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Sustainable transportation - the annual round-up 2021 Changing the Game STRATEGIES Logistics infrastructure and communication BEST PRACTICE Transport in Africa: Long-time effects desired PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Blockchain technology for inland navigation SCIENCE & RESEARCH Decarbonizing goods transportation International Transportation www.international-transportation.com Collection | October 2021 Volume 73 DAS FACHMAGAZIN FÜR DIE JACKENTASCHE Lesen Sie Internationales Verkehrswesen und International Transportation lieber auf dem Bildschirm? Dann stellen Sie doch Ihr laufendes Abo einfach von der gedruckten Ausgabe auf ePaper um - eine E-Mail an service@trialog.de genügt. Oder Sie bestellen Ihr neues Abonnement gleich als E-Abo. Ihr Vorteil: Überall und auf jedem Tablet oder Bildschirm haben Sie Ihre Fachzeitschrift für Mobilität immer griffbereit. www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de/ abonnement Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft | Baiersbronn | service@trialog.de ePaper-EAZ_IV_TranCit.indd 3 ePaper-EAZ_IV_TranCit.indd 3 11.11.2018 18: 27: 05 11.11.2018 18: 27: 05 International Transportation | Collection 2021 3 Laurent Guihéry POINT OF VIEW Rail freight transport in France A new recovery plan, a new rail freight corridor - but many uncertainties C rossing Europe by train and watching what happens on the network is rich in lessons: In Germany, Poland, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, my train crosses many freight trains, combined transport. Sometimes even the network cannot support all these flows and delays accumulate. And in France? Observations are more complicated because we mostly travel on the high speed train network where there are no freight trains. But the figures are indisputable: the market share of rail freight is 9 % for a total freight transport of 369 billion ton-km. It is 18 % in Germany, 32 % in Austria, 35 % in Switzerland, 14 % in Italy, 9 % in Poland and, on average, 18 % in the European Union! In France, road transport is the big winner in this duel: 89 % of flows are carried by road (54 % by the French flag and 35 % under foreign flag). Over the long term (2000 to 2019), road transport has increased by 16 % (322 billion against 277 billion tkm in 2000). Waterway transport has remained stable, pipeline transport has fallen by 45 % and rail transport has lost 43 % of its volumes (8-points less market share excluding pipelines). Losses are piling up in a sector, which employs 22,000 people in France: since 2013, the four main players in rail freight, led by SNCF Fret, have lost between EUR 230 and EUR 240 million per year (“Les Echos”, 13.09.2021). Linked with the great SITL congress (Transport and Logistics Innovation Week) in Paris mid-September 2021 a rescue plan was decided by the Minister of Transport, Jean-Baptiste Djebbari - the fourth rescue plan since the late 80s - with 72 new measures and a pact signed by the main players: the State, SNCF Réseau, the 4F alliance (French Rail Freight of the Future), and AUTF (the shippers). Each year until 2024, EUR 170 million will be allocated to support rail freight actors. In addition, investments will be made as part of the recovery plan (estimated at EUR 1 billion). In July 2021, the “Climate and Resilience Law”, in particular Article 30ter, set ambitious targets for doubling the modal share of rail freight in goods transport by 2030. The framework has been set, the dynamic has been launched: will all this reverse the trend? Of course, there are the SNCF Network’s work periods, most often scheduled at night, which greatly hinder rail freight. There are the priorities for passenger transport, because of which freight trains park outside of the cities and lead to a national average speed for rail freight of less than 20 km/ h (“Libération”, 14.10.2009). There are bottlenecks such as the Lyon crossing which has been waiting for a rail bypass for more than 20 years. There are shippers who find a lot of commercial reactivity, flexibility and agility in the road transport of goods ... But there are also ambitious choices that come up against the incomprehension of local residents, not-in-my-backyard logic, and the timidity of politicians who do not support them enough. This is the case for the Le Havre Serqueux Gisors Pontoise Paris rail corridor, which has just been completed in February 2021 and is still looking for its flows! Finally a rail corridor for France between its major national port of Le Havre and one of the most important employment and consumption areas in Europe: the Ile-de-France Region. The saturation of the Seine Valley and the strong urbanization of the approach to Paris from Mantes-la-Jolie require very high frequency passenger services. The works on Eole - the extension of the new RER D line to the west - are further constraining these flows to the west of Paris. A new railway line has therefore been opened in the middle of Normandy, in the north of the Seine Valley: with electrification of the track, a connection of more optimized networks - that is to say 2,000 catenary poles installed, 34 switches modified and, among other things, 9 level crossings removed. All that for EUR 250 million. There is an urgent need, because the port of Le Havre is struggling to find its place in the strong competition between the ports of the Northern Range. With 2.7 million containers in 2019, it is too small and threatens to be only a stopover for feeders from Rotterdam (15 million containers), Antwerp (12 million) or Hamburg (10-million). It lost 30 % of its container freight between April 2019 and April 2020 (“Les Echos”, 19.05.2020). Nevertheless, this new corridor is still quite discreet. Certainly, on the side of Fret SNCF, the training of drivers on the axis Serqueux - Gisors is underway, and combined transport operators, especially Naviland Cargo, look with interest to this new connection. However, it is little used: in June 2021, out of 17 weekly trains between Bobigny and Le Havre, only 3 passed through Serqueux - Gisors, that is less than 20 %. SNCF network had announced 25-trains per day in both directions. We are, so it seems today, still far from the account. In addition, there are protests from local residents who complain about the vibrations and noise of the trains as they approach the Paris region. They have lodged appeals and are supported by the mayors of the towns trains pass through. A round table discussion in Pontoise brought out the anger of the local residents of the railroad line, whose complaints are not taken into account by SNCF Réseau. So is it stillborn, the great French freight corridor, which would enable France to make a quantum leap in reducing CO 2 emissions by encouraging a modal shift from road to rail freight? It is too early to say, but dark clouds are already gathering around its course. Laurent Guihéry Professor in transport science, CY Cergy Paris University (FR) Laurent.guihery@cyu.fr International Transportation | Collection 2021 4 BEST PRACTICE 14 Challenges for shipping companies when choosing an alternative fuel Jürgen Sorgenfrei 17 Logistics innovation and knowledge transfer in Cameroon Hans-Dietrich Haasis Victor Tsapi Anna Förster 20 Bridging the gender data divide in African cities Leveraging the power of data to ensure women’s mobility needs are centre stage Ariadne Baskin Leonie Guskowski STRATEGIES 6 Ramp up warehouses Armin F. Schwolgin 10 Port Community Systems - Supply Chain App stores of the-future? Comparison of recent trends of international Port Community Systems Ralf Elbert Ruben Tessmann Photo: E. Rohland PAGE 6 Photo: Hans-Dietrich Haasis PAGE 17 International Transportation POINT OF VIEW 3 Rail freight transport in France A new recovery plan, a new rail freight corridor - but many uncertainties Laurent Guihéry KNOWLEDGE AT A GLANCE Previously published issues of International Transportation Oct 2020: Transforming Transport June 2019: Best practice May 2018: Urban Mobility May 2017: Managing Public Transport May 2016: Smarter on the move Oct 2015: Looking ahead May 2015: Urban transport international-transportation.com International Transportation | Collection 2021 5 CONTENT Collection 2021 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS SCIENCE & RESEARCH COLUMNS Photo: Michael Gaida / pixabay PAGE 25 Photo: Scania PAGE 57 66 Editorial panels Imprint 30 Pan-European transportation matters 16th European Friedrich-List- Prize - a random selection of this year’s submissions Bálint Csonka Mánuel Gressai Artur Budzyński Jonas Krombach Regine Gerike Caroline Koszowski Andrea Weninger Rumana Sarker 45 Take off in the city centre The (almost) forgotten town terminals Thomas N. Kirstein 50 Assessment of autonomous moving vehicles From theoretical approaches to practical test procedures Heinz Doerr Viktoria Marsch Andreas Romstorfer 57 Future transportation A current review of goods transportation decarbonizing Boris Zimmermann Jozo Acksteiner Lou Coenen Philipp Knauf 22 The hour of the 4 th shared mobility mode: Mopeds Why moped sharing will continue gaining global relevance. Status quo, trends and challenges. Enrico Howe 25 Blockchain technology in inland navigation Acceleration of transport handling processes via Blockchain technology Thomas Decker THE GERMAN ISSUE Technologiewandel Strategien und Lösungen für klimaschonende Mobilität Published: Sep 2021 Zukunftsfähige Infrastruktur - Neue Transportwege - Wetschöpfungsketten - Verkehr im urbanen Raum Special: - Mobilitätsmonitor Nr. 13 Publishing date: 10 Nov 2021 2021 | Heft 3 September Welche Strategien und Lösungen für klimaschonende Mobilität stehen Technologiewandel Heft 3 | September 2021 73. Jahrgang POLITIK Berliner Mobilitätsgesetz - ein Erfolg? INFRASTRUKTUR Wie sich die Region Frankfurt fit macht LOGISTIK Elektrischer Güterverkehr auf der Straße MOBILITÄT Strategien für urbane und ländliche Räume TECHNOLOGIE Synthetische Kraftstoffe für die Verkehrswende INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORTATION Focus on Europe and Africa www.internationalesverkehrswesen.de International Transportation | Collection 2021 6 STRATEGIES Logistics Ramp up warehouses Drive-in warehouse, Multistory drive-in warehouse, Distribution logistics, Infrastructure Last mile deliveries have become more and more difficult, especially in densely populated areas. Tangible solutions to this dilemma have been scarce. Ramp up warehouses that have been used in Asia for many years, might be a solution for Europe as well. Despite some first examples, skepticism seems to prevail. However, with the lack of space in big agglomerations as well as the changing consumption and shopping preferences of customers, this might soon change. Armin F. Schwolgin I n large urban areas last mile logistics has become more and more challenging. Presently, e-commerce customers are serviced from distribution centers located outside urban centers. Consequently, true armadas of vans (sprinters) and light trucks (3.5 tons up to 7.5 tons) operated by parcel and forwarding companies are flooding the cities every morning. On their way they are using the same infrastructure as passenger cars, busses, and trams, creating traffic jams and external effects. One of the main drivers of growth in urban freight traffic has been the boom of e-commerce, with Covid-19 fueling online business even further. It is believed that customer behavior will not return to offline business once the pandemic is over. To reduce the cost of last mile logistics, whilst improving the service level for the customers, new solutions for the last mile are needed, but these seem to be scarce [1]. Given the continuing and growing demand for online services, we will explore the possibility of building a new type of warehouse, often called a (referred to as a) multistory, on empty lots in or close to the middle of urban centers. Recent publications in Germany have centered more on the additional cost of these warehouses and legal restrictions (building codes) rather than on optimizing the usage of land and reducing the sealing of soil [2]. Terminology and historic examples The term “multilevel warehouse” is somewhat misleading because the adjective multilevel is not sufficient to differentiate this type of warehouse from existing high-rise warehouses that use either high rack technology or freight elevators [3]. In Asia, especially in Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and more recently in the People’s Republic of China, logistics companies have been using multistory warehouses where the different levels can be reached by vans, regular-sized or even large trucks carrying forty-foot containers (figure 1). Among the existing words the term “ramp up warehouse” seems more appropriate, although structures of this type sometimes have an upward and a downward ramp. In other cases, a wider ramp with two lanes allows for two-way traffic. The ramp is usually made of reinforced concrete which is supported by columns. In this article, we define a ramp up warehouse as a multistory warehouse with sturdy ceilings in between featuring a high load-bearing capacity, and allowing light as well as heavy trucks to drive in and out via ramps. These can be straight or spiraled. In Asia, we find ramp up warehouses that are also equipped with container elevators. Sometimes ramp up warehouses are regarded as an innovation. However, looking at agricultural buildings of the past, you might conclude that there is nothing new under the sun. The upper level of European farmhouses or barns could be reached directly from the hillside, via an artificial dam, or indeed by way of wooden ramps. While the farmhouses in the Black Forest, in Saxony, Thuringia, Austria, and Switzerland allowed the horse-drawn wagons to turn around on the upper floor of the barn in the farmhouse (figure 2), the so-called “drive-up barns” in the northeast of Germany required two ramps, just like some of the modern ramp up warehouses (figures 3 and 4). At the time and even now, the advantage of a more rapid storing process was and is most likely offset by the higher construction cost [4]. The drive-up double barn described by Reich in 1928 is quite remarkable [5]. Four sturdy horses pulled the farm wagons up the ramp made of an earth dam and wooden posts. Once the wagon was in the barn, the bundles of grain or hay could be easily and very quickly unloaded by dropping them onto the lower level or depositing them sideways. The ground floor has a support Figure 1: Ramp up warehouse at Beijing Capital International Airport Photo: Schwolgin Figure 2: Inside a historic ramp up farmhouse in the Black Forest Photo: Schwarzwälder Freilichtmuseum Vogtsbauernhof International Transportation | Collection 2021 7 Logistics STRATEGIES grid in the middle of about 6.5 × 6.5 m, considering the load of a harvest wagon (3,000-kg), the dead weight of the vehicle (approximately 1,000 kg), and the weight of the four horses (roughly 2,600 to 3,000 kg). A similar wooden barn, probably built in the 1920s, still exists today in northeast Germany. Ramp up warehouses in Asia Looking at ramp up warehouses in Asia, we can find different types that have been built in the past 25 years. The most prominent types are those having 20 or even more floors with spiraled ramps. These could be considered real high-rise warehouses. A subset of these have additional freight elevators for containers, some of them are equipped with container elevators only. Despite the additional cost for ramps (space, construction), the drive-in version appears to be the prevailing form; in some cases, the original container elevators have been replaced by ramps if additional space was available. The main reasons for this development are the costs for servicing the elevators, electricity, and the waiting time for the trucks to load and unload the containers. The third type is a twoor three-story warehouse with separate upward and downward ramps with a relatively flat slope. This type of multistory drive-in warehouse can be found in big cities in Mainland China, the USA and, most recently, also in Europe. The Kerry Cargo Centre in Hong Kong’s Kwai Chung district has a truck ramp servicing 20 floors [6]. It is one of the largest warehouses of this type in the city (figure 5). Each floor has an overhead clearance of 5,20- m. The load-bearing capacity of the ceilings is 350 pounds per square foot. This design allows to store airfreight pallets three meters high or 45-foot-high cube containers without any problems. Lifting platforms allow for the direct transfer of loads from the truck to the warehouse. The location in Kwai Chung is ideal for seaand airfreight as well as road transport. The outlay of the ramp up warehouse consists of the spiraled bi-directional ramp, a loading area with large shunting areas and, of course, the storage space as such. Parking and puffer areas are also available (figure 6). Further room is reserved for offices and breakand washrooms, meeting rooms, surveillance, and security installations as well as fire protection. Alternatively or additionally, container elevators can be found in these high-rise warehouses. In contrast to the typical cargo elevator in traditional multistory warehouses where goods are moved either manually or by forklifts into the elevator cabin, the container elevator is considerably larger and does need an extra cabin as the container itself serves as a cabin (figure 7). The container is moved in and out automatically by cantilever beams with twist locks positioned below the lifting gear. This allows for the horizontal shifting (figure 8). After having been placed onto the warehouse floor to the right or left, the stuffing or stripping of the containers can be done in the conventional way. In general, the availability of land in the P. R. of China is not a bottleneck. However, in the huge first-tier cities, this can constitute a problem. For the Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008, four ramp up warehouses with three floors each were built close to the Beijing Capital International Airport (figure-9). There are separate upward and downward ramps, so trucks do not have to pass each other. The warehouses were provided to the International Olympic Committee and are now being used commercially. Examples of ramp up warehouses outside Asia About five years ago, the concept of ramp up warehouse started to spread from Asia to the USA, Great Britain, France and finally to Germany, driven by logistics real estate developers. In the USA, the first ramp up warehouse was built in 2016 [7]. It has a total surface of 54,000 m 2 spread out across three floors. The first two floors (including the ground floor) are accessible by trucks, the third floor is connected by freight elevators. The ceilings are reinforced so that they can carry the weight of racks and materials handling equipment as well as the weight of vans and trucks. The construction was completed in 2018 and has been rented out to Amazon. Further objects are being analyzed in New York, Los Angeles, and the greater San Francisco area [8]. In early 2018, Segro announced the building of a multistory warehouse for Ikea in Paris (Port de Gennevilliers). Drivers of this project were the availability of suitable Figure 3: Upward and downward ramp of a barn in former East Prussia Source [5] Figure 4: Ramp of a drive-through barn in Alt-Guthendorf / Mecklenburg Vorpommern (Germany) Source: http: / / gutshof-alt-guthendorf.de Figure 5: Multistory warehouse with spiral truck ramp in Hong Kong Source: Kerry Logistics Figure 6: Typical floor plan of a ramp up warehouse in Hong Kong Source: Kerry Logistics International Transportation | Collection 2021 8 STRATEGIES Logistics properties and the dense population. This ramp up warehouse has a total floor space of 63,000 m 2 . It provides 48 docking stations for trucks on the ground floor and 25 on the second floor. The ramp is 10 meters wide, allowing trucks driving upward and downward to easily pass. In addition, there are 85 loading stations for electric vehicles for the last mile distribution process in the center of town and the western suburbs [9]. Several months later, Chetwoods Associates Services Ltd. announced the first-time construction of a three-story warehouse in the UK ([10], see figure 10). Once again, the drivers were the lack of suitable land and the “on-demand economy”. It is remarkable that all three levels with a total surface of 426,000 square feet (39,575 m 2 ) can be reached by motor vehicles. On each level there are 26 loading docks and four entry doors. In addition, there also is a parking garage with charging stations for electric cars. First examples of ramp up warehouses can also be found in Germany. In 2018, developer Segro started building the first multilevel warehouse in Munich-Daglfing [11]. The building has two levels with a total surface of 16,000 m 2 , which are accessible by motor vehicles up to five tons, excluding regular trucks. An inside ramp helps to avoid problems with ice and snow. Meanwhile, Amazon uses this warehouse to distribute parcels and fresh food in downtown Munich using a fleet of vans. In the third quarter of 2021, the twostory commercial and logistics center known as Four Parx Hamburg will be completed. The ramp allows 45 t trucks to drive up and down heated ramps. The facility has a warehouse space of 102,000 m 2 with a warehouse height of 10 m under beam (figure 11). Four Parx claims that this is Germany’s first two-story logistics property [12], meaning it is accessible by heavy trucks. A first evaluation Due to high construction and operating expenses, ramp up warehouses of 5 to 25 floors seem rather unlikely in Europe’s urban areas, mostly because land prices have not (yet) reached a high enough level to justify the extra cost. One of the main drivers of this type of warehouse is the lack of land in urban areas, especially in densely populated areas. Due to the containerization in logistics, multi-storage warehouses using freight elevators seem more feasible in intralogistics. Ramp up warehouses with two or three stories could have a good chance in distribution logistics in large European agglomerations because the land for this type of build- Figure 7: View into the elevator shaft with the storage area to the right Photo: Schwolgin Figure 8: Container put down by a cantilever beam to the left of the shaft Photo: Schwolgin Figure 9: Three story ramp up warehouse at Beijing Capital International Airport Photo: Schwolgin Figure 10: London ramp up warehouse with three levels accessible by-vehicles Source: Chetwoods Figure 11: Truck ramp and warehouse of Four Parx Hamburg in December 2020 Photo: E. Rohland International Transportation | Collection 2021 9 Logistics STRATEGIES ing has become scarce and relatively expensive. This concept multiplies the usable commercial space, which could lead to a higher density of construction. A limitation of sealed land could be a selling point to the public. On the other hand, the negative external effects (emissions, noise, vibrations) will lead to opposition from people living in these areas. The usage of electric and other environmentally-friendly and automatic transport vehicles for the last mile could reduce emissions of gases, particles, and noise. In addition to the cost of land prices, the shopping and consumption preferences of consumers (e-commerce, fresh logistics, same-day delivery, two-hour delivery, one-hour delivery) are further drivers. In the end, the cost savings from lower land usage will be compensated by the extra space needed for ramps. Logistic real estate companies point out that the separate truck access for every floor increases the marketability of the building [13]. Experience has shown that a ramp up warehouse becomes feasible if the property costs exceed more than 50 % of the total investment. Currently, property costs of more than 500 EUR per m 2 seem to be a threshold [14]. Operators should also look at the process costs of inbound logistics, storage, and outbound logistics. The lack of uninterrupted staging areas (inbound and outbound) could cause operational problems. This might be of particular importance on the ground floor where a support grid of 12 × 12 m is required, necessitating a load capacity of 3 to 3.5 metric tons/ m 2 [14]. Depending on the type of ramp in use, some other technical issues must be considered [15]. Among them are the radius of the curves, the maximum slope, and the transition area between the sloped ramp and the floor of the warehouse. In the case of spiraled ramps, the overhead clearance is an important factor. The technical specifics of the trucks using the ramp, must also be observed if semi-trailers are supposed to use the ramp (kink angle between truck and trailer). Outlook Although project managers have been pushing ramp up warehouses in recent years, the acceptance from industry is gaining momentum only slowly. Logistics companies still opt for predominantly horizontal organizational processes and structures. Nevertheless, logistics managers should look at the chances and risks in a more comprehensive way (figure-12). A study from 2016 concluded that multistory warehouses will eventually become more common in Germany as well. In a follow-up study conducted in 2019, the concept was only ranked in the middle range of importance. One reason for reluctance to this effect is the small number of reference projects [16]. Another study pointed out that logistics facilities are generating lower emissions at night whilst facilitating urban condensation will support the idea of multilevel warehouses in the future [17]. If we disregard a certain euphoria that emerged some five years ago, mainly pushed by developers, we believe that the ramp up warehouse will remain on the logistics agenda. The main reasons are the lack of suitable space for traditional warehouses in big agglomerations, the trend to reduce the sealing of land, and the rapidly changing behavior of consumers. Most likely, the positive impact of Covid 19 on e-commerce is here to stay. With respect to the decisionmaking process, companies should not only focus on the cost comparison but also apply dynamic methods of investment calculus and scenario analysis. ■ REFERENCES AND NOTES [1] See Hunziker, Ch.: Die Last der letzten Meile. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, October 23, 2020, p. 11 [2] See Hartley, J.: Mehr als zwanzig Etagen. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, October 4, 2019, p. 29 Dietz, P.: Flächenmangel bremst Logistikmieter aus. In: Immobilien Zeitung, January 1, 2020. www.immobilien-zeitung.de/ 154662/ flaechenmangel-bremst-logistikmieter-aus (retrieved February 8, 2020) Gericke, G.: Berlins Logistiker legen Rekordjahr hin. In: Immobilien Zeitung January 27, 2020. www.immobilien-zeitung. de/ 1000067882/ berlins-logistiker-legen-rekordjahr-hin (retrieved February 8, 2020) [3] Early and very prominent examples in Germany are the Speicherstadt in Hamburg (1888), the so-called Siebengebirge in the port of Cologne (1909) and the warehouse of Gutehoffnungshütte in Oberhausen (1921/ 1925) [4] See Detert/ Ballenstedt: Architektur 1900, Bd. 3, Reprint Mannheim 2005, p. 10 [5] See Reich, O.: Die Gebäude der Landwirtschaft, in: Deutschlands Landbau Ostpreußen, hrsg. von der Landwirtschaftskammer für die Provinz Ostpreußen, Berlin-Halensee 1928, p. 73 [6] See Kerry Logistics: Kerry Cargo Centre. www.kerrylogistics.com/ media/ zyrbyhvb/ kerry-cargo-centre.pdf (retrieved December 1, 2020) [7] See Dobos, L.: Logistikimmobilien: Prologistik baut erstes mehrstöckiges Lager der USA. In: Logistik heute, November 8, 2016. www.logistik-heute.de/ news/ logistikimmobilien-prologis-bauterstes-mehrstoeckiges-lager-der-usa-13243.html (retrieved August 8, 2020) [8] See Khasimoiva Long, K.; Romano, B.: Amazon leases new multistory warehouse in Seattle, first of its kind in U.S. In: Seattle Times, September 10, 2019. www.seattletimes.com/ business/ amazon/ amazon-leases-new-multi-story-warehouse-in-south-seattlefirst-of-its-kind-in-u-s (retrieved August 8, 2020) [9] See Segro: Segro to deliver pioneering multi-storey hub for Ikea in Paris. Press release January 31, 2018. www.segro.com/ media/ pressreleases/ 2018/ 31-01-2018? sc_lang=en (retrieved August 8, 2020) [10] See Chetwoods: G Park London Docklands, the UK’s first three-storey warehouse. Press release April 12, 2018. www.chetwoods.com/ journal/ g-park-london-uk s-first-multi-storey-warehou s e (retrieved February 8, 2020) [11] See Brockmann, B.: Hoch hinaus. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung, October 13, 2016. www.sueddeutsche.de/ geld/ staedtebau-hoch-hinaus-1.3203611 (retrieved February 8, 2020) [12] See Four Parx GmbH: Leasing details for Four Parx Hamburg, Dreieich-Sprendlingen (w/ o year) [13] See Segro: Multilevel-Objekte: Logistikimmobilienentwickler wollen hoch hinaus. In: What’s Up, Vol., 1/ 2017 [14] See Dietz, P.: Logistik stockt auf. In: Immobilien Zeitung, July 9, 2017, p. 1 [15] See Tögelplan: Befahrbarkeit von Rampen. http: / / toegelplan.de/ leistungsbereiche/ fahrgeometrische-untersuchungen/ befahrbarkeit-von-rampen (retrieved February 10, 2020) [16] Bulwiengesa AG (Hrsg.): Logistik und Immobilien 2016, Hamburg 2016, p. 110 Idem: Logistik und Immobilien 2019, Hamburg 2019, p. 48-49 [17] PricewaterhouseCoopers (Hrsg.): Grüne Wiese oder Ballungsraum - Logistikimmobilien im Wandel, 2019, slide 23 Armin F. Schwolgin, Prof. Dr. Retired Professor, Baden-Wuerttemberg Cooperative State University, (DHBW), Loerrach (DE); and longtime Visiting Professor at Beijing Wuzi University, Beijing (CN) armin@schwolgin.de • Availability of land • Rising land prices • Higher construction costs • Higher process costs • Legal obstacles (building code etc.) • Socio-demographic changes • General purchasing behavior (online versus offline) • Desired service levels • Reduction of sealed land • Fewer traffic jams • Lower negative external effects Figure 12: Chances and risks of ramp up warehouses STRATEGIES Logistics International Transportation | Collection 2021 10 Port Community Systems - Supply Chain App stores of the future? Comparison of recent trends of international Port Community Systems Port Community Systems, Multiple Case Study, Digital Platform, Business model Port Community Systems (PCS) are locally-bound digital platforms to connect the port community. Using a multiple case study, we compare recent developments in service offer, involved stakeholders, service development strategy and data governance aspects of four PCS. The studied PCS show diverging business model developments. The Ports of Singapore and Antwerp choose an open, app-store like innovation platform approach, creating a one-stop trade and logistics ecosystem. Other ports such as Rotterdam or Le Havre choose to keep PCS more closed off, limiting their range of available functions. Ralf Elbert, Ruben Tessmann P ort Community Systems (PCS) are local inter-organizational, multisided platforms that connect various stakeholders of a port, thereby enabling efficient information exchange as well as commercial and value-added services [1, 2]. They reach back to 1982 when the Port of Hamburg introduced the first PCS run by Dakosy [3]. In the early years, the focus was mainly on the digitalization of previously manual and paper-based communication processes between port members, i.e., Electronic Data Interchange (EDI). Amid the Covid-19 pandemic, even more ports around the world rely on or plan to utilize the contactless exchange of data amongst businesses (B2B) as well as between companies and governmental agencies (B2G) [4]. Nowadays, most ports with a PCS have all of their regulatory and port-coordination communication digitalized. With increasing data traffic that was exchanged, computing capacity became an issue in some PCS. Therefore easily scalable cloudbased Software as a Service (SaaS) approaches were employed, which enabled together with other technological innovations such as RFID first value-added services (VAS) such as track and trace of containers within the port [3]. With ever-increasing amounts of data shared through PCS, the question arises, how PCS operators position their platforms. Do they leverage available data alone or do they integrate more stakeholders as well as additional services? How do existing port stakeholders react to sharing “critical” business information with an extended group [2, 5, 6]. This paper aims to shed light on recent developments of business models of international PCS. We will focus our analysis on the upper two-thirds of the well-established business model canvas [7, 8] since both information on cost structures and revenue streams are not available publicly. The following research questions will guide us: •• Which value-added services are offered by modern PCS and which stakeholders are involved? (Value Proposition, Key Partners, Customer Segments, Key Activities) •• How are value-added services created and offered and how is data governance handled? (Key Resources, Channels, Customer Relationships) We will try to answer these questions by adopting a comparative multiple-case study using publicly available primary and secondary sources on international PCS. We compare Singapore Customs’ Networked Trade Platform (NTP), Port of Antwerp’s NxtPort and C-Point platforms, Port of Rotterdam and Amsterdam’s Portbase and Le Havre’s SOGET S)ONE platform. These PCS were selected based on the active users, monthly transactions as well as the availability of primary and secondary sources covering topics relevant to the above-stated questions. We searched for information on the four PCS on the most widely used search engines for scholarly and non-scholarly searches (Google Scholar and Google). We manually screened the first 50 search engine results, stopping at 50, as we did not find any relevant results from the 40th result onwards. This procedure has recently been applied in a similar context [9]. Service offer of modern PCS A wide range of value-added services (VAS) are available on the studied PCS platforms. We identified seven categories of services offered. These are: Communication services, Logistical VAS, Logistical Chain VAS, Port management & safety VAS, Navigational VAS, Cargo booking services, Financial VAS, and Insurance & Compliance VAS. Table 1 presents an overview of the services that each of the four PCS platforms currently offers. The PCS with the most advanced services per category was given a full Harvey ball and the remaining PCS were evaluated compared to these services. Communication services cover a wide range of regulatory, port-related and commercial exchange needs of the involved stakeholders. While deviations between the four PCS exist due to differences in local legislation and stakeholder composition, all four cover a wide variety of services to connect the various stakeholders. Similarly, all PCS offer advanced logistical VAS, such as Logistics STRATEGIES International Transportation | Collection 2021 11 Track and Trace of containers within the port, estimated time of arrival (ETA) calculations or dangerous goods reporting and handling [11, 17, 26, 33]. Logistical chain VAS include preand post-port supply chain entities, such as hinterland warehouses or dry ports into the platform’s information exchange. An integration of hinterland transport into a platform’s planning capabilities can be found in all studied PCS. Singapore’s NTP additionally includes services such as ASCENT’s iSPOT Electronic Cargo Tracking System, which works independently of the port’s premise and therefore enables users of NTP to track and trace their containers throughout the whole transport chain from the same platform that allows them to fulfill customs requirements at Singapore [35]. Similarly, Port of Antwerp’s NxtPort platform includes the LOGIT ONE service, aiming to provide end-to-end shipment insights [36]. Port management and safety VAS include services that either help the port operator (i.e., often the port authority) to optimize their inand out-of-port processes, for example, through truck or barge appointment systems, or to increase the port’s security by improved gate access procedures, based on digital registration of trucks and drivers or optical character recognition of container codes, to make sure only verified trucks, drivers and containers can enter the port’s premise. Navigational VAS are mostly based on improved visibility of vessels within the port area, which helps to find better routing and navigation. We could not find any evidence, that truck guidance systems have been implemented yet. [37, 38] E-commerce booking services are services that do not have a coordinating function for the port itself. E.g., truck or barge appointment systems are booking services but have a coordinating function for the port, while a cargo transport booking service does not. S)ONE for example offers in cooperation with Click2Rail a cargo train booking service directly through the PCS [29]. On NTP, HAKOVO offers ocean freight booking [39], Haulio offers trucking arrangement services [40] and janio offers, amongst other shipping solutions, last-mile delivery [41], which means that all modes of transport can be booked right out of the NTP portal. Port of Rotterdam offers multiple planning tools, amongst them “Navigate”, with which multi-modal transports between any origin and destination via Port of Rotterdam can be looked up. The tools are not integrated with Portbase though and do not have any booking capabilities [42]. Electronic invoicing is available in all PCS, S)ONE and C-Point (through Twikey [17]) additionally offer