mutual relationship changed completely through the accidental or intentional intrusion of a new person» (9-10). Charlotte’s concern - expressed here as a moral axiom - relates to her husband Eduard’s suggestion that the couple invite an old friend into their house to live with them. Seeking to alleviate her fears, Eduard replies that «[n]othing would be changed by the presence of the Captain; on the contrary, everything would be quickened and stimulated» (9). Any unwelcome intrusion, he later adds, would be preempted by self-awareness. Yet Charlotte is not to be dissuaded. Consciousness alone would be an insufficient guard in this case, she retorts, insisting on the profound transformation effected by the intervention of a third (10). This brief conversation, which foreshadows developments in Goethe’s narrative, offers at least two important insights. First, it identifies the transformative power unleashed by the introduction of a third figure or factor into so-called dyadic relationships (those based on two figures/ factors); secondly, it points to the structural nature of this change. If Charlotte is to be believed - and current scholarship in the humanities and social sciences seems to agree - then the addition of a third interrupts and fundamentally redefines dyadic relationships, regardless of how (or whether) this change is perceived from the inside. And while Charlotte’s comments refer to interpersonal relations, they are not limited in their scope to friends, relatives, spouses, or lovers. Already in the novel we see how the disruption caused by the entrance of a third extends beyond the intimate sphere of two individuals to societal institutions and conceptual understandings. Goethe’s exploration of the change effected by the introduction of a third is mirrored by a recent surge in interest in the subject among scholars in fields such as sociology, psychology, philosophy, cultural and gender studies 210 Martin Kagel seeking to shift the theoretical focus from the relationship between «ego» and «alter» to constellations involving figures and functions of the Third. 1 Figures of mediation, such as the judge, the observer, the bystander, the translator, the messenger, the servant, the scapegoat and the rival, are plentiful in literary and cultural texts. Whereas traditional forms of interpretation commonly relegate them to secondary status, an inquiry attuned to the dynamics of triangulation finds in such figures a key to a more nuanced and frequently novel understanding of dyadic relationships. Creating or arbitrating tension or conflict, or shedding new light on individual characters and their relationship to others, they invite the contemplation of their role in personal interactions or social settings. Similarly, triangular constellations in these texts reflect the qualitative difference created by the introduction of a third to conceptual pairs such as mind and matter, nature and culture, inclusion and exclusion, identity and alterity, precursor and follower, victim and perpetrator. Here, as in other triangular constellations, the presence of a third changes the frequently static juxtaposition of two entities into a more dynamic relational triangle demanding different forms of inquiry and new interpretive approaches. 2 Of course, triangular configurations are so fundamental to Western culture that it seems impossible to historicize their significance. As Albrecht Koschorke has pointed out, the classical European semantic with its dualisms has always been accompanied «by a highly elaborate metaphysics of the third number: from Christian dogma of trinity to neo-platonic triads […]» (13). 3 Koschorke, who along with Claudia Breger, Thomas Bedorf, Joachim Fischer, Gesa Lindemann and Bernhard Malkmus has spearheaded the new scholarship on the Third in German cultural studies and sociology, notes in this context that in the religious and philosophical tradition, the Third functioned mainly as a form of synthesis or - in chronological progression - to reestablish a former unity. The current interest in the notion of the Third, however, which draws on early twentieth-century models, is distinct from any general consideration of cultural triads and triangles with their accompanying transcendence in that it aims to recognize the discrete and irreducible status of an immanent Third (cf. Fischer, «Tertiarität» 136). In the triangular configurations considered here, the Third is not the result of reconciled opposition; rather, it functions as an independent agent requiring the use of a «new grammar of cultural and epistemological negotiations» (Koschorke 13). As a category, it comprises a spectrum of different figures and functions, which in social theory is otherwise only associated with the notion of the Other. «The fourth or the fifth does not