Reinhard R. K. Hartmann Bilingualised versions of learners' dictionaries Abstract. The paper discusses the relatively new genre of the bilingualised learner's dictionary, first in terms of four divisions of dictionary research (history, typology, criticism, and use) and then in the light of a project which assessed the reaction of 28 informants to seven bilingualised versions of dictionaries for Arabic, Greek, Korean, German, French and Spanish learners of English, whose reference acts were observed by student investigators during a reading comprehension task. lt appears that the combination of target-language definitions and mother-tongue translation equivalents is an attractive feature of such dictionaries, especially for decoding activities. While new variants of this format may be developed in future, a case is made here for more research into those dictionary reference skills of user-learners which involve interlingual acts. 1. lntroduction The 'bilingualised learner's dictionary', a relatively new genre at the intersection of monolingual, bilingual and pedagogical lexicography, has not been given much attention in the growing literature on lexicography. lt is not mentioned in Zgusta's (1988) bibliography, and only one of the 334 articles of the international encyclopedia Wörterbücher/ Dictionaries/ Dictionnaires devotes any space to it. Tue aim of this paper is to evaluate the bilingualised learner's dictionary in terms of several branches of dictionary research (notably dictionary history, dictionary typology, dictionary criticism, and dictionary use). lt also contains a report on a limited project, the first of its kind, on user reaction to half a dozen exemplars of this dictionary type (see acknowledgements on page 209 f). 2. The bilingualised leamer's dictionary in dictionary research A füll metalexicographic account of the bilingualised learner's dictionary has not been attempted to date, although some features of the genre have been discussed in isolated papers (Reif 1987, Hartmann 1992). lt is or should be the task of 'metalexicography' or 'dictionary research' to describe the possibilities and shortcomings of any new reference work that may be developed in one or more of the world's lexicographic traditions, but perhaps the bilingualised learner's dictionary is considered too recent and as yet too marginal to deserve close scrutiny. 2.1 Dictionary history teaches us not only how much dictionary makers have depended on their predecessors, but also how closely intertwined the unilingual and FLuL 23 (1994) Bilingualised versions of learners' dictionaries 207 the interlingual approaches to lexicography have been across space and time (cf. Hartmann 1994). Translation did play a rriajor part in 'glossing' the meanings of lexemes long before the polyglot dictionaries of Renaissance Europe, and the early compilers of bilingual dictionaries (Comenius, Palsgrave, Hollyband, and Florio) were concemed at least as much with didactisation as with translation. Just six early pioneers of translated versions of dictionaries may suffice to represent the many examples of this type here: 1502 Ambrogio Calepino publishes a Latin-ltalian dictionary which formed the basis for many polyglot dictionaries later; 1603 the Japanese-Portuguese 'Vocabulario' is compiled by Jesuits, later translated into Spanish (1630) and French (1868); 1717 Fran~ois Halma produces a Dutch adaptation of Richelet's French dictionary; 1843 Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott translate Franz Passow's Greek- German dictionary (1819-24) into English; 1909 T.A. Swaminatha Aiyar compiles an English-English-Tamil dictionary for school use; 1939 R.C. Pathak issues an Anglo-Hindi edition of Bhargava's English dictionary. Seen in this wider historical perspective, the recent dogma of the English learner's dictionary as a monolingual pedagogical tool (cf. Herbst 1990) becomes almost an aberration, particularly, as Henry Sweet pointed out over a hundred years ago, learners regularly seek the psycholinguistic assurance of translation equivalents by consulting bilingual dictionaries. For all these reasons, the notion of a bilingualised learner's dictionary is no longer an oddity. As early as 1966, Oxford University Press approved a bilingualised Chinese version of the Advanced Learner's Dictionary (published in Taipei, later in Hong Kong), and later followed it with a Japanese version of the Duden Pictorial German-English Dictionary and a bilingual adaptation for Norwegian of the Student's Dictionary of Current English, both published in 1983, while a year before that Longman and Houghton-Mifflin bad commissioned bilingualised dictionaries for Portuguese and Spanish, respectively. Since 1986, Kemerman Publishers of Tel Aviv, Israel, have produced a series of 'semi-bilingual' (or Password) dictionaries for learners of Hebrew, Arabic and a number of European, Asian and African languages based on minor Oxford, Harrap and Collins dictionaries. Meanwhile, bilingualisations of English dictionaries published by British publishers continue, especially in the Par East (Longman Asia in Hong Kong list over 20 such items in their catalogue, including the Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English), and the Japanese tradition of adapting mainly North