Claus Gnutzmann Multilingualism and language teaching: some pedagogical implications with reference to language awareness · Abstract. The paper reports on linguistic and educational aspects of multilingual classrooms, and possible implications for language leaming and teaching in particular the language situation of migrant workers' children in German schools is discussed. lt is argued that some awareness regarding the nature of intercultural communication is a prerequisite for adequate communication with speakers of different cultural backgrounds, whether in one's own home country or abroad. The importance of cultural awareness does not imply however a disregard for linguistic aspects of communication. Here, too, language awareness has a role to play. 1. Multilingualism: international and intranational aspects The phenomenon of multilingualism as well as its educational implications can be viewed from an international as well as from an intranational perspective. The distinction is basically a heuristic one, however. In Western Europeand Germany, for instance, the European single market has certainly increased international mobility of capital, of goods and of people, and concomitantly of languages and cultures. Therefore, in view of the mobility factor, the process of European unification will have further consequences for the teaching and learning of foreign languages internally in the countries of the European Union (EU), but will also have an effect on the language policies of those countries which want to maintain and increase their trade and other relations with the EU. Furthermore, multilingualism is present in almost all European countries. lt can be traced to "imperialist heritage", or the wish of these and other countries to expand their economies with the help of employees from other countries ('Gastarbeiter', migrant workers etc.). This second type of intranational multilingualism, of course, has also an international dimension, since migration for work-purposes took place on the basis of bilateral and international treaties. As regards Germany, mention must also be made of the 'Aussiedler', whose ancestors emigrated from Germany to Eastern Europe, above all to Russia, and who according to German law, have the right to return to Germany and resettle there. The fact that their mother tongue is generally an East-European language, has contributed to a further increase in multilingualism in Germany. In addition, due to the globalization of poli- This article takes up some of the issues of a previous publication (Gnutzmann 1995), which was originally presented as a lecture at the University of Groningen. FLuL 26 (1997) Multilingualism and language teaching: some pedagogical implications ... 157 tics, many people inside and outside Europe have been seeking political asylum in a number of West European countries. As a result of the process of European unification and the different origins of migration, Europe and Germany are faced with many different facets of multilingualism, which, in turn, demand a differentiated set of international and intranational language policies. 2. The European Union (EU), linguistic diversity and the role of English as lingua franca Tue protagonists of the European Single Market have claimed that it would create the largest consumer market of the Western world, consisting of about 350 million people. lt was expected that the creation of this vast market would lead to a hitherto unknown boost in the economies of the individual countries of the EU and it would also add a new dimension to European culture. At least at present, the recession and the high unemployment figures in the countries of the EU seem to contradict this expectation. lt still remains tobe seen to what extent the prediction that the European Single Market will also introduce a new era of European culture and education can be fulfilled. As regards foreign language education, competence in several European languages ('Mehrsprachigkeit') has been advocated as the appropriate reaction to European unification. Quite often, this objective has been justified on purely economic grounds: "If you want to sell your products, you have to speak your customer's language" (cf., for instance, Finkenstaedt/ Schröder 1990). Concerning the relation between language teaching and culture, Mariet (1991) highlights the special role of the economy: "Since the major arguments are economic, economy should become a sort of 'koine"' (95). And viewing "economics as a culture shared arriong Europeans", he argues that "language teaching should become fast, cost-efficient and geared primarily towards short-term results" (95). Bearing in mind that for some time critics of the European Single Market have been pointing to several of its undesirable consequences, such as an even further increase in competition, unemployment, crime and social uprooting of many citizens, it is rather surprising that these points are not reflected in the article. There are at present twelve countries that constitute the EU, and there are nine languages 'with equal rights': Danish, Dutch, English, French, Greek, German, ltalian, Portuguese, and Spanish. Officially, all languages have the same rights, but in practice, transnational communication takes place above all in English, and to a far lesser extent in French and the remaining languages. Not surprisingly, the role of English is seen rather critically by many experts, who would very much like to see the dominant role of English reduced in a multilingual