dedicated payment solutions. NTP offers advanced financial VAS as on top of payment systems, Supply Chain Financing platforms (such as Culum Capital [43]) are integrated. Lastly, NTP is the only platform that offers its members access to insurance (e.g., CHUBB’s single shipment insurance services [44]) as well as compliance services (e.g., PurpleTRAC for the mitigation of money laundering and terrorist financing risks [45]). In conclusion, we can ascertain that Singapore’s NTP currently offers the broadest range of services, with an especially strong offer of e-commerce services. As the next step of our analysis, we will take a closer look at which stakeholders are involved and how the different PCS create and offer their respective services. Stakeholders of PCS All studied PCS show a tendency to expand their stakeholder groups. Portbase still mostly concentrates on the core PCS stakeholders as partners and customers (figure-1). NxtPort/ C-Point and S)ONE extend the involved stakeholders by opening up their respective platforms to external developers and platforms [20, 29, p. 2]. None of these three platforms include what we call the “E-commerce enabler group”, i.e., additional service and platform developers, banks and insurances. In all three cases, financial VAS, for example, are offered by the PCS operator. While banks might be included in the port setup and processing due to payment services, they are neither active members nor visible to the PCS users [23, 27]. Singapore’s NTP addresses the most extended set of stakeholders. It integrates the “E-commerce enabler group” and offers them direct access to the PCS data. Those e-commerce services on the PCS require the deeper integration of formerly external PCS partners to provide services such as Supply Chain Financing or (single) shipment insurance. PCS architecture and service development All of the studied platforms share similar basic technical architectures (Figure 2). The platform is either based on a (local) central database (e.g., Portbase [26]) or utilizes a cloud platform (e.g., S)ONE [32]), where all PCS data is processed. The core platform provides common facilities for all services and is developed and maintained by the platform operator. This core platform offers a certain set of modular services, facilitating the continuous addition of new services. All of these services are accessible through a user interface (i.e., a website), EDI or API connection to the PCS and users can choose precisely those services (i.e., applications), that they want to use. [26] The four PCS under study show different approaches to the development of new services though. Portbase, for example, develops all of the services offered on its platform itself or through non-user-visible contracted software developers. It provides interfaces (either EDI or API) to its data and services to registered software suppliers [26]. These software suppliers can use the data available through Portbase to develop value-added services [26]. In other words, Portbase restricts itself to a basic PCS platform architecture (Figure 2) and accordingly does not offer additional, independently developed services through its platform. It instead acts Services\PCS NTP NxtPort/ C- Point Portbase S)ONE Communications services Logistical VAS Logistical Chain VAS Port management & safety VAS Navigatonal VAS E-commerce services Cargo booking services Financial VAS Inurance & Compliance VAS Table 1: Overview of services offered. Own compilation based on information from PCS websites and secondary sources (NTP: [10-14]; NxtPort/ C-Point: [15-22]; Portbase: [23-28]; S)ONE: [29-34]) STRATEGIES Logistics International Transportation | Collection 2021 12 as an information and data supplier for external, independent VAS providers. S) ONE chooses a different path, as the example of integrating the Click2Rail platform shows. S)ONE utilizes an extended PCS platform architecture, where the core platform connects with an external platform (in this example of Click2Rail), which offers the additional services. Not all of the external platform’s services necessarily have to be available from the PCS interfaces, though (see Service 2.3 in figure 2). Both Portbase and S)ONE use highly formalized partnership agreements. S)ONE, for example, does not make interfaces available publicly and Portbase requires a software supplier to already have a PCS user as a customer before signing up as such [26]. NxtPort’s “API and applications market” goes one step further than S)ONE. The core platform is provided by C-Point (formerly Antwerp PCS), while NxtPort is acting as the connected platform for external services, which integrates services by thirdparty developers into the PCS (such as LOGIT ONE [36]). Still, it also openly markets its own and C-Point’s internal data and services that third-party developers can access. As part of their mission statement, the developers of NxtPort formulate the goal that innovative solutions shall be built based on available information in the port community [46]. By openly marketing available data, they encourage potential software providers to integrate their services with NxtPort, utilize its data and offer the services directly to the port community through the PCS. Currently, three applications and multiple APIs from external developers are offered on the NxtPort platform. Singapore’s NTP has the most open approach to the development of new services. The former services for B2B (Port- Net) and B2G (TradeNet) communication have been integrated into the new “one-stop trade and logistics ecosystem” [11] and thereby act as the core of the platform. NTP actively encourages the development of VAS by third-party developers by providing them APIs and sandboxes (i.e., secure and capsuled development environments). As discussed earlier, NTP also addresses a broader range of stakeholders and as a result, Singapore has over 50 VAS by thirdparty entities available. Data governance With an extended stakeholder group, data governance becomes an even more pressing topic as port stakeholders are generally skeptical about sharing data that might profit other companies or even competitors. Recent research suggests that this can be a major barrier to PCS adoption [5, 23]. Portbase, for example, defined strict regulations, policies and procedural approaches for data governance, which include the authentication of every single data exchange, so that only pre-approved exchanges can take place [23]. Similar rules were defined for NTP [12]. NxtPort and C-Point stick out with a novel concept of data governance. Additionally, Antwerp’s PCS platform allows stakeholders to allocate a value to the data they share to the data exchange rules. On top of the usual transaction, monthly recurring and onboarding fees for using the platform, Nxt- Port introduced a so-called “Data fee”, which is set by the respective data owner and has to be paid by the data user [18, 19]. They thereby encourage data sharing and allow data owners to monetarize their data. Conclusion While our research was limited to only four major PCS, we can see from the comparison that the business models of PCS seem to diverge. Portbase follows a strategy that is mostly based on a transactional platform. Data and information are exchanged on the platform, certain additional VAS are offered by the PCS operator, but VAS from independent developers are not available through the platform. The S)ONE platform seems to stand in the middle between the more closed-off Portbase approach and the more open approach of NxtPort/ C-Point and NTP. The latter platform appears to evolve from a sole transaction platform to an innovation platform by opening up to more stakeholders, such as banks, insurances and independent service and platform developers. In this way, PCS can develop into one-stop single windows, where port stakeholders can handle (almost) all of their transport and supply chain-related processes seamlessly end-to-end. They do so by choosing precisely the needed applications for their tasks from a marketplace or app store that is part of the PCS platform. It comes down to whether a PCS wants to keep the community data more exclusive and ensure easier trust-building among stakeholders. This approach can potentially limit the breadth of available functions. Open platforms with an extended stakeholder group, on the other hand, will have to find new ways to encourage its members to actively share valuable data, such as Nxt- Port’s “Data fee” initiative. Future research could test our observations to a broader set of Port and also Air- Figure 1: PCS stakeholders. Own depiction inspired by and partially based on [23] Figure 2: Simplified model of PCS platform architecture development. Own depiction inspired by-[26] Logistics STRATEGIES International Transportation | Collection 2021 13 port Community Systems such as Dakosy’s PCS in Hamburg, the Dubai Trade platform or Cargonaut at Schiphol airport to see how these platforms are positioning themselves on the continuum between transactional and innovation platform. It would also be interesting to see which effect this major strategic decision has on the platform’s future development itself as well as the respective port and which role data governance arrangements and standards play. ■ SOURCES [1] EPCSA (2011): How To Develop A Port Community System.. 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Ralf Elbert, Prof. Dr. Professor am Fachgebiet Unternehmensführung und Logistik, Technische Universität Darmstadt elbert@log.tu-darmstadt.de Ruben Tessmann Doktorand, Fachgebiet Unternehmensführung und Logistik, Technische Universität Darmstadt ruben@r-tessmann.de International Transportation | Collection 2021 14 Challenges for shipping companies when choosing an-alternative fuel Shipping, Alternative fuels, Bunker, Methanol The shipping industry is facing major challenges when it comes to choosing the most suitable fuel in near future. Preferred solutions for practice are analyzed. What is needed is a holistic solution for an environmentally friendly energy supply, which in the best case can make use of the existing bunker infrastructure. For truly environmentally friendly shipping, the entire supply chain of the energy supply must be considered, i.e. from production and distribution of fuel to final use. Jürgen Sorgenfrei T he shipping industry is struggling to identify a clear pathway towards decarbonization. Some discussions on the industry transition are centered around questions about fuels, safety, regulation and technologies. These are all valid topics, on which there are many unanswered questions, but addressing them in isolation will not establish a clear pathway to the future. Current situation It is clear, however, that with the foreseeable end of the consumption of classic heavy fuel oil, the question of an environmentally friendly fuel for as many types of ships as possible, i.e. from small coasters to mediumsized bulkers and tankers to mega-carriers over 400 m long, needs to be answered urgently. The fragmented industry structure complicates the articulation and development of an industry-wide strategy for zero-carbon fuels. Many initiatives are currently being reviewed. Costs remain a major issue. Currently, there is obviously no zero-carbon fuel that can offer a global distribution network at scale which is price competitive with current bunker fuels. However, it is urgently necessary to develop solutions in order not to lose even more time. Thereby the industry has to learn from the mistakes of the past; i. e. holistic solutions for the energy supply have to be found. The ship alone cannot be viewed here. This is the mistake made with LNG. It is absolutely correct that LNG offers significantly better emission values than other fuels in terms of emissions of carbon dioxide, fine dust and sulphur during an optimal combustion process. In this consideration, however, all upstream production and transport losses are neglected. LNG has to be cooled down to -164 degrees Celsius and also stored and transported at this temperature. The ships have to be equipped with completely new, highly insulated tank technology, the infrastructure in the bunker stations has to be rebuilt, and with all of this it has to be taken into account that a lot of harmful gas escapes when refueling. The so-called boilout gas resulting from natural re-gasification is around 25 times more harmful than CO 2 . In addition, it must be mentioned that the so-called methane slip is significantly more harmful to the environment when the combustion engine is not set optimally. And finally, LNG is only available in large quantities at a few bunker stations; i.e. there is a lack of widely available infrastructure. In fact, a completely new superstructure and infrastructure must be built. Taken together, the acceptance of LNG has so far been kept very low. And in practice, this has led to clear positioning: there are clear supporters of LNG, whose argu- Photo: Kurt Cotoaga / Unsplash BEST PRACTICE Maritime decarbonization International Transportation | Collection 2021 15 Maritime decarbonization BEST PRACTICE ments are mostly related to the clean combustion process, and there are clear opponents whose gaze is directed at the entire transport chain. There are therefore few neutral positions in the professional community. A disillusionment in this discussion occurred in mid-2021 due to the clear positioning of the World Bank, whose publication on April 15 clearly stated that “countries should avoid new public policy supports LNG as a bunker fuel, reconsider existing policy support, and continue to regulate methane emissions to put shipping on a Paris-aligned GHG emissions trajectory”. What is needed is a holistic solution for an environmentally friendly energy supply, which in the best case can make use of the existing bunker infrastructure. In the long run many experts envisage hydrogen as best solution. As with LNG, however, it is true here that neither large quantities are widely available, nor is there a bunker infrastructure. In addition, the technology is currently not so mature that it would be available for ships in the foreseeable future. So interim solutions are required, although the period for these interim solutions can easily take several decades. In addition, these solutions must also offer the potential for real environmental compatibility. In short, this culminates in demands for genuine green solutions. In order to achieve a relevant market share within shipping, the main consumers must be known. Figure 1 shows the largest consumers of HSFO Heavy Sulphur Fuel Oil for the last year before the Corona crisis and before the regulation known as “IMO 2020” came into force. The IMO 2020 rule limits the sulphur in the fuel oil used on board ships operating outside designated emission control areas to 0.50 % m/ m (mass by mass) - a significant reduction from the previous limit of 3.5 %. Without an investment in e.g. an exhaust gas cleaning device, the so called scrubber, the limits cannot be achieved when burning HSFO. Three types of ships are responsible for the consumption of around 75 % of the heavy fuel oil consumed worldwide: bulk carrier, container ships and tanker (see figure 1). It would therefore make most sense to concentrate on these three types of ship. In practice, however, the market with tens of thousands of ships will not be able to turn inside out in the short term. Instead of revolutionary ideas, evolutionary options must be developed. At least the results of the envisaged solutions must be applicable to bulker, tanker and container vessels after a market launch. That would then be a really “green interim solution” on the way to hydrogen. For potential investors in shipping tonnage, it is therefore clear that an alternative fuel must be found, simply because of the IMO 2020 regulation. In addition to the options that are realistically only in theory conceivable at the moment, such as wind, solar or electric propulsion, only bunker solutions remain, i.e. fuels that cannot be generated during the journey, but that have to be taken on board in a relatively short period during lay times (e. g. in ports). But even here, investors are currently facing a multitude of possible fuel alternatives (e. g. GH 2 - gaseous, compressed hydrogen, LH 2 cryogenic, liquefied hydrogen, LOHC Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier, NH3 ammonia, CH 4 methane, CH 3 OH methanol, etc.). At least this diversity led in the past few years again and again as a source of uncertainty and deterrence; with the result that there is still no real interim solution on large scale. Feasible interim solution Hydrogen would certainly be the best solution for a permanently safe and environmentally friendly energy supply for ships; however, this technology will not be available in the foreseeable future. Therefore, feasible solutions are required for the next few years (if not decades), which on the one hand meet the environmental requirements, but are also economically justifiable. The following catalog of requirements for an Alternative Maritime Fuel could be derived from this (see table 1). The list of ideal-typical applications is like a wish list, the fulfillment of which would result in renewable substances that could be used for almost all engines without any problems. In this case, experts speak of drop-in fuels, i.e. liquid fuels that can be used in the same way as HSFO, MDO or the like. Drop-in fuels are compatible with conventional engines and distribution systems. For this reason, they have greater potential in the long run than non-drop-in fuels that are not or only partially suited to them. With the ptl (power to liquid) technology, in- which liquid fuels such as e-diesel or e-gasoline can be produced from renewable electrical energy (for example wind or solar Prof. Dr. Jürgen Sorgenfrei, NBS Northern Business School, Institute of Northern-European Economic Research 1 22% 26% 27% % of HSFO bunker demand 2019 Tanker Container ship Bulk carrier Ro-ro/ Car Carriers Offshore LPG Ferry Dry cargo Cruise ship Other Bulker, Containerschiffe und Tanker als Hauptkonsumenten von HSFO 2019 Source: IEA, IHS, own representation Figure 1: HSFO bunker demand (2019 in percent) Source: IEA, IHS, own representation Requirements for Alternative Maritime Fuels • energy density comparable to HSFO/ MDO • 100% sustainable / environmentally friendly (IMO 2020 compliant) • easy handling • fast and easy refueling process • not subject to any political control, i.e. free of restrictions • economically reasonable price • little or no conversion or investment costs for landand ship-side infrastructure • no additional disposal costs • can be produced in sufficient quantities at relatively short notice; i.e. sustainable supply • available at many bunker stations at short notice; i.e. wide range supply • not excessively dangerous, e.g. due to low flash point • no excessively high / new requirements for safety technology, e.g. in fire fighting Table 1: Catalog of requirements for an Alternative Maritime Fuel International Transportation | Collection 2021 16 BEST PRACTICE Maritime decarbonization power), the goal of an ideal and sustainable green fuel would be achieved. Many research institutions are currently busy with various ptl projects. Realistically, however, it must be stated that neither really comparable fuels with regard to quality can be produced in the foreseeable future, nor will they be available in larger quantities. Also, for bio-diesel there will be no realistic alternatives for shipping in the foreseeable future. The shift from conventional fuels to sustainable fuels is being slowed by the fact that the new fuels do not yet offer the same efficiency and practicality as fossil fuels yet. The drop-in fuels mentioned in the overview are therefore are no realistic option for shipping within the next decade. In a growing world, bio-fuels in addition face the conflict that raw materials are used to generate energy instead of being made available to the food industry. Using food to produce energy is not a long-term solution (see figure-2). Gaseous fuels like hydrogen and methane are indeed easier to produce than liquid drop-in fuels. But they also have additional storage and transport requirements. Hydrogen, Ammonia and Methanol, if produced from renewable electricity, are the most promising for shipping at present. These fuels strike the most advantageous balance of favorable features relating to their lifecycle GHG emissions, broader environmental factors, scalability, economics, and technical and safety implications; i.e. they will have the best chances to meet the a.m. stated requirements for alternative maritime fuels. Furthermore, these green E-fuels offer additional flexibility as they can also be produced from natural gas combined with carbon capture storage (CCS technology)—then often referred to as “blue fuels.” These multiple production pathways can help overcome concerns that not enough renewable electricity may be available initially to produce e.g. “green” methanol. The well-known argument, which has been brought up again and again in many innovative approaches, that the infrastructure is currently not yet sufficiently available is correct, but does not solve the problem. The use of methanol as an example of a liquid non-drop-in fuel, however, shows a feasible solution. Many of the requirements set out above can be met. The adaptation of investments to the use of existing engines is economically justifiable after all that is state of the art. A solution has to be found for each ship individually; however, this solution does not require any fundamentally new technology, as is the case with LNG, for example. The first ships using methanol as fuel also show that the requirements for e. g. safety and fire protection are also being met. Missing links For truly environmentally friendly shipping, the entire supply chain of the energy supply must be considered, i.e. from production and distribution of fuel to final use. Initial tests with ammonia and methanol as potential liquid fuels have shown that a sustainable and environmentally friendly energy supply is possible along the entire supply chain. The next step must now lead from individual positive examples to widespread industrial use. For this, production / energy industry and distribution / logistics must work together and create new offers. Specifically: the fuel must be produced and offered as bunker fuel. What actually is a requirement is a sufficient production of green methanol to ensure security of supply at attractive prices. This is a challenge for the energy industry. Here, however, one can be sure that increasing demand is already being anticipated and that production capacities will be gradually adjusted. The bio-fuels for the automotive industry, such as E10, which were introduced years ago, have shown how quickly the energy industry reacts here. Growing demand will push supply in this market. What is also missing are initiatives from the bunker industry. It is known from the three large bunker ports of Fujairah, Singapore and Rotterdam, that developments in bunker markets are always monitored. However, there is a lack of proactive initiatives. Due to the fact that alternative drive technologies are only gradually becoming established, however, it is to be expected that the bunker markets will react. They have never been active players and probably will not be. However, the fact that this is a market with many providers will create the necessary demand pressure here. This means that the role of the driving investor remains with the ship owners. On the one hand, this is driven by investor pressure to invest for at least a decade. On the other hand, there are also the requirements set by the IMO as well as by many nations with regard to environmental compatibility with regard to CO 2 , PM, NOx, etc. If these requirements are not met, there is a risk of high additional costs or - in the worst case the loss of the operating license. In order to close the missing links, various research activities are currently underway, which make it easier for ship owners to get started with modern propulsion technologies. In addition to the operational and security-relevant technical issues, the economic alternatives and consequences for e. g. OPEX and CAPEX are also considered in detail. Questions arise here, for example, with regard to the suitable fuel for an investment in a certain type of ship in a certain trade area. Such projects, in which the NBS Northern Business School in Hamburg is also involved, should help to make the challenges for investors in ship tonnage more transparent, on the one hand to guarantee an attractive investment, but on the other hand to realize environmentally friendly ship operation in the sense of the IMO. ■ Jürgen Sorgenfrei, Prof. Dr. Northern Business School, Hamburg (DE) sorgenfrei@nbs.de Prof. Dr. Jürgen Sorgenfrei, NBS Northern Business School, Institute of Northern-European Economic Research 4 Example: drop-in and non-drop-in fuels drop-in fuels non-drop-in fuels no modifications to engines necessary modifications to engines and infrastructure required Conventional Fuels Alternative Fuels Fossil HSFO Hydrogen (grey) MDO / MGO LNG Diesel Sustainable Fuels Bio Bio-Diesel Hydrogen (green) Ethanol Bio-LNG E-Fuels E-gasoline Hydrogen (green) E-Diesel Methanol E-LNG Figure 2: Conventional, alternative, and sustainable fuels in the overview International Transportation | Collection 2021 17 Logistics BEST PRACTICE Logistics innovation and knowledge transfer in Cameroon Developing countries, Freight transport corridors, Supply chain Cameroon is the second-largest economy in central Africa after the Democratic Republic of Congo, and it is rich in natural resources. Within the last decades key innovations have influenced the logistics sector dramatically, as for example the containerization of cargo flows, the information and communication technologies, and more. Efficient and well-developed freight transport corridors are important for the national and international networking of production sites with procurement and sales markets. Since 2020 the University of Ngaoundéré and the University of Bremen are engaged in the „Navel Logistics Innovation Center Ngaoundéré“ project. The major result will be the successful installation of a Logistics FabLab on the university campus Ngaoundéré. Hans-Dietrich Haasis, Victor Tsapi, Anna Förster L ogistics is, as we know, one of the most dynamic and innovative sectors of the economy worldwide. Within the last decades there are key innovations, which have influenced this sector dramatically, as for example the containerization of cargo flows, the information and communication technologies, the sensor technologies as well as robotics and Industry 4.0. Also, in future there are many challenges, which are directly related with new technologies, new organizational principles and new business models. These challenges are limitations of resources, climate change, safety and security, new decentralized production technologies, cloud-based sensing technologies and cyber physical systems as well as big data analytics [1]. Of course, these developments affect also developing countries like Cameroon. Moreover, within these countries the phenomenon of digital gap, triggered by the economic, technological, infrastructural, social and cultural framework, has to be considered in particular. Due to this, education, training and research as well as knowledge and technology transfer play a major role in the development of supply chains, cities, rural regions and the whole society. Cameroon is a powerful and important economy within CEMAC (Communauté Economique et Monétaire de l’Afrique Centrale). It is the second-largest economy in central Africa after the Democratic Republic of Congo, and it is rich in natural resources such as petroleum/ oil, bauxite, iron ore, timber or hydropower. Its main export goods are coffee, logs and woods, cocoa, bananas, aluminum, cotton, rubber, oilseed, grains, cassava and livestock. Certainly, this is based on the geographic location and the resources as well as the access to the international transportation networks via the seaports in Douala and Kribi and the airports in Douala and Yaoundé [2, 3]. Moreover, the transportation corridors to the land-locked countries Chad and the Central African Republic play an important role for cargo transportation to the national and international hinterland, as seen in Figure 1. In this context the city of Ngaoundéré, located 900 km north-east from the Port of Douala in the Adamaoua region, serves as logistics hub and navel for transport and logistics business via roads, rail and air, see Figures 2 and 3. Efficient as well as well-developed freight transport corridors are important for the national and international networking of essential production sites with procurement and sales markets. Their design and improvement aim to: Figure 1: Transport infrastructure network in Cameroon Source: AfDB/ OECD - African Economic Outlook “Cameroon” 2008 International Transportation | Collection 2021 18 BEST PRACTICE Logistics •• Ensure economic accessibility for supply chains, •• Increase the connectivity, attractiveness and visibility of the regions along the transport corridors, •• Increase the reliability, the cost-effectiveness and the safety of freight transportation, •• Ensure a future-oriented sustainable development of economic regions. If this succeeds, transport corridors are valuable enablers for transport and trade facilitation, and thus for economic and social prosperity [4, 5, 6]. Against this background, since 2013 the Faculty of Economics and Management of the University of Ngaoundéré and the Faculty of Business Studies and Economics of the University of Bremen have established a close collaboration focusing on the implementation and qualification of teaching and research in logistics management and transportation science. In the meantime, both an internationally recognized bachelor study program as well as a master study program in Logistics Management and Transport (“Licence professionnelle en gestion logistique et transport”) was successfully implemented. Since July 2020 both universities are engaged in the project called “Navel Logistics Innovation Center Ngaoundéré”, supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. The major result will be the successful installation of a Logistics Fab- Lab on the university campus as part of the Innovation Centre of Excellence of the University of Ngaoundéré. The development and deployment of the Logistics FabLab is conducted together with the Sustainable Communication Networks Group at the University of Bremen. A part of the university campus is shown in Figure 4. The design of the center will transfer the proven and successful concept of the Bremen Research Cluster on Dynamics in Logistics. There are four axes of operations of the Navel Logistics Innovation Center Ngaoundéré: Applied research, academic education and professional training, business applications and knowledge transfer, and international dissemination and seminars. Knowledge and innovation are the major resources for sustainable, resilient, satisfying and peaceful regional developments. This is true mainly also for the logistics and transportation business. Therefore, the logistics innovation center is named after the Mbum word for the nearby “navel mountain”. Navel is used to underline the close relation to the regional culture and geography. Generally known, FabLabs are workshops or studios, which can be used by students and professionals to learn about new technological and organizational developments and innovations, and to test and try out these technologies, hardware prototypes, software, rules or policies. Certainly, a fundamental purpose of universities nowadays is to create an environment where students are encouraged to pursue and embrace opportunities, explore new ideas, take intellectual risks and begin the process of becoming the researchers, innovators and entrepreneurs of tomorrow. Therefore, the FabLab can be more than a creative zone; it may provide technical support in creating hardware or software prototypes and in demonstrating their applicability. This action is accompanied with a process-oriented capability development to support organizational progress to improve the corresponding innovation capability. Thus, the project corresponds to the Africa Strategy by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. As a starting activity, the project team has decided to focus on supply chains for milk and for meat. The meat supply chains cover the link between farmers, shepherds, livestock market players, slaughterhouses, carcass carriers and butchers. The milk supply chains focus on milk producers, collectors and transporters, mini dairies and bak- Figure 2: Logistics center nearby the train station of Ngaoundéré Picture: Haasis Figure 3: Arterial Road in the City of Ngaoundéré in the direction to Chad Picture: Haasis Figure 4: Faculty building on the Campus of the University of Ngaoundéré Picture: Haasis International Transportation | Collection 2021 19 Logistics BEST PRACTICE eries, milk markets and other grocery stores. Figures 5 and 6 give an impression on the present situation, motivating to initiate reflections on possible improvements. For these improvements there are both technical and organizational logistics challenges to be considered, e.g., the temperature of the milk must be controlled along the whole supply chain and partly lax, unprompted and informal supply chains must be organized reliably. Moreover, possible solutions have to consider weaknesses in transport infrastructure and Internet based communication as well as cultural driven organizational principles. Besides more suitable transport equipment, a rethinking of communication, coordination and cooperation is advised. The problems to ensure time-efficient and reliable processes are not only communication problems and different working hours, but behavior patterns and context interpretations. In connection with implementing logistics information systems and decision support tools, it’s not uncommon, mainly in developing countries, to hear something like: “We were used to work without pressure and postponing some tasks for later because the system was not synchronized. Everyone was working for themselves without pressure. However, with this synchronized system, work must be always done instantaneously so that operations can take place on time. As a result, we feel that we are under pressure from the system and that we are no longer acting according to our own free will, but that we are subject to the system”. This statement may underline that human behavior and cultural aspects must be considered as part of supply chain decisions to avoid misunderstanding and miscommunication, and to increase the quality and reliability of supply chains [7, 8, 9]. In the near future, the Navel Logistics Innovation Center Ngaoundéré may become the engine for technology and knowledge transfer between applied research, academic education and business implementation, and for regional sustainable development of economic and social prosperity. Moreover, the center promotes the improvement of the World Bank Logistics Performance Index for Cameroon, whose ranking spots Cameroon in 2018 on position 96 of total 160 countries worldwide [10, 11]. The present 2-years project focuses on the design and implementation phase. The two follow-up phases are the operational phase realizing know-how and technology transfer projects in close cooperation with companies and industrial partners as well as the internalization phase considering the extension of the cooperation and the transfer of the concept to other Sub-Sahara countries. ■ Acknowledgements: The project on which this article is based is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research under the funding code 01DG20011. The authors are responsible for the content of this publication. REFERENCES [1] Buer, T.; Haasis, H.-D.; Kinra, A.; Kotzab, H.: An overview to contemporary maritime logistics and supply chain management decision areas. In: Panayides, P. M. (eds.) (2019): The Routledge handbook of maritime management, pp. 113-123. London, New York: Routledge, . [2] Dominguez-Torres, C.; Foster, V. (2011): Cameroon’s infrastructure. A continental perspective. In: The World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper 5822, Washington. [3] Tsapi, V.; Gouanlong Kamgang, N. I.: The Kribi Deep Water Port: The engine of development and industrial growth in CEMAC zone. In: Dovbischuk, I.; Siestrup, G.; Tuma, A. (eds.) (2018): Nachhaltige Impulse für Produktion und Logistikmanagement, pp. 249-258. Wiesbaden: Springer Gabler. [4] Dovbischuk, I.; Haasis, H.-D.: Path dependency in the process of sustainable regional development of transport and logistics regions. In: Ivanov, D.; Kopfer, H.; Haasis, H.-D.; Schönberger, J. (eds.) (2011): Dynamics and sustainability in international logistics and supply chain management, pp. 241-247. Göttingen: Cuvillier. [5] Rodrigue, J.-P. (2012): The Geography of global supply chains: Evidence from third-party logistics. In: Journal of Supply Chain Management 48 (3), pp. 15-23. [6] Rodrigue, J.-P.; Hesse, M. (2006): Global production networks and the role of logistics and transportation. In: Growth and Change 37 (4), pp. 499-509. [7] Baumann, T.; Haasis, H.