40 (2011) • Heft 1 © 2011 Narr Francke Attempto Verlag T ERESA S IEK -P ISKOZUB , A LEKSANDRA W ACH , A LEKSANDRA J ANKOWSKA * Selected issues in foreign language teaching in Poland at the onset of the third millennium Abstract. The paper aims to present the current state of the art in teaching foreign languages, with a special emphasis on English and German, in Poland. The major sociopolitical transformation in 1989 initiated an unprecedented need for foreign language instruction, a change in language policy and significant reforms in the Polish educational system. To meet the expectations of learners and conform with the European Union regulations, new foreign language teaching curricula and syllabuses appeared, based on contemporary trends in foreign language education. These trends, adapted to the Polish context, will be the focal point of the paper. First, the position of Foreign Language (FL) instruction in Poland will be outlined; then, the ways of addressing the needs of different kinds of learners will be presented; and finally, selected current trends in FL instruction will be examined, including holistic teaching, intercultural and bilingual education, developments in testing and the use of technology. 0. Introduction The 1990s were a time of major sociopolitical changes in Poland which brought about an ongoing change in the educational policy which, in turn, has affected foreign language teaching. An overview of foreign language teaching (FLT) concepts mainly before the reform is presented by G RUCZA (2001). K OMOROWSKA (2007), referring to the 50 th anniversary of the FL journal J zyki Obce w Szkole, analyzed the editorial policy, placing it in the wider educational context and exemplifying her observations with selected articles from the journal. S IEK -P ISKOZUB et al. (2008) discussed FLT research in the period of 2001-2006. Thus, the present article aims at displaying most recent concerns of Polish glottodidactics, as the discipline has been named. Since it is beyond the * Address for correspondence: Prof. Dr. hab. Teresa S IEK -P ISKOZUB , Head of English Applied Linguistics and English Language Didactics, School of English, Adam Mickiewicz University, Al. Niepodleg o ci 4, 61-874, P OZNA , Poland. E-mail: piskozub@amu.edu.pl Research areas: Ludic strategy in FLT, classroom discourse, learner autonomy. Aleksandra W ACH , PhD, School of English, Adam Mickiewicz University, Al. Niepodleg o ci 4, 61-874, P OZNA , Poland. E-mail: waleks@ifa.amu.edu.pl Research areas: Music and song in ELT, grammar instruction, technology in ELT. Aleksandra J ANKOWSKA , PhD, Teacher Training College, Adam Mickiewicz University, Ul. Mi dzychodzka 5, 61-371 P OZNA , Poland. E-mail: ajank@amu.edu.pl Research areas: Classroom interaction, culture in language learning. 86 Teresa Siek-Piskozub, Aleksandra Wach, Aleksandra Jankowska 40 (2011) • Heft 1 scope of a single article to give a representative overview of all the undertakings in the discipline, we will concentrate on selected issues, reporting on research for degrees, often later published in journals or monographs, as well as on practical solutions discussed in practice-oriented journals. However, we will start with presenting the background for foreign language teaching. 1. Foreign language teaching policy in Poland 1.1 The popularity of foreign languages The sociopolitical shift of 1989 resulted in the change of language policy in Poland. Before that date Russian was an obligatory FL. It was introduced in grade 5 of the old primary school and pupils studied it for eight years. The second FL was introduced in grade 1 of secondary school and it was typically English, German or French. In 1999 a radical reform of the educational system was implemented. Primary education was shortened from 8 to 6 years and divided into two stages - stage 1 comprising grades 1- 3, and stage two, comprising grades 4-6. This is now followed by a new type of school, gimanzjum (middle school), which takes three years to complete and is then followed by secondary school, also lasting three years. As a result of this reform, FL education started one year earlier (grade 4) with a second FL introduced in grade 1 of secondary school (liceum) (see D ZIENNIK U STAW 1999). As of 2009 FL education begins in grade 1 of primary school (learners aged 6 to 7) with a second FL added in grade 1 of middle school (see D ZIENNIK U STAW 2009). With Russian no longer an obligatory language, English has become the most popular FL. In the school year 2009/ 2010 87.4% of children in primary schools learned English, 10.7% German, 0.8% Russian and 0.3% French (0.1% children learned other languages). The situation is much the same at the middle and secondary levels, where German is the most common second FL followed by Russian and French. In recent years, Italian and Spanish have also gained in popularity, with up to 1.7% of secondary school pupils taking Italian (M A Y R OCZNIK S TATYSTYCZNY 2010: 240). 1.2 Languages in school curriculum The change of the language policy has resulted in changes to the FL curriculum. The new curriculum, by a decision of the Ministry of Education (D ZIENNIK U STAW 2009), was introduced to primary and middle schools in 2009, and in 2012 it will be introduced in secondary schools. It brings about two major changes: FL is an obligatory subject from the first grade of primary school, and learning two FLs is obligatory in the middle school. The main assumptions are formulated in accordance to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and include the following: effective communication is the main aim of FL instruction; linguistic accuracy (at the level of lexis, grammar, spelling and pronunciation) is a major component of commu- Selected issues in foreign language teaching in Poland … 87 40 (2011) • Heft 1 nicative effectiveness; apart from communicative effectiveness, other specific key competences need to be developed, such as the ability of independent learning, selfevaluation, cooperation, using different sources of information, using communication strategies and enhanced language awareness. 