produce a plenitude like the Other or Third» («Tertiarität» 147), Joachim Fischer observes, add- Introduction 211 ing that in plural constellations dyadic and triadic configurations normally are duplicated and repeat themselves while intersecting with each other. Insofar as dyadic relationships reference the Third by anticipation, in retrospect, by inclusion or exclusion, it appears that the Third is always already present, prestructuring intersubjectivity of different kinds. «There is,» as Fischer puts it, not only the Other as partner in dialogue, but also the absent Third as our subject; not only the Other as co-agent, but also the Third as observer, eavesdropper, witness; not only the Other as absentee, but also the Third as messenger; not only the Other cooperating, but also the Third scheming, not only the Other as trusted confidante, but also the Third as stranger; […] not only the Other as partner in trade, but the Third as dealer; […] not only the courted Other, but the rival and competitor; […] not only the Other as superior, but the Third as backer, as savior; not only the Other as antagonist, but the Third as mediator; not only the Other as opponent, but the Third as beneficiary; […] not only you and I as friends or even lovers, but the Third who does not belong, who has been excluded as «tertius miserabilis.» («Der Dritte» 126) II. There is as yet no established history of scholarship on the notion or theory of the Third. Next to its critical function in Freudian psychoanalysis, which itself provides a foundational template for our understanding of triangular relations, scholars have pointed to German sociologist Georg Simmel as one of the first to consider the significance of the Third in social theory. Writing a century after the publication of Goethe’s novel, Simmel maintains that modern society is constituted at the core via the introduction of the relational triangle. «Where three elements, A, B, C, constitute a group,» Simmel writes in his Sociology, «there is, in addition to the direct relationship between A and B, for instance, their indirect one, which is derived from their common relation to C» (135). The latter relationship separates and connects A and B in different ways and hence objectifies (or institutionalizes) their relationship, while also calling it into question (cf. Lüdemann 85). As Simmel points out, «the indirect relation does not only strengthen the direct one. It may also disturb it. No matter how close a triad may be, there is always the occasion on which two of the three members regard the third as an intruder» (135). 4 Simmel’s basic model of society stands at the beginning of a systematic theory that accounts for qualitative change via the introduction of a third cause, recognizing both its destabilizing and stabilizing effects. In the current discussion, his reflections serve as a framework for the rethinking of personal, institutional and conceptual relationships in a social context. 212 Martin Kagel Within this framework, the position of the Third offers not only a different perspective, but its «dynamic of indirectness» (Koschorke 18) also allows for new forms of codification of existing relationships. Hence, the systematic reflection on the status of the Third - as Thomas Bedorf, Joachim Fischer, and Gesa Lindeman point out in the introduction to their Theorien des Dritten - «changes our understanding of subject, social existence and knowledge, and opens up new possibilities of observation and evaluation» (8). Besides Freud and Simmel, an important reference point for the genealogy of scholarship on the Third has been the work of literary scholar and cultural philosopher René Girard. Girard’s study Deceit, Desire, and the Novel (1965; originally published in 1961 as Mesonge romantique et verité romanesque), in which he analyzed constellations of triangular desire in classic nineteenth-century novels, initiated the exploration of triangulation in literary texts, which he himself expanded to ritual and religion in his investigation of the scapegoat in Violence and the Sacred (1972), his second major monograph. All desire, Girard argued in his first study, is mimetic and mediated through third figures rather than direct, spontaneous and rooted in the desired object. «The great novelists,» Girard states, «reveal the imitative nature of desire» (14) and its dynamic of ambivalence fueled by three triangular emotions, «envy, jealousy, and impotent hatred» (40). In the highest state of mediation, such as in Dostoevsky’s novels, he notes, «there is no longer any love without jealousy, any friendship without envy, any attraction without repulsion» (41). A further point of reference for current scholarship on the Third is the challenge to binary thinking presented by post-structural and post-colonial