-D.; Nehlsen-Pein, T. (2013): Human decision making in business. Implications and application operations of neurosciences for business decisions. In: Business Systems Review 2 (1), pp. 1-14. [8] Fawcett, S. E.; Magnan, G. M.; Williams, A. J. (2004): Supply chain trust is within your grasp. In: Supply Chain Management Review 8 (2), pp. 20-26. [9] Smyrlis, L. (2004): Cultural differences can trump the most logical of supply chain planning. In: Canadian Transportation & Logistics 107 (9), pp. 4-5. [10] Ojala, L. et al. (eds.) (2018): Connecting to compete. Trade logistics in the global economy. The World Bank, Washington. [11] Gouanlong Kamgang, N. I.; Bidisse, A.; Tsapi, V.: Flow management tools and techniques for logistics performance: An application to the logistics service sector in Cameroon. In: Freitag, M.; Haasis, H.-D.; Kotzab, H.; Pannek, J. (eds.) (2020): Dynamics in logistics, pp. 148-158. Cham: Springer. Figure 5: Meat supply chain: Transport of meat carcasses by tricycle in the Adamaoua region Picture: Tsapi Figure 6: Milk supply chain: Collection and transport of milk Picture: Tsapi Anna Förster, Prof. Dr. Sustainable Communication Networks, Faculty of Physics/ Electrical Engineering, University of Bremen (DE) anna.foerster@uni-bremen.de Hans-Dietrich Haasis, Prof. Dr. Maritime Business and Logistics, Faculty of Business Studies and Economics, University of Bremen (DE) haasis@uni-bremen.de Victor Tsapi, Prof. Dr. Head of Marketing Department, Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Ngaoundéré (CM) vtsapi@yahoo.fr International Transportation | Collection 2021 20 Bridging the gender data divide in African cities Leveraging the power of data to ensure women’s mobility needs are centre stage Gender, Africa, Access, Data, Urban Mobility, Inclusion Urbanisation in Africa is rapidly increasing. Mobility needs are mainly catered for by poorly regulated informal transport services. While these services are essential especially for the urban poor, there is an urgent need to collect and analyze data on all transport users to understand their needs and barriers to using public transport and moving around safely in public spaces. The data gap is particularly severe in the analysis of women’s mobility. The Transformative Urban Mobility Initiative (TUMI) is working on closing the gender data gap in urban mobility in selected pilot cities in Africa. Ariadne Baskin, Leonie Guskowski A frica is urbanizing rapidly. Much of this growth (70 to 100 %) is catered for by informal or ‘paratransit’ services. Paratransit provides high coverage, high frequency services at a low cost. They are often the only services available to informal neighbourhoods and offer relatively low walking distances from origin to destination. Despite the necessity of these services, paratransit being out of government control has little to no regulation, contributing to shifting prices, lax safety and environment regulations and overly centralized and congested routes. Like formal transport services, paratransit mostly covers the most profitable routes, often not catering for the complex mobility needs of caregivers, vulnerable groups, and minorities as they are not as economically rewarding. Harnessing the potential of digital technologies can support cities address this blind spot and adapt and plan their mobility services so that they do not exclude women. Digital technologies are leveraged by transit agencies through General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS), which is provided to developers. GTFS provides a standardised and open format for organising transit data. GTFS is needed to improve transit performance, analyse gaps in transit accessibility and project future demand. A growing number of developing cities are collecting and opening their GTFS data to developers. For instance, in Mexico City, GTFS data covers all public operated modes Lagos Photo: GIZ BEST PRACTICE Urban mobility International Transportation | Collection 2021 21 Urban mobility BEST PRACTICE (Metro, RTP buses, STE, Metrobus, Tren Suburbano). However, GTFS data on informal minibuses, the bulk of public transit trips in Mexico City, is unaccounted for. Nairobi is one of the only cities to document and upload informal transit data. Digital Matatus collected data from Nairobi’s extensive Matatu network (a system of privately owned minivans) through participatory digital mapping using smartphones to collect GPS data. Despite more and more African cities collecting transit data, there is little to- no standardised approaches to ensure inclusivity. Informal transit data needs to go beyond mapping and open data. Analysis of data is crucial for city officials and planners to optimise routes, plan integrated systems and impose equitable policies. Ridership and service levels need to be studied to address inequality and ensure transit is affordable, accessible and safe for everyone. The urgent need to leverage data to better address vulnerable groups Transportation planning and policy is often blind to women and vulnerable groups (children, elderly, disabled etc.). Their diverse mobility needs which go beyond those of an able-bodied middleto upperclass man, are overlooked. This is because decision-making has been male dominated for decades, shaping transport policy and developments. For instance, work commutes on public transport are not appropriate to cater for trip-chaining, a typical characteristic of women’s mobility. Furthermore, safety and security for public transport users are often not addressed comprehensively enough, as travel time and waiting time at stops, for example, is not included in the assessment of the user experiences. Fundamental data on the diversity of mobility by various population groups is missing. Inclusive data is fundamental to ensure that all people and their needs are visible, and thus serve as a basis for informed, evidence-based transportation planning and policy. As can be seen through the efforts to map paratransit and collect data in many cities, policymakers have recognized the need of informed and evidencebased decisions. However, it is often not sufficiently understood how essential the type and methodology of data collection are; and how significantly survey results can be influenced by them. Furthermore, even willing decision-makers often lack the necessary approaches and tools to process the existing data and analyse it with new, inclusive parameters. In African cities, there is a particularly large data gap and capacities to close the data gap are lacking . Thus, there is an urgent need to improve the overall understanding of gender-sensitivity in transportation planning and to strengthen institutional capacities in high, medium and low-income regions in inclusive data collection and analysis. One example of the systematic discrimination of women in mobility data collection is the design of mobility surveys, which have long focused almost exclusively on work trips and single-purpose trips (this is still often the case today). Thus, women in particular were and are systematically discriminated against in mobility surveys due to conservative role distributions and patriarchal power differentials in work and family. To ensure that women are not excluded, survey methodologies and tools need to be urgently adapted as well as the selection of survey participants. Besides considering gender balance, the representation of marginalised and vulnerable groups, people of different ages, different physicalities and socio-economic class are indispensable to create an accurate reflection of mobility needs in the population. What TUMI is doing to bridge the data divide The Transformative Urban Mobility Initiative (TUMI) is addressing the challenge of Gender Data Gaps in Urban Mobility. TUMI will start work on this topic, through collaboration with experienced data collection organizations with expertise in the field of mobility and development data. This collaboration will develop approaches that will be applied in selected pilot cities. The focus will be on cities in Sub-Saharan Africa, where the overall data gap is particularly severe, and thus also the gender data gap. Moreover, there is enormous potential to shape the future of mobility for rapidly growing populations in a gender-sensitive and inclusive manner. Participatory data collection is envisioned so that people of different genders, incomes, ages, marital statuses, and places of residence in a city are included and their needs are made visible by defining inclusive parameters. The dimensions to be considered include, but are not limited to, accessibility of transportation services, comfort, safety, socio-economic dimensions, trip purpose and mobility types, distances, destinations, behaviour patterns and travel time, mobility choices, intermodality, and transportation expenditures. In addition, it is particularly critical to include non-users of transportation services in the surveys to understand the basis of their decisions. TUMI will analyse the collected data to support national and local authorities as well as related services adapt and plan their mobility systems to provide accessible, affordable and gender-sensitive services. A comprehensive and replicable methodology is intended to be developed and demonstrated on the ground. This data will support future interventions such as adapting transportation services, improving or constructing infrastructure, adjusting service routes and/ or developing and implementing awareness-raising and education efforts. This project would sensitize other cities and decision-makers of the high relevance of gender data and gender-sensitive planning and encourage them to conduct their own data collection to close the gender data gap in urban mobility. ■ Please get in contact with TUMI if you would like to hear more-or get involved in this project: info@transformative-mobility.org. Ariadne Baskin Advisor, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Bonn (DE) ariadne.baskin@giz.de Leonie Guskowski Project Manager, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Bonn (DE) leonie.guskowski@giz.de TUMI AT A GLANCE The Transformative Urban Mobility Initiative (TUMI) is implemented by GIZ and funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). TUMI is the leading global implementation initiative on sustainable mobility, formed through the union of 11 prestigious partners. TUMI’s vision is thriving cities with enhanced economic, social and environmental performances in line with the New Urban Agenda, the Agenda 2030 and the Paris Agreement. TUMI is based on three pillars: innovation, knowledge, investment. Website: www.transformative-mobility.org International Transportation | Collection 2021 22 The hour of the 4 th shared mobility mode: Mopeds Why moped sharing will continue gaining global relevance. Status quo, trends and challenges. Moped sharing, Shared mobility, Market status, Mobility transformation, Urban mobility Since 2012, moped sharing has made a substantial and sustainable development within the shared mobility landscape. Last year the market hit the 100,000 moped threshold for the first time. This article gives you an intro to how moped sharing has developed in the past years, where it stands today (market status quo and existing challenges), and moreover where it is heading (trends). The article argues that moped sharing has a bright future ahead. Moped sharing has become a solid complementation of the three existing shared mobility modes bike, car and kick scooter. Enrico Howe S hared mobility has been a successful model for many years. Carsharing and bike sharing have been around for decades. Additionally, kick scooter sharing was recently introduced to the market in 2017. In the past decades, the market has seen significant business model innovations such as the introduction of the smartphone as a key, free floating services and Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) integrations. Bike sharing accounts for more than 10 million vehicles, car sharing & kick scooter sharing for hundreds of thousand vehicles. However, since its market start in 2012 moped sharing has made a slower, but substantial and sustainable development on the ground. Market overview: More than 104,000 mopeds with a strong focus on Europe, India, Taiwan and the U.S. The most comprehensive overview of the market development can be found in the Global Moped Sharing Market Report 2020 [1] by unu. Moped sharing was first introduced in the U.S. in 2012 and moved to Europe quickly. Since then, Europe has grown to be the biggest market internationally. At a glance, moped sharing accounts for more than 104,000 mopeds (see Figure 1) in 22 countries and more than 120 cities (see Figure 2). Cities such as Barcelona, Bangalore or Milano can’t be imagined without local services anymore. The past eight years since industry birth have been a story of constant growth. [1] The industry is very Europe-centered. 15 out of the 22 moped sharing countries are Photo: tier.app, Berlin PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Shared mobility International Transportation | Collection 2021 23 Shared mobility PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS located in Europe and account for 54 % of the deployed fleet. [2] But moped sharing spreads across the globe. In the past years, it has had huge growth rates. From mid-2019 to mid-2020 the market grew by 58 %, the previous year it had expanded by 164 % (compare Figure 1). Today, large active systems can also be found in Taiwan, the U.S. and India. Beyond Europe, cities such as NYC, Bangalore, Taipeh, Mexico City or S-o Paulo currently have fleets. India accounts for 24 % of the global moped sharing fleet, Taiwan for 15 %. This means that only 7 % of the global fleet is distributed outside of Europe, India and Taiwan. A huge potential for all other markets and one of the main reasons why experts expect a moped sharing boom in the coming years. From a user perspective, the industry eyes the 10 million user mark. Most users are male [3], and in their 20 s or early 30 s. Depending on the city and use case, typical usage is around 4 to 5 km per trip on average and takes 20 to 30 minutes. Therefore moped sharing can be seen as a link between the other micromobility options bike and kick scooter on the one side and carsharing on the other. Most of the moped sharing schemes are located in big cities. However, industry experts believe that moped sharing has the potential to grow beyond city centers. Moreover, the customer base has become more diverse in the past years (slowly rising women signup ratios and more elderly people). Meanwhile, the industry has become very relevant to the global supplier industry. In mid 2020, the 76 global operators were supplied by 28 moped manufacturers, several telematic suppliers, and a couple dozen solution suppliers around services such as battery swapping, maintenance, booking and billing software, automatic ID verification solutions, fleet management solutions and others. It became a multi-million-Euro business. In a nutshell, the work of early innovators & drivers of the industry such as the operators Scoot Networks (USA), emmy (GER), Cooltra (ESP), Cityscoot (FRA), WeMo Scooter (TWN), and others are attracting a higher level of competition. Strong global competitors built up their portfolios in the past years. Among them are Bounce (IND), Acciona (ESP), Vogo (IND), Revel (USA), GoShare (TWN) and TIER (GER). All of these innovators as well as the supplier industry are working on revolutionizing the urban mobility landscape. The coming years will most likely remain dynamic in terms of market development. Recent development: 2020 and Covid 2020 was the year of Covid-19. This holds true for moped sharing as it does for mobility and society in general. But despite Covid, moped sharing continued to grow. 38,000 mopeds were added from mid-2019 to mid- 2020. After an initial shock in March/ April 2020 for users and operators alike, the sector regained importance in many markets quickly and started to be seen as an mobility alternative during uncertain times. According to a study by Invers & fluctuo [4], the micromobility sector in general showed strong resilience in the recovery from the first lockdown. Moped sharing even outperformed the pre-Covid utilization rates during the post-lockdown summer 2020 in some countries such as France. But 2020 also came along with a lot of uncertainty: painful city lockdowns, mobility behavior changes and activity reductions, fleet service pauses, pivots, business adaptations or free rides for health service personnel, to name a few corner stones which impacted moped sharing. Some fleets were basically inactive for several weeks. The pandemic hits most of the analyzed markets and continues to impact them. Despite the trust from users and investors alike, 2020 remained a year with reduced mobility intensity, which continues to put operators under stress. What to watch out for? Existing challenges Being a rather young mobility mode, the sector still has some challenges to overcome. Three of the most commonly named challenges include moped functionalities, bringing down operational costs, as well as service integration with other shared mobility modes and transit. •• Ready-to-use mopeds: The industry relies on, to a large extent, mopeds designed for the B2C market. Many manufacturers have increased their technical reliability and user experience with focus on the sharing market. Some moped manufacturers started to specifically design moped features for the shared mobility market. However, there is still room for improvement when it comes to providing different ready-touse models for the use case. •• Bringing down operational costs: Operational costs are integral to successfully run a moped sharing scheme. Cost blocks include charging, maintenance, cleaning, relocation and asset recovery. All operators are currently working on making operations more efficient. The coming years will continue to see busi- Figure 1: Growth of the global moped sharing market by number of shared mopeds per year [1] 1 2 4 10 17 31 62 88 122 1 2 4 10 15 23 38 54 76 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Year Cities Operators Figure 2: Number of cities with moped sharing and number of global operators [1, 2] International Transportation | Collection 2021 24 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Shared mobility ness model innovations around operational challenges. •• Deep MaaS solutions and paving the ground for higher acceptance: Many operators are offering stand-alone solutions. They provide a service, which is only partially integrated into the existing urban mobility landscape. Improving the ease of usage for the user by integrating moped sharing with transit and other shared mobility modes remains crucial to further improve user acceptance. For deeper operator-based expansionrelated challenges, the author recommends reading Lehmann [5], which identified several critical success factors (CSF), including fleet & business management, operational efficiency, cooperation with authorities, public transport availability, norms & regulation, weather and finally city layout.-[5] Trends: What will happen in 2021? As mentioned above, the coming years will see a dynamic market development. The following section identifies eight trends of the coming years. 1. Beating Covid: Managing & beating the Covid crisis is surely a societal priority of at least the first half of 2021. An increased overall travel volume is expected for the time after. [4] 2. Introduction of city regulation & tenders: More cities than ever started tender processes and handing out licenses for operation, although the overall number of “license-cities” remains low. Barcelona, Amsterdam and Groningen are examples which have done so or are planning to do so in 2021. Nevertheless, the acceptance for moped sharing by city regulators and users alike is high and also liberal forms of city access permissions have been successful. Licenses & tenders are therefore not the only option in the future, but likely to become more relevant (especially in bigger cities). [1] 3. Business model diversification: In 2020, there were discussions around dynamic pricing, AI-based fleet balancing, food and parcel delivery as well as co-branding, among other aspects. But due to Covid, two major topics are quickly gaining ground: long-term rental and subscription services.-[1] 4. Increasing industry competition: The top five operators already own 49 % of the global moped sharing fleet. The other 71 operators share 51 % of the remaining global fleet. The total number of global moped sharing operators grew by 41 % from the 2019 report to 2020. [1] 5. Strengthening rider awareness & safety: Some of the central moped sharing markets have well-known moped cultures such as Spain, Italy or the Netherlands. In other markets, cars, transit or bikes might hold more importance. Building ridership awareness is therefore a crucial focus which operators have taken care of for years by for example, offering test rides, in-person lessons and other measures. The activities of operators in 2020 show that improving safety measures even further is a continuing trend. [1] 6. More multimodal fleets/ service integration: Moped sharing has to become a more integrated solution. All shared modes and most importantly public transport will increasingly grow together. Users will have the chance to easily choose and switch among mobility service solutions according to their needs. MaaS services such as Berlin’s Jelbi will be key to this development. [1] 7. Strong volume growth: The number of globally available mopeds in sharing services will continue to rise significantly. More new operators will start and moreover, existing mobility operators from outside moped sharing will continue to expand into the moped game. 8. Extended regional coverage: Finally, regional expansion will bring the service to new country and city markets. Compared to higher investment and operational costs of car sharing for instance, moped sharing brings the chance to bring also motorized shared mobility to smaller cities and rural areas. An important step in transferring our mobility system. Summary To sum it up, moped sharing is leaving the niche. It has become a mature and equally relevant shared mobility mode over the past years. The industry is facing a high level of acceptance by cities and users alike and after the Covid crisis, the industry is set for a substantial growth impulse. Given the fact that moped sharing is very successfully operated, but more than 90 % found only in Europe, India and Taiwan, a big moped sharing boom can be expected in a post Covid world beyond these core markets. Some of the existing challenges to this are improving the moped quality and business model fit, bringing down operational costs as well as developing high-end MaaS solutions to reach further user groups. Finally, the author described eight trends which will shape the industry in the coming years, including global volume growth, market reach, user base extension, developing regulatory systems and business model diversification. They are the base for arguing that we are currently witnessing the “hour of the 4th shared mobility mode” - moped sharing is on track to grow in future. ■ SOURCES [1] Howe, Enrico & Felix Jonathan Jakobsen (2020): Global Moped Sharing Market Report 2020. Online: https: / / share.unumotors.com/ global-mobility-sharing-market-report (Access: 13.01.2021) [2] Howe, Enrico (2021): Global Moped Sharing Map. Online: https: / / mopedsharing.com/ moped-sharing-map (Access: 13.01.2021) [3] Howe, Enrico (2020): Deconstructing the Gender Gap in Shared Micromobility Usage. Online: https: / / invers.com/ en/ blog/ deconstructing-shared-micromobility-gender-gap/ (Access: 13.01.2021) [4] Invers & fluctuo (2020): European shared micromobility in the face of a pandemic. White Paper. Online: https: / / go.invers.com/ en/ shared-micromobility-report-2020 (Access: 13.01.2021) [5] Lehmann, Eric (2020): Moped sharing building sustainable cities : defining critical success factors that enable operators to develop efficient business strategies. University of Twente. https: / / essay. utwente.nl/ 81042/ (Access: 13.01.2021) Enrico Howe Founder mopedsharing.com, Berlin rico@mopedsharing.com Photo: Steffi Pereira / Unsplash International Transportation | Collection 2021 25 Blockchain technology in-inland navigation Acceleration of transport handling processes via Blockchain technology Inland navigation, Blockchain, Communication Up to now, companies in inland navigation have mostly used conventional methods and means (telephone, email, post) to transmit information and documents. This leads to delays in the processes of all companies involved. Therefore, in order to make communication in inland navigation more efficient, it seems appropriate to reduce the number of media breaks within the communication channels between all parties involved, while ensuring the integrity of information and documents. Thomas Decker B lockchain technology has now become a reliable means of maintaining data integrity through data encryption and data validation between its network participants, so it could also speed up transport settlement processes in inland navigation and make them more secure. An anonymous 2020 online survey therefore first collected information on communication channels, background knowledge of blockchain technology, and turnaround and waiting times in current transport settlement processes. The data was then analyzed and integrated into both a basic model and a blockchain-based model of a transportation settlement process. Finally, a simulation program compared process advantages and disadvantages between the two transport handling processes. Research Question The basic model used was the transport handling process of a spot transaction in the dry bulk sector of inland shipping, as this hardly differs from one another in its basic form, even in the case of specific customer requirements, and is therefore most suitable. Geographical restrictions, technical homogeneities of inland vessels in terms of cargo space as well as loading and unloading Photo: Michael Gaida / pixabay Communication PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS International Transportation | Collection 2021 26 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Communication possibilities also suggest largely identical basic process forms among the companies involved, so that a transfer of the results to other sectors is also possible. The research question was therefore: Can blockchain technology reliably and securely accelerate the transport processing of an inland waterway transport? Methodology Based on a quantitative research method, the target group of the survey consisted exclusively of chartering companies and shipping companies. In this perspective, chartering companies work exclusively with foreign inland vessels and shipping companies additionally with inland vessels of their own fleet. However, both types of operation are engaged in chartering activities and are therefore included in the survey. The formulation of the questions aimed at the actual state of a classical transport handling process in inland navigation. The main subject of the questions was information about communication means and times. Secondary insight objectives were information about the level of awareness of blockchain technology in general and in inland navigation in particular. The survey was conducted via the platform “umfrageonline.com” and sent to the email business addresses of the target group together with a cover letter including an internet link. Before publication, the questionnaire was subjected to a pretest, and the survey itself took place from February 1 to 29, 2020. The questionnaire was sent to 100 recipients, and the response rate was 14 %. Blockchain Genesis, Integration, Smart Contracts Roughly simplified, the blockchain is a continuously growing chain of transactions grouped in blocks that are integrated to form a network. Due to delays in the network, different data sets with different tophash values could now be retrieved [1]. However, asynchronous blocks are generally rejected by the network from so-called miners, so that it is continuously guaranteed that the entire network has the same data status, thus data consistency is guaranteed and trust can be generated by this consensus mechanism [2]. In addition to the well-known Bitcoin network, other blockchain-based networks now exist, for example Ethereum [3]. Ethereum has, beyond the classical transaction function, another function for the automatic execution of programs with their own address, so-called “Smart Contracts”. If the defined transaction is received by the smart contract, the code of the program is executed [4]. This opens up numerous fields of application, for example in invoicing. It can be assumed that smart contracts could also be applied in inland navigation. The prerequisite for establishing a network in inland navigation would be that the entire transaction takes place via a private and permission-based blockchain system, that all parties have access, and that each party has been assigned a key pair or ID. Using this ID, all documents would then be signed by the respective creator. Simulation of a blockchain-based process model At the beginning, the shipper creates the order data. For this purpose, the system generates a common order ID that can be retrieved by all parties involved. If contracts have also been created, these are transferred to the application’s document management system (DMS). Here, only the party to whom the respective documents have been addressed then has access. As soon as loading is complete, the loading point creates the loading certificate and sends it to the DMS. This document is then visible to all parties, eliminating the need for further and additional information retrievals on loading status and loading certificate data, etc. Since the charterer now no longer has to wait for the receipt of a loading confirmation, he can check it immediately, create invoices or even credit notes if the loading times should be exceeded. Finally, the unloading day has the identical procedure as the loading day. The unloading point creates the unloading certificate and loads it into the DMS, visible to all parties involved. Finally, the shipper checks and creates invoices or credit notes in the event that unloading times are exceeded [5]. Parameter and process input data As a reference for a monthly time frame, the average working days 2020 (NRW) were taken as 21.17, rounded down to 21 days for an integer simulation period. Additionally, the process was limited to a single execution per day [6]. The probabilities at the XOR operators deciding on the loading and unloading status Function Funktion Average processing time Average waiting time Create order data Auftragsdaten erstellen 10 Min. - Create contract conclusions Vertragsabschlüsse erstellen 2 Min. - Send contract conclusions Vertragsabschlüsse versenden 2 Min. - Contact contractor Auftragnehmer kontaktieren 1,158 Std. - Request transshipment status Umschlagstatus erfragen 1,6 Min. - Retrieve loading weight Ladegewicht abrufen 1,6 Min. - Inform client Auftraggeber informieren 3,2 Min. - Create outgoing invoice Ausgangsrechnung erstellen 10 Min. - Send outgoing invoice Ausgangsrechnung versenden 2 Min. - Create outgoing credit note Ausgangsgutschrift erstellen 10 Min. - Send outgoing credit note Ausgangsgutschrift versenden 2 Min. - Receive loading certificate Ladebescheinigung empfangen - 12 days Receive unloading certificate Entladebescheinigung empfangen - 12 days Check loading certificate Ladebescheinigung prüfen 2 Min. - Check unloading certificate Entladebescheinigung prüfen 2 Min. - Create demurrage bill Liegegeldrechnung erstellen 10 Min. - Create demurrage credit note Liegegeldgutschrift erstellen 10 Min. - Send documents Dokumente versenden 2 Min. - File Akte ablegen 1 Min. - Table 1: Process input data of the basic model International Transportation | Collection 2021 27 Communication PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS at the time of query were set to a range of 0.6 to 0.4, according to an estimate by the charterers, i.e., with a probability of 60 %, loading or unloading is already completed at the time of a status query. Variables for a handling delay such as crane failure or insufficient loading personnel were not considered. Frequencies for violations of loading and unloading times were set at a flat rate of 0.5 to 0.5. The OR-operators deciding on the preparation of demurrage invoices were assigned a probability of 0.7 to 0.3, i.e. with a probability of 70 % the charterer sends a demurrage invoice to the customer, who, however, only has to pay for it with a probability of 30 %. The reason for this are freely negotiable demurrage arrangements, which are handled in such a way that the contractor is granted a longer period than the customer, so that the charterer can derive a monetary benefit from these agreements. The process input data of the basic model is shown in table 1, according to which, for example, 10 minutes each were specified for creating order data and invoices. Contacting the contractor was set at 1.158 hours by evaluating the survey (“Average time to receive load weight”). Since inquiries about the handling status and the loading weight usually occur in the same telephone call, 1.6 minutes each were set for this as a halving of the average call duration. The average waiting time for the receipt of loading and unloading certificates was 12 days: The process input data of the blockchain-based model is shown in table 2. It can be seen that the quantity of functions is reduced compared to the basic model. However, since not all times change here due to unchanging activities, the only change to be noted here is the change in the receipt times for the loading and unloading certificate, since these are reduced to 10 minutes due to the transfer to the document management system (DMS). This time was chosen based on the block creation time in the Bitcoin blockchain and corresponds to the time until confirmation by the so-called miners: Finally, a simulation is carried out using the modeled process chains and the collected data. For this purpose, the functions of so-called event-driven process chains (EPC) in the program ARIS Architect & Designer 10.0 are assigned attributes from the survey data [7, 8]. Legend to figures 1 & 2 1. Create demurrage credit 2. Receive loading certificate 3. Send outgoing invoice 4. Create demurrage invoice 5. File 6. Receive unloading certificate 7. Check unloading certificate 8. Request transshipment status 9. Send outgoing credit note 10. Send documents 11. Contact contractor 12. Create outgoing invoice 13. Inform client 14. Check loading certificate 15. Contact contractor 16. Create order data 17. Create outgoing credit note 18. Create contract 19. Retrieve loading weight 20. Send contract conclusions Figure 1: Sum of the static lying or waiting time in the basic model Function Funktion Average processing time Average waiting time Create order data Auftragsdaten erstellen 10 Min. - Create contract conclusions Vertragsabschlüsse erstellen 2 Min. - Send contract conclusions Vertragsabschlüsse versenden 2 Min. - Create outgoing invoice Ausgangsrechnung erstellen 10 Min. - Send outgoing invoice Ausgangsrechnung versenden 2 Min. - Create A/ R Credit Memo Ausgangsgutschrift erstellen 10 Min. - Send outgoing credit note Ausgangsgutschrift versenden 2 Min. - Receive loading certificate Ladebescheinigung empfangen - 10 Min. Receive unloading certificate Entladebescheinigung empfangen - 10 Min. Check loading certificate Ladebescheinigung prüfen 2 Min. - Check unloading certificate Entladebescheinigunng prüfen 2 Min. - Create demurrage bill Liegegeldrechnung erstellen 10 Min. - Create demurrage credit note Liegegeldgutschrift erstellen 10 Min. - Send documents Dokumente versenden 2 Min. - File Akte ablegen 1 Min. - Table 2: Process input data of the blockchain-based model Figure 2: Sum of processing times in the basic model International Transportation | Collection 2021 28 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Communication Simulation results in the basic model Table 3 shows the simulation results in the basic model and documents how often the respective function was actually activated based on its links and probabilities during the simulation period or how often it was actually processed based on its processing or waiting time. It is noticeable that the functions “Receive loading/ unloading certificate” show high waiting times, which inevitably leads to processing jams. In the period of 21 days, these were activated 21 times in a daily execution, but only 9 of the 21 certificates reached the charterer. As a result, 12 certificates did not reach the charterer, which meant that the overall process could not be completed in these cases. In total, the waiting times of these functions took 4222 hours, 42 minutes and 19 seconds, i.e. around 176 days (see figure 1). The processing times of all functions add up to 111 hours, 15 minutes and 14 seconds, with the “Contact Contractor” functions taking the highest absolute proportions of around 49 and around 40 hours respectively (cf. figure-2). These fluctuations are due to the long response times of the contractors during loading and unloading. It can therefore be seen that waiting times for loading and unloading documents and contacting the contractor cause significant bottlenecks in the process flow. Simulation results in the blockchain-based model Table 4 shows the simulation results in the blockchain-based model and conspicuously documents that all functions could be processed in the simulation period. This is mainly due to drastically reduced waiting times for the loading and unloading certificates by eliminating the contact loops in the query of the handling status as well as the information of the principal, to only about three and a half hours. It is also noticeable that the number of demurrage statements to the client and customer has increased. The total processing time in the simulation period is now only 19 hours and 39 minutes, which corresponds to a total reduction of 82.34 %, or even 99.92 % in terms of waiting time alone. Results analysis and conclusion The general part of the survey investigated whether the participants were familiar with the terms “Bitcoin” and “Blockchain”. While 92.2 % stated that they were familiar with bitcoin, only 71.43 % affirmed this for blockchain technology. 