American dictionaries has been flourishing for decades (cf. Nagashima 1991). FLuL 23 (1994) 208 Reinhard R. K. Hartmann 2.2 Dictionary typology has the task of describing and classifying the whole range of available dictionaries. John Battenburg (1991: 117), in his book on English monolingual learners' dictionaries, explicitly acknowledges the feasibility, even desirability, of "creating dictionaries whicp. are written in both the users' source and target languages" and lists several works combining features of the bilingual and monolingual dictionary, but does not offer a characterisation of the niche into which the bilingualised learner's dictionary might fit. Others have stressed the 'hybrid' nature of this genre: bilingualised versions of learners' dictionaries are compromise products lying awkwardly between the monolingual ('Bedeutungswörterbuch') and the bilingual ('Übersetzungswörterbuch'), between the general/ multi-purpose ('Gebrauchswörterbuch') and the specialised/ pedagogical ('Erwerbswörterbuch'), and even between the alphabetic ('semasiologisches Wörterbuch') and the thematic ('onomasiologisches Wörterbuch'). Tue attractiveness of combining target-language definitions with source-language translation equivalents is universally acknowledged as an advantage in bilingualised dictionaries, but their main disadvantage is rarely recognised: these dictionaries are usually one-directional, i.e. from the target-language, e.g. English, to the mother tongue, e.g. Chinese, which makes it virtually impossible to use them for any purpose other than 'decoding'. Given a context, the word in question is explained (in the sense in which it occurs in the text) by means of a definition and an equivalent, and perhaps even illustrated by a verbal example, but this would not enable the learner-user to verify its appropriate use in a target-language composition, especially in a translation task, because an index in the reverse direction (as demanded by Svensen 1993: 13) is not usually included. This limitation even applies to bilingualisations of more specialised dictionaries such as thesauruses or collocation dictionaries ! Recently we have seen a widening in the range and scope of such dictionaries (which parallels developments in monolingual and bilingual lexicography) to collocational, thematic and pictorial reference books for learners, and it is not inconceivable that many more of these specialised dictionaries will be bilingualised in future. 2.3 Dictionary criticism, or the evaluation and assessment of one or more reference works against some objective criteria, with due regard to details of macrostructure and micro-structure, dictionary production and use, has hardly shown rauch concem for the profile of the bilingualised dictionary, and there is no corpus of reviews to draw on yet. Ekkehard Zöfgen (1991: 2889), in the encyclopedia article already referred to, dismisses it in a single paragraph as "insufficient in regard to the standards which ought to be set for a true bilingual learner's dictionary". This statement reflects the misgivings about its restriction to the decoding function mentioned above, but underrates the obvious advantage of combining monolingual and interlingual explication by means of definition and translation (see below). FLuL 23 (1994) Bilingualised versions of learners' dictionaries 209 2.4 Dictionary use, the most recent and promising division of dictionary research, is a way of relating lexicographic 'production' to the needs of 'consumers'. Compilers of dictionaries with a pedagogical orientation have the duty to verify and satisfy the specific reference skills of their targeted leamer-users. Since the earliest user studies we have known that "the extent of the dictionary use depends on the nature of the skill practised" (Tomaszczyk 1979: 108), and that while the bilingual dictionary is the predominant tool in translation-type exercises, little instruction is given on its merits and demerits (Hartmann 1982). In an effort to answer the demand for more interdisciplinary and international controlled observational studies, an empirical project of European proportions (Atkins & Knowles 1990) brought new comparative data about the use of dictionaries by over 1,100 leamers of English in seven different countries. These once more confirm the finding that 75% of the students use a bilingual dictionary and only 25% a monolingual. Unfortunately, the bilingualised versions of monolingual leamers' dictionaries have not yet been subjected to such large-scale user studies. Only one relevant project, as yet unpublished, is known to me: Batia Laufer & Linor Melamed (forthcoming). The authors tested the effectiveness of monolingual, bilingual and 'bilingualised' dictionaries in the comprehension and production of new words by high-school and university students of English in Haifa, Israel. The tentative results seem to suggest a high correlation between dictionary type and dictionary reference skill. Apparently, "the combination of the monolingual information which contains definition and examples with a translation of the new word into the leamer's mother tongue" in the bilingualised dictionary produces better scores than either the monolingual or the bilingual dictionary overall, although there are variations according to relative proficiency, with unskilled users benefiting more from the bilingual dictionary and good users getting better test scores with the monolingual dictionary. Regardless of dictionary type and content, most user studies recommend more deliberate instruction as a way of increasing effective use, which is why some dictionary publishers have started issuing teaching manuals or leaming materials. For a small minority of bilingualised leamers' dictionaries, such 'workbooks' or practice sheets have been published, but not yet evaluated (cf. Stark 1990). 