2. Addressing the needs of FL learners 2.1 Learner autonomy Learner autonomy, recognised as a means to an end in the Polish curricula for all school subjects, has long become a key notion among FL practitioners. Polish FL researchers have approached the problem with due attention from the beginning of the educational reform (see Wilczy ska 2002). Poor results of earlier studies on overall learning strategies of Polish secondary and tertiary education learners (Zborowski 1975, 1976) were later confirmed by studies of FL learning strategies used by Polish English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners (e.g. Micho ska-Stadnik 1996). The need for strategy training was recognised by many researchers as a starting point to autonomy development. Learner autonomy became an interesting topic for FLT conferences when theoretical foundations for autonomy, possible limitations due to internal and external factors were discussed, reports on planned and completed projects were given and some practical suggestions were offered for different contexts of teaching as well as for teacher education. A comparison of two volumes of conference reports (see Pawlak 2004, 2008) allows us to conclude that, initially, mainly tertiary education FL teachers got involved in researching their students’ autonomy. The reports in the 2008 volume are much more varied: apart from reports on tertiary education there are also reports on lower levels of education, e.g. evaluation of German as a foreign language (GFL) primary education course books, possibilities and limitations for introducing autonomy at middle and secondary levels, and evaluation of Polish versions of the European Language Portfolio (ELP) for middle and secondary school learners. Jarz bek (2007) surveyed 56 GFL teachers to determine their familiarity with the Polish versions of the CEFR and the ELP as well as their attitude towards learners’ autonomy and self-assessment. The data show that both documents are well known to GFL teachers. Most respondents value developing learner autonomy and their attitude is not dependent on their sex or type of education (BA or MA), but on their professional development evident in their professional position. The researcher also reports that a commitment to learner autonomy increases with teachers’ age. However, almost half of the respondents are satisfied with the normative evaluation system used in their schools whereas others express doubts as to its efficiency. Additionally, half of the surveyed teachers apply alternative forms of self assessment, the latter being more popular among more qualified teachers. Sobkowiak (2009) surveyed 70 FL teachers and 150 learners from middle up to 88 Teresa Siek-Piskozub, Aleksandra Wach, Aleksandra Jankowska 40 (2011) • Heft 1 tertiary education for the involvement of learners in negotiating the learning/ teaching process. This need is expressed by learners of all education levels; however, the most proficient language learners were among those who more often expressed a negative opinion about such negotiation. The elements of the education process on which learners had the greatest impact were methods of teaching, pace of learning, or the choice of course book or homework. Learning content was less often negotiated and so were the components of evaluation. The teachers’ survey provides a more optimistic view. Most teachers claim they negotiate the learning/ teaching process and see a possibility for such negotiation in the school context. Russian and German language teachers are more positive in this respect, French teachers the least, with English and Spanish in the middle. In a series of studies S IEK -P ISKOZUB and S TRUGIELSKA explored learners’ and (prospective) EFL teachers’ perceptions of the system of education employing methodological guidelines offered by the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), assuming that conceptual metaphors can provide insight into personal theories reflecting the possible impact of the recent changes. In one study three successive groups of English philology students from one of the universities in their first year of studies completed five sentences of the kind The teacher/ teaching/ learner/ learning/ classroom is like … because … The exercise provided data describing the learners’ dominating experience from lower levels of education. They show changes towards autonomizing individuals; however, this shift is gradual and asymmetrical. The concept of a teacher is easily remodelled from the behaviourist concepts of teacher dominance and learner helplessness towards constructivist ones of teacher facilitating and assisting. The findings reveal a shift from teacher-centeredness to a more balanced relationship. Moreover, whereas in the earliest years the social climate is predominately positive (students tend to be neutral with reference to their educational context and their evaluative comments are positive), the comments of the successive years get more negative, becoming more varied in the last group. The authors emphasize the students’ rising awareness of the new educational practices and their own growing tendency towards autonomous thinking; at the same time they detect limits of autonomy. While most students find teacher-controlled classes negative, as many as 40% are happy with this social structure (S IEK -P ISKOZUB / S TRUGIELSKA 2008). In another study (S IEK -P ISKOZUB / S TRUGIELSKA 2010a) the subjects were extramural EFL students of three colleges working towards their MA degree in EFL. Their metaphors related to teacher/ learner/ classroom were analyzed and classified for coherence. A relationship was found between the number of years of teaching practice and type of coherence patterns. The results show that teacher trainees without teaching experience diverge from static CMs (i.e. when full coherence can be observed), and respondents with some practice (2-4 years) also seem to challenge the basic features of CMs, although some of them maintain coherence in their conceptualizations. The most experienced respondents conformed to the idealized model proposed by CMT. It may be concluded