28.57 % said they were not familiar with blockchain technology. This shows that while the media presence of Bitcoin has led to increased awareness of cryptocoins, it has not done so in the same way for the underlying technology. Other general questions were related to communication tools used in the transportation settlement process. 57.14 % responded that they primarily use email, while 42.86 % primarily use the telephone. The transport status to the client is transmitted by 71.4 % via e-mail, 21.43 % call the client via telephone and 7.1 % use online customer portals. Legend to figures 3 & 4 1. Create demurrage credit note 2. Create order data 3. Create outgoing invoice 4. Create demurrage invoice 5. File 6. Send documents 7. Send outgoing invoice 8. Receive unloading certificate 9. Create contract 10. Receive loading certificate 11. Send outgoing credit note 12. Send contract conclusions 13. Check loading certificate 14. Create outgoing credit note 15. Check unloading certificate Figure 3: Sum of static demurrage or waiting time in the blockchainbased model Figure 4: Sum of processing times in the blockchain-based model Function cf. fig. 1 / fig. 2. Activated Edited Create demurrage credit Liegegeldgutschrift erstellen 2 2 Receive loading certificate Ladebescheinigung empfangen 21 9 Send outgoing invoice Ausgangsrechnung versenden 21 21 Create demurrage invoice Liegegeldrechnung erstellen 8 8 File Akte ablegen 9 9 Receive unloading certificate Entladebescheinigung empfangen 21 9 Check unloading certificate Entladebescheinigung prüfen 9 9 Request transshipment status Umschlagstatus erfragen 78 78 Send outgoing credit note Ausgangsgutschrift versenden 21 21 Send documents Dokumente versenden 10 10 Contact contractor Auftragnehmer kontaktieren 43 43 Create outgoing invoice Ausgangsrechnung erstellen 21 21 Inform client Auftraggeber informieren 42 42 Check loading certificate Ladebescheinigung prüfen 9 9 Contact contractor Auftragnehmer kontaktieren 35 35 Create order data Auftragsdaten erstellen 21 21 Create outgoing credit note Ausgangsgutschrift erstellen 21 21 Create contract Vertragsabschlüsse erstellen 21 21 Retrieve loading weight Ladegewicht abrufen 21 21 Send contract conclusions Vertragsabschlüsse versenden 21 21 Table 3: Simulation results in the basic model International Transportation | Collection 2021 29 Communication PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS To send invoices and credit notes, 57.1 % use e-mail and 42.9 % use the postal service. Transport documents are actually sent by e-mail by 100 % of the participants surveyed. The question about the duration of communication times resulted in an average of 3.2 minutes (n =v5). In this context, the charterer and the client tried to contact each other an average of 1.31 times on the day of loading to retrieve the loading weight (n = 13). It then took an average of 1.15 hours for the charterer to learn the loading weight (n = 13). Finally, the charterer attempted 1.15 times per day to retrieve the information about the successful unloading of the vessel from the contractor on the unloading day (n = 13). It should be noted that blockchain technology is an expedient means of speeding up the transportation settlement processes in inland navigation. Sending documents via e-mail works just as quickly, but does not guarantee data integrity. In addition, irritations regularly arise regarding the receipt of email documents. This leads to waiting times and hinders the handling process at the charterer. The simulation results show that processing and waiting times can be reduced by a blockchain-based application system. Data traffic between the parties would be harmonized, and the handling of processes would be simplified and accelerated. One criticism, however, is that the applicability of this system requires the integration of all parties involved. If the idea were taken further, other companies from the retail and logistics sectors could join, although such a private, permission-free blockchain application system is likely to lead to a monopoly position for the provider in the medium term. However, if such databases were organized on a “semi-governmental” basis, similar to the non-discriminatory, though not yet blockchain-based, databases of, for example, the chambers of agriculture (e.g., NRW; control and tracking of manure disposal routes [9]), blockchain technology could significantly simplify and accelerate transport handling processes in inland navigation. It remains to be seen whether, despite the lip service paid to the digital transformation of inter-company supply chain processes, greater transparency among privatesector players - which makes economic sense - would be feasible at all, especially among larger shipping companies. And if, for example, a participant were to be able to/ must display its position and data in a list that can be viewed by the charterer’s client, the position of the charterer, who defines himself through his contacts and his network of participants, would most likely become obsolete. This would mean that the relevant intermediaries in this industry would be swept away, even wiped out, just as is already happening on an almost daily basis in other, more dynamic industries and sectors of the economy. ■ SOURCES [1] National Institute of Standards and Technology (2019): Hash Functions, in: https: / / csrc.nist.gov/ projects/ hash-functions (16.03.2020) [2] German Federal Office for Information Security (ed.) et al. (2019): Blockchain sicher gestalten, Konzepte, Anforderungen, Bewertungen, Bonn [3] Nakamoto, S. (2008): Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System, in: https: / / bitcoin.org/ bitcoin.pdf (30.12.2019) [4] Szabo, N. (1997): Formalizing and Securing Relationships on Public Networks, in: First Monday 9 (1997), http: / / firstmonday.org/ ojs/ index.php/ fm/ article/ view/ 548/ 469 (27.04.2020) [5] Decker. T.; Balting, A. (2020): Dynamisierung von Transportabwicklungsprozessen in der Binnenschifffahrt mit Hilfe der Blockchain- Technologie, HANSE Institute for Logistics & Trade Management, 68 p., Neusser Schriften, 7th Jg., Vol. (1) 2020 [6] Liebetruth, T. (2016): Prozessmanagement in Einkauf und Logistik, Instrumente und Methoden für das Supply Chain Process Management, Wiesbaden [7] Scheer, A.-W. (2002): ARIS - From Business Process to Application System, 4th, revised edition, New York [8] Seidlmeier, H. (2015): Prozessmodellierung mit ARIS®, ARIS 9, 4th, updated edition, Wiesbaden [9] Decker, T. (2014): Transport of agro goods by inland vessels to supply biomass power plants, Result report on the EUREGIO research project HARRM (Port Region Rhine-Meuse), 25 p., Neusser Schriften, 1. Jg., Vol. (1) 2014 Thomas Decker, Prof. Dr. Leiter HANSE-Institut für Logistik & Handelsmanagement, Studiengangleiter Logistik & Supply Chain Management, Professur für Transport- und Verkehrslogistik, Rheinische Fachhochschule Köln gGmbH, Neuss (DE) thomas.decker@rfh-koeln.de Function cf. fig. 3 / fig. 4 Activated Edited Create demurrage credit note Liegegeldgutschrift erstellen 4 4 Create order data Auftragsdaten erstellen 21 21 Create outgoing invoice Ausgangsrechnung erstellen 21 21 Create demurrage invoice Liegegeldrechnung erstellen 19 19 File Akte ablegen 21 21 Send documents Dokumente versenden 23 23 Send outgoing invoice Ausgangsrechnung versenden 21 21 Receive unloading certificate Entladebescheinigung empfangen 21 21 Create contract Vertragsabschlüsse erstellen 21 21 Receive loading certificate Ladebescheinigung empfangen 21 21 Send outgoing credit note Ausgangsgutschrift versenden 21 21 Send contract conclusions Vertragsabschlüsse versenden 21 21 Check loading certificate Ladebescheinigung prüfen 21 21 Create outgoing credit note Ausgangsgutschrift erstellen 21 21 Check unloading certificate Entladebescheinigung prüfen 21 21 Table 4: Simulation results in the blockchain-based model Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft | Schliffkopfstrasse 22 | D-72270 Baiersbronn Tel.: +49 7449 91386.36 | Fax: +49 7449 91386.37 | office@trialog.de | www.trialog-publishers.de Let’s keep in touch editorsdesk@international-transportation.com advertising@international-transportation.com International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 30 Development of electromobility services Electromobility, Charging infrastructure, Charging planning The widespread of environmentally friendly drivetrains and alternative fuels is expected in the upcoming decades. Therefore, this research was done to aid the alteration from a conventional car to electric cars to fit the extant transport system and electrical network. I have developed novel operational methods for electromobility services, including charging station locating and charging planning methods. The research was conducted from a system and process-oriented point of view. The results may contribute to facilitate and prepare the alteration of the transport system. Bálint Csonka N owadays, the environment and the emission gained huge attention during the planning and the operation of transport. Accordingly, the widespread of environmentally friendly drivetrains and alternative fuels is expected in the upcoming decades. Electrification is the most prominent option among the many alternative technologies because of its advantageous characteristic (e. g., durability); however, other concerns also arise (e.g., Pan-European transportation matters For the 16th consecutive time the European Platform of Transport Sciences - EPTS - awards the “European Friedrich-List-Prize”. This prize, dedicated to young transport researchers, is named to honour the extraordinary contributions of Friedrich List, the visionary of transport in Europe of the 19th century, being a distinguished economist and respected transport scientist committed to the European idea. The European Friedrich-List-Prize is awarded for out-standing scientific papers in each of the categories Doctorate paper and Diploma paper, addressing topics in the transport field within a European context. The award will be conferred during the 19th European Transport Congress at the University of Maribor, Slovenia, on 7 October 2021. The results will be introduced both in the “Internationales Verkehrswesen” November issue and online at www.international-transportation.com. In the following you find a random selection of this year’s submissions summarized in drafts. Source: University of Maribor SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Prize European Friedrich-List-Prize SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 31 environmental effect of batteries). In many countries, various actions have been taken to support electrification in road transport, namely the use of electric vehicles, the deployment of charging infrastructure, and the development of information and communication technologies. The operation characteristic differs from the habitual and may cause the aversion of new technologies [1], which may be mitigated by applying intelligent and personalised information systems. More and more charging units are needed to serve the growing energy demand of electric cars at the same service level. The locating problem of charging stations arises, especially in the early phase when the deployment and operation of charging stations cannot be done on a market basis. Therefore, the characteristic of the charging network (e.g., location, charging power) has a significant influence on the spread of electric car use. As well as an intelligent transportation system manages the mobility demand, the additional energy demand should be managed by novel information services. Therefore, a charging planning method was elaborated to mitigate the adverse effect of charging demand on the electrical network. In this paper, the main findings of my PhD research are summarised with a focus on three key areas: electric car user information service, charging station locating and charging planning. Integrated information service At first, the main differences between electrical car use and conventional car use were identified. The differences may cause inconvenience and aversion for users. The main differences were limited range, charging, the highest purchase price. The functions of the information service were derived from the differences to mitigate the adverse effects. The functions are as follows: •• Support for new vehicle selection: information on electric cars is provided before purchase. Furthermore, the information service may evaluate electric vehicles considering the operation cost and CO 2 emission based on the charging infrastructure, road network, and user’s travel demand. •• Journey planning: the personalised and vehiclised journey is determined. The novelty of the journey planner is that the characteristics of electric vehicles and charging networks may be considered, and the charging is included. •• Charging assistance: helps to start and finish the charging process and provides information on the status of charging during the session. Charging time is reduced by providing information on the charging process to help the user finish charging. The charging may be finished automatically as soon as the user’s demands are met. A detailed description of the integrated information service can be found in [2]. Charging station locating Intra-city and inter-city charging demand were distinguished. In the case of intra-city charging, the vehicles may be charged during parking. Therefore, the long charging time may not cause inconvenience if the charging station is close to the destination. In the case of intercity charging, the charging session interrupts the journey. Therefore, fast charging is utmost of importance. Because of the differences, separated charging station locating methods were elaborated for urban areas and national roads. Urban areas A two-level weighted sum model had been elaborated to determine the areas where the willingness to use an electric car is high and public locations where users would frequently charge (figure 1). On the macroscopic level, the distribution of charging stations among territory segments in the investigated territory considering the potential of electric car use was performed. The potential was determined based on the number of registered electric cars, average income, tourism importance, and other influencer effects such as subsidies on parking and charging. On the microscopic level, the territory segments are divided into hexagons. The hexagon size was based on the willingness to walk between the charging station and the destination. The installation potential was calculated for each hexagon. The installation potential was determined based on the general parking demand at location types, willingness to walk, residential area type, the number of points of interest and the population in the hexagon. Various scenarios were determined using different weights. A detailed method can be found in [3]. National roads A weighted multicriteria location optimisation method with ranking and selection was elaborated. The selection of proposed fast-charging station sites from the candidate sites was performed on several layers. It was desired and assumed that the inter-city traffic is concentrated on the main national roads. Hence, road categories were put in focus and assigned to layers. E.g., motorways and main roads may be considered on different layers. Unlike in several other studies [4], O-D flows were not considered to provide an applicable method if the origin-destination (O-D) data are unavailable. Thus, the focus was put on the spatial coverage and not on origin-destination flows. Figure 1: Territory segments on macroscopic and hexagons on microscopic level - the subjects of evaluation Own work SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Prize International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 32 The candidate site with the highest installation potential was selected. The installation potential is calculated considering the traffic volume, the total population of nearby settlements, service level at the site, and the location of existing fast-charging stations. Already selected candidate sites are considered as existing fastcharging stations. The method was verified using O-D data for several electric car range scenarios. It was found that a high share of served traffic volume can be achieved even at a low electric car range by emphasising the importance of traffic volume. A detailed method can be found in [5]. Charging planning In the literature, centralised [6] and decentralised [7] charging planning methods can be found. In the case of centralised planning, the calculation is performed at a centre based on the characteristics of supply and demand. The aim is to achieve a global optimum. In the case of decentralised control, the aim is to achieve local (EV user) optimum. Namely, the optimisation of charging sessions is performed separated. Thus, only one electric vehicle’s charging demand is considered at once. I have elaborated a decentralised charging planning method to minimise the user’s charging cost. The charging plan includes when and where to charge. The charging plan was determined based on the supply and demand (figure 2). A two-way energy stream between the vehicle and the electrical network was considered. The efficiency of the method was tested for several scenarios considering various charging strategies and dynamic tariff systems. It was found that the elaborated charging planning method is an efficient tool to minimise the charging cost and decrease the fluctuation of the electricity demand. Depending on the dynamic rates, the method may significantly reduce charging costs. A detailed method can be found in [3]. Conclusion The elaborated concept of the integrated information system is the basis of the implementation, and it provides a framework for electromobility services that support electric car use. The novel functions, the necessary input data groups, the components, and the relationship among them had been revealed, which are beneficial for the operators of future electromobility services. The elaborated charging station locating methods support the deployment along national roads and in urban areas in the early phase, while the deployment cannot be done on a market basis, and the locations have a substantial influence on electric vehicle use. The location selection was made in consideration of the estimated charging demand. The e-Mobi Elektromobilitás Ltd applied the methods. The precondition of the elaborated charging planning method is the different electricity rates at charging stations. Thus, the user may benefit from the use of charging optimisation. Reducing the grid load fluctuation by decentralised charging optimisation a dynamic electricity rate based on the free capacity is necessary. However, such a dynamic electricity rate is not resolved yet; there is a huge potential in the application of charging optimisation. ■ REFERENCES [1] Büscher, M.; Coulton, P.; Efstratiou, C.; Gellersen, H.; Hemment, D.; Mehmood, R.; Sangiorgi, D. (2009): Intelligent mobility systems: some socio-technical challenges and opportunities. In: International Conference on Communications Infrastructure. Systems and Applications in Europe, pp. 140-152. www.doi.org/ 10.1007/ 978-3-642-11284-3_15 [2] Csonka, B.; Csiszár, C. (2019): Integrated Information Service for Plug-In Electric Vehicle Users Including Smart Grid Functions. In: Transport 34(1), pp. 135-145. https: / / doi. org/ 10.3846/ transport.2019.8548 [3] Csiszár, C.; Csonka, B.; Földes, D.; Wirth, E.; Lovas, T. (2019): Urban public charging station locating method for electric vehicles based on land use approach. In: Journal of Transport Geography 74, pp. 173-180. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.jtrangeo.2018.11.016 [4] Capar, I.; Kuby, M.; Leon, V. J.; Tsai, Y-j. (2013): An arc cover-path-cover formulation and strategic analysis of alternative-fuel station locations. In: European Journal of Operational Research 227, pp. 142-151. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.ejor.2012.11.033 [5] Csiszár, C.; Csonka, B.; Földes, D.; Wirth, E.; Lovas, T. (2020): Location optimisation method for fast-charging stations along national roads. In: Journal of Transport Geography 88, 102833. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.jtrangeo.2020.102833 [6] Klaimi, J.,; Rahim-Amoud, R.; Merghem-Boulahia, L.; Jrad. A. (2018): A novel loss-based energy management approach for smart grids using multi-agent systems and intelligent storage systems. In: Sustainable Cities and Society 39, pp. 344-357. https: / / doi. org/ 10.1016/ j.scs.2018.02.038 [7] Mal, S.; Chattopadhyay, A.; Yang, A.; Gadh. R. (2012): Electric vehicle smart charging and vehicle-to-grid operation. In: International Journal of Parallel, Emergent and Distributed Systems 28(3), pp. 249-265. https: / / doi.org/ 10.1080/ 17445760.2012.663757 Bálint Csonka, PhD Research associate, Department of Transport Technology and Economics, Faculty of Transportation Engineering and Vehicle Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest (HU) csonka.balint@kjk.bme.hu Figure 2: Charging planning method input and output Own work European Friedrich-List-Prize SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 33 Estimation of turning rates in roundabouts, applying state-space estimation methods Traffic estimation, Roundabout, Turning rate, Traffic count, Kalman Filter, Constrained Kalman Filter The aim of this paper is the examination and comparison of different estimation methods used for determining turning rates (OD-matrix) in roundabouts. A traditional iteration-based approach as well as state-space estimators are validated on real-world traffic data. For the estimation procedures, the traffic flows (measured at each leg of the intersection) are the input. In this way, the manual origin-destination traffic count at an intersection can be substituted by automated traffic detection at the cross-sections together with an adequately implemented estimation process. Mánuel Gressai R oad traffic infrastructure planning or development is initiated based on reliable traffic modeling. The input of the modeling is the vehicular flows on road links and turning rates at intersections. Traffic volumes at cross-sections can be straightforwardly measured manually or with help of a wide variety of traffic sensors. At the same time, turning flows or turning rates can be collected by human resources solely, which is quite costly. Therefore, if turning flows are collected, typically more than one person is needed to perceive all movements. The more, observing turnings in roundabouts is extremely problematic due to the special geometry and size of this type of junction. Figure 1 demonstrates the possible turning movements at a roundabout for vehicles arriving at Entrance 1. V 1j is the turning traffic flow from Entrance 1 to exit j, whereas V 1,in and V 1,out are the total traffic volumes entering and exiting at the corresponding junction leg. Using the volumes in figure 1, turning rates can be defined as follows: (1) where n D is the number of exits. Counting traffic on the legs of a roundabout and adequately estimating turning rates based on the collected data has the potential to substitute labor-intensive turning flow counts. This could reduce the cost of determining turning rates at an intersection significantly. In this paper, cross-sectional counts are used as a basis to estimate turning rates at a roundabout. This proposes a possible solution to overcome the obstacles posed by turning movement observation. This paper is divided into 5 sections. A description of the examined estimation methods follows the introduction. Next, the testing of different estimation methods is presented. The methods are then compared using different error metrics. Finally, a case study is established to determine whether the tuning of the best performing estimator depends on the traffic conditions, or it can be considered robust under different circumstances. Recommendations and future directions for the research are stated, and conclusions are drawn the last section. Estimation methods This section covers different methods used for turning rate estimation. Biproportional procedure is discussed as a traditional iterative algorithm, then the Kalman Filter and its extension with constraint handling are introduced as well as the Moving Horizon Estimation. The biproportional procedure (BP) is an iterative algorithm [1], where the variation of two coefficients causes the variation of turning flows in each iteration. The BP procedure aims to estimate the elements of the current OD-matrix based on the current flows on each leg and the prior OD-matrix. State-space based estimators such as the Kalman Filter include a model of the system and noises [2]. Some procedures are apt to manage constraints concerning- the- estimated values (e.g., for each turning rate to be- non-negative). Moreover, these methods estimate Figure 1: Possible turning movements at a four-legged roundabout from one direction Own work SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Prize International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 34 the- mean and standard deviation for all states in each interval. The Kalman Filter (KF) uses the estimated states (turning rates) in the previous step and the measurements in the current step to estimate the current state. The constrained Kalman Filter (cKF) contains an optimization after each step for the estimated values to satisfy previously defined constraints. The constraint handling section contains a weighing matrix which can be set to an identity matrix (I) or the error covariance matrix (P) in each step [3, 4]. Based on these options, cKF-I and cKF-P methods were defined. The MHE not only contains an optimization problem to minimize the state and measurement noises, but it can also consider the estimated values of more than one previous steps [5]. The horizon length ranged from 1 to 4 during the tests, and these cases were named MHE1, MHE2, MHE3, and MHE4, respectively. Applying the estimation methods Real turning movement volumes were counted at two different roundabouts for the research. In this way, after the calculation of turning rates, real data was available for validation and comparison of the proposed estimation algorithms. The 30-minute counts were divided into 1, 2, and 5-minute intervals, so that the estimation methods could be tested for different data input frequencies. The estimation algorithms introduced in the paper are based on the counted number of vehicles expressed in PCE (Passenger Car Equivalent [6]). The input of the estimators is the traffic flows, but the real turning rates are also known. This makes it possible to compare the estimated turning rates with the real data using error metrics. Four different error metrics [7] have been applied during the evaluation of estimation procedures: •• mean absolute error (MAE), •• root mean square error (RMSE), •• mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), and •• symmetric mean absolute percentage error (SMAPE). These metrics were also used during the tuning of the state-space estimators. The weighing between the state noise and measurement noise covariance matrices determines the attributes of the estimation. The tuning was carried out by searching for the minimum of errors. Based on the results, it can be stated that the longer the interval, the more accurate the estimation. The 5-minute interval led to the smallest errors in the case of every examined method. This clearly means that on longer time intervals, the algorithms can better smooth their estimations. Based on this, 1or 2-minute sampling intervals are not suggested to be applied in this practical problem. Table 1 lists the average error measures for all examined estimation methods in the case of 5-minute interval sizes. A ranking in the MAE values is also assigned to the procedures. In this case, the cKF and the MHE outperform the BP method and the unconstrained Kalman Filter. The comparison revealed that, although the performance of the MHE is generally slightly higher than that of the constrained Kalman Filter, tuning the MHE is often problematic. Therefore, the constrained Kalman Filtering is suggested as the best estimation procedure, taking the tuning circumstances and the performance into account. Simulation-based case study A case study was also carried out, the basis of which is another real-world traffic count. The examination was then extended to a simulation environment created in PTV Vissim modeling software. In this case, the 4-hour traffic measurements consisted of 15-minute intervals. Every method was tuned to the available traffic data sets. In case of the 15-minute intervals, the constrained Kalman Filter (cKF-P) turned out to estimate with the smallest errors. After the GEH validation [8, 9], a simulation model was established, and different traffic circumstances were created in the modeled environment. The cKF-P proved to be the most effective estimator; therefore, its performance was tested in the different scenarios, without changing the tuning. Three traffic parameters were altered to create the scenarios: •• traffic volumes, •• the proportions of the main road and side road volumes (traffic ratio), •• the position of the main road (opposite or adjacent legs). The created scenarios are as follows: •• S0: control scenario, the average of morning and afternoon traffic counts; •• S1: S0 scenario’s OD matrix, multiplied by 1.3; •• S2: 1: 2 traffic ratio, main road is opposite legs (2, 4); •• S3: 1: 6 traffic ratio, main road is opposite legs (2, 4); •• S4: 1: 2 traffic ratio, main road is adjacent legs (2, 3); •• S5: 1: 6 traffic ratio, main road is adjacent legs (2, 3). Comparing the errors of the scenarios with the control case, the following observations can be made: •• the alteration of traffic parameters did not affect the performance of the constrained Kalman Filter substantially; •• the increase of traffic volumes did not cause anomalies in the estimation; •• concerning the main and side road volume ratios, the cKF-P was more accurate when the side road volume proportions were lower; •• adjacent main road legs resulted in larger errors; •• in case of opposite main road legs, estimation performance was affected more by the traffic ratios. Intervals: 5 min Method MAE RMSE MAPE SMAPE Rank (MAE) BP 0.0670 0.1050 27.89% 11.53% 5 KF 0.0742 0.1118 32.51% 11.95% 7 cKF-I 0.0692 0.1048 27.84% 11.66% 6 cKF-P 0.0608 0.0945 24.72% 10.29% 3 MHE1 0.0599 0.0928 26.84% 10.92% 1 MHE2 0.0602 0.0942 25.81% 10.66% 2 MHE3 0.0633 0.1027 31.36% 11.74% 4 MHE4 0.0745 0.1054 32.39% 13.68% 8 Table 1: MAE rank for the examined methods (5-min intervals) European Friedrich-List-Prize SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 35 Conclusions The main contribution of the paper is the validated comparison of different methods on real-world data sensed by drone and then counted manually. Analyzing the results, the following conclusions can be drawn: •• in general, longer intervals result in more accurate estimations; •• managing constraints improves the accuracy of the state-space estimators significantly; •• the adequately tuned constrained Kalman Filter and MHE outperform the unconstrained Kalman Filter and the traditional iterative procedure. The comparison was followed by a simulation-based case study. Tuning the state-space estimators determined that, for the examined roundabout and circumstances, the constrained Kalman Filter (cKF-P) was the most adequate method. After building the model and validating it, different scenarios were created as an input for the cKF-P. The case study led to these conclusions: •• in general, different traffic situations did not affect the performance of the estimation significantly; •• the tuning of the cKF-P can be considered robust; •• increasing traffic volumes did not cause anomalies in the estimation performance; •• the estimation is more accurate, when the side road traffic volume proportions are lower; •• the estimation is more accurate, when the main road runs on opposite legs. The continuation of this research is twofold. On the one hand, managing different road vehicle categories is an important research aim, as road planning companies generally require traffic counts with four different vehicle classes. On the other hand, a more sophisticated tuning can be developed for the state-space estimators. This can involve determining different parameters for the main road and the side road, or even traffic responsive tuning. As the result of the research, it can be stated, that state-space estimation methods combined with automatic cross-section traffic counts provide a real alternative to paper-based, manual intersectional traffic counts in case of roundabouts. ■ REFERENCES [1] Ben-Akiva, M.; Macke, P. P.; . Hsu, P. (1985): Alternative methods to estimate route-level trip tables and expand on-board surveys. In: Transportation Research Record. [2] Kalman, R. E. (1960): A new approach to linear filtering and prediction problems. In: Journal of Basic Engineering (ASME). [3] Gupta, N.; Hauser, R. (2007): Kalman filtering with equality and inequality state constraints. Oxford University Computing Laboratory. [4] Simon, D. (2010): . Kalman filtering with state constraints: a survey of linear and nonlinear algorithms. In: IET Control Theory & Applications. [5] Haugen, F. A. (2018): A brief introduction to optimization methods. [6] Lay, M. (2009): Handbook of Road Technology. Spon Press. Abingdon, UK. [7] Chen, C.; Twycross, J.; Garibaldi. J. M. (2017): A new accuracy measure based on bounded relative error for time series forecasting. In: PloS one. [8] Feldman, O. (2012): The GEH measure and quality of the highway assignment models. In: Association for European Transport and Contributors, pp. 1-18. [9] TfL (Transport for London): Traffic Modelling Guidelines: In: TfL Traffic Manager and Network Performance Best Practice Version 3.0. 