3. Seven bilingualised dictionaries in use One of the 5 basic modules on the Exeter M.A. Course in Lexicography is devoted to the 'user perspective'. During the first term of the 1993-94 session, all students on that course and 3 other postgraduates specialising in Lexicography participated in a collaborative project on the use of bilingualised leamers' dictionaries 1• 1 Acknowledgements: The eight student collaborators in the project are listed in alphabetical order of surnames in Chart 1 on page 212. They completed a competent piece of research far in FLuL 23 (1994) 210 Reinhard R. K. Hartmann 3.1 Selection Given linguistic specialisation of the student observers and availability of dictionaries, the following titles were chosen for the investigation 2: 1. Harrap's English Dictionary for Speakers of Arabic, 2. Omega English Leamer's Dictionary for Speakers of Greek, 3. Oxford Advanced Leamer's Dictionary of Current English, English-English-Korean, 4. Oxford Grundwörterbuch English-German Deutsch-Englisch, 5. Password English Dictionary for Speakers of French, 6. Password English Dictionary for Speakers of Spanish, 7. Vox-Chambers English Leamers' Dictionary con traducci6n al espaiiol. All are recent editions published within the last 12 years, all are adaptations of English dictionaries issued within the last 19 years, either by the original publishing hause in conjunction with a publisher in another country (3 and 4) or by a foreign publisher with the British publisher of the original dictionary bilaterally (1 and 7) or with the involvement of a third publisher (2, 5 and 6). Four (1, 2, 5, 6) are part of the ~Kemerman series of 'Semi-bilingual' or 'Password' dictionaries. They range in size from large-advanced (3) to small-basic (4), with most in the medium-size-intermediate category (1, 2, 5, 6, 7). Only three have a reverse index (German-English, in 4, French-English, in 5, and Spanish-English, in 7). Tue five original dictionaries used for the bilingualisations were the Oxford Advanced Leamer's Dictionary 1974 edition (for 3), the Oxford Elementary Leamer's Dictionary (1981, for 4), the Harrap's Easy English Dictioitary (1980, for 1 and 6), the Chambers Concise Usage Dictionary (1985, for 2 and 5), and the Chambers Universal Leamers' Dictionary (1980, for 7). excess of the original assignment. Chantal Perez Hernandez, in particular, helped with the preparation of checklists used in the interviews and the analysis of data gathered. But all this work would have been in vain had it not been for the generous help given by the 28 informants. I am also grateful to a number of people who have helped me with ideas and information, e.g. about examples and forerunners of the bilingualised dictionary: Gloria Corpas Pastor, Willem Grootaers, Gregory James, Nazih Kassis, Kyohei Nakamoto, Trevor Learmouth, Toshide Onuma, Noel Osselton, Joseph Reif, and Ladislav Zgusta. Several publishers have helped by supplying dictionaries and dictionary workbooks and information about them. I am especially grateful to: Aman Chiu (Longman Asia, Hong Kong), Andrew Hastings (Vox Biblograf, Barcelona), Lionel and Ilan Kernerman (Password Publishers, Tel Aviv), Moira Runcie (Oxford U.P., Oxford), Della Summers (Longman, Harlow), Sally Wehmeier (Oxford U.P., Oxford), and Wong Wai-man (Oxford U.P., Hong Kong). Finally, I should like to acknowledge my indebtedness to Ekkehard Zöfgen, Bielefeld, for his encouragement of the work reported here. 2 Bibliographical details are given in the References, Section (a); one entry from each is reproduced in the Appendix (page 218 ff). FLuL 23 (1994) Bilingualised versions of leamers' dictionaries 211 3.2 Translation lt is not always easy to determine how and by whom the process of bilingualisation was undertaken. The dictionaries differ as to how much credit they give to translators; some list them as such (in 1, two on the title-page, four on the back of the title-page; in 2, one on the title-page; in 3, the head of the team of translators is named on the title-page; in 4, one translator is included in a list of collaborators; in 5, one on the inside; in 6, one on the back of the title-page), some do not specify (as in 5 or 7) how much the translating function was allied to that of the editor of the bilingualised version (editors of the original dictionary are mentioned, but it is not clear how much say they bad in the translation). Tue project was not concerned with the quality of the translation equivalents, but we noted (a) a wide variety of formats (see the extracts in the Appendix on page 218 ff) from a single-word equivalent for each of the chief senses of the headword (as in 1, 2, 5, 6) through the partial translation of examples in the entry (as in 4) to the füll translation of the definition and all verbal illustrations (as in 3) and (b) a relative uniformity in the treatment of tr-anslations in the Password/ Semi-bilingual dictionaries, which we understand is due to a set of identical instructions issued by Mr. Kemerman to all respective editors. These recommend, inter alia, brief one-word equivalents reflecting 'broad usage'. Translations need not necessarily be unambiguous, as disambiguation is in any case provided by the English definition. 