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Solutions to bridge the gap Mobility turnaround STRATEGIES Glasgow climate talks and the transport ambition BEST PRACTICE How digitalisation can change the game PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Modular, digital - thus fit for the future? SCIENCE & RESEARCH How to optimise means of transportation International Transportation www.international-transportation.com Collection | October 2022 Volume 74 Would you prefer to read Internationales Verkehrswesen and International Transportation on-screen? Symply switch your aktive subscription from printed copies to e-journals - it’s nothing but an e-mail to service@trialog.de Or select the electronic journal from the very start. Take more convenience: Your transportation journal is on-hand at any time - with your tablet, desktop, smartphone, … www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de/ abonnement Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft | Baiersbronn | service@trialog.de ePaper-EAZ_IV_TranCit.indd 3 ePaper-EAZ_IV_TranCit.indd 3 11.11.2018 18: 27: 05 11.11.2018 18: 27: 05 PROFESSIONAL EXPERTISE - ANYTIME IN YOUR POCKET International Transportation | Collection 2022 3 Ondřej Přibyl POINT OF VIEW Cooperative cities N owadays, with people moving into cities and increasing vehicle ownership, growing traffic congestion is an issue we face every day. Solutions, such as building new road infrastructure is not always possible, it is costly and clearly not the right way. Already in 1955, Lewis Mumford stated that “Adding car lanes to deal with traffic congestion is like loosening your belt to cure obesity.” This is very true and so the trend is in in the direction of traffic telematics, including also cooperative and automated vehicles (CAVs). There are many benefits people expect from introducing CAVs, for example improvement in safety, decrease of traffic congestions and travel times, decreased emissions, increased comfort and gained time for relaxation during traveling, decrease in social inequalities and many others. Is this however the case? Can we really expect such improvements? Just the fact that the vehicle drives by itself does not necessarily have a direct effect on the above-mentioned indicators. Yes, CAVs shall have positive impact on safety as they can eliminate human error, which, according to a Stanford Law School report, causes more than 90 % of all motor vehicle crashes. Similarly, automated vehicles will improve the effectivity of travel, since we will be able to work or relax while on route. It is also a clear fact, that automated vehicles allow new user groups such as elderly, or handicapped to use car as a main travel mode. But what about traffic congestions? Many studies actually demonstrated that introduction of automated vehicles can lead to an increase in vehicle miles travelled in the network (thanks to trips of empty vehicles or the fact, that new user groups can travel using a car) and even better load balancing can actually induce new traffic by making traveling by car more attractive. Clearly, these factors worsen not only the travel comfort but also lead to an increase in congestions. Most stakeholders nowadays are looking at improvements in the vehicles, clearly essential in order to have safe automated vehicles - a prerequisite to consider CAVs as an alternative travel mode. But even when we have the safe automated vehicles, the impact on the traffic flow depends on our integration into the existing traffic management. This was nicely demonstrated for example by a European project MAVEN (Managing Automated Vehicles Enhances Network). In this project partners from several countries examined integration of CAVs into urban traffic management. The use cases tested covered among others Green Light Optimal Speed Advisory (GLOSA), Lane change advisory, Local level routing (LLR), Cooperative sensing, and others. Traffic microscopic simulation was used to demonstrate impact of different penetration rates of automated vehicles, different traffic volumes and different network configurations on various aspects relate to characteristics of traffic flow, CO 2 emissions as well as safety. The results were in my perception really interesting. On one hand they showed that implementing of some of the use cases really can have an impact, for example on the produced emissions. The effect of load balancing through local level routing reaches up to almost 19 %, signal optimisation reduces CO 2 emissions by over 12 % and the speed advisory with novel queue length estimation algorithms over 10 %. So even without electrification of or fleet, reduction of the produced emissions can be achieved by better utilisation of CAVs. There is a long way to get to the full penetration of CAVs on our roads. However, the results show that already in a situation when only 20 % of the vehicles are cooperative, the speed advice and green wave implementations lead to decrease of delay by 9 %, decrease of queue length by 6 % or decrease of CO 2 by 4 %. My personal opinion is that CAVs will play an important role in the future (especially its cooperativeness). If we want this role to be positive, we need to adopt the way we manage traffic in cities. Also, we need the vehicles to be not only connected and automated, they should be also electrified and shared. An electric, automated vehicle sitting the whole day in a parking lot in front of my offices, just to drive me in the evening 20 minutes back home, does not change anything. Only if it can pick up other passengers during its idle time, it can really cause less vehicles in the streets or lower the demand for parking