theory. While post-structuralism aimed at deconstructing or otherwise breaking down binarisms and exposing the ideological foundations in the construction of knowledge, notions like hybridity and liminality, such as they are commonly employed in post-colonial theory, denote an in-between territory that binary logic suppresses in discursive space. Homi Bhabha’s widely adopted concept of a third space identifies a cultural space that is not simply the mixture of minority and majority culture, but rather a new «location» from which both can be redefined. Pointing to the role of working-class women in the British miner’s strike of 1984-85, who in the course of their protest against the British government also began to question their role in the family and the community, Bhabha notes that the transformative power of the hybrid moment lies «in the rearticulation, or translation, of elements that are neither the One (unitary working class) nor the Other (the politics of gender) but something else besides, which contests the terms and territories of both» (28). Jonathan Rutherford, who contemplated questions of politi- Introduction 213 cal identity in relation to that same event, noted that the different positions represented in the strike highlighted difference rather than a fixed identity «reducible to the single logic of class» («A Place Called Home» 19). The convergence of issues of class and gender challenged not only left chauvinism, he maintained, but in doing so also «the leftist assertion that the strike was an homogeneous working class engaged in a singular struggle» (18). The continuous negotiation of identity as a positioning through difference, both authors suggest, ultimately eschews the «simplistic polarity between the ruler and the ruled» in favor of a «‹third space,› which enables other positions to emerge» (Rutherford, «Interview with Homi Bhabha» 220). Recent scholarly work on the Third does not reflect an attempt to critique or transcend the approaches of Homi Bhabha or others such as Jacques Lacan, Michel Serres, Judith Butler, or post-colonial and post-structural theory more generally. Indeed, it recognizes the importance of such theory for conceiving the passage from the Other to the Third. Therefore, current scholarship on triangulation focuses less on deconstructing, overcoming or negotiating traditional binary oppositions than on highlighting the significance of figures and factors operating in relation to them in ways often not sufficiently understood or appreciated. In this sense, research on the Third is probably best described as a form of cultural inquiry operating alongside and, at least partially, on the basis of current theories, incorporating approaches from different fields of study and drawing on their insights. From ethics to epistemology to aesthetics, the eccentric position of the Third underscores the asymmetry of dyadic relationships and provides a critically important perspective on the formation of the subject and its socialization. Moreover, against the background of transcultural negotiations, it offers a more accurate form of reflection on cultural heterogeneity. Perhaps one of the most conspicuous outcomes in this context is that the basic notion of (cultural) difference has been elevated from the comparison of differences to the discussion of forms and methods of differentiation. In cultural triangulation, in other words - similar to though not identical to post-colonial theory - the emphasis is on staging encounters or observing the migration of texts and meanings rather than on a search for origins, stable contrasts or principle juxtapositions. In this sense, the primacy of a relational understanding in triangular relationships - in contrast to a comparative one in a dyadic constellation - is also relevant to the study of the movement of people, objects, concepts and texts across borders and different regions. To reflect on the mediation that transfer and translation entail and to consider national relations in a con- 214 Martin Kagel text beyond the fruitless iteration of static and often preconceived opposites can doubtless deepen our appreciation of transnational connections. The humanities and social sciences, as Joachim Fischer has maintained, are uniquely positioned to inquire into the role of the Third, since they form a specific group of academic disciplines focused on theorizing intersubjectivity. Historically based on inquiring into the Other, the reflection on the Third here becomes a logical supplement to the discussion of identity and alterity, while also representing «one step ahead […] a step between alterity and plurality» («Turn to the Third» 96). Because of their shared focus, triangular readings also lend themselves to combining humanities research with that in the social sciences, where