Europe. Critics put forward arguments from a variety of disciplines such as politics, leaming psychology, or sociolinguistics. Obviously, from a political point of view, English is FLuL 26 (1997) 158 Claus Gnutzmann bound up with the USA and Great Britain, and it is felt that by (officially) accepting the role of English as the leading language ('Leitsprache') in Europe, one would simultaneously (officially) accept the political hegemony of these countries. From the viewpoint of the psychology of Iearning, Bausch (1989: 36) has argued that the acceptance of one leading language would be in conflict with the individual's mental capacity and his desire to communicate in more than one foreign language. Furthermore, it has been argued that the leading role of English would not be in accordance with the sociolinguistic principle of 'equality of languages'. As a consequence, it has been suggested that the amount of English teaching should be reduced in German schools, where it is quite often (still) taught for nine years. Alternatively, Finkenstaedt/ Schröder (1990: 45) put forward the idea of "receptive competence in several languages". According to these authors, this model has the advantage that, in principle, people in Europe can speak and write in their mother tongue and be understood by speakers of other languages who have acquired receptive skills in these languages. lt is questionable, however, whether this model of 'receptive competence in several languages' can be successfully put into practice. After all, the communication situation envisaged in this model seems to be in contrast with the 'conventional' (and more natural) communication situation, in which speaker and hearer use the same code. Despite the many different resolutions and manifestos that have been passed in support of other languages (e.g. internationally, the Madrid Manifesto and the Kiev Declaration Lingua Pax; and in Germany the Hamburger Empfehlungen für eine sprachenteilige Gesellschaft and the Koblenzer Erklärung des Fachverbandes Modeme Fremdsprachen), the role of English has not been reduced at all. On the contrary, it looks as if the importance of English will increase even further. However, the role of English as an object of learning, its learning objectives and its function as a means of communication by non-native speakers has certainly changed over the years. Up to the early seventies, perhaps even later, English in Germany was taught above all in order to prepare German pupils to communicate in Great Britain or the USA with native speakers of the language. lt has been estimated that nowadays about 80% of the communication involving the English language takes place between non-native speakers (Benecke 1991: 54). lf this figure is plausible, and it is supported by many surveys on the use of English in science and technology, commerce and industry, it seems unrealistic to deny English the special role it plays in international communication. Instead, it would be more apt to reflect upon the pedagogical consequences of the 'new' role of English as a lingua franca as regards contents, methods, linguistic correctness, the cultural and interpersonal functions of language etc. (cf. Gnutzmann 1997a, 1997b). Tue changing role of English as an international language would not only affect foreign Iearners of English, some advice for native speakers of English could also be useful, as Larry Smith (1987: preface) has pointed out: "Most native speakers have yet to realize that if they are going to be effective cross-cultural communicators, they must learn how other cultures structure information and argument, as FLuL 26 (1997) Multilingualism and language teaching: some pedagogical implications ... 159 well as how they use English to do such things as make refusals, compliments, suggestions, etc". 1 In the light of the complex of communicative demands brought about by the political changes in Europe and elsewhere, as discussed above, it seems to us necessary to introduce a differentiated set of measures in order to meet this complexity. In particular, two principles are to be implemented: 1. The special role of English in the language curriculum should be acknowledged. 2. Pupils should be given a wider selection of foreign languages with clearly defined learnillg objectives such as suggested by the following questions. - Which commullicative skills such as listellillg-comprehellsion, readillg, writillg, speakillg, trallslating does a course concelltrate Oll? To what extent is the course vocation-oriellted, and what does this imply for the teaching of technical vocabulary and lillguistic techlliques such as llotetaking etc.? - Is the acquisition of learnillg techniques, which help pupils to learn how to leam a foreign lallguage, a central concem of the course? These two colltellts-orielltated goals will necessarily imply changes in the structure of teaching. Since it cannot be expected that more hours will be devoted to foreign languages, a redistribution of hours and the illtroductioll of intensive courses are likely consequences of such a reform programme. 