that a coherence pattern in metaphorical conceptualizations emerges as a result of growing experience in the profession. However, in times of change such co- Selected issues in foreign language teaching in Poland … 89 40 (2011) • Heft 1 herence may signal resistance to novel ideas, as the data seem to indicate. Full coherence revealed a positivist concept of transmitting education. We may also conclude that, on the one hand, it is partial coherence that reflects undergoing change in the educational system, and, on the other, it is plausible that respondents use various models of education known to them both as learners and teachers to come up with a somewhat hybrid model. A comparative study of learners’ and teachers’ conceptions confirmed importance of the time one entered and one stayed in the educational system. The longer one stayed in it (as a learner and/ or as a teacher), the more congruent the related metaphors were; these metaphors, however, were rooted in the previous educational paradigm (S IEK -P ISKOZUB / S TRUGIELSKA 2010b). 2.2 Teaching children The decision to lower the age of learners for introducing the 1 st FL was preceded by the Ministry of Education’s draft widely discussed among experts in different educational sectors. It gave time to introduce the problem of young learner teaching to curricula in teacher colleges and design new teaching materials adjusted to the requirements of teaching in such contexts. This resulted in experimenting with the situation due to the fact that schools had a possibility to lower the age of learners below the obligatory age. The College of Linguistics in Cz stochowa, for example, organizes an annual conference dedicated to teaching young learners and publishes the journal Poliglot. Language Education for Children. Polish teachers have taken part in European projects addressing the issue of early education. For example, S ZULC -K URPASKA (2007) presents an account of a project in which pre-service teachers taught English in kindergarten. B OGUCKA (2007), on the basis of a survey, discusses the problem of self-perception of Polish early education teachers of English. One of the conclusions from the study was that the teachers, although fully devoted to their jobs and satisfied with their students’ progress, suffered from low social recognition. In 2009 two books devoted to teaching young learners were published: one advising EFL teachers in decision making and managing young learner classes (S ZPOTOWICZ / S ZULC -K URPASKA 2009); the other being a collection of articles devoted to the theory and practice of FL teaching to young learners (S IKORA -B ANASIK 2009). Both books place the concept of early FLT in the context of Europe. They discuss ways of developing language skills, propose activities and materials appropriate for young learners and discuss the issue of content and language integrated learning (CLIL). The methodology of teaching in early CLIL is discussed by P AMU A (2003). The author, along with a group of FL teachers, prepared a Polish version of the ELP for children aged 6 to 10 (B AJOREK et al. 2006), which provides learners with the selfassessment scales worked out for the Council of Europe. Z AWODNIAK (2009) proposes a heuristic-operational model of young learner L2 instruction. She highlights the significance of developing writing skills in early and middle childhood to counterbalance the general tendency to pay much more attention to 90 Teresa Siek-Piskozub, Aleksandra Wach, Aleksandra Jankowska 40 (2011) • Heft 1 reading. In her analysis she does not ignore the special needs of dyslexic learners. The author proposes a collection of both closed and open-ended written tasks whose aim is to facilitate ‘the writing secrets’ and to activate thought processes. 2.3 FL learners with learning deficits A natural consequence of research into individual differences, which became popular in Poland in the 70s and 80s, was a closer look into learners with learning difficulties. D OMAGA A -Z Y K (2001) characterized different kinds of learner impairments in the so called integrative schools, i.e. schools where regular learners receive their education along with learners with deficits, and discussed the roles of the main teacher and the supportive one in assisting the learners. J UREK (2004), in a series of articles, and A MBRO UK (2010) reported on research foundations and recommended practices in teaching FL to dyslexic learners. M AREK (2001) concentrated on teaching FL to learners with sight impairment. The author also prepared a handbook of Braille for teachers of English, as not knowing Braille may be an obstacle in teaching such students, and teachers should get acquainted with at least the basics of it (M AREK 2007). The book is part of a bigger project “Per Linguas Mundi ad Laborem”, and apart from a basic course in Braille, it offers a multitude of classroom activities designed specifically for teaching EFL to blind learners. J EDYNAK (2010) states that typhlopedagogy is still not well developed in Poland, although there are some institutions which have introduced it into their programs. Few learners with sight impairment in Poland reach high standards of competence; the lack of resources and materials is a major obstacle, as well as too few teaching hours in the curriculum for special needs learners (SNL), low levels of teacher preparation, and learners’ low motivational levels. However, some attempts to cater to the needs of visually impaired learners have already been made; for example, since 2005, Adam Mickiewicz University has conducted the Open University Project, within which “speaking computers” have been installed in the library; moreover, didactic materials designed specifically for visually impaired students are being implemented through the Academic Digital Library. Other universities in Poland have introduced similar solutions. W IECHU A -N APIÓRKOWSKA (2010) refers to the specificity of teaching Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) learners. Today, when the inclusion of SNL to mainstream local schools has become a norm, ASD learners constitute a