adding a third perspective has routinely been employed to validate results or as a way to gain additional knowledge (Flick 309). Moreover, in fields like geography or geometry, methods of triangulation have been used for centuries to determine location and measure distance. While such methods may not be transferred directly into literary and cultural study, mapping, navigation, and surveying can be more than mere metaphors here, when they are employed as figures of theoretical thought. Beyond the immediate connection, in other words, the room opened by triangulation provides opportunities for potential associations, adding complexity and enlarging understanding. III. Among the different contexts in which the Third has become relevant to my own thinking, such as in the research on friendship in eighteenth-century Germany, where it appears that a Third is always needed to balance principally asymmetrical relationships, or the question of literary influence, where precursor and follower frequently speak to each other by way of a Third, I want to highlight one example that initially informed the conceptual thinking out of which this collection of essays has grown. 5 This is in the figure of the bystander, or observer, in the context of the Holocaust. A few years ago, I was invited by the organizers of the Athens Jewish Film Festival to introduce Yael Hersonski’s 2010 documentary A Film Unfinished, a film whose disquieting revelations I have continued to ponder ever since. The starting point for Hersonski’s inquiry was the discovery in 1998 of about thirty minutes of outtakes from a partially edited film German Nazis shot in the Warsaw Ghetto in the spring of 1942, just before the deportations to the extermination camps of Treblinka, Majdanek and Auschwitz began. An hour of footage from that same film had originally been discovered in 1954 in an East German film archive, and the images it presented had gener- Introduction 215 ally been considered «historical» in the sense that they recorded the Ghetto reality. With this understanding, the footage was used in museums around the world and also found its way into feature films on the Holocaust, for example Roman Polanski’s The Pianist (2002). What was significant about the discovery of the outtakes was that the additional material showed that Nazi filmmakers had actually staged several of the scenes, a fact that rendered the pictures taken even more chilling than they had already seemed. In light of this discovery, Hersonski, a young Israeli filmmaker, began her own inquiry «into the truth as well as the deception of documentary representation» (Insdorf), calling into question the veracity of the entire footage, and, equally important, drawing attention to those who shot the film in Warsaw. Only one of the cameramen has ever been known by name, Willy Wist. When, during post-war German investigations, he was interviewed about his role in Nazi crimes in the Ghetto, Wist readily admitted that he had been part of the film crew in Warsaw, but claimed not to remember the names of superiors and, predictably, denied any knowledge of the Holocaust. Overall, he exhibited a conspicuous emotional distance to the scenes he had recorded on camera. Watching and listening to a reenactment of Wist’s interview, I wondered about the culpability of this man who observed the crimes the Nazis committed and chose not to interfere. Although he may have been ignorant of the regime’s designs for the so-called final solution, the conditions in the Ghetto were such that it is absolutely inconceivable that Wist did not understand that murder was being committed there. Yet he elected to do nothing, and in so doing, became complicit in the crimes that were committed in Warsaw. 6 In his defense, Wist made himself appear as the proverbial bystander caught in the criminal web that the regime had spun, and legally, there seemed to be no grounds to convict someone who simply observed and recorded the events in the Ghetto. In the context of a theory of the Third, however, Wist’s status as an observer would not equal that of an outsider; rather, it would place him among those who helped execute and justify the inhumanity he witnessed. The feeling of empathy, as Fritz Breithaupt argued in his book Kulturen der Empathie - also a study on the Third - is always connected to a choosing of sides in triangular constellations (152). Wist chose a side. Seeing Wist as the Third invalidates his claim to neutrality, given that he does not stand outside the dyadic relationship between perpetrator and victim; rather, objectifying Jewish suffering through his camera’s lens, he is an integral part of this relationship. He does not have to be the Other vis-à-vis the victims, nor does he have to hate or physically abuse them. As the Third, 216 Martin Kagel