spaces. The needed changes though cannot depend just on our municipalities. I already mentioned that automated vehicles can actually increase the number of vehicle miles travelled. In that case, even more environmentally friendly engines increase the negative impact on the environment. To achieve real improvements, we need to start by ourselves and think about every mile we travel. Is it really necessary? And if so, do we need to take a car (automated or not) or can we use alternative travel mode such a bicycle or public transport? I hope we, as citizens, as well as the municipality representatives through their policies and urban design, will cooperate on making changes to improve the urban environment and make cities more liveable. Let us talk about such important topics for example during our next ETC congress organized by CTU and EPTS in May 2023 in Prague (scsp2023.fd.cvut.cz). Ondřej Přibyl, Prof. Ing. Ph.D. Dean, CTU Faculty of Transportation Sciences, Prague (CZ) International Transportation | Collection 2022 4 BEST PRACTICE 9 Charging infrastructure and-charging methods for electric buses Focus on the city of Shenzhen in China which has the world’s largest fully electric fleet of buses Elisabeth Gütl 12 Data as a force to shape future urban mobility Bridging the data divide to shape a just digital transformation for climate-friendly urban mobility Lena Plikat Frederic Tesfay 14 From trucks to tracks Promoting rail freight transport in emerging economies Friedel Sehlleier Tanya Mittal Xuan Ling Karen Martinez Lopez Deepak Baindur STRATEGIES 6 A three-point turn for climate ambition in transport Did climate talks in Glasgow steer the world towards a- paradigm shift? Daniel Bongardt Marion Vieweg Nadja Taeger Photo: Kelly Sikkema / Unsplash PAGE 6 Photo: Volvo Buses PAGE 9 International Transportation KNOWLEDGE AT A GLANCE Previously published issues of International Transportation Oct 2021: Changing the Game Oct 2020: Transforming Transport June 2019: Best practice May 2018: Urban Mobility May 2017: Managing Public Transport May 2016: Smarter on the move Oct 2015: Looking ahead May 2015: Urban transport international-transportation.com POINT OF VIEW 3 Cooperative cities Are cooperative and automated vehicles the best course of action? Ondřej Přibyl International Transportation | Collection 2022 5 CONTENT Collection 2022 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS SCIENCE & RESEARCH COLUMNS Photo: Nazarizal Mohammad / Unsplash PAGE 25 Photo: Erich Westendarp / pixabay PAGE 30 49 Forum Events 50 Editorial panels | Imprint 30 Generating robust dispatching solutions Taking into account block sections’ operational risk Ullrich Martin Markus Tideman Weiting Zhao 33 Transport policies - in- challenging times European Friedrich-List-Award 2022 and European Transport Congress 34 Models for optimizing parallel public transport services Between and within parallel domestic (long-distance and regional) public transport services András Lakatos 37 Design of transport infrastructure considering sustainability criteria in selected German regions Stefan Schomaker 39 Effects of travel time VMS on-urban traffic Attitudes to travel times displayed on variable message signs and effect on route choice Renáta Bordás 18 Bundling challenges in Hub-and-Spoke networks Focus on rail transport with a case of MegaHub in- Hannover- Lehrte Ralf Elbert Hongjun Wu 22 Modular platform concept for shunting locomotives Sustainable vehicle architectures for existing vehicles through modularity Julian Franzen Jannis Sinnemann Udo Pinders Walter Schreiber 25 CADMUSS - an innovative project to improve maritime safety Sönke Reise Carsten Hilgenfeld Diego Piedra-Garcia 28 Modern authentication solutions for fleet management Safe on the road thanks to driver identification and access-control Johannes Weil 42 Lightweight design of the Extended Market Wagon An innovative freight wagon developed in Fr8Rail 4, a-Europe’s Rail project David Krüger Christian Gomes Alves Nicolai Schmauder Mathilde Laporte Robert Winkler-Höhn Gerhard Kopp 46 Projects in a nutshell Overview of selected mobility research projects International Transportation | Collection 2022 6 STRATEGIES Climate change A three-point turn for climate ambition in transport Did climate talks in Glasgow steer the world towards a-paradigm shift? COP26, Climate Change, Glasgow, NDC The 26th Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP26) in Glasgow showed a number of new climate initiatives in the transport sector. In the run-up to COP26, a large number of countries made net-zero pledges, promising to reduce emissions to zero. However, a recent analysis of climate pledges by GIZ shows that key states continue to fall short in their mid-term transport sector goals. Though more countries have set sector targets, large emitters such as China, the US and India have yet to follow suit. 2022 is a crucial year for countries around the world to ramp up their climate ambition in transport. Daniel Bongardt, Marion Vieweg, Nadja Taeger O n 13 November 2021, 197 countries signed the Glasgow Climate Pact at the 26th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP26). In his closing speech, UN Secretary General António Guterres emphasised that current efforts are not enough, though he did note the presence of some “building blocks for progress” [1]. The Glasgow Climate Pact reaffirms that limiting global warming to 1.5 °C requires rapid, deep and sustained reductions in global greenhouse gas emissions. The world must lower global carbon dioxide emissions by 45 per cent by 2030 relative to 2010 levels and to net zero by around mid-century. Achieving those goals, he