3.3 Methodology Due to the specific timing, available informants and resource constraints of the project, our choice of possible research methods was severely limited. Tue overall criterion was manageability, followed by generalisability of results derived from a comparable task in a realistic experimental setting. W e preferred direct observation to indirect opinion polling, thus a structured interview with one or more informants made more sense than a questionnaire survey. We decided early on that a reading comprehension exercise, based on a text chosen by the informants themselves, would probably be more motivating and less artificial than a series of questions based on a common text. More elaborate thinking-aloud protocols, while desirable from the methodological point of view, were ruled out as too time-consuming. After a period of initial training on the principles of the 'user-perspective' (cf. Hartmann 1989), the research design was developed collectively in class meetings involving discussion and compromise decisions on strategies to be employed. Each of the eight students (referred to as 'observers', 'testers' or 'investigators', see Chart 1 on page 212) undertook to find and interview three or more 'informants' and to interview and observe them during a reading comprehension task involving the use of a bilingualised dictionary and (optionally) a dictionary brought along by the informant. FLuL 23 (1994) 212 Reinhard R. K. Hartmann Name of Mother Dictionary Number of Sex Age Subjects Meetings Investigators Tongue Tested lnformants Studied at E. Held Mesfer HARRAP's Ar 1 F 23 Engl. Lang. 2 AL-THEBAITI ,ARABIC (1) Ar2 M 26 Med. Phys. 2 Ar 3 M 28 Publ. Adm. 1 Mi-ock CHO Ko 1 M 40 Publ. Adm. 2 & Young-kuk both OXFORD Ko 2 M 31 Politics 2 KOREAN (3) Ko 3 M 30 English Lit. 2 JEONG Ko4 M 31 Law 2 Gr 1 F 26 Law 2 Eleftheria OMEGA Gr2 M 22 Finance 2 PAPANIKO- GREEK (2) Gr 3 F 23 MBA 2 LAOU Gr4 M 24 MBA 2 Gr 5 F 23 Law 2 Chantal Vox- Sp 1 M 21 Economics 3 1 PEREZ-HER- SPANISH Chambers Sp 2 F 22 Economics 3 1 NANDEZ (7) Sp 3 F 22 Engl. Ling. 3 1 Sandra PASSWORD Sp 4 M 21 Law 3 1 PYNE ENGLISH Spanish Sp 5 M 22 Engl. Ling. 3 1 (6) Sp 6 M 24 Politics 3 1 Ge 1 F 23 English Lit. 2 OXFORD Ge 2 F 22 English Lit. 2 Susan DUTCH GWB Ge 3 M 22 English Lit. 2 RIDDER (4) Ge4 F 23 Engl./ Drama 2 Ge 5 M 27 English Lit. 2 Ge 6 M 26 Engl./ Germ. 2 PASSWORD Fr 1 M 22 English Lit. 1 John-Paul ENGLISH French Fr 2 F 23 Psychology 1 YOUNG (5) Fr 3 M 23 English Lit. 1 Fr 4 M 25 Social Stud. 1 Chart 1: Observers and observed 3.4 Project stages After reaching agreement on the methods appropriate to test the reaction of users to the seven dictionaries selected, a number of checklists were prepared to assist the testers with their task: (a) one page of 'pre-task' questions to gather data about 3 ERASMUS-Programme FLuL 23 (1994) Bilingualised versions of leamers' dictionaries 213 the informants (name, age, sex, subject specialisation, level of English proficiency and familiarity with dictionaries), including 'Notes to the tester' about the task; (b) four pages of points to bear in mind when observing the dictionary user, including 'Notes to the tester' about how to explain the 'task' of reading the chosen text with the help of a dictionary and analytical questions about such details as whether the informant looks at the front and back matter of the dictionary and how he/ she scans the entries while looking for a word; (c) a 'Wordsheet' on which to record the text chosen and the words looked up; (d) a one-page matrix table in which various reference acts (checking definitions and/ or translations) were tobe entered; (e) one page of 'post-task' questions to elicit informants' opinions on the usefulness and quality of the dictionary used. The latter also included the 'leading question' whether the informant would be prepared and able to summarise the passage he/ she has read in their own words. lt was left to the testers how many people they would interview and whether to observe them individually or in a group, during one single or two successive meetings. Some effort was made to select informants of relatively uniform age, ability and English proficiency. All 28 were students at the University of Exeter, mostly at postgraduate level and in the arts and social studies rather than in science (see Chart 2 on page 214). No effort was made to fulfil any statistical criteria of representativeness in terms of sample size, timing of the operations, or comparability of texts chosen for the reading comprehension task. 3.5 Findings Tue main findings are tabulated in Chart 1 and Chart 2. In spite of the limited scope and resources of the project, it can be regarded as a viable contribution to the debate on dictionary use. The following facts emerged: (1) With sufficient methodological training, student