he becomes an ally of those who murder, simply by rendering human relations abstract. Showing the suffering of the Ghetto inmates in a manner devoid of empathy, rehearsal and all - that is his crime. In a rather profound sense, then, Wist’s case exhibits the ethical dimension in triangulation, including the way in which the theory of the Third can help elucidate this dimension. IV. The essays presented in this special double issue of Colloquia Germanica stake out new ground insofar as they complement the conceptual focus of the current discussion of the Third with an exemplary corpus of Triangular Readings. Some of the readings focus on the figure and function of a third in specific texts, while others bring together three different texts for new and creative readings. Both approaches recognize the considerable «poetic productivity» (Koschorke 28) in triadic constellations and seek to illuminate previously hidden connections and meanings. The collection begins with two foundational essays. Daniel Wilson’s inquiry into Goethe’s erotic imaginary highlights the structural role of the Third for the aesthetic and erotic encounters of the Weimar poet and its significance for their literary representation in his writing. «So mystifizierte ich mich selbst […],» Goethe maintains in Dichtung und Wahrheit when he recalls his first amorous relationship as a youth in Frankfurt and the outof-self persona in which he combined erotic sensibility and literary production (Werke 9: 168). Considering Goethe’s Winckelmann essay and his Venetian Epigrams, Wilson skillfully lays out the evidence for how the Third in the form of an imaginary person - an experiential and poetic device - aids Goethe’s exploration of, and reflection on, human sexuality. Although there is no direct relationship, a subterranean link seems to exist between Goethe’s imaginary Third and Georg Simmel’s Third «as imaginative form,» as both understand this positionality as a critical form of selfreflection. Elizabeth Goodstein’s comprehensive discussion of Simmel’s excursus on «The Stranger» explores the notions of Third and Thirdness as central figures in Simmel’s thinking and theoretical enterprise. Simmel, Goodstein argues, is «both a theorist and an exemplar of Thirdness,» positioned in the liminal space between sociology and philosophy. More than simply a reflection of Simmel’s own status, however, his figure of the stranger delineates a particularly modernist form of human experience, one that both defines and defies social totality. The two essays that follow represent unique theoretical approaches to triangulation that emphasize the significance of triangular readings at the Introduction 217 intersection of aesthetics and politics. Matt Erlin’s seismological location of Schiller’s letters on the aesthetic education of man «at the intersection of three conceptual frames» - eighteenth-century republicanism, European literary history, and Adorno’s reflections on the sedimentation of social phenomena in art - aims to pinpoint their particular «discursive moment.» Aesthetics here is politics in a quite literal sense, as Schiller envisions in the encounter with art not only a form of rebirth. Aesthetic education, Erlin argues, also fulfills a function structurally analogous to that of landed property in republican theory. In its emphasis on constellation, Erlin’s contribution is linked to John P. Short’s investigation of the natural history object, «starfish, corals, iguanas - sought in the remotest places for assembly into exotic collections for edification and exchange,» as a third element in the «powerful duality of economic subject and object.» Short’s essay is evocative not just in the images that accompany his inquiry, but also because of the many ambiguities the natural history object carries with it as it collapses distances of time and space. In the growing global consciousness of late nineteenth-century Europe, it emerges as a cultural form in which new relations of exchange become manifest and, in this way, functions as both subject and expression of global capitalism. Three pairs of essays on texts from different literary periods constitute the remaining body of triangular readings. Matthias Meyer and Alexander Sager, both scholars of medieval German literature, discuss the Third in the context of the Arthurian Romance and medieval poetry. Meyer focuses on internal and external figures mediating and structuring the encounter between the aristocratic court and the world of adventure, while Sager traces the development of the figure of the watchman in the German Tagelied from outside observer to internalized voice of reason and conscience. Sager’s discussion of the medieval watchman shares with William Donahue’s essay on Annette von Droste-Hülshoff’s Die Judenbuche an interest in the