stressed, is a matter of life and death. Below we look at Guterres’s ‘building blocks for progress’ in the transport sector and argue that Glasgow just was the first step in a three-point turn. Overall national climate ambition is increasing, though it still falls short overall In the run-up to COP26, a large number of countries, subnational governments and companies made net-zero pledges, promising to reduce emissions to zero or fully compensate for remaining emissions by a specific date. The US and EU aim to hit net zero by 2050, China announced plans for carbon neutrality by 2060, and India declared its pledge to achieve net zero by 2070 during the UN climate talks. A total of 50 countries officially submitted their carbon neutrality targets to the UNFCCC in their long-term strategies (LTS) or as part of their new or updated ‘second generation’ nationally determined contributions (NDCs), as illustrated in figure 1. Another 26 countries announced net-zero targets in other ways, either at the COP26 Climate Ambition Summit or through national strategy documents and national legislation. The transport sector continues to-lag behind Transport remains one of the fastest growing sectors in terms of GHG emissions, with an increase of 17.2% between 2010 and 2019 globally [2]. At the current rate, the global carbon budget for the transport sector will be exhausted by the early 2030s, as shown in a recent study by the University of Technology in Sydney [3]. The sector is covered by economy-wide targets in many NDCs, but most are not yet supported by sectoral targets. Only 11 of the countries with netzero targets have submitted transport sector targets for 2050 in their LTS or second generation NDCs. Most set mid-term targets for 2030. 30 net-zero targets are supported by transport targets, as shown in figure 1. Setting ambitious longand mediumterm sector targets is essential to guide policy-making and to ensure the accountability of institutions and individuals. Setting targets can enable a wider public discussion about what needs to happen to decarbonise the sector, how this can help improve existing - and often disappointing - transport systems and what needs to be done to mitigate the adverse effects of climate measures. A - Out of 76 net-zero targets, 50 have been submitted in NDCs or LTS B - Out of 76 net-zero targets, 30 are backed by transport targets in NDCs or LTS 76 = political pledge* = Target in NDC = Target in LTS = Target in NDC & LTS 76 Figure 1: Net-zero pledges and transport targets in NDCs, LTS or elsewhere Source: Authors International Transportation | Collection 2022 7 Climate change STRATEGIES More transport sector targets, yet none from big emitters By 25 November 2021, 18 countries had set quantitative GHG emission targets for the transport sector. This equals 38 % of all second generation NDCs [4]. But those countries cover merely 3.6 % of global transport CO 2 emissions (2019). This is due to the fact that many of the countries that have set GHG emission targets for the transport sector in their second generation NDCs are very small, such as The Gambia, Belize and the Seychelles, and most are middleor lowincome countries. Though this is an improvement over the first round of NDCs, where only 21 % of NDCs contained GHG targets for the sector, it is far from enough. 34 countries set non-GHG emission targets for the sector in their second generation NDCs. These targets included specific goals for increasing the share of electric and other zero-emission vehicles, improving vehicle efficiency and enhancing the use of biofuels and other forms of renewable energy in transport. Such targets can be very useful, as they provide clear guidance for action. However, they fall short of enabling a comprehensive transformation of the sector. Most focus on improving vehicles instead of addressing the need to avoid travel and shift to more efficient modes of transport, such as public passenger transport or rail freight. So far, none of the large emitters have set GHG emission targets for the transport sector in their NDCs or LTS. Among them are countries with net-zero targets, like China, the EU, India and the US, which together represent 57 % of global transport CO 2 emissions. Japan, which represented around 2.8 % of global emissions from the sector in 2019, is an exception. Overall, 30 countries support their net-zero targets with midterm transport targets in their NDCs or with mediumand long-term transport targets in their LTS. Eight of these are EU member states. Existing transport targets mostly fall short of what is needed Current transport sector targets in LTS and second generation NDCs cover a wide range of ambition levels. Fiji, for example, aims to reduce domestic maritime emissions by 40 % by 2030, which represented around 6 % of the country’s total transport sector emissions in 2011, the most recent inventory year. Others, such as Bangladesh and Mauritius, have absolute emission targets or reduction targets that are below the baseline but that would still result in a continued substantial increase of emissions up to 2030 relative to current levels. Only a few midterm targets deliver actual reductions compared with current emission levels. For example, Japan aims to limit transport sector emissions to 146 Mt CO2e by 2030, a 35 % reduction below its transport emissions in 2013. However, it is essential that countries move from marginal reductions to systemic change and peak emissions in the sector as close as possible to 2030 if they are to achieve the stated carbon neutrality goals and objectives of the Paris Agreement. Doing so will require targets that trigger change and enable innovation