3. Educational aspects of multilingualism in German schools As a result of the steadily growing llUmber of foreigll childrell, who were either bom in Germany and maillly brought up in their parents' mother tongue, or moved to Germany at school-age, Germall schools have had to cope with pupils who bad llO or insufficient knowledge of German. Sillce many of these children were not able to follow the 'regular' classes in German additional educational measures were necessary. These educatiollal measures specifically designed for foreign children were part of what used tobe referred to as 'Ausländerpädagogik'. They include, for example, special classes to prepare pupils for the regular classes in German, and the so-called 'Muttersprachlicher Ergänzungsunterricht' (supplementary teaching of the children's mother tollgue), which I will retum to later Oll. Due to the increasing role of English as a Second Language the concept of a native speaker of English as someone being bom and raised in a native English country such as Great Britain, The United States or Australia has come under attack. Phillipson (1992: 195), for instance, refers to the native speaker fallacy, which "dates from a time when English teaching was indistinguishable from culture teaching, and when all leamers of English were assumed to be familiarizing themselves with the culture that English originates from and for contact with that culture". FLuL 26 (1997) 160 Claus Gnutzmann Very soon, it became apparent that many of the problems these children were facing were not only linguistic ones, but they were also to a large extent the result of different cultural norms and of different social backgrounds. As a consequence, this observation has led many educationalists and sociologists to reject the concept of 'Ausländerpädagogik', since according to them education cannot compensate for economic, social and political discrimination. Subsequently, the concept of intercultural education was offered as an alternative. According to Thomas (1989: 287) "an intercultural situation of action can be defined as a situation of intercultural overlapping, in which behavior patterns, cognitive patterns and emotions, which are habitual and formed by the home culture, are confronted with strange and unusual behavior, cognitive patterns and emotions of interaction partners socialized in a foreign culture". Intercultural approaches in education are very often based on the assumption that all cultures have the same right to exist and are equally valid. This leads to the principle of cultural relativity, which may however reveal its limitations when incompatible cultural norms clash. This can be the case, for example, with regard to religious and moral issues and to the different roles boys and girls or men and women are assigned in different cultures. Nevertheless, the concept of intercultural education has established itself as common pedagogical practice and is on its way to being applied across the curriculum. This means that it is to be employed not only in foreign language teaching and learning, but also in the teaching and learning of the mother tongue, and in school subjects such as geography, history, and politics. The application of intercultural education across the curriculum will probably weaken the seclusion of the individual school subjects and favour interdisciplinary cooperation between them. In the introduction to a decree relating to the teaching of foreign pupils 2, the Ministry of Education has outlined a number of general principles with respect to the pupils' mother tongue and the role of German: 1. The acquisition of German has first priority over any other necessary or desirable objectives. 2. The teaching of German and foreign pupils in the same class has priority over separate classes. 3. The teaching of the pupils' mother tongue is supplementary to the regular teaching. 'Muttersprachlicher Ergänzungsunterricht' is additional teaching of up to five hours per week, and it is offered at primary and secondary school level to pupils with parents from Greece, Italy, the former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, and 2 Cf. 'Unterricht für ausländische Schüler', RdErl. des Kultusministeriums v. 23.3.1982, In: Gemeinsames Amtsblatt des Kultusministers und des Ministers für Wissenschaft und Forschung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen. Frechen: Ritterbach 7 1992/ 3. FLuL 26 (1997) Multilingualism and language teaching: some pedagogical implications ... 161 Tunesia. The contents of these courses, which are taught by native speakers of the respective languages, comprise written and oral communication and the study of the culture of these countries. The teachers must be competent in German in order to cooperate with German teachers. lt is also possible that instruction in these languages can replace a compulsory foreign language such as English. Though such an option may be understandable, when pupils have special learning problems, in view of the importance of English as an international language, it is questionable at the same time. 'Muttersprachlicher Ergänzungsunterricht' has been criticised, because it should not be taught as an autonomous subject and it should not be regarded as supplementary. Instead, it should be considered as part of general language education (Accardo 1991), which is valid for all pupils in German classrooms irrespective of their cultural background. In the above mentioned decree, the Ministry of Education has stressed the importance of the teaching of the mother tongue, because it would fulfill a fundamental prerequisite for those who will return to the home country of their parents. Judging from the relatively small number of young people who have actually returned; it might perhaps be more appropriate to lay special emphasis on the importance of the mother tongue as a means of maintaining cultural identity in Germany. Furthermore, competence in both German andin the mother tongue should be an asset on the job market. 