2010. Mánuel Gressai Research associate, Department of Control for Transportation and Vehicle Systems, Faculty of Transportation Engineering and Vehicle Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest (HU) gressai.manuel@edu.bme.hu Road transport price Correlation of rates for road transport services in domestic transport in-Poland Economic transport, Data analyst, Road transport, Freight forwarding, Transport management The work focuses on the study of the correlation between the GDP of geographical regions and transport rates. Analyzed what influences the price of transport the thesis was put forward that transports whose loads are located in economically developed regions cost more than those whose loads are in less developed regions. The research used data on transports carried out in Poland. The results were compared with the GDP ratio given for each NUTS3 sub-region. A correlation was found and the thesis made at the beginning was confirmed. Artur Budzyński T he main aim of this article is to investigate how the GDP of the NUTS geographical sub-regions affects the price of a transport service. Thesis put forward is that there is a correlation between the transport rates and the areas of loading these shipments. It is assumed that transport from more economically developed SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Prize International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 36 regions is more expensive than the less developed ones. The aim of the work is to list the transports offered on transport taking particular account of the place loading and the transport rate per kilometre of the route. The work discusses the issues valuation of transport rates by people operating in enterprises transport and forwarding and the methods used so far. Then it will be demonstrated correlation between rates and districts. The research methods that will be used is compilation of these routes and calculations using: deviation, average, comparison. [1] Transport is the driving force of the Polish economy. Poland is in a very good connection strategic at the intersection of European transport corridors. It is a trans-European transport network. Coordinates and binds investments infrastructural. Everything is regulated by the Regulation of the European Parliament and Council of the European Union on EU guidelines for the development of the Trans-European Transport Network (TNT). Currently, there are 46 states on the European continent and two de facto independent states. The European Union has 28 states in its structures. Individual countries are divided into postal codes. Postal codes are a series of numbers or numbers and letters. They make it possible to identify the address. The code starts with two letters identifying the country where it is located. There are several types of how the rest of the postal code is written. The most convenient for the work of an operator in logistics and forwarding is the system of dividing the country into ten districts first (first digit), then each district is divided into ten more districts (second digit). The method facilitates grouping regions into larger ones. Examples are Germany and Poland. The transport rate is a specified amount that the client pays the contractor for the performance of transport. The pricing of a given route depends on many factors. The main division that is important for the study of correlation is the division into the costs of the working day of the road set and the driver, and those depending on the mileage. Fuel and tolls are mileage dependent. Tire wear is also largely dependent on the distance travelled. The OCP carrier’s insurance is purchased once a year, so it does not depend on how many kilometres the set covers. It is worth noting that the costs of employing a driver are fixed and depend on how much he works. Sometimes the practices used to bill the driver by kilometres travelled are illegal. This is stated in the Regulation of the European Union Commission 2016/ 403, Annex I, point 32 of the table. This is classified as a very serious breach that could lead to a loss of goodwill. A good reputation is necessary to have a transport license and perform the work of a road carrier. From this division it can be concluded that longer routes in international relations have a lower rate than shorter ones. TimoCom is one of the most important freight exchanges in Europe. Up to 750,000 offers of free loading space and loads are submitted every day. The company offers a transport barometer for mobile devices, supported by Android and iOS systems. The application collects the number of offers reported by users and calculates the proportions between free loads and cargo space. The disadvantage of the application is that it does not analyze the rates that are offered on the given relationships. You can only get information about the demand and supply between the given countries. Also, it is not possible to divide the country into smaller parts. The detailed view allows you to see the dependencies in previous years [2]. Route data was collected to test the correlation. The analysed orders are domestic, i. e. the place of loading and unloading is in Poland. These are full truck loads, i.e. they occupy 13.6 meters of cargo on a semi-trailer. Only loads that are carried by a standard type of semi-trailer with a minimum height of 2.6 meters are taken into account. The weight of the transported goods is 24 tons. Transport of dangerous goods that could inflate rates was excluded. The collected data on transports are: place of loading, place of unloading, rate. For the collected data, the distance between the place of loading and unloading using TimoCom transport machines was calculated. Maps calculate the route taking into account the height of the set and the total weight. It is a much more precise tool than, for example, Google Maps. The next step will be to assign regions compliant with the NUTS classification to transports. The classification was introduced in Poland on November 26, 2005. The reason for introducing NUTS was the accession of new countries to the European Union, including Poland. There are currently 97 NUTS units in Poland. They are divided into 3 categories: NUTS 1, NUTS 2, NUTS 3. NUTS 1 is the largest and these are microregions grouping voivodships. There are 7 of them. Due to their large size, the correlation between them has not been tested. NUTS 2 are regions, voivodships or parts of them. There are 17 of them in Poland. The smallest unit is NUTS 3, i. e. subregions. There are 73 units of them. Due to the fact that these are the smallest areas for which statistics are conducted, the focus was on analysing them at work. The next step is to group the transports according to the first two digits of the zip code and calculate the arithmetic mean from each. It is worth noting that there are 99 postal codes in Poland. There is no code starting with 79. The results of the calculations are in figure1. The arithmetic mean of the transport rates is PLN 3.15 rounded to the nearest whole grosz. However, the median of these rates is PLN 3.11. The most expensive transports were loaded in the following postal codes: 00; 04; 01; 02; 03 - they are all located in the subregion of the city of Warsaw. The postal code from which the cheapest transports departed is 89, it is located in the Świecie subregion. 39 postal codes are above the arithmetic mean of rates, which is around 39 %. Similarly, 60 is below which is 61 % of codes. The collected results of the arithmetic means from all codes were grouped into ten intervals and assigned to each color. Then, a map was created with a division into postal codes and the colour was selected in accordance with the rate at which transports left it on average. The next step is to group the transports according to the first digits of the postal code and calculate the arithmetic mean from each. The arithmetic mean amounts to PLN 3.16, rounded to the nearest grosz. The median is Figure 1: Graphical presentation of transport rates with division into postal codes Own source European Friedrich-List-Prize SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 37 PLN 3.15 rounded to the nearest pennies. 6 postal codes have a greater value than the average, which is 60 %. On the other hand, 4 postal codes have a lower value, which is 40 %. Gross Domestic Product - GDP in short is one of the most important data about the work of society. This measure is recognized by economists. It is the money value of all goods and services produced. It can be assumed that GDP is growing in a developing economy. High GDP indicates a highly developed economy, low GDP a poorly developed one. The work uses the data of the Central Statistical Office on gross domestic product with a breakdown into geographical subregions according to the NUTS 3 classification. The collected data is presented in the form of a graph in figure 2. Only those subregions where the places of loading of the analyzed transports are located were taken into account. The values assigned to 56 subregions were obtained. The arithmetic mean of gross domestic product was PLN 25,704 million. The median of these values was PLN 17,846 million. 19 subregions have a value above the arithmetic mean, which is rounded to 34 %. Similarly, 37 subregions have a value below the arithmetic mean, which is 66 % [3]. A more precise examination of the above parameters requires also calculating the variance and standard deviation. The standard deviation amounted to 14,205. The largest and significantly different deviation is recorded in the Warszawa subregion, it is over fourteen times higher than the average standard deviation. One of the largest, but not so different from the average, is the deviation for highly developed subregions: Kraków, Trójmiasto, Wrocław, Warsaw West. This is an expected and logically meaningful relationship. In the subregions with the lowest deviation, there are no cities where they are, as was the case with the largest ones. Subregions in the vicinity of large cities dominate: Rzeszów, Kraków and Piotrków. In this case, it was decided to divide the sub-regions not according to the amount of GDP, but according to the standard deviation. The ratio of GDP to transport rates was calculated, broken down into all two-digit postal codes. The arithmetic mean of these ratios is rounded to the whole of 7507. The median is 7477. 49 values of the ratios turned out to be higher than the arithmetic mean, which is rounded to 49 %. On the other hand, 50 results turned out to be lower than the arithmetic mean, which is around 51 %. It has been confirmed that economic factors have an impact on the price of a road transport service. Transports are more expensive from more developed regions than from less developed regions. The commercial application of the research results was awarded in the 17 th edition of the “My Idea for Business” competition organized by the Silesian University of Technology. The results of the work are the starting point for future research [4, 5]. ■ REFERENCES [1] Budzyński, A. (2020): Correlation of transport rates between geographical regions at Sprint Logistyka Polska Spółka Akcyjna Spółka Komandytowa. Master Thesis. Department of Transport and Aviation Engineering Silesian University of Technology. [2] Timocom. www.timocom.pl (accessed 2021-06-13). [3] Central Statistical Office. https: / / stat.gov.pl/ statystyka-regionalna/ jednostki-terytorialne/ klotykacja-nuts/ klociągacja-nuts-w-polsce (accessed 2021-06-13). [4] Silesian University of Technology: Results of the 17 th edition of the “My Idea for Business” competition. www.arch.polsl.pl/ Lists/ AktualnosciUczelniane/ PokazWiadomosc.aspx? W ebPartTitle=ListaWiadomosci&Page=7&WebPartTitle2=Wiadomosc&Filter1Field2=Identyf ikator&Filter1Value2=3833 (accessed 2021-06-13). [5] Budzyński A. (2020): Use dependencies between freight prices and economic factor as a solution in improve efficiency work in road transport. In: XII Int. Sci. Conf. & IX Int. Symposium of Young Researches „Transport Problems 2020”. Conference Proceedings. P. 95-102. Katowice: Silesian University of Technology. Faculty of Transport and Aviation Engineering. ISBN 978-83-959742-0-5. Artur Budzyński, MSc PhD Student, Silesian University of Technology, Katowice (PL) artur.budzynski@polsl.pl Warszawa Kraków trójmiejski Wrocław warszawski zachodni katowicki świecki chojnicki suwalski bialski przemyski Łódź nyski inowrocławski słupski gorzowski słupski włocławski ciechanowski szczecinecko-pyrzycki krośnieński bydgosko-toruński koszaliński ostrołęcki sandomiersko-jędrzejowski tarnowski puławski sieradzki gorzowski poznański bytomski łódzki chełmsko-zamojski nowosądecki starogardzki elbląski bielski białostocki legnicko-głogowski lubelski radomski jeleniogórski kaliski Szczecin kielecki wałbrzyski leszczyński wrocławski opolski gliwicki zielonogórski krakowski piotrkowski rzeszowski 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 Standard deviation GDP [mln. PLN] Figure 2: The relation of GDP per capita and standard deviation in sub-regions Own work SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Prize International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 38 Mobility measures and the housing sector Evaluation of the impact of mobility measures in newly planned residential areas Mobility measures, Housing sector, Mobility survey, Mobility behaviour Measures in mobility management are particularly efficient in life-cycle changes and therefore promising in combination with new housing developments. Robust evidence on the effectiveness of the various possible measures is still lacking. Based on multimethod approach, this study investigates the impacts and relevance of mobility measures for new housing developments in Austria. The results show which measures are efficient in encouraging residents to adopt a more environmentally friendly mobility behaviour. Jonas Krombach, Regine Gerike, Caroline Koszowski, Andrea Weninger I n terms of sustainable and healthy urban mobility, daily journeys should be ideally made on foot, by bike or by public transport. Nevertheless, the reality in many cities looks different - the private car still plays a dominant role in everyday mobility causing problems like air and noise pollution. The question is: how to encourage citizens to adopt a more environmentally friendly mobility behaviour? Since 80 % of all daily activities start and end at home, the place of residence is highly relevant [1, 2]. There are numerous studies available showing that urban design and the transport system influence people´s mobility behaviour [3, 4]. Applying this to residential areas, there is general presumption that the presence of mobility measures in the direct vicinity of residential areas might have some potential to influence mobility behaviour of new residents, but this has not been scientifically proven so far. Seeing this gap in research, the diploma thesis [5] - submitted for the European Friedrich-List-Award 2021 - takes a closer look at two new housing developments in Austria. The focus lays specifically on the impact and influence of mobility measures on residents as well as on the challenges faced by stakeholders who are involved in planning process of new housing developments. The term “mobility measures” used in this article describes measures in mobility management that cover infrastructural (e.g. footpath design, green spaces, bike parking facilities), informative (e.g. wayfinding system or information boards in residential areas), service (e.g. car and bike sharing service, parcel stations in residential areas) or incentive measures (e.g. free public transport tickets for residents). [6] Study areas and research methods With Quartier Riedenburg, Salzburg (QR), and Perfektastraße 58, Vienna (PS), two residential areas were identified as suitable study sites for this thesis. Both neighbourhoods were recently completed and offer a wide range of different mobility measures. Quartier Riedenburg has 316 flats and is centrally located, while on the other hand Perfektastraße 58 is relatively smaller (115-flats) and located on the outskirts of Vienna. Apart from that, two research methods were chosen for the thesis: 1. mobility surveys with residents of the neighbourhoods and 2. expert interviews with involved stakeholders (housing developers, property management municipal administration, architects, mobility provider and social organisation). [5] Part 1: Mobility survey with residents The mobility surveys, carried out in both study areas in March 2020, targeted all residents aged over 18 years. A- comprehensive questionnaire in paper format was therefore handed over personally at the resident’s front doors. The developed questionnaire included questions about the resident’s mobility behaviour before and after moving to their current residential area. In this context, the residents were also asked which mobility measures they perceive as particularly important. Due to Covid-19 measures (lockdown), both mobility surveys had been severely affected. The face-to-face distribution of the questionnaires to all households was no longer possible from mid-March 2020, which had a high impact on the sample size. In Quartier Riedenburg the sample consisted out of 82 returned questionnaires from originally 229 distributed questionnaires (response rate: 36 %), which represents a substantial proportion of all residents. In Perfektastraße 58 a total number of 20 questionnaires out of 69 distributed questionnaires were returned (response rate: 29 %). Both samples cover a wide age distribution. [5] Main results The mobility behaviour of the residents of both neighbourhoods has changed in favour of a more environmentally friendly mobility behaviour by moving into Quartier Riedenburg, respectively, Perfektastraße 58. Specifically, an increase in walking, cycling and public transport use could be observed whereas at the same time the usage of the private car dropped. In both study sides, the number of cars per household has clearly decreased in comparison with the previous housing situation (e. g. QR: reduction from 1,34 to 1,06 cars per household). Furthermore, European Friedrich-List-Prize SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 39 a detailed examination of the results of Quartier Riedenburg shows that the greatest shift in favour of environmentally friendly means of transport (+ 16 %) is to be found in journeys made in the immediate vicinity of the residential area. [5] In terms of the importance of individual measures a largely similar picture with equal patters can be noticed (see figure 1). Especially the measures promoting walking (e.g. green spaces) were highly ranked. Cycling measures tended to be rated more important for the residents of Quartier Riedenburg. The overall most important mobility measure in both surveys turned out to be the good connection to a nearby public transport stop. Measures with future potential are infrastructure for electric cars (e-charging stations) and parcel stations within a residential estate. Any sharing mobility measures (car, bike or moped sharing) were considered less important by the residents of both residential areas. [5] 3,12 2,50 2,19 1,50 2,50 2,07 1,94 3,95 3,50 2,28 2,58 2,94 2,21 2,53 1,73 1,53 1,73 1,91 2,31 3,18 3,00 2,44 2,76 2,94 2,75 3,26 2,94 3,44 2,45 3,55 3,50 2,85 3,16 2,77 1,99 1,68 2,65 2,03 2,06 3,74 3,20 2,43 2,42 3,61 2,23 2,40 1,55 1,55 1,61 2,27 2,78 3,60 3,12 2,18 3,66 3,71 2,63 3,53 2,98 3,18 2,99 3,71 3,47 3,23 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 Parcel Station within the residential estate Discounts at Local Suppliers and Facilities (e.g. Gastronomy) Shopping-Trolleys (to hire) E-Mopeds Sharing Service Infrastructure for E-Cars Discounts for Car-Sharing Membership Car-Sharing service Short Walking Distance to the Station Free/ Incentive Tickets for residents Information Material for new residents (in packages) Departure Monitors in the Entrance of Buildings Good Connection to the Urban Cycling Network Discounts for a Bike Repair Service and Repair Station Bike-Sharing Service for E-Bikes Bike-Sharing Service for Cargo Bikes Bike-Sharing Service for Classical Bicycles Power Outlets for E-Bikes Storing Facilities for Trailers Accesses to the Bicycle Rooms have a Sufficient Width Locked Bicycle Parking Facilities Lifts for Transporting Bicycles Sufficient Number of Roofed Bicycle Parking Facilities Sufficient Number of Bicycle Parking Facilities Orientation Plan and Wayfinding in the residential area Good Connection to the Urban Pedestrian Network Space for Activities Accessibility (Barrier-free residential area) Sufficient Number of Outside-Seating Elements Green Spaces Good Lighting of the Paths Straight and Direct Routing Within the Residential Area Comparison of the Importance of Mobility Measures QR PS Mean value: 1,00=not important; 2,00=rather not important ; 3,00=rather important; 4,00=important Bicycle Traffic Public Transport Motorized Traffic Further Measures Pedestrian Traffic Figure 1: Importance of Mobility Measures (QR = Quartier Riedenburg; PS = Perfektastraße 58) Source: [5], translated SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Prize International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 40 Part 2: Expert interviews with ten stakeholders Aside from the mobility survey, ten telephone interviews with stakeholders were organized in spring 2020. The interviews revolved around financial, organizational, operational and legal hurdles. It is crucial to make a fundamental distinction between subsidised and privately financed housing projects, because in subsidised housing projects, the budget is generally tighter and measures have to be financed under strict legal frameworks. There is a tendency that this may lead to a loss of quality in certain measures (e. g. quality of green spaces) or that measures have to be dropped out completely due to the tight legal framework (e. g. free residential tickets for public transport). [5] In terms of car parking spaces in the residential area, privately financed housing companies tend to have a more conservative approach. Building less parking space than flats is less favourite, since this may be a competitive disadvantage in housing market. In subsidised housing, on the other hand, this is seen as more of an option, since the demand for car parking spaces can be better estimated in advance. In general, the common opinion is that a reduction in the number of car parking spaces should be only carried out to a reasonable extent in order to avoid excessive parking pressure in the neighbourhood’s streets on the one hand and prevent unused underground parking garages on the other. Since a reduction furthermore has to be decided by local politics the decision is strongly dependent on the prevailing political conditions. [5] Regarding bicycle parking facilities different options clash. For housing companies, bicycle facilities on the ground floor of buildings are less favourable as they may reduce the number of possible flats on the ground floor. For architects, the ground floor area is more seen as an open space for communication. The municipal administration and mobility planners, on the other hand, are of the opinion that it makes sense to build bicycle parking facilities on ground floor level to ensure better accessibility. It is striking that there is currently no legal basis for the quality of bicycle parking facilities in Austria. The qualities can only be demanded by the municipality (e. g. in a mobility concept). [5] Concerning sharing mobility (car and bike sharing), the general opinion is that self-management of such services is only economical viable from a certain size of the housing estate. There are currently many legal hurdles to overcome, which is why it is an obstacle for many developers. [5] Finally, it is important to mention that mobility measures strongly correspond with the surrounding infrastructure. The success of mobility measures depends to a large extent on the existent infrastructure (urban mobility network) outside the residential area. As this is outside the scope of action of the housing developers, the municipality has a decisive role to play. [5] Conclusion and recommendation The results show that mobility measures in new residential areas have potential to influence resident’s mobility behaviour in a positive way. It is important that the municipal administration ensures adequate transport infrastructure in the surroundings of new housing developments in the first place, so that mobility measures within new residential areas can develop their full potential. Housing companies should see the link between mobility and housing and be open regarding mobility measures, since they can also benefit from them. [5] A recommendation in form of a prioritization of mobility measures (see figure 2) was derived in a final step [5]: •• Basic Measures (foundation) •• Advanced Measures (additional measures, depending on respective framework conditions) •• Top Measures (special measures with a high degree of complexity in planning and implementation) ■ Straight and Direct Routing Sufficiently Dimensioned Width of Paths Good Lighting of the Paths Accessibility (Barrier-free) Weather Protection Good Connection to the Urban Pedestrian Network Green Spaces Sufficient Number of Outside-Seating Elements Space for Activities PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC BICYCLE TRAFFIC Straight and Direct Routing (to the Parking Facilities) Orientation Plan and Wayfinding in the residential area Good Connection To Local Suppliers and Facilities (e.g. Gastronomy) Sufficiently Dimensioned Width of Cycling Paths Good Lighting of the Cycling Paths Good Connection to the Urban Cycling Network Safe Paths Orientation Plan and Wayfinding in the residential area Good connection to Local Suppliers and Facilities (e.g. Gastronomy) Sufficient Number of Bicycle Parking Facilities Sufficient Dimensioned Bicycle Parking Facilities Ground Level Access to the Bicycle Parking Facilities High Quality of the Bicycle Parking Facilities Bicycle Parking Facilities for Visitors Service and Repair Station Power Outlets for E- Bikes Bike-Sharing Service Discounts for a Bike Repair Good Wayfinding to the Station Short Walking Distance to the Station Departure Monitors in the Entrance of Buildings Free/ Incentive Tickets for residents Notice Boards with Information on Public Transport Information Material for new residents (in packages) Good Equipment of Station Additional Equipment for Stations Reduction in the Number of Compulsory Car Parking Spaces Infrastructure for E-Cars Car-/ E-Moped- Sharing Shared Garages within other Neighbourhoods Parcel Station within the residential area Discounts at Local Suppliers and Facilities (e.g. Gastronomy) Mobility Counselling and Special Courses Shopping-Trolleys (to hire) Mobility Point Concierge PUBLIC TRANSPORT MOTORIZED TRAFFIC ADVANCED BASIC TOP FURTHER MEASURES Safe Cycling Paths TOP ADVANCED BASIC Source: Krombach, 2020, translated; inspired by Köfler et al., 2019 Figure 2: Prioritization of mobility measures for new housing developments Source: [5], translated, inspired by: [7] European Friedrich-List-Prize SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 41 Resilience of transit systems Application of behavioral theories to increase the resilience of transit systems based on user-operator interaction Public transport, Collaborative travel, Service Disruptions, SP Survey, Mobility-as-a- Service (MaaS) In an era of digitization and automation, urban mobility faces major future challenges. This doctoral research takes a holistic approach to translate behavioral theories from organizational and consumer research in the transit context, allowing a more profound understanding of transit users’ affective and cognitive decision-making processes for enhanced service quality and system resilience. The framework follows an unconventional path of exploring the potential of ‘user-operator involvement’ on transit information sharing, service disruption management, and integrated mobility solutions, from a socio-technical perspective. Rumana Sarker T ransit system mainly embodies a top-down approach, and supply-based service evaluation is a common practice. However, this often results in an overestimation of the service quality by the operator and may not represent actual use experience [1]. While service quality determines the propensity of transit use, improving it according to the user’s needs can be a crucial element to gain a positive attitude towards transit and attain a modal shift. Therefore, this doctoral research addresses the missing link between transit policies and user perceptions of the overall system by exploring the effect of useroperator involvement on three proposed key elements: 1. collaborative transit information exchange, 2. disruption management strategy, and 3. service-based mobility solutions. Transit information is one of the important service characteristics that users continuously seek to reduce travel-related stress through better scheduling, regardless of overall high or low service quality [2]. In the literature, travel information is mainly treated as a travel resource streaming from operators to transit users as consumers. However, collective knowledge can significantly contribute to dynamic planning processes that REFERENCES [1] Franz, G. (2019): Leitfaden Mobilitätsmaßnahmen im Wohnbau: Übersicht und Planungsempfehlungen für Wohnbauvorhaben in Wien. Published by: Stadt Wien - Stadtteilplanung und Flächenwidmung (MA 21), Werkstattbericht 184, Wien. ISBN: 978-3-903003- 55-2. [2] Reithofer, J.; Arbeithuber, S. (2020): Maßnahmenkatalog - Realisierung von multimodalen Mobilitätsangeboten (Mobility Points) in Wohnbauten und Stadtteilen. Magistrat der Stadtgemeinde Salzburg, Amt für Stadtplanung und Verkehr, Schriftenreihe zur Salzburger Stadtplanung, Heft 46, Salzburg. [3] Koszowski, C.; Hubrich, S.; Wittwer, R.; Gerike, R. (2019): Was motiviert zum Zufußgehen? Literaturschau und ausgewählte Ergebnisse einer empirischen Studie. In: Bauer, U. (Hrsg.): So geht´s - Fußverkehr in Städten neu denken und umsetzen. Bd. 18, Edition Difu - Stadt Forschung Praxis, Berlin. ISBN: 978-3-88118-643-8. ISSN: 1863-7949. [4] Ewing, R.; Handy, S. (2009): Measuring the Unmeasurable: Urban Design Qualities Related to Walkability. In: Journal of Urban design 14 (1), pp. 65-84. [5] Krombach, J. (2020): Integration und Einfluss von Mobilitätsmaßnahmen im Wohnbau zur Förderung umweltverträglicher Mobilität (Diploma Thesis). Technische Universität Dresden, Fakultät Verkehrswissenschaften „Friedrich List“, Institut für Verkehrsplanung und Straßenverkehr, Professur für Integrierte Verkehrsplanung und Straßenverkehrstechnik (IVST), Rosinak & Partner ZT GmbH. Wien/ Dresden. [6] De Tommasi, R.; Oetterli, D.; Schneider, S.; Hirzel, D. (2014): Mobilitätskonzepte für effiziente Areale. MIPA - Mobilitätsmanagement in Planungsprozessen von neuen Arealen. Handbuch. EnergySchweiz für Gemeinden, Zürich. [7] Köfler, H.; Lotze, B.; Gröger, L.; Henkel, S.; Seitz, P.; Waßmer, R.; Zuhse, H.; Weber, M.; Gailhofer, P. (2019): Intelligent mobil im Wohnquartier: Handlungsempfehlungen für die Wohnungswirtschaft und kommunale Verwaltungen. Verkehrsclub Deutschland e.V., Berlin. Jonas Krombach, Dipl.-Ing. Project Engineer, Rosinak & Partner ZT GmbH, Vienna (AT) krombach@rosinak.at Regine Gerike, Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Head of Chair, Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Integrated Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering, Dresden (DE), regine.gerike@tu-dresden.de Caroline Koszowski, M.Sc. Research Associate, Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Integrated Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering, Dresden (DE) caroline.koszowski@tu-dresden.de Andrea Weninger, Dipl.-Ing. Managing director, Rosinak & Partner ZT GmbH, Dornbirn (AT) weninger@rosinak.at SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Prize International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 42 allow users to maximize their utility from real-time information and feedback and detect the system gaps [3]. In the era of lean production and public funding reductions, transit users are valuable partners in system design, fostering bottom-up development, and offering ideas for entrepreneurship and innovation [4]. Although active user participation is starting to shape the development of new apps with commercial market potential, there is little information regarding their acceptance and use. On the other hand, transit systems are complex open systems susceptible to service disruptions such as delays, crowding, line cancellations, resulting in travel dissatisfaction and temporary ridership loss [5, 6]. Therefore, understanding user’s reactions to critical incidents and defining measures to mitigate such reactions are vital to improving transit system resilience in the case of smallscale, recurring operational disruptions [7]. Previously the link between user satisfaction and general service indicators such as service reliability, customer care, information simplicity, and system design has been extensively investigated [8, 9]. However, a significant research gap exists concerning the factors underlying transit users’ behavioral response to service disruptions and motivational factors to improve it. Furthermore, the emergence of radical technological innovations facilitates the introduction of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) to overcome the limitation of fixed scheduling and routing of transit systems. MaaS is an evolving concept of ‘user instead of owner’, combining different transport modes (e.g., transit, car-sharing, bike-sharing, taxi) over one integrated app-based service. It can be on a subscription or pay-asyou-go basis for seamless travel and payment [10]. The widespread use of smartphones and travel apps serve as essential facilitators for MaaS adoption. However, the current body of knowledge does not apply behavioral theories to understand internal psychological motivators other than the utility-based choice to explain mainstream MaaS adoption. Based on the research gaps mentioned above, the research questions (RQ) are as follows: RQ1 What are the motivating factors for users’ to voluntarily share transit information? RQ2 Is there any relationship between users’ emotional or affective reactions to service disruptions and their future transit use? RQ3 What is the potential of MaaS compared to conventional transit systems from the users’ perspective? The focus group of this research mainly comprised transit users with sufficient multimodal travel activities. Three different case studies were designed and tested in Innsbruck, the capital of the Austrian province of Tyrol, and partly in Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, facilitating comparative case studies in cities differing in size and social trust. This article briefly summarizes the most relevant research results on nurturing user-operator communication to improve transit information, monitor user satisfaction relating to service disruptions, and integrate service-based mobility solutions for a better transit experience. Figure 1 shows the research framework.- Applied Method The data were collected using the tailor-made questionnaire in English, German and Danish, combining online and onboard surveys with incentives. The onboard intercept survey was administered with the Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing method. Pilot surveys were carried out before the final administration. The indicators related to the latent constructs in the surveys were elicited using a 5-point Likert scale. The structural equation model (SEM) served to estimate the behavioral framework. The goodness-of-fit was evaluated using the chi-square test of model fit (CFI) and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). A stated preference (SP) choice experiment was conducted to understand the effect of switching cost and alternative attributes among the hypothesized MaaS service and current transit alternative. The choice experiment was designed using the D-efficient design method [11]. The multinomial logit model (MNL) served to understand the utility function of the MaaS packages using the maximum loglikelihood technique. Results Nurturing user-operator communication to improve transit information 1,369 responses from Innsbruck and Copenhagen were analyzed with SEM based on the Unified Theory of Figure 1: Research Framework Own work European Friedrich-List-Prize SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 43 Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) [12]. The results explore the motivational factors underlying intentions to share information rather than solely engaging in receiving information while using transit apps for daily commute. The platform-related and individualrelated barriers and motivators to share information are investigated. This study shows that there is a need to receive peer information and willingness to share information from frequent transit users even in a high-quality transit environment. The most important motivational factors for information sharing are pro-sharing social norms and self-actualization weighted against effort expectancy. The effort is related to the logistic effort of using the platform than network familiarity. Trust in the information provided and social network engagement are secondary motivational factors, with perceived information quality and communication need less influential. Greater transit use and interest in the level of service (LOS) and real-time (RT) information are correlated with greater information sharing motivation. Results identify women and young travelers, mainly Gen Z (birthdate between midto-late 1990s and early 2010s), as potential users of collaborative transit apps. Also, transit users residing in Denmark, a country with high social trust, are more inclined to share information. The survey targeted “digital natives” due to their social media use for information, socializing, experiencing a sense of community, and familiarity with collaborative transport consumption. Monitoring user satisfaction relating reaction to service disruptions This research explains the choice between staying and enduring, complaining, and reducing transit use by showing that transit users’ reactions are related to the service climate, frequency of undesired incidents, and individual characteristics. This research adopted the Affective Events Theory (AET) for the first time in the transit service context [13]. Previously, AET was mostly used to explain work-related experiences. AET explains customer reactions to transit service disruptions based on a representative sample of 1,629 transit users from Innsbruck. This research evaluates users’ affective reactions to disruptive events ranging from calm to extremely angry, and behavioral responses varying from complaints (voiced) to avoiding transit use on the next trip (exit), and continuing as usual (loyalty) following Hirschman’s Exit-Voice-Loyalty framework [14]. This study addresses line cancellations, missed connections, non-functioning ticket machines, and vehicle breakdown as stimulus events [15]. Results depict that even a low proportion of unexpected service disruptions may induce anger and frustration under high-quality service conditions and result in temporary or permanent discontinued use. SEM estimation shows that better network coverage, service quality, and personnel behavior mitigate the frustration of transit users upon event occurrence. Higher transit user frustration is related to a higher frequency of service disruptions. Customer frustration decreases with higher service quality and operator efficacy. Social network engagement is associated with an increased sense of being upset or angry and disruption, and voicing complaints and exit behavior are complementary. Counterintuitively, using transit for environmental reasons is an enhancing factor of frustration over service disruptions. Notably, the current study does not refer to real-time reactions to single specific events. However, it takes a retrospective view of the transit organizational climate, including service quality, network coverage and personnel behavior. Integrating multimodality for improved service MaaS raises hopes for better tailoring the transport service matching user needs. This study focuses on habitual transit users’ willingness to switch from their current yearly subscription towards a new MaaS service. It relates switching intention to new service based on the service-based switching model, explaining switching cost and service-based push-pull factors, i.e., both the perceived quality of the current service and the perceived usefulness of the future service [16]. The goalframing model is combined, explaining individuals’ actions with three motivational perspectives: normative, gain, and hedonic [17]. A stated-preference choice experiment among the transit users in the Tyrol region collecting 1,416 responses shows that attractive MaaS features are package price, e-car discount, number of transit trips, and free e-car, e-bike minutes. The inclusion of transit trips significantly increases the utility of using a MaaS scheme. However, the results show a lower intention of MaaS use compared to the current alternative. Transit satisfaction, environmental responsibility, and perceived difficulties of MaaS use, e.g. fleet availability, privacy interventions, motivate staying with transit use. Also, minimal experience with existing shared transport services is identified as a barrier in MaaS acceptance. Whereas, taste for innovation, time-saving skills, transit underutilization, and pro-cycling attitudes motivate switching to MaaS. Simplified travel with a one-stop payment option is the most perceived advantage of MaaS. The younger population and active travelers (working, studying) are likely to switch to the MaaS system. Conclusion The findings from three different case studies in this research obtained specific measures and policy implications. However, in combination, they can work efficiently in achieving a transit environment that retains ridership, reduce car dependency, manages growing mobility needs, and encourage sustainable travel. The most relevant key findings are as follows: •• User engagement in transit information sharing should not be monetary but rather satisfy the higherorder needs of social recognition, user appreciation, and self-actualization. For policymakers, these are potential measures to motivate app engagement. Hence, adding app features that enable users to see their contribution in bettering travel information, including gamification elements, may strengthen information sharing. •• Minor discrepancies in the conditions of excellent transit services can still induce anger and disappointment. The transit operator’s efficacy in handling SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Prize International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 44 users’ situational needs is decisive for continuing transit use in the long run. Thus the ability to complain through ‘easy to use’ official channels and responsiveness to complaints should be better promoted among transit operators. These measures can ameliorate the shortcomings of the traditional customer satisfaction survey by facilitating user-generated inquiries and recognizing service dimensions based on users’ preferences and need. •• Switching from transit to MaaS is non-trivial in a medium-sized city like Innsbruck with high-quality transit service. Transit will be an essential part of MaaS, but there is a greater sensitivity to ‘free’ service units among the respondents. Hence, the MaaS pricing scheme presentation could be a success factor, and non-linear pricing effects should be further explored. Switching to MaaS is driven mainly by a taste for innovation. Therefore, the marketing strategy for MaaS should be based on innovation and emotional gains rather than on environmentalism and functional gains. Also, visibility of the existing shared services to the end-users is crucial for wider MaaS intervention. The 2050 Tyrol Energy Autonomy Program aims to generate positive attitudes towards electroand sustainable mobility [18]. This research aimed to contribute to the goal of the Tyrol region with the gained knowledge from these case studies. The opportunity to transfer the knowledge into practice is one of the main contributions of this research, as transit operators were important collaborators. It has the additional merit of examining research hypotheses in a cross-cultural setting. Moreover, the conceptualization of theories from consumer research and developing new applications is a research contribution itself. As a continuation of the research, a complex hybrid choice model estimation for an in-depth understanding of switching intention to MaaS is already in progress.