and the redirection of funds towards cleaner and more sustainable transport solutions. More NDCs are reporting on adaptation in the transport sector The lack of effort to mitigate climate change will require enhanced adaptation efforts in the transport sector. Even with the enhanced reduction of greenhouse gases starting today, the current irrevocable temperature increase will require the adaptation of existing transport systems. The latest IPCC Assessment Report (AR6 6, 2021) underscores the urgency to act [5]. Current targets will product global heating with severe consequences. Extreme weather events are expected to increase in frequency and intensity as a consequence of climate change. Sea level rise, increasing temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns will pose a variety of challenges to transport systems, material and equipment and are likely to hit marginalised and vulnerable groups hardest. 42% of submitted NDCs now mention adaptation measures for the transport sector, compared with only 22% in the first generation and only 15% in submitted longterm strategies. Notably, 58% of second generation NDCs from low-income countries spell out adaptation measures for the transport sector, a sign of their vulnerability to climate change. Adaptation remains focused on transport infrastructure measures Around half of the adaptation areas mentioned in NDCs address infrastructure, especially roads, and technical solutions, such as improved flood protection and maintenance. 29% refer to the much-needed mainstreaming of adaptation in institutional and regulatory instruments, including setting the right legal frameworks, incorporating climate impacts and adaptation in planning and defining design standards that include adaptation needs. Many measures relating to infrastructure and transport systems state a desired outcome instead of a strategy for its achievement, as illustrated in figure 3. Goals such as “enhancing the resilience and climateproofing of critical infrastructure” or “climate proofing transport infrastructure” neglect to mention the legal frameworks, planning tools and design standards needed for their realisation and the risks and solutions that their planners must be aware of. It is essential that countries build resilient transport systems that will continue to function under increasing climate change pressures. Planners must be aware of the problems and have the tools and knowledge to address the challenges. National governments can support the work by collecting and distributing relevant information and by creating legislative frameworks that require the assessment of climate risks and adaptation solutions. Climate-smart transport planning today will save enormous costs from climate-change impacts tomorrow. Do the climate talks in Glasgow give reason for hope? More and more countries have announced net-zero emission targets. While these are essential for transport in the mid-term, the world has seen three important developments that are relevant for transport now. Together, they make up a three-point turn needed to transform the sector. Figure 2: Adaptation measures in NDCs Source: Authors International Transportation | Collection 2022 8 STRATEGIES Climate change New international transport initiatives to accelerate decarbonisation First, the UK COP26 Presidency has urged countries to enact voluntary commitments and coalitions of the willing. Fortunately, some countries have already pledged to take the lead and move faster to initiate change in the sector. After initiatives on deforestation and the phase-out of coal were launched in the first week of COP26, Transport Day (November 10th) saw the announcement of four ambitious transport coalitions: a. the Clydebank Declaration for Green Shipping Corridors, b. the International Aviation Climate Ambition Coalition, c. the Memorandum of Understanding on Zero-Emission Mediumand Heavy- Duty Vehicles, and d. the Declaration on Accelerating the Transition to 100% Zero-Emission Cars and Vans. Figure 3 shows the members of the above initiatives. Request for updated climate pledges by the end of 2022 Second, the Glasgow Climate Pact has responded to the current urgency by requesting that its signatories revisit and strengthen the 2030 targets in their NDCs by the end of 2022. Ramping up the ambition of national climate pledges before the next “official” cycle in 2025 is necessary so as not to lose valuable time. Updating the NDCs is a great opportunity to strengthen climate ambition in transport. China, for example, could outline transport emission peaking and reductions in its upcoming sectoral climate plans. At GIZ, we will track these pledges and continue to update our NDC and LTS database, the Tracker of Climate Strategies for Transport (https: / / changing-transport.org/ tracker/ ). A growing need for resilient transport systems Third, after hotly debating funding for creating more resilient infrastructure and services and for handling climate impacts, the Parties finally agreed to double the financial resources for adaptation and to start work on activities to avert, minimise and address loss and damage. These issues are essential for transport systems, which have already seen millions of euros worth of damage in extreme weather events such as flooding and storms. Transforming the transport sector cannot wait for COP27 Though Glasgow was not the big success that some had hoped for, it represents a starting point for more ambitious and accelerated climate action in transport. Right now, the transport sector is no longer moving in the wrong direction. But it has yet to turn itself around. More ambitious action is needed