4. Multilingualism, cross-cultural communication and language awareness: implications for language teaching and learning Though the examples of multilingualism that have been discussed in the preceding sections are, of course, in many ways different, there are also similarities, arising from the very basic situation of language contact, and the need to draw the appropriate educational conclusions from this in order to enable communication across different languages and cultures. At first sight, the international phenomenon of multilingualism seems to pose fewer problems from the perspective of global language planning, since it affects basically all pupils in Germany, whereas in the case of intranational multilingualism linguistic and cultural minorities are concerned. This view of things is, however, ill-conceived, since, as has been pointed out above, the two perspectives are related. No doubt, at the level of concrete pedagogical measures, different answers have to be found to the problems caused by the different origins of multilingualism. At the more general level, similar measures can be used in order to achieve the same goal, which is cross-cultural communication and, concomitantly, language awareness3, due to the interrelation 3 For a more comprehensive account of the history, definitions and applications of this concept cf. Stainton (1992), Gnutzmann (1997c) and the introduction to the present volume. In this FLuL 26 ( 1997) 162 Claus Gnutzmann between language and culture. Though the proportion of ethnic and national minority pupils varies in German schools depending on the area, the type of school, the age of the pupils, and other factors, linguistic and cultural diversity is widespread, and constitutes a norm. This situation should be taken into consideration in the planning and execution of language teaching. Obviously, great sensitivity is required on the part of the teacher to ensure that "foreignness" is not at the centre of this type of language education, but rather an awareness of mutual linguistic and cultural similarities and differences. Leaving aside the special role of English, which I have discussed before, there seems at least, in theory, to be some general consensus that in order to meet the linguistic and cultural requirements of growing multilingualism, the following proposals should be put into practice: 4.1 Pupils' competence in their mother tongue should be strengthened There is, of course, a problem as to the exact definition of mother tongue. In principle, it could be left to the pupils to decide whether they regard German or the language of their parents as their mother tongue. In either case, there are good reasons to 'insist' on a very good command of the first language. Research in recent years has shown (again) that foreign/ second language leaming is to a large degree also influenced by the mother tongue (Odlin 1989) and that the teaching and leaming process can be facilitated by the contents and methods used in the teaching of the mother tongue. Consequently, applied linguists and language teachers have argued in favour of closer links between the teaching of the mother tongue and foreign language teaching (Bourguignon/ Candelier 1988, Dabene 1987, Luchtenberg 1995 and 1997, Roulet 1980). Candelier/ Gnutzmann (1989) discussed the notion of 'language awareness' both in terms of its origins and its development in first language acquisition among children, and from the point of view of teaching the mother tongue at school, and the metalinguistic knowledge which is developed there. The general hypothesis, which was put forward, is that the many facets of language awareness acquired by the child in his or her mother tongue are already quite well-developed when foreign language teaching begins, and that this fact must on no account be neglected during the L2 leaming process. Thus, language awareness, which is equally linked to the 'natural' aquisition of the mother tongue and to the teaching of the mother tongue at school, should be taken into account far more as one of the factors which guide the foreign language leaming and teaching process. Consequently, it should be made an integral part of teaching context, it will suffice to adapt a definition by Carter (1995: 87): "This is a term used mainly in the teaching of English [/ German/ or other languages, C.G.] as second or foreign language, and teaching foreign languages, to refer to the development in learners of fuller conscious awareness, often as a result of explicit teaching, of language itself as both a system (structural knowledge) and as a social and cultural phenomenon (functional knowledge)." FLuL 26 ( 1997) Multilingualism and language teaching: some pedagogical implications ... 163 itself. The fact that intercultural and multilingual communication will further increase in Europe (and elsewhere) will also affect the significance of the native speaker competence in language teaching. Biand multilingual encounters, which have become part of our daily lives, imply our constant and conscious reactions to non-native languages. Thus, near-native-speaker competence has become obsolete as a leaming goal, in the face of these sociological and sociolinguistic developments. Demanding that an individual acquire a second linguistic and cultural identity (cf. Phillipson's comment on the native speaker fallacy) and simultaneously ignore his original linguistic and cultural identity can even cause psychological problems for leamers of a foreign language. Furthermore, collision between the target 'objective' native speaker competence on the one hand and (natural) Ll transfer on the other can result in a mother tongue self-consciousness that can be detrimental to the foreign language leaming process. 