- ■ Special thanks to Prof. Sigal Kaplan and Prof. Markus Mailer for providing guidance and feedback throughout the research as the supervisors. REFERENCES [1] Rietveld, P. (2005): Six reasons why supply-oriented indicators systematically overestimate service quality in public transport. In: Transport Reviews, 25 (3), pp. 319-328. [2] Bachok, S. (2007): What do passengers need out of public transport information systems? In: 29th Conference of Australian Institute of Transport Research, Adelaide, Australia. [3] Chaves, A. P.; Steinmacher, I.; Vieira, V. (2011): Social networks and collective intelligence applied to transitation systems: A survey. VIII SBSC, pp. 16-23. [4] Filippi, F.; Fusco, G.; Nanni, U. (2013): User empowerment and advanced transit solutions. In: Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 87, pp. 3-17. [5] Chakrabarti, S. (2015): The demand for reliable transit service: New evidence using stop level data from the Los Angeles Metro bus system. In: Journal of Transport Geography, 48, pp. 154-164. [6] Chakrabarti, S.; Giuliano, G. (2015): Does service reliability determine transit patronage? Insights from the Los Angeles Metro bus system. In: Transport policy, 42, pp. 12-20. [7] Christoforou, Z.; Corbille, E.; Farhi, N.; Leurent, F. (2016): Managing Planned Disruptions of Mass Transit Systems. In: Transportation Research Record, 2541 (1), pp. 46-55. [8] Friman, M.; Gärling, T. (2001): Frequency of negative critical incidents and satisfaction with public transport services. In: II. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 8, pp.-105-114. [9] De Oña, J.; De Oña, R. (2015): Quality of service in public transport based on customer satisfaction surveys: A review and assessment of methodological approaches. In: Transportation Science, 49 (3), pp. 605-622. [10] Hietanen, S. (2014): Mobility as a Service. In: The new transport model, pp. 2-4. [11] Bliemer, M. C.; Rose, J. M. (2011): Experimental design influences on stated choice outputs: an empirical study in air travel choice. In: Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 45 (1), pp. 63-79. [12] Venkatesh, V.; J. Y. L. Thong, X. (2016): Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology: A Synthesis and the Road Ahead. In: Journal of the Association for Information systems 17 (5), pp. 328-376. [13] Weiss, H. M.; Cropanzano, R. (1996): Affective Events Theory: a theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. In: Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, pp. 1-74. [14] Hirschman, A. O. (1970): Exit, Voice and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States, Harvard University Press. [15] Carrel, A.; Halvorsen, A.; Walker, J. L. (2013): Passengers’ perception of and behavioral adaptation to unreliability in public transportation. In: Transportation Research Record, 2351 (1), pp. 153-162. [16] D’Alessandro, S.; Gray, D.; Carter, L. (2012): Push-pull factors in switching mobile service providers. In: Proceedings of the Australian and New Zealand marketing academy conference, pp. 1-8. [17] Lindenberg, S.; Steg, L. (2007): Normative, gain and hedonic goal frames guiding environmental behavior. In: Journal of Social Issues, 63, pp. 117-137. [18] Land Tirol (Amt der Tiroler Landesregierung) (2017): Aktionsprogramm E-Mobilität 2017-2019. www.tirol2050.at/ uploads/ tx_bh/ aktionsprogramm_e_mob.pdf (access 28 March 2019). Rumana Sarker, Dr. techn. Postdoctoral Researcher, Unit for Intelligent Transport Systems, Institute of Infrastructure University of Innsbruck (AT) rumana.sarker@uibk.ac.at 19 th European Transport Congress (ETC) 7-8 October 2021, Maribor (SL) T he European Platform of Transport Sciences - EPTS Foundation e.V. - invites to the 19th European Transport Congress (ETC), which will be held in Maribor, Slowenia, from 7-8 October 2021. The topic of the congress: “European Green Deal - Challenges and Solutions for Mobility and Logistics in Cities” Presentations will be held in English. Contacts, conference program, and more information are available at www.fgpa.um.si/ etc We are looking forward to meeting you in Maribor Air transport SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 45 Take off in the city centre The (almost) forgotten town terminals City Air Terminals, Flight passengers, Check-in, Travelling Many airports are located outside the cities. The way there is left to the travellers. They lug their suitcases, squeeze into public transport, pay a lot of money for taxis or recruit relatives as shuttle drivers. Once upon a time, many metropolises had large city terminals where airlines checked in their passengers and took them directly to the airport by bus or train. Today, these terminals have disappeared from collective memory and from the cityscape. Nevertheless, it is worth taking a look back, because they could return. Thomas N. Kirstein H istoriography has forgotten the city terminals. While it does pay attention to the airports, the existence of the city terminals can at best only be guessed at from a few side sentences of a few essays and monographs. Consequently, the present text is based almost exclusively on sources from the period under study. These include transport and aviation journals 1 , newspapers as well as flight schedules, air travel brochures and the publications of air traffic organisations. 2 Check in at the city centre Commercial air transport started after the First World War. Because airline tickets cost more than first-class train or ship tickets, many passengers came from the upper class and expected a lot of service. Among other things, they wanted to take off from the city centre and not from a faraway airfield in the middle of nowhere. This was how travellers knew it from the railway, whose stations they quickly reached by foot, carriage or taxi. The shipping companies also welcomed their passengers at the inland railway stations and brought them by course wagons or boat trains directly to the pier, where the ocean liners were already waiting. So the airlines followed the habits of their customers and opened check-in points in the city centres. Checking in at the city centre became so commonplace, that many timetable brochures already showed the departure time at the city office instead of the departure time at the airport. In London, one of the most important hubs of air traffic, about three quarters of all passengers checked in at the City. 3 An English aviation expert wrote in 1935: “You start from Imperial Airways office at Victoria Station, where passengers and baggage are weighed, luggage is labelled and passports are taken away. You drive to Croydon in a comfortable coach and within five minutes of arrival at the airport of London you are sitting in the machine...” 4 In addition, travellers were already informed at the city office if their flight was delayed, cancelled or fully booked. While still in the city centre, passengers could quickly change to an alternative means of transport, go back home or to their hotel, or at minimum spend the waiting time more pleasantly. Furthermore, the airlines had to transport all passengers who showed up on time at the city office on their booked plane. If the transfer bus was stuck in a traffic jam or the airport train broke down, the aeroplane had to wait. From town office to town terminal At the beginning of air traffic small city offices were still sufficient. They were located in shops or exclusive hotels. Passengers bought their tickets here, checked in their luggage and boarded the transfer buses to the airport. In the hotel lobby, travellers could wait in comfort, dine in the restaurant or have a drink at the bar. The world’s first city office opened in 1921 on the Leidseplain in Amsterdam. The kiosk-like building belonged to KLM and stood directly in front of one of the city’s most exclusive hotels. In the first year of service, 1,700 passengers were handled. 5 (see figure 1) The number of air travellers increased rapidly, especially in Europe and North America. At the end of the interwar period, for example, around 300,000 passengers a year flew in Germany and in the USA even three million. As a consequence, the first large town terminals were built. They were equipped with spacious ticket halls, bars and restaurants, shops for travel necessities and newspapers, money exchange offices, air freight offices, telephone boxes as well as parking and manoeuvring areas for taxis and airport buses. Some even offered Figure 1: City office of KLM in Amsterdam, around 1925 Image source: KLM-MAI SCIENCE & RESEARCH Air transport International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 46 a hairdresser, a post office or a hotel agency. Many of the terminals were located near the main railway stations, because many passengers arrived, departed or continued their journey by train. Rail and air traffic were still closely linked. The terminals were operated by the airlines or the municipality, which rented them to one or more airlines. And quite incidentally, the large buildings in the middle of the cities advertised air travel. One of the first large town terminals was the Victoria Airways Terminus in London. It opened in the summer of 1939 and belonged to the semi-state-owned Imperial Airways. The Art Déco building had four floors, topped by a seven-storey clock tower. Winged statues soared skyward above the main entrance. Bus platforms, taxi ranks and the driveway for automobiles were located inside, so that travellers remained dry even in London’s rainy weather. The spacious counter hall stretched over two floors and received expensive wall panels made of Canadian birch and Burmese teak. Directly behind the terminal, special trains departed for Gatwick airport and Southampton’s flying boat harbour. Buses shuttled to Croydon, the largest airport of London 6 (figure 2). An even larger city terminal was built in New York. Its narrow side looked directly towards the main entrance of Grand Central Station. The four-storey Art Déco building housed six major airlines, including Pan American, Eastern, United and American. In addition to the usual facilities, there was a cinema to shorten waiting times for travellers. After the Second World War passenger numbers continued to rise steadily. Larger and more economical propeller planes now carried up to 100 passengers, and many metropolises demanded new town terminals. For, as the “Aeroplane” wrote: “The … passenger is travelling from, say, London to New York, and not from some technologically equipped desert near Staines to some similar area beside Jamaica Bay, Long Island! ” 7 The architectural styles of the new city terminals were varied. The neo-baroque Aérogare in Paris demonstrated classical elegance. It originally served as the train station for the Paris World’s Fairs and still stands today on the Esplanade des Invalides, overlooking the Eiffel Tower, Invalides Cathedral and Pont Alexandre. Air France took over the building in 1946, preserving the neo-baroque façade while the wilted grandeur inside gave way to a late Art Déco. The main hall measured 96 by 24 metres. In addition, there were 12,000 square metres in the basement. The airport transfer was provided by buses. 8 The annual passenger numbers increased from 400,000 to 1.3 million in the first ten years of service. In 1959, the facility was expanded and henceforth handled up to 1,000 passengers per hour 9 (see figures 3 and 4). An example of a more modern architecture was presented by the Sabena town terminal in Brussels. The building by Maxime Brunfaut, a student of Victor Horta, opened in 1953 right next to the main railway station. The main façade corresponds to streamlined modernism and thus to an architecture influenced by Bauhaus. Inside, sweeping spiral staircases continued the streamline theme, while fine wooden panels conveyed elegance. The lower three floors offered the usual check-in and service facilities and a restaurant with a large summer terrace. An escalator led from the terminal directly to the platform Figure 2: Victoria Airways Terminus, Buckingham Palace Road, London Image source: Deutsches Technikmuseum Berlin Figure 3: Narrow side of the Aérogare des Invalides in Paris Image source: Musée Air France, Paris Figure 4: Check-in hall of the Aérogare des Invalides Image source: Deutsches Technikmuseum Berlin Air transport SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 47 from which railcar trains shuttled to Melsbroek Airport. At times, passengers were even checked in on the train. Although this procedure saved passengers time, it proved to be too circumstantial 10 (see figures 5 and-6). The largest town terminal in the world opened in 1963 in London, whose airports already counted six million of passengers per year. The West London Air Terminal stood in Kensington and was projected to handle seven million travellers a year. The building by Sir John Burnet, Tait and Partners followed the International Style, well suited for an air travel terminal. Non-specific, dematerialised glass facades and huge bright interiors heralded a globalised future. Curved driveways provided a sculptural counterpoint and connected the building to its surroundings. Kensington primarily served the European traffic, while the old Victoria Terminus focused on long-haul passengers 11 (see figure 7). An interesting mixture of town terminal and hotel opened in Copenhagen in 1960. The minimalist building by Arne Jacobsen achieved architectural fame, because it represents the perfectly executed model of international modernism consisting of a flat podium building and a skyscraper towering above it. Jacobsen countered this geometric rigidity and the coolness of the glass façades inside with organic furniture, whose armchairs even became style icons of the 20th century. 12 The owner of the building was the Scandinavian Airlines System, which made Copenhagen one of the hubs of global air traffic. Thus, the 275 guest rooms in the tower of the “SAS House” also served those passengers who wanted to take a break from their exhausting long-haul flight. Propeller planes still took around 16 hours to New York, 24 hours to the west coast of America and 32 hours to the Far East. If connecting flights were still required in Copenhagen, an overnight stay was a good option (see figure 8). In America, the town terminals of the post-war period were architecturally less sophisticated than those in the Old World. Typical were also good road connections and many parking spaces, because mass motorisation was already well advanced in the New World. Hence, many passengers drove to the town terminal by car. But the narrow inner cities were lacking parking space, and so many terminals became multi-storey car parks. Typical examples were the East and Westside Terminal in Manhattan. Both were located near the large tunnels and waterfront streets on the Hudson and the East River and offered numerous parking spaces on the roof and in the basement. 13 Town terminals were only built in the large metropolises. Elsewhere, the small city offices continued to be sufficient. Several airlines preferred to handle their customers individually anyway, instead of sharing a terminal with other airlines. In Germany, too, there were only city offices, as German air traffic was more evenly distributed among the individual airports. 14 Moreover, there was no major German airline that would have pushed the establishment of large city terminals. Lufthansa’s new start was rather modest. Also sprawling cities without a clear centre often decided against central city terminals. In particular, American metropolitan regions such as Los Angeles preferred airport buses that ran through the entire urban area on fixed routes, serving several stops in succession. The distribution of passengers to the different flights and the check-in and check-out took place then at the airport. In Los Angeles, the bus frequency even reached 10 to 15 minutes. 15 The transfer between town terminals and airports was mainly done by buses. Road transport was considered contemporary and buses modern and practical, especially since one bus per aircraft was sufficient in the era of propeller planes. Passengers could be put on buses separately after their flights and brought to the airfield immediately at departure time. To guide passengers to the right buses in the hustle and bustle of the city terminals, their directional signs already showed the destination of the respective flight. Many transfer buses were custom-made with large luggage compartments, because passengers and luggage were carried on the same bus. However, some airlines preferred commercial buses and luggage tags. BOAC and BEA even used typical London double-deckers at times. Rail connections between town terminals and airports were rare. Many city centres lacked the space for additional rail lines, and many transport planners doubted their profitability, as the number of passengers was still modest in many places. Moreover, rail supporters argued about the type of rail connection. Some wanted futuristic monorail systems, others wanted exclusive rapid train lines. 16 Such plans nearly always failed because of their high costs and retarded the inte- Figure 5: Town Terminal of Sabena in Brussels Image source: Royal Army Museum Brussels Figure 6: Interior of the Sabena terminal Image source: Royal Army Museum Brussels SCIENCE & RESEARCH Air transport International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 48 gration of the airports into the local suburban or underground rail networks. 17 In some towns, also helicopters flew between airports and city terminals. 18 However, only New York Airways achieved any notable success. From 1952, it established a network of helicopter routes between the three airports and various points in the city. In peak years, the New York helicopters carried half a million passengers. For this, New York Airways used Boeing Vertol with 25 passenger seats from 1962 onwards 19 and later even Sikorski S 61 with 28 seats. 20 The most spectacular terminal was on the roof of the PanAm Building, 250 metres above the Manhattan street canyons. 21 Express lifts took passengers upstairs, where an elegant lounge with upholstered armchairs and wooden wall panels awaited them. But the authorities raised safety concerns and criticised the noise of the helicopters. From 1968, operations were suspended. When it started again in 1977, a disaster happened: The wheel of a helicopter ready for take-off broke, the machine tilted, and the running rotor killed four passengers. Another victim died on the road from falling debris. Thus ended the helicopter service from the roof of the Pan Am Building. 22 Public scheduled services with helicopters remained loss-making worldwide. Their operating costs were too high. 23 Even the New York Airways constantly needed government aid and subsidies from the airlines. In 1979, it too finally gave up. 24 The decline of the town terminals In the late 1950s, the town terminal system ran into serious difficulties for the first time, as the increasing passenger numbers could hardly be handled in some cities. Although more and more travellers went themselves to the airport, the number of passengers handled at the city terminals rose rapidly in line with the general increase in passenger numbers. A typical example was London. While the share of city terminal users dropped to 50 per cent by 1960. 25 their numbers rose into the millions. 26 Many city centres were too narrow for building extensions or new terminals, and the edges of the city centres lacked the direct connection to the main railway stations. 27 Another problem was the increasing number of cars jamming the city centres. Airport buses were also increasingly stuck in traffic jams while planes ready for take-off had to wait for their passengers. 28 The Aérogare in Paris already capitulated in 1961. From then on, Air France checked all Paris passengers in and out at the airport. 29 The town terminals also generated extra costs, which also had an impact on the ticket prices. Consequently, passengers who went directly to the airport paid for those who used the city terminal and were chauffeured by the airline. 30 In America, users of city terminals paid for airport transfers early on, whereas in Europe transfers remained free for a long time. Airlines that charged money for the transfer often demanded steep prices. In New York, for example, the transfer bus cost three to ten times as much as public transport. 31 In the 1960s, the city terminals became noticeably less attractive for travellers. Since the new jets halved flight times, the often longer transfer times via the city terminal became more significant. 32 In addition, the constantly growing number of private cars made a distant Figure 7: West London Airways Terminal (architectural model) Image source: TU Berlin Figure 8: SAS House in Copenhagen with transfer bus (left) Image source: SAS Figure 9: Proposal for the conversion of the Berlin ICC into a city terminal by architectural office Gisbert Dreyer, Berlin Image source: Gisbert Dreye Air transport SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 49 airport more easily accessible. In London or New York, over 40 per cent of passengers drove to the airport by car as early as the mid-1960s. 33 Especially travellers from outside the city centres now headed directly to the airport without taking the indirect route via the city entre. The final blow to city terminals came in the 1970s, as many transport planners finally gave up on the idea of separate transport systems between airports and city centres. Now the way was clear for the full integration of airports into the public transport network, and another reason for using a town terminal disappeared. 34 Moreover, 90 per cent of passengers meanwhile flew economy class. These Travellers often valued the cheap underground or suburban trains more than the airline buses which were now chargeable almost everywhere. Fewer and fewer travellers were using the city terminals. When London’s Heathrow Airport received its underground connection, the number of passengers checked in at the city centre halved. Even the venerable Victoria Terminus handled only still every twelfth longhaul passenger of British Airways around 1980. 35 In 1965, it had been one in three. 36 New York showed a similar development. At the West Side Air Terminal, the annual number of passengers had fallen by 60 per cent since it opened. It closed in 1972. 37 The East Side Terminal followed twelve years later. 38 The last large town terminals closed in the 1980s. They included the West London Air Terminal and the Victoria Airways Terminus. Some of the city terminals were demolished, others now serve as residential or commercial buildings. Only the Aérogare in Paris still reminds of days gone by. The Art Déco charm has long since disappeared, but some ticket counters are still open and the luminous Air France sign shines across the Esplanade des Invalides every evening. A look into the future The reasons for the disappearance of the city terminals still seem to be relevant. Furthermore, the now even stricter security checks make it more difficult to divide passenger handling between two locations, and the bottomless plunge in air fares makes the cost problem of a town terminal more congested topical than ever. On the other hand, city-centre terminals could help major airports to cope with their passenger volumes or form the main hub for the networking of several airports in a region. Certainly, many passengers would also appreciate the service of a city terminal. After all, the airports were never completely deserted even in their final days, and the number of air travellers has multiplied in the last forty years. It is also interesting to see the revival of the idea of exclusive high-speed trains between cities and airports, for example as maglev trains. These routes could well end in a classic town terminal, especially because non-stop travel to the airport solves the problem of security checks. Such ideas already exist (see figure 9). So the town terminal could see a renaissance. ■ 1 Examples of significant periodicals of the research period are: The Aeroplane, London; Flight (later Flight International), London; Interavia, Genf; Aviation (later Aviation Week), New York. 2 Source material was found in the following archives (among others): Deutsches Museum München; Deutsches Technikmuseum Berlin; Royal Army Museum, Brussels; Musée Air France, Paris; SAS Archiv Kopenhagen. 3 This number dates is from 1950 and may have been even higher in the interwar period. D.J.W. Swann: Movement of Passengers and Baggage before and after Flight. In: The Journal of the Institute of Transport, September 1959, p. 173. 4 McAllery, C.M. : To Baghdad and back by Imperial Airways. In: The Aeroplane, 4 April 1934, p. 577. 5 KLM, The first 30 Years, brochure (1949). Archive Deutsches Technikmuseum Berlin, III.3.02302. 6 Imperial Headquarters (1939). In: Flight, 15 Juni, p. 610 f. 7 “Staines” and “Long Island” means the airports at Heathrow and Idlewild. Town Terminals are Essential (1957). In: The Aeroplane, 25 Oktober, p. 608. 8 Tagnard, J. (1946): Flughof Paris. In: Interavia, July, p. 24f. - Air France, Réseau Aérien Mondial, Prospect (1948). Archive Deutsches Technikmuseum Berlin, III.3.02168. 9 Esso Air World (1949), February, p. 30. - Ausbau des Pariser Air Terminal (1958). In: Internationales Archiv für Verkehrswesen, Nr. 19, p. 405. - Flughof Paris (1958). In: Interavia, 1958, p. 404. 10 Sabena’s New Town Terminal (1958). In: The Aeroplane, 16 April, p. 476. - Sabenas New Air Terminus in Brussels (1954). In: Shell Aviation News, Juni, p. 9. - New Townterminal (1954). In: Airports & Air Transportation, May/ June, S. 7. 11 BOAC (1963). In: Flight International, 14 November, p. 789. 12 Sheridan, M. (2001): The SAS-House and the Work of Arne Jacobsen. London. - Schofeld, I. (2012): Arne Jacobsens SAS Hotel in Kopenhagen. Saarbrücken. 13 New Passenger Terminal for New York (1951). In: Shell Aviation News, September, p. 21. - Swank Airlines Terminal. In: Aviation Week, 1951, 27 August, p. 65. - New York’s West Side Airlines Terminal (1955). In: Aviation Week, 26 September, p. 109. 14 Even Frankfurt am Main, the city offices of the various airlines were sufficient. Seiler, W. (1955): Die Luftfahrt setzt Akzente. In: Nachrichten Flughafen Rhein-Main, Issue 3, p. 16. 15 Air Commerce: Profitability through Productivity (1964). In: Flight International, 16 January, p. 85. 16 Neufville, R. de: Airport Systems Planning (1976). London 1976, p. 80 ff. 17 Neufville, S. 92. 18 On the early discussion about the use of helicopters, see among others: Cummings, R.: Operational Economics of Scheduled Helicopter Transportation (1954). In: Shell Aviation News, May, p. 7 f. - Edwards, J.: Economic Considerations of the Transport Helicopter (1954). In: Shell Aviation News, Mai, S. 9 f. 19 Kreuzer, H. (1999): Propellerverkehrsflugzeuge seit 1945. Erding, p. 165. 20 New York Airways (1980). In: Flight International, 26 July, p. 331. 21 Today Met Life Building. 22 Copter Crash on Pan American Building (1977). In: New York Daily News, 17 May, p. 1. 23 Dienel, H.: Verkehrsvisionen in den 1950er Jahren: Hubschrauber für den Personenverkehr (1997). In: Technikgeschichte, Bd. 64, Nr. 4, p. 295 - 303. - Neufville, S. 83. 24 New York Airways (1980). In: Flight International, 26 July, S. 331. - Helicopter Airlines in the United States (1977). In: Journal of Transport History, Februay. 25 Swann, p. 173. 26 Metropolitan Airports - London (1961). In: The Aeroplane, 29 June, p. 754. 27 The London Airport Route (1962). In: Flight International, 19 April, p. 610. 28 Beschleunigung der Fluggast- und Frachtabfertigung im internationalen Verkehr (1960). In: Europa-Verkehr, 31. Dezember, p. 267. 29 Metropolitan Airports (1961). In: The Aeroplane, 29 June, p. 754. 30 Neufville, p. 83 and 93. 31 Prices around 1970. They varied according to airport and starting or ending point in the city centre. Grant, A: Get me to the plane on time (1971). In: New York Magazine, 1 March, p. 63. 32 Beschleunigung der Fluggast- und Frachtabfertigung im internationalen Verkehr (1960). In: Europa-Verkehr, 31 December, p. 267. 33 Figures for the airports Heathrow, La Guardia and Kennedy. Towards a Jumbo Fumble (1967). In: Flight International, 5 October, p. 555. 34 Neufville, S. 92. 35 British Airways was formed in 1970 from BEA and BOAC. 36 BA plans Victoria terminal closure (1980). In: Flight International, 4 Oktober, p. 1310. 37 McFadden, R (1972): West Side Air Terminal to be closed this Year. In: The New York Times, 11 August, p. 1. 38 Berger, J. (1985): Airlines Terminal on East Side sold. In: The New York Times, 14 February, p. 2. Thomas N. Kirstein, Dr. History of Technology, Technische Universität Berlin (DE) thomas.kirstein@campus.tu-berlin.de SCIENCE & RESEARCH Traffic planning International Transportation | Collection 2021 50 Assessment of autonomous moving vehicles From theoretical approaches to practical test-procedures Car-inherent capabilities, Conditioning driving style, Traffic presence, Complexity handling, Testing arrangements Irrespective of deployment strategies of the automotive sector a consistent procedure of testing and proving automatization technologies is required. System adaptions in technical respect and coexistence strategies with view on traffic practice will be necessary. The multitude of motorized road users and their physical capabilities to pass interactions frictionless is challenging. That consideration leads to questions of two kinds, firstly what knowledge is needed for developing the automat system and secondly how transparent the algorithmic conditioning will be handled by the car suppliers. Heinz Doerr, Viktoria Marsch, Andreas Romstorfer F irst of all, irrespective of market deployment strategies of the automotive sector a chained up procedure of testing and proving automatization technologies is required. One can assume that these innovations would not change our mobility needs and the existent transport systems completely. But then mutual system adaptions in technical respect and coexistence strategies with view on traffic practice will be necessary for an utmost frictionless implementation of different automated vehicles onto the road-network. Research in view of the multitude of motorized road users and their technical capabilities to pass interactions without any conflict with others is challenging. It claims a decisive control mastering hidden in the backend of the car-inherent automatic chain. That consideration leads to questions of two kinds, firstly what knowledge is required for developing, testing and proving as well as secondly how transparent the algorithmic conditioning will be handled by the car suppliers. It concerns car-holders and other groups of road users as well as bearers of public road infrastructure. Knowledge about traffic events One can dare the assumption that there would be a lack of knowledge about interrelations between traffic-participants with the view on automated traffic operations. Systematic observations of the traffic practised onto our road network nowadays could deepen such an understanding. To this end to put up a framework of systematic orders describing the manifold mobility groups might help. Each of them - motorized or not - are characterized in respect of their specific range of traffic behavior due to its movement capabilities. In such a way logical procedures for developing and testing of automatic functionalities could be established 1 . It facilitates probably licensing by authorities and makes implementation onto road network more transparent for political decision makers. Finally the degree of acceptance in public could be fostered if a spatial zoning of regulations will have to be ordered by municipalities like in pedestrian’s or residential zones of our habitat. Such an approach represents necessarily a questioning view on that technological progress complementary to product promotion. It concerns besides deployment on car-buyer’s markets by the automobile manufactures all questions of implementation into the mobility system. But with it methodical approaches of gaining recognition about traffic events and eventualities should not only focused on interrelations between motorists driving on their playing-ground roadway 2 . Although this field of knowledge is rarely cultivated so far except for traffic accidence research. Expectations with regard to utility of automatizing traffic let recognize research tasks to deal with and technical development problems to solve. At very first, the behavior of traffic participants observed as physical moving bodies onto road spaces serves as resource of knowledge aiming at an implementation of automated road traffic in a consensual way. Such observations generate pictures of incidental scenes which can be communicated well. Furthermore a permanent traffic monitoring delivers data about frequencies and variations of road users interacting on the scenery. A systematic categorization of phenotypical sceneries, interaction-scenes and involved actor-groups depicted within a framework of orders and matrices makes complex interrelations crosswise visible and traceable. In that way scenarios for testing arrangements and for settings to realize them can be prepared. 