for both mitigation and adaptation. In the best case, Glasgow marks the start of a wider process of reform. Guterres concluded his speech with a famous saying by the Scottish writer Robert Louis Stevenson: “Don’t judge each day by the harvest you reap, but by the seeds that you plant.” We need a real paradigm shift in how we get from place to place. That is, we need transport systems for people, not vehicles. This requires the cessation of funding for high-carbon transport and a shift of investments to sustainable modes of transport and the phasing-out of internal combustion engines. It is imperative that the new German government take the lead and not only start transforming its own transport sector but also partner with other countries in a collective effort to achieve net-zero mobility. ■ REFERENCES [1] UNFCCC (2021): Secretary-General’s Statement on the Conclusion of the UN Climate Change Conference COP26. Online: https: / / unfccc.int/ news/ secretary-general-s-statement-on-the-conclusion-of-theun-climate-change-conference-cop26 (Access: 11.01.2022) [2] SLOCAT (2021): Transport Emissions. Online: https: / / tcc-gsr.com/ transport-demand/ transport-emissions/ (Access: 11.01.2022) [3] Teske, S.; Niklas, S.; Langdon, R. (2021): TUMI Transport Outlook 1.5°C - A global scenario to decarbonise transport. Online: https: / / outlook.transformative-mobility.org/ (Access: 11.01.2022) [4] GIZ, SLOCAT (2021): Transport in new Nationally Determined Contributions and Long-Term Strategies. Online: https: / / changing-transport.org/ publication/ transport-in-ndcs-and-lts/ (Access: 11.01.2022) [5] IPCC (2021): Sixth Assessment Report. Online: https: / / www.ipcc.ch/ report/ ar6/ wg1/ #FullReport (Access: 11.01.2022) Marion Vieweg Consultant, Current Future, Berlin (DE) marion.vieweg@current-future.org Nadja Taeger Advisor, G310 - Energie, Wasser, Verkehr, GIZ, Bonn (DE) nadja.taeger@giz.de Daniel Bongardt Programme Director Sustainable Transport and PtX, G310 - Energie, Wasser, Verkehr, GIZ, Bonn (DE) daniel.bongardt@giz.de Figure 3: COP26 statements and declarations on climate action in transport Source: GIZ International Transportation | Collection 2022 9 Charging infrastructure and-charging methods for electric buses Focus on the city of Shenzhen in China which has the world’s largest fully electric fleet of buses Electric bus fleet, Charging infrastructure, Shenzhen The movement towards a sustainable and greener future aims to transform the transport sector. Therefore, the public transportation sector is currently undergoing a major transition. In comparison to diesel buses, electric buses have a limited driving range and the charging process takes longer. However, they offer an improved environmental balance. Cities like Shenzhen provide an example on how to transform public transport with a fully electric bus fleet in operation. Elisabeth Gütl T he European Union’s Clean Vehicles Directive (CVD) sets ambitious goals and obliges member states of the EU to focus on the procurement of alternative initiatives in the public sector. Until 2025 many member states have committed to procuring at least 45 % of ‘clean’ buses in the vehicle category ‘M3’ (used for the carriage of passengers, having a maximum mass exceeding 5 tonnes). That means they are powered by sources such as electricity, hydrogen biofuels or natural gas. Half of them must be run with zero local emissions, thus they must be either powered by electricity or hydrogen. By the end of 2030 this percentage will increase to 65 % [1]. Hence many countries from the EU have focused their efforts on eliminating diesel buses and replace them with electric buses. But there are still obstacles to tackle. The Image: Volvo Buses Technology BEST PRACTICE International Transportation | Collection 2022 10 BEST PRACTICE Technology driving range of electric buses is lower than that of diesel busses and the recharging time is longer. Therefore, a suitable charging infrastructure is necessary and the right charging method needs to be taken into account [2]. Taking a closer look at possible charging methods it can be differentiated between AC or DC charging, inductive charging and battery swap stations [3]. AC or DC charging Looking at AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current) charging of electric buses the main distinction is between a normal power recharging point and a high power recharging point. A normal power recharging point allows a transfer power of less than or equal to 22 kW. A high power recharging point allows a transfer of electricity with a power of more than 22 kW [4]. For electric buses the charging power varies depending on the type of use and the charging strategy. Lower charging power is typically performed with overnight charging of electric buses. This means that, for a common battery size of electric buses, between 200 to 300 kWh [5], with a charging power of e.g. 50 kW, a 300 kWh battery can be charged in around 6 hours in a depot overnight. Higher charging power with up to 500 kW is usually performed by charging with a pantograph and can recharge the battery rapidly. A pantograph is an apparatus that collects power through contact with an overhead line either mounted on the roof of an electric bus or for example mounted on the roof of a bus station (see figure 1) [6]. Inductive charging Inductive charging is a contactless wireless technique that recharges electric vehicles and transmits power by electromagnetic induction [8]. Simply spoken it consists of two parts: the primary coil and the secondary coil. The primary coil (transmitter coil) can be, for example, imbedded in the street and the secondary coil (receiver