investigators can collect significant data about dictionary users and uses. (2) A limited controlled task such as text comprehension can reveal much about the users' reference skills and attitudes. · (3) The genre of the bilingualised dictionary is still largely unknown among its potential users, foreign learners of English. (4) There is theoretical as well as practical evidence that such a dictionary which combines monolingual and bilingual features can serve a useful function, especially in decoding activities. (5) Within the bilingualised dictionary type, there are sub-types ranging from comprehensive and advanced to concise and elementary, and from generalpurpose to specialised. (6) The seven dictionaries observed in action can assist learners in the reading comprehension task, provided the demands of technicality and vocabulary range are not too great, and users have good reference skills. FLuL 23 (1994) 214 Reinhard R. K. Hartmann English Dictionary Dictionary use lnforproficiency familiarity Text Words marked mant (study in YIN chosen U.K. in (and interest good consulted months) found) shown refer. M B Bd skills D Ar 1 Int. (12+6) y y N "Olym. Games" 9(9) y N Ar 2 Adv. (24+3) N y N "Honey" 6(6) y N Ar 3 Adv. (48) y y N "Marg. That." 5(5) N N D Ko 1 H. I. (12+2) 4 N y N "Management" 11(10) N y Ko 2 H. I. (12+2) 4 N y N "PM's P. Unit" 11(11) N y Ko 3 Adv. (12+6) y y y Lit. Theory TB 7(6) N y Ko4 H. I. (24)4 y y N "Draft Treaty" 7(7) N y Gr 1 Adv. (12+24) y N N "EC Journal" 6(5) y N Gr2 Adv. (2) N y N Finance TB 9(8) y N Gr3 H. I. (1+1) 4 y y N ''Economist'' 9(7) y N Gr4 Adv. (4+1) y y N Marketing TB 9(8) N N Gr 5 Adv. (2+1) y y N "Law Reports" 7(6) y N Sp 1 L. I (2) 4 N y N Econorri. TB 6(5) y y Sp 2 H. I. (2) 4 N y N "Sh. Holmes" 9(8) y y Sp 3 Adv. (12+2) y y N Socioling. TB 6(5) N y Sp 4 L. I. (2) 4 N y N Comp. Law TB 8(8) y y Sp 5 Adv. (11+2) N y N Story of E. TB 9(6) y y Sp 6 L. I. (12)4 N y N "Foreign Pol." 5(5) N N Ge 1 H. I. (2)4 y y N "Migr. Blues" 8(0) N y D Ge2 H. I. (12+2) 4 N y N "East of Eden" 12(7) y N Ge 3 H. 1. (1+2) 4 N y N "Dragon mag." 10(2) N y Ge4 H. I. (2) 4 y y N "East of Eden" 11(7) N y Ge 5 H. 1. (2) 4 y N N "PI. Tales Hili" 12(1) y y Ge 6 H. 1. (2)4 y y N "Great Expect." 9(6) N y Fr 1 Adv. (2) N y N "Jane Eyre" 5(3) y y Fr 2 lnt. (2) N y N Soc. Psych. TB 6(5) y y Fr 3 Adv. (2) N y N "Tale of 2 cit." 6(5) y y Fr 4 lnt. (2) N y N Engl. Lang: TB 6(4) y y Chart 2: Task and dictionary reference 4 4 Abbrevations used: M = monolingual; B = bilingual; Bd = bilingualised. H.I. = Higher Intermediate; L.I. = Lower Intermediate; Adv. = Advanced. Y = yes; N = no; TB = textbook. D = definition; T = translation. D+T T D+T D+T D+T T T D+T T D+T D+T D+T T D+T D+T T D+T T D+T T T D+T D+T D+T D+T D+T D+T D+T D+T Eva! uation pos./ neg. pos. pos. v.pos. neg. neg. neg. neg. pos. pos. pos. pos. pos. v.pos. v.pos. pos. pos. pos. pos. neg. pos. neg. pos. neg. neg. pos. pos. pos. pos. FLuL 23 (1994) Bilingualised versions of leamers' dictionaries 215 (7) Users appreciate the juxtaposition of target-language definitions and mothertongue translation equivalents. (8) Bilingualised dictionaries provide a useful bridge between the traditional bilingual dictionary (still associated with low-level proficiency) and the monolingual dictionary aimed at advanced learners. (9) The project brought further proof of the users' unwillingness to familiarise themselves with the front-matter and conventions of the dictionary, and more needs to be done to improve their reference skills. (10) More research is needed on the relative effectiveness of various dictionary formats for particular learning tasks. Tue project also threw some light on user research in general. While we were aware.of the whole panoply of methods and appreciated the relative superiority of certain techniques (like direct observation) over others (like indirect reporting), we could not exploit the benefit of advanced empirical protocol procedures and statistical analysis. We would have liked, for example, to experiment with more closely controlled variables such as timed multiple-choice exercises and to survey a wider range of dictionary and user types. We feel that many factors of personality (are extroverts more open to new reference formats? ), attitudes and learning styles (why do so many leamers still prefer bilingual dictionaries? ) have not been considered at all. More attention needs to be given to the progression of proficiency levels, to the quality of translation, and the extemal conditions (comfort, group dynamics) of observational settings. 