growing percentage of all learners. Teachers, however, receive too little or no training in dealing with such learners and ASD-specific characteristics may be considered as a lack of concentration or diligence. Therefore, publications and practical workshops on this and other learning deficits are of the utmost importance. Z AWADZKA - BARTNIK (2010) reports on the Polish documents granting all learners with deficits an equal right to education at all levels according to individual predisposition. She discusses problems that integrative education encounters in Polish schools, as not many teachers feel prepared to understand and meet the challenges posed by differ- Selected issues in foreign language teaching in Poland … 91 40 (2011) • Heft 1 ent types of physical or cognitive deficits. Still, the number of integrative schools is rapidly growing as well as the number of learners diagnosed with deficits, which is also a result of a growing awareness of the problem. As the author reports, teachers are adopting more positive attitudes towards integrative teaching. The author provides practical suggestions to FL teachers working with particular types of learners and also informs on the related literature and documents. Recently the problem of SNL has also attracted attention of the Modern Language Association of Poland (PTN). It became a main theme of the annual conference in 2010. 2.4 Foreign languages at the tertiary level Poland has a long tradition of providing compulsory FL courses at a tertiary level. In the regulations of the past a minimal number of hours had to be ensured by educational institutions and two FLs were to be taught, one of which was Russian. Presently all institutions of higher education are obliged to follow the guidelines concerning the content of university courses leading to particular degrees published by the Ministry of Higher Education. According to these guidelines, all graduates of BA courses should know one FL at level B2 as described in the CEFR. It is recommended that students take 120 hours of FL classes for which they should be awarded 5 ECTS points usually in the first year at college. In most cases the FL is not specified, in some cases, however, English is recommended. This recommendation applies, among others, to students of drama, chemistry, information technology, tourism and recreation, psychology, sociology, or logistics. Students of European studies should know English or French, those majoring in sports English or German, while students of law can choose any European language (D ZIENNIK U STAW 2007). In the academic year 2009/ 2010 44.6% of all students in tertiary education institutions took language courses with 36.7% learning English, 6.5% German, 2.4% Russian, 1.1% French and Spanish and 0.5% Italian (M A Y R OCZNIK S TATYSTYCZNY 2010: 241). 3. Recent trends in FL teaching 3.1 The holistic approach to teaching A recently advocated approach to teaching in Poland is holistic in many senses. First of all, language competence is no longer limited to language as a system but is understood as intercultural communication competence. Learners are no longer treated as receivers of elsewhere defined knowledge with a predominance of cognitive and linguistic stimulation. Instead, following the recommendations of humanistic psychology and neuroscience, whole learner involvement is attempted. It seems that the ludic strategy, i.e. referring to play activities, popularised in Poland by S IEK -P ISKOZUB from the 1990s, meets learners’ needs the best (see e.g. 2001, 2002). Direct reference to neuro- 92 Teresa Siek-Piskozub, Aleksandra Wach, Aleksandra Jankowska 40 (2011) • Heft 1 science and the way its findings can be implemented to foreign language teaching was discussed by S IEK -P ISKOZUB (2005) and YLI SKA (2009/ 2010). The emotional side of learning is of major importance for proper brain functioning and the ludic strategy meets that challenge well. The popularity of pop-songs on the one hand, and their value for language learning on the other, was discussed by S IEK -P ISKOZUB and W ACH (2006) with practical activities stimulating the development of various aspects of broadly understood language competence. The influence of pop-songs, particularly on the acquisition of vocabulary, was studied by W ACH (2003) and B IESZCZANIN (2010). The studies confirm both the motivational and anxiety-lowering power of pop-songs in EFL classes to adolescents and young adults, as well as their facilitating effect on vocabulary acquisition and retention. Action research projects, many of which are discussed in S IEK -P ISKOZUB and W ACH (2006), and carried out by (prospective) teachers in teacher training programs, confirm the facilitative power of pop-songs for the development of grammar, skills and cultural awareness. The ludic strategy also promotes the development of learner autonomy. Another holistic approach to EFL teaching, i.e. the extensive reading approach, was experimented with by C IROCKI (2009). It turned out that secondary school learners participating in his study developed their EFL competence not only in reading but their productive skills improved as well. Their interest in culture also increased. 3.2 Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) The intercultural component, where the teaching content should incorporate elements of the target language culture with special emphasis on lifestyles and behaviour patterns of the target reference group (cf. B ANDURA (2000), has been evident in FLT in Poland since the reform of 1999. She notes heightened learners’ motivation to learn about the culture with increased opportunities for intercultural interactions. A LEKSANDROWICZ -P DICH and L ÁZÁR (2001) report on a survey of cross-culture competence carried out among 139 EFL teachers in Hungary, Estonia and Poland under the auspices of the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe in Graz. Many teachers stated that because they teach at (pre-) intermediate levels, they found it impossible to introduce intercultural training, thus revealing their doubts about the possibilities of introducing such training