coil) is on top of the electric bus. The working principle is like a transformer: power is transferred across an air gap without any mechanical contact [9]. Inductive charging can be carried out both stationary and dynamic, thus an electric vehicle can be also charged while it is in motion. Inductive charging offers many advantages. No human intervention is required for the charging process and there are no conductive losses because no conductive wires are used for charging. On the other hand inductive charging systems are still under development and setting up the infrastructure can be cost-prohibitive [10]. Battery swap stations Battery swap stations offer the advantage of replacing the whole battery with a recharged one. The battery change happens fully automated at battery swap stations and the battery can thus be replaced quickly en route [11]. One design solution to achieve an efficient battery swapping process is to produce electric buses with an integrated roof-top mounted battery exchange system. If the battery needs to be recharged the electric bus can utilise a battery swap station along its route and swap the fully automated battery in less than one minute [12]. Building up battery swap stations is expensive, however they offer the advantage to recharge empty batteries more flexibly, for example when electricity demand is low [13]. Shenzhen model Shenzhen is the first major city in the world that has managed to fully electrify buses in the public transport system. By the end of 2017 the entire bus fleet of about 17,000 buses in Shenzhen was fully electrified. Since the initial investment costs for a suitable charging infrastructure as well as the procurement cost of electric busses are rather high, Shenzhen adopted a new business model to tackle the challenging transformation (see figure 2) [14]. The parties involved in this newly adopted business model are the electric bus production company, a financial leasing company, the bus company, the charging facility operator and the government. A key point of the model is how the vehicle and battery are purchased separately. The electric bus produced by the electric bus production company is purchased by the financial leasing company, while the battery is purchased by the charging facility operator. After purchasing the electric bus, the financial leasing company leases the bus to the bus company for eight years. The charging facility operator is responsible for establishing the charging infrastructure, maintaining it and for the charging cost. To use this service, the bus company pays a maintenance service fee to the charging facility operator. The government subsidises the electric vehicles. [15]. Regarding the charging mode, several charging modes have been evaluated, in the end Shenzhen opted to go for large-scale DC fast charging stations. Most of the buses in Shenzhen’s public transport system have an operation distance of 190 kilometres per day. This means that they mainly need to recharge at night. [16]. Shenzhen opted to replace diesel buses for several reasons. Busses in public transport do frequently stop which means that diesel busses are not operating in their optimum operating point. Furthermore, diesel buses do emit more particles as for example gasoline-powered vehicles do. Therefore, electric busses contributed to a more liveable and environmentally-friendly city by improving the air quality in Shenzhen [17]. Figure 1: Charging with a pantograph [7] International Transportation | Collection 2022 11 Technology BEST PRACTICE Future prospect: Solid-state battery Up to now different types of lithium batteries are still the dominating type of batteries used in electric vehicles. Among them lithium-ion batteries are most commonly used since they are low in weight and offer a high energy storage potential. But the driving range is limited and the operating temperature has an impact on their performance and longevity of lithium-ion batteries [18]. Furthermore, lithium-ion batteries use liquid electrolyte, to allow the movement of ions between anode and cathode, which is flammable and therefore a safety hazard. Solid-state batteries replace liquid electrolyte by a solid electrolyte which is not flammable and hence leads to a safer vehicle operation [19]. Another notable benefit is the higher energy density and therefore a longer driving range since they can use a lithium metal anode. Currently solid-state batteries are still under research and challenges like cost effective manufacturing or finding the right type of electrolyte are still to be overcome to make them ready for mass market use [20]. Conclusion Transforming the public transport sector and replacing diesel buses by more environmentally-friendly electric buses is one measure to help prevent climate change. Building up the infrastructure and choosing the right charging method can be challenging. Shenzhen in China already underwent this transformation and shows an example on how to successfully reshape the public transport sector. Shenzhen adopted a new business model and opted for DC fast charging stations to recharge their electric buses. Although there are other approaches that can be considered, Shenzhen shows us one possible way forward on how to support public transportation electrification and this could have positive consequences for other cities in the future. ■ REFERENCES [1] Directive (EU) 2019/ 1161 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 amending Directive 2009/ 33/ EC on the promotion of clean and energy-efficient road transport vehicles. [2] Rogge, M.; Wollny, S.; Sauer, D. U. (2015): Fast Charging Battery Buses for the Electrification of Urban Public Transport—A Feasibility Study Focusing on Charging Infrastructure and Energy Storage Requirements. In: Energies 8(5), pp. 4587-4606 [3] Arif, S. M.; Lie, T. T.; Seet, B. C.; Ayyadi, S.; Jensen, K. (2021): Review of Electric Vehicle Technologies, Charging Methods, Standards and Optimization Techniques. In: Electronics 10, p. 16 [4] Directive 2014/ 94/ EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014 on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure, Article 2 (4) (5) [5] Gao, Z.; Lin, Z.; LaClair, T. J.; Liu, C.; Li, J.