4. Conclusion The user perspective is an important part of dictionary research. However, it shares with dictionary history, dictionary typology and dictionary criticism the dubious distinction of having ignored the bilingualised dictionary, its innovative features and potential benefits for learners. I have tried to show that it must be assessed in the wider context of translation and didactisation, which makes its compromise position between the monolingual and the bilingual dictionary less controversial. I have also taken the opportunity to report the findings of a research project designed to elicit observational data on how users deal with bilingualised learners' dictionaries in a task involving text comprehension. Apparently, most of the 28 informants react positively to the dictionaries tested; in particular, they find the combination of target-language definitions and mother-tongue translation equivalents useful for decoding acts. Finally, I hope to have made a small contribution to the profile of the bilingualised learner's dictionary and its users. lt has some way to go along the path from neglect to respectability, but while it is likely to develop some more interesting variants (towards a bilingualised thesaurus for encoding? ), it will not oust other existing dictionaries for learners, least of all the bilingual dictionary. FLuL 23 (1994) 216 Reinhard R. K. Hartmann References (a) Cited dictionaries Advanced Leamer's Dictionary of Current English English-Chinese (1966) [based on Oxford Advanced Leamer's Dictionary of Current English (21963) comp. A.S. Hornby]. Taipei: Tung-Hua Shu Chu. Duden Pictorial German-English Dictionary (1980) comp. Dudenredaktion, J. Pheby [et al.] Oxford: Oxford U.P. Harrap's English Dictionary for Speakers of Arabic (1987) [based on Harrap's Easy English Dictionary (1980) comp. P.H. Collin]. Toronto & Tel-Aviv: Kernerman. Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English English-Chinese edition (1992) [based on Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (1981) comp. T. McArthur]. Hong Kong: Longman Asia. Omega English Leamer's Dictionary for Speakers of Greek (1989) [based on Chambers Concise Usage Dictionary (1985) comp. C.M. Schwarz & M.A. Seaton]. Athens: OMEGA-Eurobook. Oxford Advanced Leamer's Dictionary of Current English English-English-Korean (1981) with Workbook [based on Oxford Advanced Leamer's Dictionary (31974) comp. A.S. Hornby]. Seoul: Panmun Book Co. (Das) Oxford Grundwörterbuch English-German Deutsch-Englisch (1990) [based on Oxford Elementary Leamer's Dictionary (1981) comp. S. Burridge]. Oxford: Oxford U.P. & Berlin: Cornelsen. Oxford Student's Dictionary for Hebrew Speakers (1986) [based on Oxford Student's Dictionary of Current English (1978) comp. A.S. Hornby & C. Ruse]. Tel Aviv: Kernerman & Kahn. Oxford Student's Dictionary of Current English (1978) comp. A.S. Hornby & C. Ruse. Oxford: Oxford U.P. Password English Dictionary for Speakers of French (1989) with Worksheets [based on Chambers Concise Usage Dictionary (1985) comp. C.M. Schwarz & M.A. Seaton]. Mont-Royal/ Quebec: Modulo Ed. Password English Dictionary for Speakers of Spanish (1991) with Workbook [based on Harrap's Easy English Dictionary (1980) comp. P.H. Collin]. Madrid: Ediciones SM. Vox-Chambers English Leamers' Dictionary con traducci6n a1 espafiol (1990) [based on Chambers Universal Leamers' Dictionary (1980) comp. E.M. Kirkpatrick]. Barcelona: Biblograf. (b) Other literature ATKINS, Beryl T./ KN0WLES, Francis E. (1990): "Interim report on the EURALExlAILA Research Project into Dictionary Use". In: MAGAY, T. / ZmANY, T. (eds.): BudaLEX '88 Proceedings. Budapest: Akaderniai Kiad6, 381-392. BATTENBURG, John D. (1991): English Monolingual Leamers' Dictionaries. A User-oriented Study. Tübingen: Niemeyer (Lexicographica Series Maior 39). HARTMANN, Reinhard R. K. (1980): "Das zweisprachige Wörterbuch im Fremdsprachenerwerb". In: Germanistische Linguistik 3-6/ 80, 73-86. HARTMANN, Reinhard R. K. (1989): "Sociology of the dictionary user: Hypotheses and empirical studies". In: HAUSMANN, F.J. [et al.] (eds.): Wörterbücher - Dictionaries - Dictionnaires. Vol. I, Berlin/ New York: de Gruyter, 102-111. FLuL 23 (1994) Bilingualised versions of leamers' dictionaries 217 HARTMANN, Reinhard R. K. (1992): "Learner's references: from the monolingual to the bilingual dictionary". In: T0MM0LA, Hannu [et al.] (eds.): EURALEX '92 Proceedings. Vol. I, Tampere: Yliopisto, 63-70. HARTMANN, Reinhard R. K. (1994): "The bilingualised learner's dictionary: A transcontinental trialogue on a relatively new genre". In: JAMES, G. (ed.): Meeting Points in Language. Hong Kong: University of Science and Technology [forthcoming]. HERBST, Thomas (1990): "Dictionaries for foreign language teaching: English". In: HAUSMANN, Franz Josef [et al.] (eds.): Wörterbücher - Dictionaries - Dictionnaires. Vol. II, Berlin/ New York: de Gruyter, 1379-1385. LAUFER, Batia/ MELAMED, Linor: "Monolingual, bilingual and 'bilingualised' dictionaries: which are more effective, for what and for whom? " [forthcoming]. NAGASHIMA, Daisuke (1991): "Bilingual lexicography with Japanese". In: HAUSMANN, Franz Josef [et al.] (eds.): Wörterbücher-Dictionaries - Dictionnaires. Vol. III, Berlin/ New York: de Gruyter, 3113-3119. REIF, Josef (1987): "The development of a dictionary and an exotic alphabet". In: C0WIE, Anthony P. (ed.): The Dictionary and the Language Leamer. Tübingen: Niemeyer (Lexicographica Series Maior 17), 146-158. STARK, Martin (1990): Dictionary Workbooks. A Critical Evaluation of Dictionary Workbooksfor the Foreign Leamer. Exeter: University of Exeter Press (Exeter Linguistic Studies 16). SVENSEN, Bo (1993): Practical Lexicography. Principles and Methods of Dictionary-making. Oxford: University Press 1993. T0MASZCZYK, Jerzy (1979): "Dictionaries: users and uses". In: Glottodidactica 12, 103-119. ZGUSTA, Ladislav (1988): Lexicography Today. An Annotated Bibliography of the Theory of Lexicography. Tübingen: Niemeyer (Lexicographica Series Maior 18). ZöFGEN, Ekkehard (1991): "Bilingual learner's dictionaries". In: HAUSMANN, Franz Josef [et al.] (eds.): Wörterbücher - Dictionaries - Dictionnaires. Vol. III, Berlin/ New York: de Gruyter, 2888-2903. FLuL 23 (1994) 218 Reinhard R. K. Hartmann Appendix Extracts (entry earth) from seven bilingualised dictionaries (cf. page 210) earth / ,: 8/ n 1 (the) ~. this world; the planet on which we live •I -'IMJ-; ><19-: The moon goes round the and the goes round the sun. 