4.2 'Systematic' instruction in a foreign language need not necessarily start at primary school level New proposals for language teaching reform commonly suggest that pupils should start being exposed to a foreign language as early as primary school level. The proposals differ, however, as to the nature and purpose of this exposure (cf. Doye 1993). On the one hand, it is argued that a foreign language should be taught systematically from the start thus ensuring acquisition of linguistic competence in that language, and, furthermore, that this competence is to be built on at secondary level. Since the evidence in favour of systematic instruction of a foreign language at primary level is inconclusive for many children this could be too much of an intellectual challenge and consequently cause stress and even educational failure -, there has been a fair amount of criticism of this approach. Altematively, an approach that emphasizes linguistic and cultural awareness as the outcome of foreign language exposure is offered instead (cf., for instance, Landesinstitut für Schule und Weiterbildung 1993). Both approaches have their respective merits, but it should be bome in mind that the systematic approach is probably less suitable for multilingual classes. lt would seem counterproductive to 'impose' one single language on the pupils at this early age and not to make use of the potential of multilingual classrooms. The linguistic and cultural diversity of these classrooms could serve as a basis on which to develop linguistic and cultural awareness and tolerance (cf. also Hermann-Brennecke 1993). 4.3 Pupils should start as early as possible to acquire the prerequisites of intercultural understanding, which is probably a life-Iong process Since intercultural encounters generally start very early in a person's life, it seems logical to start developing cultural awareness in children at a very early age, too, and to start making them aware of the prerequisites of intercultural understanding. FLuL 26 (1997) 164 Claus Gnutzmann This does not mean, however, that pupils can be saved (or should be saved) from being exposed to cultural conflicts, perhaps not even cultural shocks, because it is impossible to avoid them anyway. Cultural conflicts and cultural shocks should be used to initiate cultural learning: "Significant intercultural learning starts at the point where teachers expose themselves to the prejudices, aversions and aggressions as well as to the longings and fascination which are more or less based on the experiences and sufferings of pupils" (Kordes 1991: 299). Learning about intercultural understanding is a life-long process, because the structure of intercultural situations and exchanges is hardly ever stable. Cultural norms, values and beliefs can undergo changes, and the willingness of people of different cultures to communicate with each other is, of course, influenced by such factors as the state of the economy, social conditions and the political climate generally. Thus, intercultural learning turns out to be a permanent challenge for children and adults alike. lt is not enough on the part of the teacher just to provide pupils with information about specific differences between cultures, though this is certainly an important classroom activity. lt is essential that they should learn something about the general principles of intercultural understanding as well, which very often will happen on the basis of culture-specific examples. The catalogue of criteria considered to be crucial for the acquisition of general intercultural competence includes the following (cf., for example, Borelli 1991, Knapp/ Knapp-Potthoff 1990, Thomas 1989): awareness of the culture-specific dependency of thought and behaviour, knowledge of general parameters (e.g. religion, role of the sexes) according to which cultures can be distinguished, rejection of ethnocentrism: one's own system of cultural norms is not considered appropriate to be applied to the evaluation of other cultures, the ability and willingness to take over the perspective of another culture, i.e. to be able to identify at least partly with another culture, interpersonal sensitivity: the ability to understand a person in his own right, cognitive flexibility: openness to new ideas and beliefs, behavioural flexibility: the ability to change one's behaviour patterns. Acquiring these general prerequisites of intercultural understanding can provide learners with a communicative and psychological framework, which can be used as a model of orientation in new and unexpected intercultural situations. 5. Conclusion In this paper, I have tried to show that the phenomenon of multilingualism and its educational implications cannot be fully understood without the cultural dimensions that are associated with it. In order to communicate adequately with children or adults of different cultural backgrounds no matter whether in one's home country FLuL 26 (1997) Multilingualism and language teaching: some pedagogical implications ... 165 or abroad it is imperative that one should be aware of the prerequisites of intercultural understanding, i.e. one must have developed intercultural competence. 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