-M.; Birky, A. K.; Ward, J. (2017): Battery capacity and recharging needs for electric buses in city transit service. In: Energy 122, pp. 588-600 [6] Carrilero, I.; González, M.; Anseán, D.; Viera, J. C.; Chacón, J.; Pereirinha, P. G. (2018): Redesigning European Public Transport: Impact of New Battery Technologies in the Design of Electric Bus Fleets. In: Transportation Research Procedia 33, pp. 195-202 [7] Weiterführende Informationen und Kurzpapiere: www.umweltbundesamt.de/ themen/ verkehr-laerm/ klimaschutzim-verkehr [8] Nizam, B. (2013): Inductive Charging Technique. In: International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) 4, p. 4 [9] Griffith, P.; Bailey, J. R.; Simpson, D. (2008): Inductive Charging of Ultracapacitor Electric Bus. In: WEVJ 2(1), pp. 29-37 [10] Manurkar, S.; Satre, H.; Kolekar, B.; Patil, P.; Bailmare, S. (2020): Wireless charging of electric vehicle. In: International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) 7, p. 3 [11] Moon, J.; Kim, Y. J.; Cheong, T.; Song, S. H. (2020): Locating Battery Swapping Stations for a Smart e-Bus System. In: Sustainability 12(3), p. 1142 [12] Kim, J.; Song, I.; Choi, W. (2015): An Electric Bus with a Battery Exchange System. In: Energies 8(7), pp. 6806-6819 [13] Sun, B.; Sun, X.; Tsang, D. H.K.; Whitt, W. (2019): Optimal battery purchasing and charging strategy at electric vehicle battery swap stations. In: European Journal of Operational Research 279(2), pp. 524-539 [14] Berlin, A.; Zhang, X.; Chen, Y. (2020): Case Study: Electric buses in Shenzhen, China [15] Zhang, Q. (2019): Analysis of “Shenzhen Model” for New Energy Vehicle Promotion in Public Transportation. IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. In: Sci. 295, 5, p. 52048 [16] World Bank (2021): Electrification of Public Transport. A Case Study of the Shenzhen Bus Group. World Bank, Washington, DC [17] Lin, Y.; Zhang, K.; Shen, Z.-J. M.; Miao, L. (2019): Charging Network Planning for Electric Bus Cities: A Case Study of Shenzhen, China. Sustainability 11, pp. 17 [18] Iclodean, C.; Varga, B.; Burnete, N.; Cimerdean, D.; Jurchiş, B.: (2017): Comparison of Different Battery Types for Electric Vehicles. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. In: Sci. Eng. 252(1), p. 12058 [19] Kaufmann, T.; Thielmann, A.; Neef, C. (2021): Advanced technologies for industry. Product watch : Solid-state-lithium-ion-batteries for electric vehicles. European Commission, Brussels [20] Hatzell, K. B.; Zheng, Y. (2021): Prospects on large-scale manufacturing of solid state batteries. In: MRS Energy & Sustainability 8(1), pp. 33-39 Elisabeth Gütl, Dipl.-Ing. Project Manager, Great Wall Motor Austria R&D GmbH, Kottingbrunn (AT) elisabeth.guetl@gwm.at Figure 2: New business model of Shenzhen to electrify the public transport system [15] International Transportation | Collection 2022 12 Data as a force to shape future urban mobility Bridging the data divide to shape a just digital transformation for climate-friendly urban mobility Urban mobility, Data, Digital transformation, Data literacy The sheer volume of data collected has grown exponentially. But particularly in developing and emerging countries, major gaps in availability, quality and usability of data lead to a lack of significant resources necessary to face the complex urban challenges. The Transformative Urban Mobility Initiative (TUMI) - funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) - believes that for cities, data is a crucial enabler to make better as well as more informed decisions about sustainable mobility. With the development of an Urban Mobility Data Hub, TUMI is working together with its partners on making mobility data available for 40 cities in Africa, Latin America and Asia to shape the digital transformation of urban mobility in a climate-friendly way. Lena Plikat, Frederic Tesfay U rban development and transport are inseparably interconnected. Cities are growing rapidly, leading to overall growth in travel demand. Reaching a certain degree of saturation in industrialized countries, urban and transport development is progressing in other regions of the world with an enormous dynamism. Especially in developing and emerging countries unplanned urban growth is a challenge for achieving sustainable urban mobility. To shape future mobility in a climatefriendly way, it is crucial for cities to understand their complex mobility ecosystem. This is where data analysis and visualization play a key role, which is the only way to anticipate the need for mobility services at an Lagos, Nigeria. Image: GIZ BEST PRACTICE Urban mobility International Transportation | Collection 2022 13 Urban mobility BEST PRACTICE early stage and respond accordingly. Mobility data thus enable well-founded policy and investment decisions so that transport modes can be efficiently adopted and used. Gaps in coverage, quality, and usability of data Lately, the digital revolution has led to the fact that the accessibility of data has greatly increased, as well as how easy information can be spread. But developing and emerging countries are being left behind. Despite the