't~ ><l'r-1- -1-'li (~ •>-tt"I. ><l 'r~ <IJ •,H: -1-'li ~ol-. Who tJo you think was th, greaust man on - 1 ,Q · ,_"'1-'l ,t~ -'l<IJ! i'l! •HJ-•1 -'f-'r-.}1 1; rt -sti+. 2 [U) land surface of the world; land contraoted with the oky ~><1, rl] ><1 ; ( .. t~ oll <II ~) 'll- : The balloon bursl and feil to - . .: i. 7J'r,t llf'\l.sJ<>l "it°'1 '\l<>l'l.iol-. oomo down/ b.ok to - • &top day dreaming: retum to practical realitiea -f-'.1-"ll-'l >II <>l 1.foj.; ~1! .! t ¼•t..i.ol-. mo„ hoovon ond - (to do ath). make every poHible effort ,oij'\}~.! t .x."l-ttol-. ,_/ w/ r'f/ whero/ who, oto an ~, how/ w! \y, etc ever ... [7,1-~-f- 'll) .5: .rl].til <>l 1~1/ .. (-t-'l). c: > 1v1r. J [Ul soil fr: to fill a pit with - 'r'll•l-1fr~..t "'14"1-; lo cov,r the roota of a plant with-.H.-11- 'l'-"1-1-lr~.! t 'iol-. '~-clo1ot, latrine; aubstitute for a )avatory in placea where there is no supply of water from maino, etc (½~~ *oll-'l fr-i- 'l'-ol <a~) ~A(±il>) ~."! .•~ ~±.. '~-nut. groundnut -t¼. •-•work. embankment of used in fortificationo as a defence 1 ... (±D). '~· worm. cornnmßn kind of worm that livea in the ooii ><1 'll •1. 4 [Cl hole of a fox, badger or other wild apimal (of4, ~±."1, 7ltt •M-! -f: ~) y: lo stop an-, block it up so that the animal cannot retum to it (¼f: •l -t-•t,t earth n. 1 planet on which we live: the earth is one of the planets in the solar system; the rocket came down to earth. ,.; ,}il he came down to earth with a bump, he stopped dreaming. r')l.,.YI .,s- -».,; lt costs the earth, a great deal of money. JWl._,-l"$1)...,. why on earth did you say that? , wh~t ever made yoy say ! hat? 11.i- ..: .Li r-! .µ1 ..; ,.. ,; J; 2 soil: pul some earth in a pot and plant your seeds .• ~.; 3 earth wire. electric wire which connects with the ground. _,.; ) ,A,.S .: ll- 4 fox's hole. -,.J,.: .11 ,.,... ■ v. to connect electrical apparatus to the ground: the washing machine was not properly earthed. . ,.; , J 'f4 .,; 4,+SJI j~I J..,-" Harrap's English Dictionary (1) (Arabic) ><1 ¼.. t.5: .~) 'l: -i- •-tol-. ·run/ go ro ~, (of a fox) go into ita hole (oj .+1t) 'l: 4<>11 -1- <>i ,~. "l "1 ol-. run nh/ ab to ~• hunt (a fox) to ito burrow; diBCOVer (sth/ ob) by oearching "l"-i- ◄ >! (of-+1-) ~.toJ.; (•1¼) ~4 #oj (· · ·½) lta! ~ol-. 1 [C, Ul (meano oO contact with tha ground u the completion of a circuit C1UO 'll"'H»ll! ! H-\l.l, of~(-\l.l. • [Cl one of several metallic o: rideo Cft) -2.·lH±IO. a vl 1 [VP15Bl ~ up, cover with - Ir.! ! . .! ll. 'll 4: lo up the roota of a newlyplanted shrub "'1.! t 11~ '! ! -'! -~ •"loll + .Jll.ttol-. 2 [VP6Al connect (an apparatus, etc) with the - <11•> 'II "'I ttoJ.. c: > 6. ~y adj 1 ofor like or aoil Ir~ (',t~): an -y smeU fr'll ◄ . 2 grOBSly material; unaffected, unrefined (•1 ¼) -'tl 4-"1 'Ü; "r •J~~. ±."1-~: the -y and robust mm and women in the pai,itings of RubeM ~"! ! .~~ .: i."otl '-l<t'tl: ,t"1111 ,: [~~ 'II- ~ .... Oxford Advanced Learner's Dict. (3) (Korean) earth (J: 9) nowi 1 thc third pbnc1 in ordcr of dislancc from lhc Sun; lhc planet on .. -hich .... li,·c: ls Earth n,orn tltt Sun than Mon i,? ; tht ~ogroplty of tltt tortlt o yri. 2 1hc •·orld as opposcd 10 hca•cn: ltta,·tn and tartlt 0 yri. 3 soil: Fül tltt plant-pot •itlt tarth. : J l"'l'C• 4 dry land; thc ground: tht tortlt, s,o ond sky .: i yri. mreui. 5 a burrow or hole of an animal, 6perially ol a lox o cpowä. teuxa. Omega English Learner's Dict. (2) (Greek) FLuL 23 (1994) Bilingualised versions of leamers' dictionaries 219 earth / 3: 8/ n (no pi) 1 this world; the planet where we live 1> Erde: The moon goes round the earth. Der Mond kreist um die Erde. 2 soil 1> Erde: a pile of earth, ein Erdhaufen. Oxford Grundwörterbuch (4) (German) earth (~: 8] 1 n (wirh cap and/ or the) the third planet in order of distance from the Sun; the planet on which we live: ls E"nh nwru tht Sun rhan Mars is? ; tht geography of tht wnh. o tierra, globo. 2 n the wodd as opposed to heaven: hwven and eanh. o tierra, mundo. 3 nu soil: F,fl a plant pol with ,anh atiJ plant tht swis. o tierra. 4 nu dry land or the land surface; the ground: i1it wnh, sw and sry. o tierra. 5 nc a burrow or hole of an animal, esp of a lax. o madri~era, guarida. 6 nc (a wire that provides) an electrical connection with the earth. o cable de toma de tierra. vr to connect to earth electrically: ls your wasl,ing-machin, propuly eanhed? ◊ conectar a tierra. - Su also earth in phrasts be/ 01<•. 'earthen adj (formal: <S/ ' arrrib) 1 (of a floor etc) made of earth. o de tierra. 2 (of pottery) made of baked clay: an o/ d wnhen 1ar. o de barro. 'earthly adj (usu attrib) 1 Qirer) of or belonging to this world; not heavenly or spiritual: ln this wnhly life nothing is perfw. o terrenal. 