at any level. The study also shows that courses are tailored towards exams which generally ignore ICC. In a later study, A LEKSANDROWICZ -P DICH (2007) compares the place of intercultural education in EFL instruction in Poland with such education in other European countries. She makes a point that although teacher education models differ in various European countries, the scope of intercultural training seems to be very similar. On the other hand, the extent of preparing learners for intercultural communication varies among teachers and in general may be perceived as not fully satisfactory. However, intercultural education is enhanced by the leading course books available on the Polish market (mainly by British publishers, sometimes co-authored by Poles), which contain Selected issues in foreign language teaching in Poland … 93 40 (2011) • Heft 1 materials appropriate for raising intercultural awareness of learners. The demands posed by external exams, on the other hand, diminish the role of culture, as only few such exams contain aspects of intercultural competence. P AW OWSKA (2010) focuses on ICC within GFL teaching, with a special focus on the Polish context. Since the knowledge of facts about target language countries and behaviour norms constitutes part of ICC, she presents a few suggestions of activities designed to teach these aspects of German culture to Polish learners of GFL. In a similar vein, D USZA (2010) illustrates the development of intercultural awareness, especially its communicative dimension, through the use of picture stories (Bildgeschichten) in teaching GFL. C H OPEK (2009) presents the findings of a questionnaire study conducted on 106 Polish teachers of FL (German, French and English) in order to find out about the practice of intercultural education in FL instruction. The responses indicate that the teachers are aware of their roles as culture mediators. They teach sociocultural knowledge, focusing especially on social conventions and traditions of the target language group. Most teachers also admitted that they foster tolerance toward another culture. Pragmatic competence is also developed, although idiomatic expressions and emotional prosody are less frequently taught. The evaluation of course books with regard to the cultural component was less positive; consequently, the teachers had to resort to supplementary materials. K RAWIEC (2010) compares EFL secondary school learners’ stereotypes against the content of one of the most popular EFL course books designed by a British publishing house to note its important impact on learners’ conceptualization of British and American culture. In general, learners’ attitudes are positive, although some negative traces, particularly related to American culture, are noted as well. However, they are not resulting from the course book’s content but may have been influenced by media. 3.3 Language testing FL is among the subjects in the school curriculum which are to be evaluated before graduation. Since 2005/ 2006 a standardized final FL exam (Pol. Matura) is given to secondary education graduates. A standardized FL exam for middle school was introduced in the year 2009. The tests are based on the CEFR levels (A1-B1 for middle and B1-B2 for secondary education), but they apply their own numerical scoring system. Many final year course books for a particular stage of education offer sections devoted to those exams. Additionally, teachers and learners are assisted in the process of preparing for the exam by publications of exemplary testing materials with information on learning strategies and answer keys (e.g. M ACI G / WIGO 2008). Special instructional materials are prepared for testing learners with auditory impairment (e.g. D ELE Y SKA 2009). T RZCI SKA (2009) addresses the problem of relating Polish FL examinations to the CEFR and the possibility of using its grading scale on the Matura certificates. These solutions are not possible in Poland yet, although their implementation would enable 94 Teresa Siek-Piskozub, Aleksandra Wach, Aleksandra Jankowska 40 (2011) • Heft 1 the qualification process for Polish students at universities abroad. The implementation process has been hindered by frequent changes in the format of the exam as well as by the recent introduction of the new curriculum. However, the adoption of the European standards in the new curriculum might, in a few years’ time, lead to the development of a new conception of language examinations in Poland, which seems to be crucial for their greater international reliability. The standardized final exams have an impact on FL learning and teaching. E LLIS (2009) carried out a survey among middle school learners in their final year, as well as among their teachers, to find out about the washback effect of the exam. The exam has a written form, so reading and listening are considered to be important components of the language competence. Yet the learner respondents consider speaking as the most important component and knowledge of vocabulary as second most important; writing and reading are at the end of the scale after grammar and listening (E LLIS 2009: 190- 191). Their teachers report that they place more emphasis on listening tasks because of the exam requirements. Teachers also observe a major impact of the exam on their students, different for ‘good language learners’ and ‘poor language learners’. Whereas the former ones “appeared more engaged” and “seemed to be trying harder”, the latter ones also “seemed to be trying harder”, but they also “asked for help more often” (E LLIS 2009: 192-193). Secondary level teachers (e.g. J ANKOWSKA -B USZTA 2010) confirm that some learners consider the need to sit for this exam as a motivating factor, although often an indirect one. However, practical skills, vital for further education or jobs, are more important to the learners. 