3 Such fundamental knowledge should inspire a discourse about goals with respect to traffic safety, data Traffic planning SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation | Collection 2021 51 security, desirable use cases, favourable utility areas - one should not ignore the spatial dimension of innovation’s diffusion - and environmental effects concerning energy reduction and emission relief for more air quality. A question connected is who bears the additional costs for equipment installed in cars and for investments resp. maintenance along the roadways, like for 5G/ 6G communication infrastructure. Finally current costs due to service charges for the road users as customers would have to be enquired too. Foremost, if one surveys relevant literature an extended demand of knowledge about trivial but complex traffic phenomena seems to be needed for anticipating future scenarios of mobility using road-net. Such an inquiring and reflecting discourse may deal with topics as follows: •• Theoretical fundamentals to understand relevant phenomena of daily traffic operations •• Methodical approaches finding crucial points of development in respect of technology assessment •• Multidisciplinary view on consequences of automatization of vehicles in respect of utility •• Testing procedures to prove technological functionality and to estimate affections on other road users •• Implementation strategies into mobility system and road network as political tasks •• Monitoring of practice onto road and in public spaces Car-inherent capabilities and external traffic conditions Theoretical approaches and methodical tooling to prepare testing and proving arrangements have two dimensions of viewing on challenges caused by traffic phenomena and technological effects: 1. The internal view on car-inherent capabilities as preconditions for automatization of driving (under the remaining responsibility of a driver) and for autonomization of car’s moving on public road spaces in future (at which responsibilities have to be clarified still). It is the preferred approach by automotive research and development, at which the motorization of a car type and the driver’s presence in a single vehicle build up the performing system. To that the perception of surroundings to detect opponents and obstacles to find open trajectory spaces in order to realize the best of trajectory options without risking conflicts will be essential. 2. The external view on moving cars (like a bird’s or drone’s view) as members of here so-called coincidental collectives sailing onto the roadway 4 . It is the neglected vision hardly anybody will know neither automotive developers nor traffic planners. That concerns interrelations between different motorized vehicles as well as with other road users. Moreover the view is widened on exogenous frame conditions by the road network in respect of topography and capacity. Additional we have to consider opportunities which are given by using interconnectivity for traffic actions. That may be realized in an interactive manner as data exchange between vehicles to vehicles (vs2vs) or furthermore as an information flow vehicles to infrastructure in all its service and capacity functions (vs2if ). To round off complexity time-depending traffic conditions have to be taken into account (see figure 2). In such a way fields of scenes for one and the same roadway section (= edge) can be composed before scenarios to prepare test arrangements could be constructed (see figures 7-9). Vehicle’s potential of motor power and conditioning vehicle’s driving style as moving pattern Each vehicle seen as a moving body manifests its individual resp. mark-typical behavior onto the roadway. That depends car-inherent on the available driving potentials for a classified car which is automated on different levels as depicted in figure 1 and external on the actual traffic conditions as drafted in figure 2. In the long term view driving modes would be distinguished in twice respects: As driving style resp. type of traffic behavior on the one hand and as traffic presence of a vehicle moving on a roadway on the other hand. The former depends either on the individual driving style of a human driver (as usual nowadays) or on the conditioned moving style of the automatic chain of a vehicle type equipped on a higher SAE-Level 5 . As second the traffic presence of a vehicle describes the operative mode either in dependence on individual decision making of a solitary moving car or on an external determined resp. associated moving pattern in considerateness with H. Doerr et al.: Assessment of autonomous moving cars: Approaches and test procedures 3 achieved if a remote controlling by an exogenous control mastering elsewhere will take over. At the end of the day that would mean cars will be operating at an ultimate stage of “deautonomiziation”. Figure 1: Vehicle´s potential for autonomization connecting power performance with automation functions Car-inherent power performance Traffic-relevant autonomization potential Car-specific powertrain-equipment Capability for scenario-prediction to claim trajectory Vehicle-type as offered to customers Grade of exploitation of potential for driving dynamics Intensity of interconnectivity whilst interacting with other cars on the roadway Draft by H. Doerr (2020) All figures and images by the authors Driver´s presence as human-machine interaction The solitary traffic behavior of a human driven or automated moved vehicle succumbs on individual motivations which can be various according to day-time and trip purposes (like commuting or services needed just-in-time). But the moving potential of a vehicle due to its propulsion powerfulness has to be taken into account. Besides that, automation functionalities on different system levels installed in the car are more and more intervening and maybe overruling the individual human driver´s steering. In the end algorithms will take over decisively car´s movements tracking on the roadway. There, it would be a match between motorized vehicles distinguished by its “powerfulness” and by SAE-levels of automatization. In cases of autonomous moving vehicles (generally driverless or during driver´s absence of mind on board) it would be a crucial point which car of the coincidental mixture of vehicles would succeed and which of them would yield (= give way) when interactions take place. It traces back to the question how a car-inherent autonomization-system had been conditioned by the automobile manufacturer. But that is not enough at all if facing daily traffic conditions. Vehicle´s traffic presence as precondition An external air-view on moving vehicles over an edge of the roadway provokes the question in which manner a vehicle is directed on his pathway (compare Fig. 8). The control master could be located either car-internal by the automatic chain on board or car-external by a control mastering of its movements located at a proprietary fleet-disposition center resp. at a central road traffic management. That means in a long-term perspective to clear up the future modes of traffic presence of each single vehicle onto the road-network which can be distinguished as follow:  Solitary traffic presence as an individual (inter)acting moving body. That could be operated as steering by a driver as usual but it could be also a robot-vehicle seeking his trajectory automatically.  Collective traffic presence as vehicle interconnected with adjacent cars which behaves with solidarity. Interactions would be evoked either by a defensive driving style of a driver or by a programed conditioning of the car-inherent automated controlling chain.  Traffic presence by remote steering a vehicle. That could be operated by an infrastructure-provider as capacity-oriented traffic flow optimization in designated traffic regions like in inner-towns or in networks of expressways. A remote controlling of single moving cars or a fleet of service vehicles, like robot-cabs, frequenting all over the road-network seems not so promising if one faces the mixture of different equipped vehicles and other road using groups. Automation-Level (SAE) as vehicle´s specific equipment with such typical functions efficient (a1..-n) Usage according to vehicle-classification and driving license (like P = Passenger car) P 2a4 (c2, t2) Conditioning of driving-style as program to shift (c1-n or c1+2+n) Mode of traffic presence according to stages of dependence (t1-n) Powerfulness in respect of gross mass of the vehicle and driving-relevant parameters (P 1..-n ) Figure 1: Vehicle’s potential for autonomization connecting power performance with automation functions SCIENCE & RESEARCH Traffic planning International Transportation | Collection 2021 52 other adjacent cars. But the last level would be achieved if a remote controlling by an exogenous control mastering elsewhere will take over. At the end of the day that would mean cars will be operating at an ultimate stage of “deautonomiziation”. Driver’s presence as human-machine interaction The solitary traffic behavior of a human driven or automated moved vehicle succumbs on individual motivations which can be various according to day-time and trip purposes (like commuting or services needed justin-time). But the moving potential of a vehicle due to its propulsion powerfulness has to be taken into account. Besides that, automation functionalities on different system levels installed in the car are more and more intervening and maybe overruling the individual human driver’s steering. In the end algorithms will take over decisively car’s movements tracking on the roadway. There, it would be a match between motorized vehicles distinguished by its “powerfulness” and by SAE-levels of automatization. In cases of autonomous moving vehicles (generally driverless or during driver’s absence of mind on board) it would be a crucial point which car of the coincidental mixture of vehicles would succeed and which of them would yield (= give way) when interactions take place. It traces back to the question how a carinherent autonomization-system had been conditioned by the automobile manufacturer. But that is not enough at all if facing daily traffic conditions. Vehicle’s traffic presence as precondition An external air-view on moving vehicles over an edge of the roadway provokes the question in which manner a vehicle is directed on his pathway (compare figure 8). The control master could be located either car-internal by the automatic chain on board or car-external by a control mastering of its movements located at a proprietary fleet-disposition center resp. at a central road traffic management. That means in a long-term perspective to clear up the future modes of traffic presence of each single vehicle onto the road-network which can be distinguished as follow: • Solitary traffic presence as an individual (inter)acting moving body. That could be operated as steering by a driver as usual but it could be also a robot-vehicle seeking his trajectory automatically. • Collective traffic presence as vehicle interconnected with adjacent cars which behaves with solidarity. Interactions would be evoked either by a defensive driving style of a driver or by a programed conditioning of the car-inherent automated controlling chain. • Traffic presence by remote steering a vehicle. That could be operated by an infrastructure-provider as capacity-oriented traffic flow optimization in designated traffic regions like in inner-towns or in networks of expressways. A remote controlling of single moving cars or a fleet of service vehicles, like robot-cabs, frequenting all over the road-network seems not so promising if one faces the mixture of different equipped vehicles and other road using groups. The hypothetical drafted diagram (figure 2) visualizes traffic relevant factors which constitute the changeable frame conditions for interactions on the roadway. The key mechanism of traffic flow is represented through the indicator of “Level of Service” (in stages A till E) describing the quality of traffic conditions in respect of driving options for each vehicle onto a roadway edge 6 . That depends on the density of vehicles present on an observed section and is determined through the mixture of vehicle types. Such circumstances enable or make it more difficult for vehicles to seek for open trajectory spaces. Both influence the velocity of the traffic flow. Moreover it concerns traffic safety and the risks of incidents as assumed in figure 2. As road-infrastructure has a serviceable function for motorized mobility a sufficient capacity-management to master the uprush of vehicles nearly all the time is the principal goal of planning and operating the road network. Therefore measures to optimize motorized traffic need a certain balancing between driver’s comfort, traffic safety and prevention of jams as general road traffic regulations are emphasizing. Automatization of road traffic H. Doerr et al.: Assessment of autonomous moving cars: Approaches and test procedures 4 Figure 2: Traffic-flow relevant factors of interaction-scenes as a comprehensive figure Criteria weight of traffic relevant factors constituting complexity of changeable frame conditions for interactions on the roadway Degree of Complexity maximal high Density of vehicles on the roadway Velocity of traffic flow normal Degree of freedom in resp. of driving behavior Variety of how acting in cases of interactions Risks for accidents low minimal ( Doerr 2021) A B C D E F Quality of traffic flow (in Level of Service) According to a constant mix of vehicles corresponding to the time window of traffic flow along a phenotypical roadway edge. These frame conditions are fixing the infrastructure capacity usage of the roadway. That theoretical capacity of the roadway is given through its technical features (number of lanes, topographical parameters). • Degree of freedom in resp. of driving behavior: High speed driving while likely none of “opponents” (other vehicles) are adjacent High speed driving is possible but contiguity of opponents has to be observed Modulated velocity is required then some vehicles are adjacent Slow velocity caused by traffic jam • Risks for accidents (from individual caused risks to collective deployed risky situations): Accident caused by own fault (high-risky driving) without any opponent involved Risks caused by misbehaviour within the vehicle´s bulk. A hump in risks is probably because of increasing density of cars while distances between them are diminishing Decreasing risks of heavy accidents while velocity and lane changing are diminishing • Degree of Complexity (for standardizing traffic scenes and predicting steering options) Action-field of high uncertainty predicting traffic interactions because unforeseeable eventualities may occur. Transition from free traffic-flow to bound traffic-flow takes place, so standardized scenes can be observed but the likelihood of incidences increases. That could be a crucial point in respect of “Human-Machine-Interaction” if the artificial “Controlling Master” would be overtaxed. High risky field of incidents whilst velocity of traffic flow is still considerable and the variety of traffic-conditions for steering a vehicle are manifold. High risky field of incidents whilst velocity of traffic flow is still considerable and the Figure 2: Traffic-flow relevant factors of interaction-scenes as a comprehensive figure Traffic planning SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation | Collection 2021 53 operation should follow not only taking individual advantages as manufactures are promoting their cars but also fostering common utility benefits. Besides those expectations road traffic operation could contribute to mitigate problematic effects of motorization aiming at regional environmental and global climate relief. Perception of surroundings for trajectory planning First of all tasks of perception are freed from the question if a car is controlled by a human driver or is partly resp. fully autonomous moving on its pathway. Automated driving of a car needs sensors as detection tools for trajectory planning. For that different sensor technologies installed in a highly automated vehicle - in general four of them - are operating to detect the surroundings 7 . They have distinctive capabilities to perceive static objects and moving subjects in respect of range and resolution. Therefore lots of different detected signals are delivered which have to be subsumed to get a sufficient result as data-base for controlling decisions. One call it “data fusion” playing down the crucial role for the reliability of automated driving cars and the reliance in automatization of road traffic. But a compensation of insufficiencies of each of the sensor techniques to ensure the quality of perception is claiming priority to the end of frictionless trajectory planning. Structuring the surroundings as an analysing scheme as depicted in figure 3 helps to support car-inherent trajectory planning according to the need getting specific data about opponents on the driveway, obstacles along the roadway and places of intervening events which could emerge suddenly. All that information flows into a complex process chain of detection, recognition, interpretation, evaluation, prediction, options generating and an option selecting procedure for claiming an optimum trajectory. To that it belongs a ladder of processing steps within the automatic chain working as cruise control master: Detected signals have to be prepared as data but useless data have to be filtered out of usage. Relevant data has to be interpreted as images. They build the basis for evaluation and prediction of the next seconds of driving in the way generating car-internal scenarios. Prediction deals with probable as well as possible behavior of adjacent road user as interacting players. Therefore that requires a data base in the background of the automaticchain which delivers information about the movingpotentials of the “opponents” to cope with possible risks of interacting with them. The decision-making program has connect that with physical facts along the roadway to make the right decision to occupy the best trajectory, for instance providing an overtaking maneuver. Such scenarios offer certain options for claiming trajectory. Therefore a decisive algorithm has to select the optimum trajectory in order to give steering commands to the machinery of the vehicle. But the decision making software has as background a genuine conditioning program which follows different use cases and realizes mark-typical driving styles according to the marketing of the automobile manufacturer, for instance more sportive for certain premium passenger cars (compare figure 1). The cruise controlling master can be imagined as a chain of a multitude of functions which uses data gained by self-detecting sensors or by external perceived signals via highly efficient telecommunication or “near field” data transfers. The latter serves as data exchange for interconnected operations like vehicle(s)-to-vehicle(s) (v2v) or roadway-infrastructure-to-vehicle(s) (v2i) and vice versa. All these data-inputs have to be processed steadily. But not at least it would be necessary to eliminate useless (in respect of data protection of others) or irrelevant (in respect of trajectory planning) data which can confuse the automat-chain. Otherwise essential data for the control master have to be provided and evaluated which are crucial to construct trajectory-scenarios in respect of options and risks. To this end fields of visions as shown in figure 3 are identified. It seems to be “a little” more complicated than graphic designers are depicting normally autonomous car driving. Composing scenes at phenotypical sceneries To direct the view towards a single vehicle on his pathway or a bulk of cars moving forward should not lead to a limited awareness and incomplete understanding of interactions due to variable traffic conditions. Composing scenes and constructing scenarios at phenotypical structured sceneries might be helpful to arrange realistic tests. The land-use of an urban vicinage along a roadway edge holds either a multitude of intervening interactions spaces as depicted in figure 4. Otherwise the roadway is an isolated trace delimited by parallel barriers like noise protection walls or emergency shoulders as depicted in figures 5-7. Looking at the suburban scenery in figure 4 it represents the empiric approach of a video-drive and delivers heuristic interpretation of intervening interactions as testing features. In contrary of the timed tact of the traffic light regulated intersection in the center a car would be confronted passing these traffic spaces with spontaneous bilateral or multilateral interactions which are hardly to foresee and could provoke an emergency braking or an evasive maneuver. Blind spots which could not be efficient detected due to differences in altitude like hidden doorways of underground garages or ramps of an approaching road should be perceived. But also detection confusing interferences could outgo from the vicinage like dazzling or reflecting by glassy facades of premises nearby. In cases of malfunctions of the carinherent detection the usage of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) feeding the automat-chain of the car H. Doerr et al.: Assessment of autonomous moving cars: Approaches and test procedures 6 The cruise controlling master can be imagined as a chain of a multitude of functions which uses data gained by self-detecting sensors or by external perceived signals via highly efficient telecommunication or “near field” data transfers. The latter serves as data exchange for interconnected operations like vehicle(s)-to-vehicle(s) (v2v) or roadway-infrastructure-to-vehicle(s) (v2i) and vice versa. All these data-inputs have to be processed steadily. But not at least it would be necessary to eliminate useless (in respect of data protection of others) or irrelevant (in respect of trajectory planning) data which can confuse the automat-chain. Otherwise essential data for the control master have to be provided and evaluated which are crucial to construct trajectory-scenarios in respect of options and risks. To this end fields of visions as shown in Figure 3 are identified. It seems to be “a little” more complicated than graphic designers are depicting normally autonomous car driving. Figure 3: Fields of vision detected by a solitary car to claim a trajectory onto his pathway Composing scenes at phenotypical sceneries To direct the view towards a single vehicle on his pathway or a bulk of cars moving forward should not lead to a limited awareness and incomplete understanding of interactions due to variable traffic conditions. Composing scenes and constructing scenarios at phenotypical structured sceneries might be helpful to arrange realistic tests. The land-use of an urban vicinage along a roadway edge holds either a multitude of intervening interactions spaces as depicted in Figure 4. Otherwise the roadway is an isolated trace delimited by parallel barriers like noise protection walls or emergency shoulders as depicted in Figure 5-7. Looking at the suburban scenery in Figure 4 it represents the empiric approach of a video-drive and delivers heuristic interpretation of intervening interactions as testing features. In contrary of the timed tact of the traffic light regulated intersection in the center a car would be confronted passing these traffic spaces with spontaneous bilateral or multilateral interactions which are hardly to foresee and could provoke an emergency braking or an evasive maneuver. Blind spots which could not be efficient detected due to differences in altitude like hidden doorways of underground garages or ramps of an approaching road should be perceived. But also detection confusing interferences could outgo from the vicinage like dazzling or reflecting by glassy facades of premises nearby. In cases of malfunctions of the car-inherent detection the usage of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) feeding the automat-chain of the car with physical data about critical intervening points along a road can serve as warning resp. corrective instrument. Apart from V2V-communication between adjacent vehicles exogenous data-imports via Global Positioning Systems (GPS) need either a field of open visions or road users equipped with GPS-communication-tools as transponder. As local equipment of the roadinfrastructure wire lines integrated in the road surface or transponders mounted on pylons overhead could installed if the road provider will be willingly to bear the costs for it viii . S a f e t y b u b b l e K e e p c l e a r l e n t i l S a f e t y b u b b l e T r a j e c t o r y s p a c e S u r r o u n d i n g s R o a d w a y U r b a n / r u r a l l a n d - u s e v i c i n a g e S h o u l d e r S c e n e r y P a t h w a y e d g e (I n t e r a c t i o n ´ s b o x) F r o n t s i d e d e t e c t i o n t ion E m e r g e n c y l a n e S p e e d l a n e T r a n s i t l a n e E x i t l a n e Proprietary land-use / built-up front line Public urban space / distance green R o a d w a y´s u r b a n s p a c e Figure 3: Fields of vision detected by a solitary car to claim a trajectory onto his pathway SCIENCE & RESEARCH Traffic planning International Transportation | Collection 2021 54 with physical data about critical intervening points along a road can serve as warning resp. corrective instrument. Apart from V2V-communication between adjacent vehicles exogenous data-imports via Global Positioning Systems (GPS) need either a field of open visions or road users equipped with GPS-communication-tools as transponder. As local equipment of the road-infrastructure wire lines integrated in the road surface or transponders mounted on pylons overhead could installed if the road provider will be willingly to bear the costs for it 8 . Boundary conditions for constructing scenarios If the compositions of scenes have cleared up the boundary conditions for constructing scenarios in the mentioned way prospective assumptions of future road traffic events could be put up. For this “Real World” forms the starting point to attribute future technological features to the vehicles like SAE-Levels and to assume the usage of them if a driver could select a driving mode like downgrading the automated functions (figures 7 and 8). But not A section of Danube-Embankment-Highway (A22) in Vienna as basic scenery Composing a field of scenes as can be observed nowadays the action field (“playing ground”) is defined by a plausible delimited (entry-exit) roadway edge. The observation of scenes begins with a starting shot (t 0 ) and terminates if the last of the players has left the edge passing an exit line (t n ). So a coincident collective of cars could be proven in respect of open trajectory options for moving forward. It forms the base for constructing scenarios assuming a variety of automated vehicles on different levels under varied driving modes in respect of driver´s presence. A section of Danube-Embankment-Highway (A22) in Vienna as basic scenery Constructing a field of scenario A: Hereby, it is assumed that all vehicles are under remote control of the traffic management of the highway section. Therefore all cars have to be exclusively equipped for external interconnectivity “vehicle to infrastructure” via 5+G-communication and for remote steering. Car-drivers have to accept the rule being out of steering their vehicles. Such a traffic operation results in a homogeneous traffic flow ensuring distance keeping and velocity control. But the driver has to declare his trip plan in advance especially which exits should be frequented. A section of Danube-Embankment-Highway (A22) in Vienna as basic scenery Constructing a field of scenario B: This scenario is based on the general assumption that each vehicle has its own specific characteristic in respect of motor power and automat-level. It seems to be the most realistic as well as the most complex scenario of partly automated road traffic under the principle of an indiscriminate traffic participation of motorists far-off. Each vehicle behaves itself as a solitary actor. Such a mixture of cars causes a heterogeneous nearly unpredictable flow of traffic. Therefore the prevention of critical interactions will be focused on. Figure 5-7: Observing scenes and constructing scenarios of automated traffic on a pathway edge. Left to right: Section of Danube-Embankment- Highway (A22) in Vienna as basic scenery. Section control there as test pathway. Ubiquitous phenotypical section seen in Berlin (A100 Exit Halensee) H. Doerr et al.: Assessment of autonomous moving cars: Approaches and test procedures 7 Figure 4: Intervened interactions spaces as phenotypical characteristic of a radial urban trunk road Outlined by Viktoria Marsch and Andreas Romstorfer 2017. Scenery: Intersection Bruenner Road/ Katsushika Street in Vienna-Floridsdorf Boundary conditions for constructing scenarios If the compositions of scenes have cleared up the boundary conditions for constructing scenarios in the mentioned way prospective assumptions of future road traffic events could be put up. For this “Real World” forms the starting point to attribute future technological features to the vehicles like SAE-Levels and to assume the usage of them if a driver could select a driving mode like downgrading the automated functions (Fig. 7 & 8). But not only drivers are actors. Road network providers could play a dominating role to manage the traffic via steering each vehicle in designated section of their network assisted by telecommunication providers. In this respect different scenarios could be drafted aiming at cutting traffic rush or reducing inflow of vehicles to prevent jams. Used cars dealer Furniture shopping center Gas station Car dealer Entry/ exit Exit Entry Entry/ exit Entry/ exit Car dealer Exit Gas station Pedestrian’s sidewalk Bicycle lane Lanes for motor cars Rolling board for advertisements Intervening car maneuvers Key for Interactions space Gas station Exit Access for pickup commodities Residential block with kindergarten Commercial parking lot Entry/ exit Entry/ exit Key for Area of traffic phenomena Special lane for cyclists Parking lane Narrowing of carriageway Spreading of carriageway (additional lane) Right turning car yielding at an exit Right turning car entering in a proprietary site Entry/ exit underground Parking Key for Interactions space Sidewalk Parking lane to pick up kids Lane for car traffic flow Street car stop platform Bus stop point Driving manoeuvres Spontaneous crossings of pedestrians Figure 4: Intervened interactions spaces as phenotypical characteristic of a radial urban trunk road Outlined by Viktoria Marsch and Andreas Romstorfer 2017. Scenery: Intersection Bruenner Road/ Katsushika Street in Vienna-Floridsdorf Traffic planning SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation | Collection 2021 55 only drivers are actors. Road network providers could play a dominating role to manage the traffic via steering each vehicle in designated section of their network assisted by telecommunication providers. In this respect different scenarios could be drafted aiming at cutting traffic rush or reducing inflow of vehicles to prevent jams. A systematic monitoring of scenes seen from an appropriate observation point as here a S-Bahn-platform (figure 9) delivers a lot of interactions which can be standardized and statistical documented. But also eventualities might occur as result of irregularly and risky driving-maneuvers. It gives deductive ideas for testarrangements which could be simulated in realistic ways on testing grounds. Test and Implementation Procedure as result From the discussed issues an interdisciplinary structured and phased test and implementation procedure (“TIP”) is resulted. It will integrate all stakeholders of the automotive manufactures as well as all concerned groups of the mobility system. The test procedure depicted in figure 10 describes a chain which has its beginning at testing grounds within the responsibility of the automobile sector and is terminating in the Real World of our habitat. So one could realize points of transition within the succession of phases where the concerns are changing between the productive automobile sector, the approving authorities, the bearer of infrastructure, the driver’s instructing schools, the interest-groups of mobility participants included motorists, the planning community and other more. Acting stakeholders and involved professionals affiliated to the automotive industrial sector, in particular the testing ground staff, the test designing programers, the on-board testing team and analysts of results, are participating in a bound testing program managed by an automotive OEM and connected suppliers. In its core testing components are proven in respect of functionality and reliability. If the test results let guess to be sufficient enough for deployment in road traffic legal authorities have to be concerned for authorization. In this way deployment on the automobile market can start accompanied by promotion to awaken car-buyer’s awareness and to influence public opinion. Media are reflecting willingly the marketing messages. Foremost after that it could be a topic within the frame of the New Cars Assessment Program (NCAP) of national Driver’s Associations to strengthen or disprove the effects of automatic functions resp. driving assistance systems. In the next phase policies will be possibly challenged: On the transnational level the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) has founded a working party for that, recently to harmonize rules for deploying cars on level 3. On the national level the legislation has to adapt general driving rules, especially in respect of the handling of semi-autonomous driving onto the road network, what concerns so-called Human-Machine-Interaction. But as well on a regional or local level competent authorities could have been exerted pressure by citizens to direct local regulations. As figure 10 indicates each step has a specific personell-configuration according to the tasks to do and the qualification to do it. Some steps are inevitable resp. obligatory to carry out (drawn arrows) others are successively forced (dashed arrows) or at least advisably (dotted arrows) to be considered. Furthermore it is readable who plays the initiative part as stakeholder-group and who is acting in practice as a team. Such details to discuss is reserved for a long version. Foresighted public entities providing road infrastructure and being responsible for public spaces might integrate such critical issues in their development plans. Also driving school’s instruction should receive supplementary contents and could offer training about it. By the way this group of essential concerned professionals is seldom consulted. Résumé for an open discourse Approaches derived from Real World as exemplified do not solve technical problems as that are tasks for auto- H. Doerr et al.: Assessment of autonomous moving cars: Approaches and test procedures 9 Figure 8: Construction of a scenario field onto a three-lane carriageway covered by a mixture of vehicles representing different levels of automation and vehicle classes moving in a solitary mode A systematic monitoring of scenes seen from an appropriate observation point as here a S-Bahn-platform (Fig. 9) delivers a lot of interactions which can be standardized and statistical documented. But also eventualities might occur as result of irregularly and risky driving-maneuvers. It gives deductive ideas for test-arrangements which could be simulated in realistic ways on testing grounds. derived from the “Real World” of phenotypical sceneries. Figure 9: Observation of scenes at an access to an urban ring-highway with continuous traffic flow during the day (3s-timing). Scenery: Berlin A 100 (“Hundekopf”) Messedamm (at a working day before noon) Critical interactions when converging Distance keeping as critical driving maneuver Sufficient distance keeping Not sufficient braking distance Non regular converging over blocking line Motor cyclists changing lane to prevent incidents Figure 9: Observation of scenes at an access to an urban ring-highway with continuous traffic flow during the day (3s-timing). Scenery: Berlin A 100 (“Hundekopf”) Messedamm (at a working day, before noon, in September) Figure 8: Construction of a scenario field onto a three-lane carriageway covered by a mixture of vehicles representing different levels of automation and vehicle classes moving in a solitary mode H. Doerr et al.: Assessment of autonomous moving cars: Approaches and test procedures 9 Figure 8: Construction of a scenario field onto a three-lane carriageway covered by a mixture of vehicles representing different levels of automation and vehicle classes moving in a solitary mode A systematic monitoring of scenes seen from an appropriate observation point as here a S-Bahn-platform (Fig. 9) delivers a lot of interactions which can be standardized and statistical documented. But also eventualities might occur as result of irregularly and risky driving-maneuvers. It gives deductive ideas for test-arrangements which could be simulated in realistic ways on testing grounds. derived from the “Real World” of phenotypical sceneries. Figure 9: Observation of scenes at an access to an urban ring-highway with continuous traffic flow during the day (3s-timing). Scenery: Berlin A 100 (“Hundekopf”) Messedamm (at a working day before noon) Critical interactions when converging Distance keeping as critical driving maneuver Sufficient distance keeping Not sufficient braking distance Non regular converging over blocking line Motor cyclists changing lane to prevent incidents Figure 9: Observation of scenes at an access to an urban ring-highway with continuous traffic flow during the day (3s-timing). Scenery: Berlin A 100 (“Hundekopf”) Messedamm (at a working day, before noon, in September) Figure 9: Observation of scenes at an access to an urban ring-highway with continuous traffic flow during the day (3s-timing). Scenery: Berlin A 100 (“Hundekopf”) Messedamm (at a working day, before noon, in September) SCIENCE & RESEARCH Traffic planning International Transportation | Collection 2021 56 motive research and development. Rather it should help to trace out challenging traffic events and to put up framing conditions which influence traffic flows exogenously. In such a multidisciplinary manner deficiencies untied from pure technical quality requirements and standardization, like ISO 26262, could be revealed 9 . Embedded in a chain of test and implementation procedures all relevant stakeholder and affected groups from the mobility milieu can be addressed. Not at least, because this methodical approaching should enable them to reflect the evoked changes by the arising innovations within the mobility system and to encourage them to contribute their considerations to that in a democratic discourse. ■ 1 As there are Advanced Driver Assistance Systems which equip vehicles on SAE-Level 3 (or more) helping driving maneuvers like distance keeping, lane keeping, speed limitation, overtaking other cars or parking-maneuvers. Furthermore driving on a higher level as Autonomous Driving System will allow a transition to partly or fully autonomous movements of the car onto designated section of the public road network. In the opinion of the author this stage is envisaged not before the thirties or forties of our century. A sceptic perspective to it delivers a study by the ADAC e.V. (2018): ADAC e.V. (2018): Einführung von Automatisierungsfunktionen in der Pkw-Flotte. Auswirkungen auf Bestand und Sicherheit. Erstellt von Prognos GmbH. Berlin / München 2 Such scenes have been exemplified by figure 2 and figure 4 depicted in: H.