2 (i11f ustd in nei) possible: You havt no ear1l1lv ch11na o( \{ 1 innir1gi Tlir; s car is of no eanhlv use. o posible. - Sa 11! ,o not bave an earthly btlow. · 'earthy adj 1 (inn of or like, earth or soil: Thtst poraroes are vuy ,anh1', o terroso, -sa. 2 (fig) without gentleness or refinement; coarse: He has a ve,y eanh)' senst of humour. o rudo, -da. 'earthiness nu. o ! E_: rrosidad; rudeza. 'earthenware nu, adj (of) a kind of pottery coarser than china: Sht colluts eanlunware; an ,arthenu•art dish. o loza, objetos de barro. 'earthquake nc a shaking of the earth's surface: Most of tht housts in tht village wue dtstroytd in tht wnhqualu; Tht villagt was dtstroyed by an wnhqualu. o terrcmoto. 'earth-tremor nc a slight earthquakc. o temblor. 'earthwork nc (often in pi: hist) a wall, defensive bank etc built of earth: Archaeologists havt uncovered somt ancient wnhworks. O teFa'rlta 'earthwonn nc (usu wonn a ·n of small animal with a ringed body and no backbone, living in damp earth. o lombriz. come ba~ to earth to statt being aware of the practical details of life after a period of dreaming, great happiness etc: Thty were rhrilltd 1<•htn rh, baby arrived but camt bade 10 wnh suddtnly when ht critd all night; She was madly in lovt with him for sevual wults but camt down 10 eanh (with a bang) when she discovmd he was marritd. o bajar de las nubes. go to earth (of a fox erc) to go into its hole or hidingplace: Tht huntsman could not catch tht fox befort it wtnt 10 eanh; (fig) Tht polict could not find the thitfhe had gont 10 eanh. o esconderse cn d'J: iuarida. like nothing on earth su no g. move heaven and earth set move. not have an earthly (inn 1 to have not the slightest chance of success: Ht has tntued tht tennis compttitüm but ht hasn't an wnhly. o no tcner la mas minima ~sibilidad. 2 to have no knowledge or mlarmation a out: 'Do you ltnow whut ht is now? ' 'No, l havtn't an ,arthly.' o no tener ni idea. on 'earth used for emphasis: Whar on wnh are you doing? ; He is tht stupidest man on tarth; Whtrt on wnh did yo11 gtt 1ha1? o ; demoniosl 1 ; diablos! ; en la tierra. nsn to earth 1 to chase or bunt a lax to 1ts hole or hiding-placc. o ir a la caza de un animal hasta su ~ 2 to fin some ing or somcone a r a longsearch: He has bun loo! ting for a copy of 1ha1 book for a long time. He finally ran ont to ,arth in Edinburgh. o dar con al o des ues de una intensa bus ueda . Su asoune Vox-Chambers English Learner's Dictionary (7) (Spanish) FLuL 23 (1994) 220 earlh [=i: 9] n. 1 planet on which we live: the carth is one o( the planets in the solar system; the rocket came do,rn to earth. ; _ tierra to come doK·n to earth: Ire came do,rn to earth 11'ith a hump. he stoppcd dreaming. L: bajarse de las nubes K·hy on earth did you -"'Y that: ', what cvcr madc you say thar? ·: .; por que demonios...? to co.,t the earth: it costs the <'<ITth, a grcat dcal of money. ; _ costar un ojo de la cara 2 soil: pw some earth in a pol and plant your seetl,. L tierra earth K'ire, electric wire which connccls with the ground. L toma de tierra 3 fox ·s hole. L madriguera ■ , .. lo connect electrical apparatus to the ground: the ll'ashing machine ll'as not proper~I' earthed. L conectar a tierra earthenware ['=i: önwE; i) 11. and adj. (pottery) made of clay. L· objetos de barro, de barro earthly adj. 1 he hasn't an earthly chance, he has no chance at all. u no tiene posibilidad alguna 2 there 's no ear1hly reason why he shou/ dn '1 come, of course he should come. u no hay ninguna razön... earthquake 11. shaking of the earth caused by underground volcanic activity: the Tokyo earthquake of 1922. □ terremoto earth up v. to pile earth around a growing plant: to earth up a row of polatoes. □ acollar earthworks 11. pi. walls of earth built as defences. u terraplen earthworm n. worm/ small animal which looks like a very small snake and lives in earth. u lombriz earthy adj. (earthier, earthiest) earthy humour, coarse/ rude humour. o grosero Password English Dictionary (6) (Spanish) Reinhard R. K. Hartmann earth (o: O) noun 1 thc third planet in ordcr ol dislancc (rom the Sun; the planet on which wc live: / s Earlli ntarer tht Sun than Mars is? ; tht geography of the earth. c: , terre 2 thc world as opposcd. to hcaven: htaven and earth. □ terre 3 soil: Fi/ 1 tht plant-pol with earth. □ terre 4 dry land; the ground: th< earth, s,a and sky. □ terre 5 a burrow or hole of an animal 1 esptcially of a fox. o tanllre 6 (a wire that provides) an electrical conncction with the earth. o terre ■ verb 10 connecl 10 earth clcclrically: / s your washing• machine proper/ y earthed? □ mettre l la terre 'earthen adjective (of a floor etc) made o! carth. □ en/ de terre 'earthly adjective 1 of or belonging to Ibis world; not heavenly or spiritual: this earthly lift. □ terrestre 2 possible: This car is no tarthly use. □ aucun 'earthenware noun, adjective (ol) a kind of pollery coarscr than china: an eartlitnware Jish. o ralence, en r■lence ·earthquake noun a shaking of the earth's surfacc: Tht village was destroyed by an earthquake. □ tremblement de terre 'earthworm noun (usual/ y worm) a kind ol small animal with a ringcd body and no backbone, living in damp earth. □ ver de terre on earth used for emphasis: What on earth art you doing 7; tht stupidest man on earth. □ dlable, du/ au monde run to earth to find (something or someonc) aller a long search: He ran his friend to earth in tht pub. □ dinlcher Password English Dictionary (5) (French) FLuL 23 (1994)