3.4 Bilingual education Like in other European countries, CLIL programs have been implemented in Poland since the 1990s, following the educational objectives defined by the European Commission, and have been dynamically developing since that time (M ARSH et al. 2008). According to R ODA (2007), in 2007 there were 39 schools offering bilingual education with English, and 37 such schools with German, while fewer schools offer CLIL in French, Spanish and Italian. Generally, the range of languages within CLIL in Poland is high as compared with other European countries. Contrary to some other European countries, bilingual education in Poland is centrally regulated and hence organized in a uniform way. Poland is among those countries in which bilingual education is conducted at all levels (at kindergarten minority languages are taught in bilingual programs). The choice of subjects taught in bilingual programs is regulated by a given school, while in Poland the only subjects which cannot be taught in such programs are Polish as a native language and the history and geography of Poland. Thus, the range of subjects within CLIL is rich in Poland in comparison with other countries. In Poland, like in other European countries, secondary school leaving examinations are conducted in the bilingual system, although such exams may be administered in addition to the national exam. CLIL programs suffer from the same problems in Poland as in other countries: regulations which limit the development of schools offering such programs, Selected issues in foreign language teaching in Poland … 95 40 (2011) • Heft 1 the shortage of qualified teachers and appropriate teaching materials, and high costs of maintaining such schools. Z IELONKA (2007), after a brief overview of bilingual education in Poland, notes that there are no institutions which offer specific teacher training for CLIL programs; however, there are numerous in-service training initiatives. As a result, the number of dualqualified teachers has risen since 1989, and now CLIL belongs to mainstream education in Poland. According to C ZURA et al.’s (2009) research, most teachers who conduct CLIL courses are highly motivated, enthusiastic Polish teachers of EFL with experience of staying or teaching in English-speaking countries, and their main concerns included the need for specific CLIL training and insufficient financing for professional development. M ARSH et al. (2008: 22) add that team-teaching is relatively unpopular in Poland. Another difficulty concerns the adaptation of English-language materials to the Polish context or the use of Polish-language materials for teaching subjects in English (ibid.: 33). The student respondents, apart from listing the numerous benefits of studying in CLIL programs, expressed their disappointment that the Matura Exam in English does not give them additional credit for university entrance (C ZURA et al. 2009: 177 and M ARSH et al. 2008: 36). The researchers conclude that the Polish CLIL education system needs uniform teaching resources to help achieve higher levels of standardization as well as clear bilingual education curricula and a more systematized preparation program for the final exam. 3.5 The application of new technology in teaching The recent developments in technology have necessitated the introduction of computerbased materials into the FL classroom, and a lot of Polish teachers have been following this contemporary trend. P UPPEL (2008: 271) discusses the changes that the Internet has brought to the area of education, particularly to the teacher-learner relationship, relating to the new learning environment as a “novel human ecosystem”. G AJEK and R USIECKI (2009) discuss the specificity of education in digital culture, focusing on the principles of using modern technology in learning and teaching a FL. In numerous publications, teachers share their experience and popularize the use of new technologies. For example, Z YGNERSKA -H AJDUK (2010) discusses using blended learning - a modern, enriched form of instruction, in which elements of traditional teaching are complemented with online teaching. Although b-learning is gaining popularity in Poland, especially in tertiary education, it is still considered as a novel and experimental solution. T URULA (2010) presents the advantages of using new technologies in learning and teaching FLs, focusing specifically on the Moodle e-learning platform. T RYHUBCZAK (2009) presents arguments for using podcasting in the language classroom, together with a host of teaching ideas. Interest in the application of computers in learning and teaching FLs is also reflected in projects which are currently being conducted by teams of Polish researchers. Two examples of such projects are: Language learning and social media: 6 key dia- 96 Teresa Siek-Piskozub, Aleksandra Wach, Aleksandra Jankowska 40 (2011) • Heft 1 logues (coordinated by the European Commission, conducted by 14 European institutions, in Poland by Szko a Wy sza Psychologii Spo ecznej, headed by Hanna Komorowska; http: / / www.elearningeuropa.info/ languagelearning), and the Tech-Teach- Tech project, conducted by the British Council Poland and DOS-Teacher Training Solutions (www.e-dos.org/ ttt). 4. Final comments We appreciate the opportunity to introduce recent developments in glottodidactics in Poland to an international reader. In no way is our selection representative in terms of authors, institutions or journals, as the discipline is developing fast. The multilingualism of Polish citizens is considered to be an important aim, resulting in the opening of new institutions offering FL and FL teacher education. Most of FL institutes have their own journals which are not always available at other universities. We have concentrated on issues which are perceived as challenges to education rather than conventional practices. Literature A LEKSANDROWICZ -P DICH , Lucyna (2007): “Interkulturowo w kszta ceniu j zykowym w Polsce i innych krajach”. In: K OMOROWSKA , Hanna (ed.): Nauczanie j zyków obcych. Polska a Europa. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Szko y Wy szej Psychologii Spo ecznej ‘Academica’, 39-56. A LEKSANDROWICZ -P DICH , Lucyna / L ÁZÁR , Ildiko (2001): “Cross-cultural communicative competence in teaching English as a foreign language: Research Project in four European countries (Estonia, Hungary, Iceland and Poland)”. In: S IEK -P ISKOZUB , Teresa (ed.): European Year of Languages 2001. Pozna : Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza, 141-146. A MBRO UK , Katarzyna (2010): “Ucze dyslektyczny na lekcjach j zyka angielskiego”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 3, 97-101. B AJOREK , Angela / B ARTOSZ -P RZYBY O , Iwona / P AMU A Ma gorzata / S IKORA -B ANASIK , Dorota (2006): Europejskie portfolio j zykowe dla dzieci od 6 do 10 lat. Warszawa: Centralny O rodek Doskonalenia Nauczycieli. B ANDURA , Ewa (2000): “Rozwijanie kompetencji interkulturowej w nauczaniu j zyka angielskiego”. In: K OMOROWSKA , H. (ed.): Nauczanie j zyków obcych w zreformowanej szkole. Warszawa: Instytut Bada Edukacyjnych, 55-68. B IESZCZANIN , Ma gorzata (2010): The Influence of Background Listening to English Songs on Receptive and Productive Acquisition of English Vocabulary in Teenage Students of EFL. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Wroc aw University. B OGUCKA , Mariola (2007): “The self perception of early education teachers of English”. In: N IKOLOV , Marianne / M IHALJEVI D JIGUNOVI , Jelena / M ATTHEOUDAKIS , Marina / L UNDBERG , Gun / F LANAGAN , Tanya (eds.): Teaching Modern Languages to Young Learners: Teachers, Curricula and Materials. Graz: European Centre for Modern Languages, 47-58. C H OPEK , Zofia (2009): “Nauczanie kultury na lekcjach j zyka obcego w Polsce: Wyniki bada kwestionariuszowych”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 1, 61-68. Selected issues in foreign language teaching in Poland … 97 40 (2011) • Heft 1 C IROCKI , Andrzej (2009): “Implementing ER approach to literature in the EFL secondary school classroom: An action research study”. In: C IROCKI , Andrzej (ed.): Extensive Reading in English Language Teaching. München: LINCOM (Lincom Studies in Second Language Teaching; 8), 521- 545. C ZURA , Anna / P APAJA , Katarzyna / U RBANIAK , Magdalena (2009): “Bilingual education and the emergence of CLIL in Poland”. In: M ARSH , David / M EHISTO , Peeter / W OLFF , Dieter / A LIAGA , Rosa / A SIKAINEN , Tuula / F RIGOLS -M ARTIN , María Jesús / H UGHES , Sue / L ANGÉ , Gisella (eds.): CLIL Practice: Perspectives from the Field. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä (CCN), 172-178. D ELE Y SKA , Katarzyna (2009): Testy maturalne z j zyka angielskiego dla ucznia nies ysz cego. Warszawa: Centralny O rodek Doskonalenia Nauczycieli. D OMAGA A -Z Y K , Ewa (2001): “Uczniowie z ró nymi rodzajami niepe nosprawno ci w szkole ogólnodost pnej”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 7, 33-37. D USZA , Sebastian (2010): “Projektowanie meritum komunikacji interkulturowej w procesie glottodydaktycznym na przyk adzie specyfiki i pu apek historyjki obrazkowej Bildgeschichte”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 1, 66-81. D ZIENNIK U STAW 12.02. (1999): Ustawa z dnia 8 stycznia 1999 r. Przepisy wprowadzaj ce reform ustroju szkolnego. D ZIENNIK U STAW 13.09. (2007): Rozporz dzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wy szego z dnia 12 lipca 2007 r. w sprawie standardów kszta cenia dla poszczególnych kierunków oraz poziomów kszta cenia, a tak e trybu tworzenia i warunków, jakie musi spe nia uczelnia, by prowadzi studia mi dzykierunkowe oraz makrokierunki. D ZIENNIK U STAW 15. 01. (2009): Rozporz dzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 23 grudnia 2008 r. w sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedszkolnego oraz kszta cenia ogólnego w poszczególnych typach szkó . E LLIS , Melanie (2009): “Wp yw egzaminu gimnazjalnego z j zyka angielskiego na proces nauczania i uczenia si ”. In: Neofilolog 33, 185-196. G AJEK , El bieta / R USIECKI , Jan (2009): “Digital culture implications for learning and teaching languages”. In: W YSOCKA , Maria (ed.): On Language Structure, Acquisition and Teaching. Studies in Honour of Janusz Arabski on the Occasion of His 70 th Birthday. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu l skiego, 305-321. G RUCZA , Franciszek (2001): “Origins and development of applied linguistics in Poland”. In: K OER - NER , E.F.K. / S ZWEDEK , Aleksander (eds.): Towards a History of Linguistics in Poland: From the Early Beginnings to the End of the Twentieth Century. Amsterdam & Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins, 53-100. J ANKOWSKA -B USZTA , Marzena (2010): “Najpierw przyjemno , pó niej obowi zek”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 2, 157-161. J ARZ BEK , Alina Dorota (2007): “O nastawieniu nauczycieli do samooceny ucz cych si ”. In: Neofilolog 30, 43-54. J EDYNAK , Ma gorzata (2010): “Ucze z deficytami wzroku na lekcji j zyka obcego”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 2, 44-51. J UREK , Anna (2004): “J zyki obce w nauczaniu uczniów z dysleksja rozwojow ”. Cz I-IV. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 1, 57-72; 2, 46-54; 3, 37-45; 4, 60-64. K OMOROWSKA , Hanna (2007). Metodyka nauczania j zyków obcych w Polsce (1957 - 2007). Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Centralnego O rodka Doskonalenia Nauczycieli. K RAWIEC , Marek (2010): “Stereotypy kulturowe w kontek cie nauczania j zyka angielskiego”. In: W SIK , Zdzis aw / W ACH , Aleksandra (eds.): Heteronomie glottodydaktyki. Ksi ga jubileuszowa z okazji sze dziesi ciolecia urodzin prof. dr hab. Teresa Siek-Piskozub. Pozna : Instytut Filologii Angielskiej, 139-152. 