-Doerr, A. Romstorfer: Implementation of autonomous vehicle onto roadways. Internationales Verkehrswesen (72) 1/ 2020, 67, pp 66-70; and in: International Transportation | Collection 2020, pp 58-62 3 To this end a comprehensive “vademecum” (a kind of informal manual) has been prepared, which contains methodical help to cope with the complexity of the topic in a multidisciplinary view. Advices are given in form of an alphabetic ordered terminology which is practical oriented to address practitioners. It is not published yet as a whole, but the German version would be ready. Some figures depicted here are taken from it. 4 Look at the endnote 2 5 Five levels are usually distinguished according to: Society of Automotive Engineers International, 2014 SAE J3016: Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems. http: / / standards.sae.org/ j3016_201401/ 6 The Level-of-Service-Indication A-E is derived from the US Highway Capacity Manual (2000), which deals with connexions of urban street classes and velocity of traffic flow in respect of capacity criteria and driving strategy. 7 As there are: Cameras as hardware plus object-recognition and image-interpretation as software, Light-Detection and Ranging based on Laser-technology (LiDAR), RADAR as well-known for area-detection, Ultrasound-detection very close to the car and other means more (e.g. infrared). 8 Compare with figure 2 depicted in Internationales Verkehrswesen/ International Transportation 1/ 2020, p 68. 9 This quality management terms of reference to prove electronical instruments are mostly used in respect of technical reliability of automatic functionalities. But this limited procedure does not fulfil sufficiently requirements of an assessment in respect of traffic aspects. Andreas Romstorfer, Dipl.-Ing. (FH), MA arp-planning.consulting.research, Vienna (AT) a.romstorfer@arp.co.at Viktoria Marsch, DDipl.-Ing. Traffic researcher and planner at arp 2013-2017, Vienna (AT) viktoria.marsch@aon.at Heinz Dörr, Dr. Dipl.-Ing. Consulting engineer spatial and traffic planning, arp-planning.consulting.research, Vienna (AT) heinz.doerr@arp.co.at DRAFT OF AN INTERDISCIPLINARY STRATEGIC TEST-PROCEDURE FOR THE AUTOMATIZATION AND AUTONOMIZATION OF VEHICLES ONTO ROADWAYS General Steps phased Phase of Test-Conception Phase of Test-Implementation Phase of Test-Programing Phase of Test-Realization Phase of Test-Result-Evaluation Phase of legal Authorization Phase of Deployment Phase of Traffic Policies Phase of Verification Phase of Adaption Phase of Implementation Restructuring built-up areas Changing of mobility patterns Knowledge-Transfer to related professionals Driving instruction & training Consideration in Roadway Design Addition of traffic statistics Adaption of traffic rules Observing interaction scenes Surveying traffic behavior Monitoring of incidencies Civic inquiry Integration into Mobility Action Plan Local traffic regulations Roadnet organisation Equipped cars emerging onto roadways Public awareness & reflection Product placement / migration on markets Legalization of technological components Proving legal conformity Validation of functionality Lay open the testing result Test-Goals Test-Vicinage Testing Ground Testing-formation Testing-elements Test Purpose Test Objects Evaluation of traffic capability Identification of Insufficiences Test-Recording Stage the interaction-scenes Provision for resources Script of Scenarios Setting the theatre Testing Tasks Figure 10: Test procedure as a phased chain divided in automotive testing arrangements, legal authorization, deployment on vehicle’s stock and final implementation in road net and mobility system Decarbonizing SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation | Collection 2021 57 Future transportation A current review of goods transportation decarbonizing Battery electric trucks, Green logistics, Decarbonizing, Goods transportation, Renewable energies, CO₂ emissions reduction In 2019, the European Parliament endorsed the objective to make the European Union climate-neutral by 2050. The transportation sector is highly affected by this decision as carriers need to look for low emission trucking solutions. The paper summarizes the current state of research concerning battery electric trucks (BETs). It examines major studies on ready-to-use technology that can be immediately implemented by carriers. The results were then compared with data sheets from battery electric truck manufacturers and with experts’ interviews conducted during two state founded research projects. This combination of sources provided senior management of both logistics service providers as well as carrying companies the key economic and environmental impacts of battery-electric heavy-duty trucks. Boris Zimmermann, Jozo Acksteiner, Lou Coenen, Philipp Knauf O n June 25 th 2019, the European Commission released Regulation 2019/ 1242, which requires truck manufacturers to reduce CO 2 emissions in their fleets by 15 % by 2025 in comparison to 2019, and by 30 % in 2030. In Article 12 of the regulation, the EU further commits to monitor real time data of the trucks to calculate the CO 2 results for each manufacturer. Manufacturers face severe consequences if the targets are not reached and would have to pay up to EUR 4,250 per g CO 2 per tkm when exceeding the limits [1]. With this legislation the path for low emission vehicles is set. However, the EU regulation does not demand battery electric trucks (BETs), but only speaks of Zero or Low Emissions Vehicles (ZLEVs). Nevertheless, this regulation is a game changer and therefore truck manufacturers must provide new solutions. In January 2019 the EU started drafting the legislation to reduce CO 2 emissions of newly sold trucks from 2025 on. This legislation was strongly influenced by academic research and the work of NGOs, such as the European Federation for Transport and Environment AISBL, which was focused on BETs [2]. Objectives This paper aims to determine whether BETs are a viable possibility for reducing the transport sector’s carbon footprint, and an economically sound alternative to diesel trucks. Therefore, their TCO, energy consumption and CO 2 emissions will be examined. The paper focusses on Heavy Duty Trucks (HDT) as these are most critical to be electrified, because of their disproportionally high CO 2 emissions compared to their relative share in road traffic [3]. In the following, we refer to be battery operated vehicle as BE HDTs. Science Research Method In the first step, six studies are selected for in-depth examination. The key information of these studies is summarized, and the limitations of each study are analysed. The papers are closely viewed regarding their TCO calculation, the total CO 2 emissions of the overall supply chain, and the costs of the infrastructure to provide charging stations. The following key factors were examined: 1. The impact of the energy mix regarding CO2emissions (E) 2. The data quality of the reviewed studies (D) 3. The costs of lithium batteries regarding CO 2 emissions (B) 4. If and how a market review of BETs is done (MR) 5. The influence of temperature on BETs driving range-(T) 6. The up-to-datedness of the data used in the reviewed studies (UTD) These key factors and their influence on BETs are then deeper investigated. This is done on the bases of the data limitations found in each study. A scoring model is introduced to evaluate how the examined papers cover the relevant key factors. In the second step, the data from the examined studies is compared with data sheets from truck manufactures offering BETs. Additionally, experts from manufacturers and logistics companies are interviewed about their experiences with constructing and driving BETs, and data from the research projects EN WIN and EMOLSE2020 is analysed. PEER REVIEW Submission: 18 Feb 2020 Final version: 30 Apr 2020 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Decarbonizing International Transportation | Collection 2021 58 The analysis’s results supported manufacturers, regulators, and researchers by showing if BETs promise actual potential regarding their market readiness and, consequentially, their potential for road transport decarbonisation. Step 1: Literature review Six studies about BETs are selected for in-depth analysis (2013-2019). Table 1 shows all literature which was deeply examined, what types of truck was analysed, how they reference to each other and how often they are quoted by each other [4]. As table 1 shows, the main literature on the topic of BETs and that the recent authors use material from older studies, especially the study of Den Boer is cited often. Next the main content of the studies is summarized and reviewed. Table 2 only provides a short review of the studies. Therefore, the studies will now be closer examined regarding the before mentioned key factors (E, D, B, MR, T, UTD). The key factors are further subdivided into 13 categories to increase the resolution and listed in a scoring model to evaluate the studies on their emphasis and deficits in a short but detailed overview. The studies are marked with a “+” or “-” depending on whether they contain or consider information regarding each of the 13 sub-categories, and if they are still to be considered as up to date. Table 3 shows the results of the scoring analysis. Den Boers [9] papers took 9 out of 13 key factors into account, Sen [8] 8 out of 13, Mareev [7] and Earl [6] 7 out of 13. These papers are also the most cited studies. However, Den Boer [9] and Sen [8] are to be considered as outdated. This makes further academic research necessary. The most significant shortcoming is the lack of data from real driving experiments (Real Data D1) and the impact of the temperature on the energy consumption (T2), followed by emissions of battery manufacturing (B3) and then by the cost of infrastructure (E2). In this paper the impact of the temperature on the energy consumption (T2) could not be analysed because there was not sufficient data collected in the research programs. To determine the TCO, real market battery prices (B1) are the most important factor. This is only considered by three studies: Den Boer [9], Earl [6] and Sen [8]. The other papers just refer to these three studies, without conducting their own market research. Most of the studies used real market data, all studies analysed the problem of battery weight in the context of payload losses. The most relevant studies covering the 13 key factors are den Boer [9] and Sen [8], but as they were published in 2013 and 2016 they do not provide a sufficiently up-todate database for decision makers. The following four gaps in the research will be examined in detail: 1. Real data (D1) 2. Real market battery prices (B1) 3. Cost of infrastructure (E2) 4. Emissions of battery manufacturing (B3) These topics are most reluctantly analysed in the literature so far, what will be compensated now. To analyse the temperature impact on the battery (T1) and on the consumption (T2) the collected data was not sufficient. Hence, the gap could not be closed. Step : Comparison of the data provided by the reviewed studies and data from 2018 to 2021 as a result from the research projects EN WIN and EMLOSE2020 In the second step, the data used in the examined studies is compared with real data, with the aim to close the four parts of lack of research mentioned above (D1, B1, E2 and B3). The data for this analysis is taken from two research projects, sponsored by state subsidies from Hesse (Germany) and the Federal Republic of Germany. The first research project EMOLSE2020 [12] was conducted between 2016 and 2018. The first series model of a BE HDT 4x2 was tested during one year by several carriers in Hesse. During the tests, two terra bytes of real-world data were generated from real driving in Hesse. A data logger was installed, taking data from the CAN-BUS of the trucks, to record as much data as possible in accordance with the Fleet Management System (FMS) standard. The second research project was EN WIN [13], which started in 2017 and ended in 2021. Two trucks of the initial series of BE HDT 18 t 4x2 were analysed the same way as in EMOLSE2020 [12]. Additionally, market offers of BE HDT were reviewed, experts were interviewed and data of BE HDT and diesel HDT was collected. EN WIN [13] included a detailed market research with the goal to buy a BE HDT. Quotations were obtained from different BE truck manufactures in Germany. Real data (D1) The market for BETs is described in detail by Wyatt [3]. The data from Wyatt [3] is taken for a detailed market analysis in addition with own research results. The results are compared with the reviewed paper, the focus of the analysis being on Germany. Additionally, a total of 29 market offers of BETs were compared, divided into tractor units and trucks with 26 t total gross weight as well as 18 t total gross weight. The average battery size and range were determined, as well as the resulting consumption per km driven. The results are shown in figure-1 and figure 2. Nr. Study Year LDT MDT HDT References Number of citations 1 Liimatainen [5] 2019 X X Earl [6], Mareev [7], Sen [8], and den Boer [9] 0 2 Earl [6] 2018 X Mareev [7], Sen[8], and den Boer [9] 1 3 Mareev [7] 2018 X Sen [8], Dünnebeil [10] and den Boer [9] 2 4 Sen [8] 2016 X X den Boer [9] 3 5 Dünnebeil [10] 2015 X den Boer [9] 1 6 Den Boer [9] 2013 X X 5 Table 1: List of studies analysing BETs by year, if light duty trucks (LDT), MDT or HDT are examined, to which studies they refer and the number of citations in the other studies Decarbonizing SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation | Collection 2021 59 The average range is 290 km considering the six major offers of BETs with 26 TGW and the average battery net capacity is 283 kWh. Analysing 11 offers of BETs of tractor units (40 TGW) the average battery net capacity is 423 kWh and the average range is 324 km. The battery size is scalable from 100 up to 800 kWh. The standard offers are 240 and 310 kWh for trucks with less than 26 t TGW. In this respect, the results are different when calculating energy consumption per km. The net capacity of batteries is lower than the capacity as specified by the manufacturer. The studies are roughly in line with today’s market offerings. The ranges were assessed more conservatively than by the suppliers themselves. In the research programs BE tractor units were not available and therefore no test results could be collected, this is Nr. Author Summary Critics 1 Liimatainen [5] The electrification potential of road transportation is calculated based on the energy consumption of an average road transport in Finland and Switzerland. Data assumptions are also made about the energy density of the batteries, the charging power, and time variations of the working shifts. Recharging power is considered as well as gross vehicle weight restrictions and the influence of hilly highway routes. The result of this analysis is that in Switzerland 58 % of the MDT and 18 % of HDT could be replaced with BETs. In Finland it would be 38 % of MDT and 28 % of HDT. The study assumes that the energy consumption is linear with the driving time. It also assumes that the battery capacities and the ranges provided by the manufacturers are accurate. The ambient temperature as a significant parameter for the trucks’ energy consumption is not considered, nor are aerodynamic effects mentioned in the study. The report is focussed on very small countries in Europe and therefore results cannot be transferred on a bigger scale. 2 Earl [6] Ten different truck manufacturers which introduced BET models between 2012 and 2018 were examined. By comparing rolling resistance and drivetrain efficiencies between diesel HDT and BE HDT, it shows the superiority of BETs in energy consumption and emissions. Several battery sizes are discussed. The cost for infrastructure were also calculated and the TCO for a diesel truck as well as a BET. Wages, vehicle costs, road use charges, insurance, energy, fast charging, maintenance, and repair were included in the TCO. The paper assumes laboratory conditions, simple calculations and without using experimental driving data. No simulation for energy consumption in different driving scenarios, e.g., mountains or flat land, is conducted. The effect of temperature is not considered. A deeper analysis of the battery market is also not included. 3 Mareev [7] The life cycle costs of HDT considering the requirements of long-haul transportation were analysed. The study considers the average energy consumption on German highways, using different battery sizes and simulated transportation scenarios. The latter includes payloads, infrastructure costs, and the total costs of ownership. In his simulation model Mareev considers air resistance, rolling resistance, slope resistance, acceleration resistance, cell temperature, overall temperature, state of charge, aging over time and loading cycle aging of the battery cells. The assumption of 1 Mio. km per truck live lies more than 10 % above an estimate given by German DEKRA automotive Ltd. [11]. It remains to be proven whether batteries will last for seven years or longer under real-world conditions. The cost of the battery pack are only assumptions, its estimated price is based on theoretical studies but not on actual market prices. Due to this, the real price range is unclear and not predictable for potential buyers. 4 Sen [8] The BE HDT in comparison with CNG, hybrid and conventional diesel trucks were examined, comparing their total emissions in respect to the manufacturing process (raw material extraction, transportation of raw material and production) and the total costs of ownership. The EIO-LCA (Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment) and process-LCA were used to explore the environmental impacts. The truck’s lifespan and average annual mileage, the maintenance of lithium-ion batteries and manufacturing cost of the battery system as well as battery replacement costs, the costs of the electric motor, and the costs of the power electronics were examined. The cost of energy strongly depends on numerous factors, for example energy market, green energy price, general grid costs and amount of energy bought by the company. Furthermore, the battery replacement cycle depends on the range. The energy consumption and therefore the cost of energy also strongly depend on the range and the road gradient. There is no data from real-world driving tests, only simulations. Due to differences in energy mix all over the world, the real emissions can only be estimated. 5 Dünnebeil [10] A simulation is done with the help of the Vehicle Energy Consumption Calculation Tool (VECTO) which considered 90 different technical criteria such as engine and powertrain, aerodynamics, rolling resistance, optimisation of vehicle weight, auxiliary consumers and vehicle control. The document’s aim was to reduce CO₂ emissions of trucks and then analyse the TCO. It distinguishes between a 40 t truck on long haul cycles and regional delivery cycle compared with a 12 t truck in an urban delivery cycle. The paper uses a Well-to-Wheel method and calculates the parameters for CO₂ emissions. The service life under real driving conditions has a maximum of seven years not eighteen [11]. The service life of MDT is a lot shorter under real conditions than Dünnebeil [10] assumes. The data presented for the trucks’ TCO is a theoretical assumption and can hardly be compared to truck usage in real driving situations. The fluctuations of energy prices, the simulations with no real driving data, and the battery price taken from studies instead of real market prices are additional problematic areas of this study. 6 Den Boer [9] This paper starts with a market review of BE MDT and HDT. It gives a projection how energy density (Wh/ kg) needs to develop to make BETs market ready. This paper reviews truck simulation concepts from 2010 and different ways to charge energy. The data is from 2010 and none of the BETs in the paper are available for purchase anymore. Furthermore, the results are not detailed enough for decisions makers in logistics management. Unfortunately, none of these ideas are still considered state-of-the-art. Den Boer also reviews catenary and hydrogen trucks. As this paper solely focusses on BETs, both options are not examined any closer. The cost basis of den Boer is 2010. Table 2: List of studies analysing BETs by year, if light duty trucks (LDT), MDT or HDT are examined, to which studies they refer and the number of citations in the other studies SCIENCE & RESEARCH Decarbonizing International Transportation | Collection 2021 60 the reason why only BE HDT with less than 26 TWG were analysed. A benchmark analysis followed. Logistics companies which have already tested a BE HDT made exact statements towards the range of the used truck. These statements were published in business journals and newspapers, where they were collected [15 to 27]. A total of eight key statements are summarised figure 3 shows the results. With a test drive range of only 140 km the real ranges are much lower than the data sheets promised with 290 km. The specifications on the suppliers’ data sheets are not reached in practice. This gap between theoretical range and actual range can also be observed when comparing e-cars and fossil fuel driven cars see [28]. The factor here is almost 50 % in the consumption figures, which is as high as in the comparison with this analysis. One of the reasons for this is the gradient of the road. The higher it is the more energy is needed - therefore, hilly roads are less suitable for BE HDTs. An upper and lower limit for the range of a 26-t BET was defined, based on this study. The lower limit is 140-km driving range and the upper limit is 190 km [29]. To further analyse range and energy consumption the test results from EN-WIN [13] and EMOLSE2020 [12] are added to the research made so fare. In the further investigation, a BET was examined during a period of one year. During this period, the values from journeys in the greater Berlin area were evalu- Study 1 Fluctuating Electricity Prices (E1) 2 Cost of Infrastructure (E2) 3 Different Energy Mixes (E3) 4 Real Data (D1) 5 Simulation Data (D2) 6 Different Driving Scenarios (D3) 7 Real Market Battery Prices (B1) 8 Payload Losses (B2) 9 Emissions of Battery Manufacturing (B3) 10 Market Review (MR) 11 Temperature Impact on the Battery (T1) 12 Temperature Impact on the Consumption (T2) 13 Up-to-datedness (UTD) ∑ Den Boer [9] + - + - + + + + + + + - - 9 Sen [8] + - + - + + + + - + + - - 8 Mareev [7] + + - - + + - + - - + - + 7 Earl [6] + + + - - - + + - + - - + 7 Liimatainen [5] - - - - + + - + - + - - + 5 Dünnebeil [10] - - + - + + - + - - - - - 4 ∑ 4 2 4 0 5 5 3 6 1 4 3 0 3 Table 3: The results of scoring analysis of the key factors Figure 1: Current models of BETs with less than 26 t TGW, Research paper [9] Figure 2: Current models of BETs with 40 t TGW (tractor units); Research papers [6, 7, 14] Figure 3: Figure 1 with added practical benchmark analysis Decarbonizing SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation | Collection 2021 61 ated, and further values from journeys within one month in Germany were generated and analysed. Figure 4 and figure 5 show the measured tour kilometres in Berlin and in Germany. The test truck was a BE HDT 18 t 4x2 with 18 t TGW, first registration in 2015 as Designation Vehicle type [5], as truck panel with an empty mass of 12,040 kg (BET incl. batteries). The total payload was 5,960 kg, and the rated battery capacity was 240 kWh. The driving capacity was supposed to be 300 to 350 km with an energy consumption of 1 kWh/ km. After one year of tests in Berlin, the truck had a maximum range of 220 km and an average range of 110 km. The energy consumption was 1,3 kWh/ km. Berlin is a very flat area and, as a big city, predestined for BETs. Therefore, additional four weeks of test drives were conducted by four companies in Germany. The truck drove 165 km as maximum and an average of 146 km with an energy consumption 1,56 kWh/ km. The mileages were comparable to the benchmarking results of the other companies with BETs in use. Thus, the assumptions were verified by test drives. With the help of these findings, approx. 7.2 million km and 27,000 tours in six companies were now evaluated to show how many diesel trucks could be replaced by BETs. The lower (140 km) and upper (190 km) limits found were used to make a prediction of how many diesel trucks could be replaced by BETs. The results of the evaluation are depicted in figure 6. Due to the range restrictions, only 13 % of the tours can be driven with a BET, and in total only 5 out of 54 trucks can be completely replaced by a BET. It should be noted that the vehicles examined were already preselected by the companies, which assumed that they could be completely replaced by a vehicle with a range of at least 190 km. If a range of 400 km was consistently possible, 51 % of trips could be made with a BET. The analysis shows that in practice, BETs can currently only be used to a very limited extent. The figures given by the manufacturers are more than 34 % above the maximum possible ranges, and the consumption figures are also significantly higher. The real test drives on actual routes show that BETs are currently not an alternative to diesel (table 4). Real market battery prices (B1) To achieve a range of 400 km at a consumption of 1.54 kWh/ km, the battery must have a size of 616 kWh. An estimate of the battery costs was made based on a total of eight different sources [30]. The results were formed by linear interpolation of the mean values, considering the scatter [31]. In this way, the market price of a battery was calculated. In addition, various sources on the second life of the battery were analysed [32 to 40]. The battery’s residual value was determined in this way, which is essential for the TCO of a BET. The battery costs are expected to decrease significantly in 2035 based on the hope of radical technical improvements and innovations. These innovations are still under development, the assumptions are based on ex post reviews and therefore not exact predictions of the real future values. As table 5 shows, from 2040 onwards, the costs of the battery would have a significantly lower impact on the TCO due to its resale value. In this context, the TCO of a BET with 26 t TGW will be compared with different market offers so that the influence of the battery costs can be shown. Assuming that costs for employees and general overhead are equal, Figure 4: Recorded test drives - Berlin Figure 5: Recorded test drives - Germany SCIENCE & RESEARCH Decarbonizing International Transportation | Collection 2021 62 the TCO analysis boils down to a few factors that are determine the cost. First, all quotations considered had significantly higher purchasing prices than their diesel equivalents, namely two 26 t TGW trucks costing EUR 345,000 and EUR 335,000 respectively, as well as a quotation for a tractor unit being offered for EUR 307,000 [42, 43, 44] (table 6). Knowing the batteries share of the price for one of the quotations and considering table 5, it is sound to assume that the development of the purchasing prices is closely tied to the advancements in battery technology. In BET1 battery costs were responsible for 49 % of the total costs [42]. The second major driver of costs is ongoing costs for energy and maintenance. One of the manufacturers states the maintenance costs of a BET to be 20-% below that of a comparable diesel truck [46] (table 7). Energy costs are depending on the specific road driven, the weight carried and the energy price of the company. Due to this it is hard to compare these factors against diesel trucks. However, with 1,56 kWh/ km and a maximum auf 6 t payload the energy costs of the BETs are 20 % higher than a comparable truck with a payload of 10 t and more than 60 % higher than a truck with the same payload [11, 47, 48]. Due to this fixed costs and variable cost are significantly higher than comparable diesel trucks until 2040 this will not change. One of the major reasons for purchasing BETs is the lower CO 2 emissions. As shown above the TCO are three to four times higher. Using the energy consumption of 1,56 kWh/ km the results of the analysing the emissions are shown in figure 7. With 730 g/ km the CO 2 emissions of the BET are higher than the emissions of a 12 TGW diesel truck with a comparable payload. Compared to a diesel truck with 26 t TGW, the BET only emits 42g/ km less. This shows that BETs do not reduce TCO and they do not significantly reduce CO 2 emissions. Only with a different energy mix the CO 2 emissions will be lower, for example in Austria or Switzerland. As mentioned above, batteries need to provide energy for a range of 400 km to enable BETs to replace 51 % of tours, which is projected for 2030 in table 5. Whether this will lead to sufficient mileage to tip the TCO in favour of BETs will depend on the diesel and energy prices - how they will look nine years in the future cannot be predicted. Until battery technology has sufficiently developed, BETs depend on government subsidies or higher taxation of fossil fuels to be economically viable options for carriers. Cost of infrastructure (E2) Additionally, there are two more hurdles: To charge a BET in an acceptable time, fast charging stations and the electrical infrastructure to support them are additionally necessary investments. Adding to that, the capability of an industrial park’s local electric grid to support a larger number of battery-electric vehicles may become a returning point of debate with an increase in BETs - making further investments necessary. The additional investments had to make to drive with a BET, which leads to even more higher costs. Emissions of battery manufacturing (B3) A total of 15 literature sources were evaluated, and the average emissions per year were presented in table 8 [54-to 68]. CO 2 emissions and their equivalents were calculated on the basis of a 400 kWh battery. The emissions were then converted from kilograms to grams. An annual mileage of 50,000 km was assumed for a useful life of 4-years. By this, the emissions per km were calculated as follows: It shows that the emissions from battery production have decreased by more than 70 % since 2011, the effect on the total emissions are shrinking year by year. Data reviewed Results Trucks total reviewed 54 Total kilometres analysed 7,274,014 Total trips analysed 26,935 Average kilometres driven over 3 years per day per truck 239 Number of electrifiable tours 3,436 Electrifiable share of the analysed tours 13 % Trucks that can be completely replaced by an e-truck without intermediate charging 5 of 54 Table 4: Overview of test drives and electrifiable tours Year 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 kWh 616 616 616 616 616 EUR/ kWh 500 420 350 250 125 Total battery costs in EUR [41] 308,000 258,720 215,600 154,000 77,000 Driving Range with an energy consumption of 1,56 kWh/ km 400 400 400 400 400 Residual value after reaching the 80 % capacity limit in % 0 % 10 % 20 % 50 % 80 % Residual value after reaching the 80 % capacity limit 0 25,872 43,120 77,000 61,600 Table 5: Projected development of battery cost and performance Mercedes Actros 2545 LL BET 1 (26t TGW) BET 2 (26t TGW) BET 3 (Tractor) 110,000 EUR 345,000 EUR 335,000 EUR 307,000 EUR Table 6: Purchasing prices of BETs vs. diesel truck [45] Figure 6: Figure 3 with added data from test drives in Berlin and Germany Decarbonizing SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation | Collection 2021 63 Conclusion Summing up the results, major gaps in the current research were discovered: The lack of real driving-data, the lack of actual battery prices as well as the necessary investments in infrastructure, and the lack of consideration of the emissions of the battery production. The effect of temperature on the battery and energy consumption was identified as a gap in research, but the available data was insufficient to address this. A comparison of real driving data from the studies EMOLSE2020 and EN-WIN in Germany with technical data from manufacturers, and with reports from practice shows that BETs are currently still on the lower end of the range which is predict from manufacturers (figure 6). After analysing 26.935 tours in Berlin and Germany (table 4), only 13 % of those are considered for being driven with a BET. Hence, being on the lower end of the potential can be attributed to the limited potential, as batteries do not yet provide sufficient range to enable BETs to drive longer and consequentially more tours. BETs have significantly higher purchasing prices, which are to a large part a result of the expensive batteries and their significant decrease in resale value. Simultaneously, the battery’s limited capacity prevents the cost advantages of lower energy and maintenance costs to make a sufficient impact to neutralise the higher upfront investment. Additionally, the necessary investments in infrastructure are costly. This makes the advancements in battery technology, namely their cost, resale value and capacity, the primary constraint for the future viability of BETs as an economically sound alternative to diesel trucks. Projecting the development of prices and capacity as in table 5, sufficient ranges will be available in 2030, with the overall cost dropping sharply in 2040. 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[47] Taking into account 50.000 km range per year a 240 kWh battery an energy consumption of 1,56 kWh/ km and 25 l/ km with a energy consumption of 1,56 kWh/ km and 25 l/ km with an energy price per kWh of 18 Cent [46] an diesel costs of 96 Cent per litre [11] p. 285. [48] S. Wilke: Erneuerbare und konventionelle Stromerzeugung. Umweltbundesamt, Juli 18, 2013. www.umweltbundesamt.de/ daten/ energie/ erneuerbare-konventionelle-stromerzeugung (access Juni 21, 2021). [49] M. Stallmann: Bilanz 2019: CO₂-Emissionen pro Kilowattstunde Strom sinken weiter. Umweltbundesamt, Apr. 08, 2020. www.umweltbundesamt.de/ presse/ pressemitteilungen/ bilanz-2019-CO₂-emissionen-pro-kilowattstunde-strom (access Juni 21, 2021). [50] Taking into account the german energy mix 2020 with 468 CO₂ per kWh [48] and 3,15 g/ l diesel [49], [50], the 12 TGW was calculated with 18 l/ km the 18 TGW with 25 l/ km and the 26 TGW with 32,5 l/ km [10] p. 285. [51] M. Schmied, W. 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Philipp Knauf Research Assistant at the department of business at Hochschule Fulda - University of Applied Sciences philipp-edgar.knauf@w.hs-fulda.de Lou Coenen Proven International Business Leader and Adjunct University Lecturer. Sessional Lecturer and Unit Coordinator experience at post-graduate level at the department of business at Hochschule Fulda LouCoenen@outlook.com Jozo Acksteiner Prof. Dr. Professor for Business Administration, in particular logistics, at the department of business at Hochschule Fulda - University of Applied Sciences. Director of the integrated degree program Logistics Management (B.A.) jozo.acksteiner@w.hs-fulda.de Boris Zimmermann Prof. Dr. Professor for Business Administration, in particular logistics, at the department of business at Hochschule Fulda - University of Applied Sciences. 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