explanatory presence of a third, seemingly marginal, yet actually central character who is key to understanding a text’s moral and social narrative. In Donahue’s reading of the Judenbuche, Johannes Niemand’s role is significant especially with regard to the story’s oft-debated anti-Semitism, a discussion to which Donahue adds a new perspective, that of the Third. Triangulating different editorial projects by the Brothers Grimm (Hartmann von Aue’s Der arme Heinrich, the fairy tales, and the collection of Deutsche Sagen, all projects happening at about the same time), Ann Schmiesing inquires into the relationship between the Grimms’ appropriation of medieval literature and their purported recovery of Volkspoesie. Looking at individual stories as well as introductions and other commen- 218 Martin Kagel tary, Schmiesing carefully reconstructs how Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm imbued the different texts «with their own notions of gender roles or of cultural nationalism,» rendering their edited work a mixture of the stories they collected, their own class-based values, and their political agenda rather than a presentation of the unmediated voice of the people. Ela Gezen and Antje Krueger complete the collection of triangular readings with their discussion of twentieth-century authors and texts. Gezen provides a transnational perspective in her analysis of the relationship between German, Turkish and Turkish-German authors Bertolt Brecht, Nazım Hikmet, and Aras Ören. In Ören’s narrative poem, Was will Nyazi in der Naunynstraße? , German and Turkish labor history are intertwined and so are Brecht’s, Hikmet’s and Ören’s conceptions for an emancipatory form of literary realism that has a role in social, revolutionary practice. Finally, in her analysis of Uwe Timm’s «sprechende Situationen,» Antje Krueger returns to the question of positionality. «Sprechende Situationen» are remembered or narrated events whose authenticity is underscored by the fact that they are retold in the text. In addition, they also speak for themselves. In Krueger’s view these sections assume a third position in Timm’s narratives, as they, situated between fact and fiction, allow historical and imagined realities to converge, thereby creating something more telling, and, in a way, more truthful than either could alone. V. Following the initial discussion between Charlotte and Albert about the impact a third person might have on their relationship, the notion of the Third no longer appears in the text of Goethe’s Elective Affinities. Throughout the novel, however, every single relationship is mediated and reconfigured either directly or conceptually by a Third, be it a person, such as the architect, the teacher, Charlotte’s daughter Luciane, Ottilie’s late father or the fittingly named Mittler, or a conceptual reference point, such as the military, the building projects and landscape design. Moreover, the Third is also present in the self-conscious role-playing of the main characters, all of whom operate in what could be called the mode of the Third, a state of mind negotiating the belief in fate with the equally strong conviction of self-determination, in which factual and imagined reality run parallel. 7 The Third, in other words, does not have to be introduced into Goethe’s novel. It is - and this seems to apply in different ways to all the texts discussed in this collection - always already there. Introduction 219 Notes 1 Cf. Breger and Döring 1998; Bedorf, Fischer, and Lindemann 2010; Eßlinger et al. 2010; Cooper and Malkmus 2013. 2 Cf. Erlin and Kagel, «Unter Geschäftsmännern» 283-84. 3 Unless noted otherwise, all translations from the German are my own. 4 Simmel notes: «The sociological structure of the dyad is characterized by two phenomena that are absent from it. One is the intensification of relation by a third element or by a social framework that transcends both members of the dyad. The other is any disturbance and distraction of pure and immediate reciprocity. […] This intimacy, which is the tendency of relations between two persons, is the reason why the dyad constitutes the chief seat of jealousy (136). 5 On friendship, see Kagel, «Authoring Amity»; on the question of influence, see Kagel, «Tod eines Genossen.» 6 Cf. Koschorke 27. 7 Cf. in this context Fritz Breithaupt’s discussion of Goethe’s notion of «selbstbewußte Illusion» (Breithaupt, Jenseits der Bilder 57-58). Works Cited Bedorf, Thomas, Joachim Fischer, and Gesa Lindeman, eds. Theorien des Dritten. Innovation in Soziologie und Sozialphilosophie. München: Wilhelm Fink, 2010. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. Breger, Claudia, and Tobias Döring, eds. Figuren der/ des Dritten. Erkundungen kultureller Zwischenräume. 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