98 Teresa Siek-Piskozub, Aleksandra Wach, Aleksandra Jankowska 40 (2011) • Heft 1 M ACI G , Alina / WIGO , Aleksandra (2008): Testy. wiczenia dla gimnazjalistów. J zyk angielski. Sopot: Seneka. M A Y R OCZNIK S TATYSTYCZNY (2010): Concise Statistical Yearbook of Poland 2010. Edited by Halina Dmochowska. Warsaw: Zak ad Wydawnictw Statystycznych. M AREK , Bogus aw (2001): “ wiat bez wzroku: czy ucze niewidomy to ucze niepe nosprawny? ” In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 7, 28-32. M AREK , Bogus aw (2007): Brajl. Podr cznik do nauki brajla dla nauczycieli i lektorów j zyka angielskiego. Lublin: Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Paw a II. M ARSH , David / Z AJ C , Marek / G OZDAWA -G O BIOWSKA , Hanna / C ZURA , Anna / G API SKA , Anna / M AJEWSKA , Renata / P APAJA , Katarzyna / R ODA , Magdalena / U RBANIAK , Magdalena / W RÓBLEWSKA , Ewelina (2008): Profile Report. Bilingual Education (English) in Poland. Warsaw: CODN. M ICHO SKA -S TADNIK , Anna (1996): Strategie uczenia si i autonomia ucznia w warunkach szkolnych. Wroc aw: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroc awskiego. P AMU A , Ma gorzata (2003): Metodyka nauczania j zyków obcych w kszta ceniu zintegrowanym. Warszawa: Fraszka Edukacyjna. P AWLAK , Miros aw (ed.) (2004): Autonomia w nauce j zyka obcego. Pozna -Kalisz: Wydzia Pedagogiczno-Artystyczny UAM w Poznaniu. P AWLAK , Miros aw (ed.) (2008): Autonomia w nauce j zyka obcego-co osi gn li my i dok d zmierzamy. Pozna -Kalisz-Konin: Wydzia Pedagogiczno-Artystyczny UAM w Poznaniu and Pa stwowa Wy sza Szko a Zawodowa w Koninie. P AW OWSKA , Agnieszka (2010): “Rozwijanie kompetencji interkulturowej na lekcji j zyka obcego”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 1, 58-66. P UPPEL , Stanis aw (2008): “The Internet and the Web: a universal tool and a global resource for tailoring customized foreign language teaching toolkits”. In: M YCZKO , Kazimiera / S KOWRONEK , Barbara / Z ABROCKI , W adys aw (eds.): Perspektywy glottodydaktyki i j zykoznawstwa. Tom jubileuszowy z okazji 70. urodzin Profesora Waldemara Pfeiffera. Pozna : Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, 266-274. R ODA , Magdalena (2007): “Edukacja bilingwalna w Polsce na tle innych krajów Unii Europejskiej (CLIL, j zyki mniejszo ci narodowych, szko y matury mi dzynarodowej)”. In: K OMOROWSKA , H. (ed.): Nauczanie j zyków obcych. Polska a Europa. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Szko y Wy szej Psychologii Spo ecznej ‘Academica’, 57-81. S IEK -P ISKOZUB , Teresa (2001): Uczy si bawi c. Strategia ludyczna na lekcji j zyka obcego. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. S IEK -P ISKOZUB , Teresa (2002): Umuzykalnienie glottodydaktyki. Muzyka i piosenka na lekcji j zyka obcego. Pozna : Motivex. S IEK -P ISKOZUB , Teresa (2005): “Language teaching with the brain in mind”. In: Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici: English Studies 14, 127-133. S IEK -P ISKOZUB , Teresa / S TRUGIELSKA , Ariadna (2008): “Autonomy, experience and concepts: A study in educational discourses”. In: Pozna Studies in Contemporary Linguistics (PSiCL) 44/ 4, 597-616. S IEK -P ISKOZUB , Teresa / S TRUGIELSKA , Ariadna (2010a): “Metaphors as signs: between a cognitive attitude and cognitive standpoint”. In: Interstudia: Cultural Spaces and Identities in (Inter)action 6, 288-299. S IEK -P ISKOZUB , Teresa / S TRUGIELSKA , Ariadna (2010b): “Capturing educational change in conceptual metaphors. Implications for teacher education”. In: The International Journal of Research in Teacher Education 2 (2), 61-69. Selected issues in foreign language teaching in Poland … 99 40 (2011) • Heft 1 S IEK -P ISKOZUB , Teresa / W ACH , Aleksandra (2006): Muzyka i s owa. Rola piosenki w procesie przyswajania j zyka obcego. Pozna : Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM. S IEK -P ISKOZUB , Teresa / W ACH , Aleksandra / R AULINAJTYS , Anna (2008): “A country in focus: Language teaching research in Poland 2000-2006”. In: Language Teaching. Surveys and Studies 40 (1), 55-92. S IKORA -B ANSIK , Dorota (ed.) (2009): Wczesnoszkolne nauczanie j zyków obcych. Zarys teorii i praktyki. Warszawa: Centralny O rodek Doskonalenia Nauczycieli. S OBKOWIAK , Pawe (2009): “Negocjowanie programu nauczania j zyka obcego z uczniami w Polsce”. In: Neofilolog 33, 143-157. S ZPOTOWICZ , Magdalena / S ZULC -K URPASKA , Ma gorzata (2009): Teaching English to Young Learners. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. S ZULC -K URPASKA , Ma gorzata (2007): “Teaching and researching very young learners: ‘They are unpredictable’”. In: N IKOLOV , Marianne / M IHALJEVI D JIGUNOVI , Jelena / M ATTHEOUDAKIS , Marina / L UNDBERG , Gun / F LANAGAN , Tanya (eds.): Teaching Modern Languages to Young Learners: Teachers, Curricula and Materials. Graz: European Centre for Modern Languages, 35- 46. T RYHUBCZAK , Piotr (2009): “Teacher friendly technologies”. In: The Teacher 4 (68), 6-8. T RZCI SKA , Beata (2009): “Odnoszenie egzaminów z j zyków obcych do ‘Europejskiego systemu opisu kszta cenia j zykowego’”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 3, 84-89. T URULA , Anna (2010): “Nauczyciele j zyków obcych, moodlemy si ! ” In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 3, 58-68. W ACH , Aleksandra (2003): The Effects of Foreign Language Songs on Foreign Language Vocabulary Acquisition with Special Reference to ELT. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Adam Mickiewicz University in Pozna . W IECHU A -N APIÓRKOWSKA , Beata (2010): “Ucze autystyczny na lekcji j zyka obcego”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 3, 94-97. W ILCZY SKA , Weronika (ed.) (2002): Autonomizacja w dydaktyce j zyków obcych. Doskonalenie w komunikacji ustnej. Pozna : Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM. Z AWADZKA -B ARTNIK , El bieta (2010): Nauczyciel j zyków obcych i jego niepe nosprawni uczniowie (z zaburzeniami i dysfunkcjami). Kraków: Oficyna Wydawnicza ‘Impuls’. Z AWODNIAK , Joanna (2009): Rozwijanie sprawno ci pisania w dydaktyce j zykowej na etapie wczesnoszkolnym. Zielona Góra: Uniwersytet Zielonogórski. Z BOROWSKI , Jan (1975): Nauka domowa ucznia szko y redniej. Warszawa: PWN. Z BOROWSKI , Jan (ed.) (1976): Nauka w asna studenta. Warszawa: PWN. Z IELONKA , Bronis awa (2007): “Poland”. In: M ALJERS , Anne / M ARSH , David / W OLFF , Dieter (eds.): Windows on CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning in the European Spotlight. Graz: European Centre for Modern Languages, 147-154. Z YGNERSKA -H AJDUK , Jolanta (2010): “Planowanie j zykowych kursów b-learningowych”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 2, 73-79. YLI SKA , Marzena (2009/ 2010): “Neurodydaktyka j zyków obcych. Nauczanie j zyków obcych w wietle bada nad mózgiem”. In: J zyki Obce w Szkole 6, 5-18.