value of public intent data, particularly in developing and emerging countries, gaps in their availability, quality, and usability persist. For example, 35 percent of the world’s largest cities and 92 per cent of the largest lowand middle-income cities do not have complete land use or transportation maps [1]. Conventional land use maps, which divide the earth’s surface into categories such as “forest”, “water” or “tundra”, often group urban areas into a single category - such as “urban” or “built-up” - and thus do not reflect the complexity of urban spaces. OpenStreetMap, a citizen generated geospatial application that relies on users to digitize the location of roads and other infrastructure, shows a clearly lower coverage in lower income countries. In India, only 21 percent of the road network had been digitized by 2015. Additionally, adaptation of technologies such as ground-based sensors, which can measure air pollution or climatic conditions, is still too limited to provide data at scale. [2] Detailed data on movement patterns and mobility offers exist partially, although timeliness remains particularly an issue with survey and census data. [3] In addition to this, it is often not accessible to decisionmakers. Often, cities lack the know-how on how to make use of this data and incorporate it into the practices of local governments. There is a lack of concrete, databased application examples to make the CO 2 reduction and scaling potential in this area tangible. What TUMI is doing to bridge the data divide Bridging the digital divide is a social and economic imperative. In cooperation with the Latin American Development Bank (CAF), TUMI is developing a virtual Mobility Data Hub, where open data relevant for urban and transport planning will be made accessible. A key component of the hub is the cooperation between TUMI and ETH Zurich. Developed by students at the university, high-resolution satellite data are being converted into a physical representation of the city with the help of artificial intelligence and thus made usable for decision-makers and planners in urban and mobility development. These data will be supplemented by mobility data from different sources (e. g. phone data, GTFS, GPS, LiDaR) to form a comprehensive data basis for integrated transportation and mobility planning. Another important data input will be the collection of gender-specific data, which is currently being collected in three African cities under TUMI’s Women Mobilize Women Initiative. TUMI is committed to highlighting socioeconomic and genderspecific data biases at an early stage. The final element will be to pilot the use case in three cities, putting the Data Hub to use. TUMI will work closely with three cities to assist in their mobility planning through the use of the data hub. We will jointly work to utilize the advantages of data driven city planning, transport development as well as digitization of information. This will test and improve the versatility of the tool just built. Further engagement with the tech world will be adopted with localized and innovative demonstration activities such as Hackathons or Design Thinking Workshops with the with local Stakeholders. If cities miss out on the digital revolution, they risk to lose in the transformation and adaptation to climate resilience in sustainable mobility. TUMI is seeking to build the future of qualified experts and decisionmakers to drive the change needed in every city. Improving digital literacy and providing relevant skills to the respective government employees to make data-based, sustainable decisions in the field of transportation and mobility planning is thereby key. Only if we make data available for all people, we can improve the quality of life in our cities and allow policy makers to make data-driven decisions in order to provide citizen with more efficient and sustainable mobility services for a more liveable, resilient and inclusive city. ■ Please get in contact with TUMI if you would like to hear more or get involved in this project: info@transformative-mobility.org REFERENCES [1] World Bank (2021): Sustainable Mobility: Policy Making for Data Sharing. Online: www.sum4all.org/ data/ files/ policymakingfor datasharing_pagebypage_030921.pdf (Accessed: Jan. 4, 2022). [2] Maron, M. (2015): How Complete is OpenStreetMap? Online: https: / / blog.mapbox.com/ how-complete-is-openstreetmap-7c369787af6e (Accessed: Jan. 4, 2022). [3] World Bank [2021]: World Development Report 2021. Online: https: / / wdr2021.worldbank.org/ the-report/ (Accessed: Jan. 6, 2022). Lena Plikat Junior Advisor, GIZ, Bonn (DE) lena.plikat@giz.de Frederic Tesfay Project Manager, GIZ, Bonn (DE) frederic.tesfay@giz.de TUMI AT A GLANCE The Transformative Urban Mobility Initiative (TUMI) is implemented by GIZ and funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). TUMI is the leading global implementation initiative on sustainable mobility, formed through the union of 11 prestigious partners. TUMI’s vision is thriving cities with enhanced economic, social and environmental performances in line with the New Urban Agenda, the Agenda 2030 and the Paris Agreement. TUMI is based on three pillars: innovation, knowledge, investment. Website: www.transformative-mobility.org Hoi An, Vietnam Image: GIZ International Transportation | Collection 2022 14 From trucks to tracks Promoting rail freight transport in emerging economies Emerging economies, Railway, Freight transport Freight rail is one of the most energy-efficient and least carbon-intensive way to transport goods. We look at the trends, goals, barriers and actions of selected emerging economies (India, China, Indonesia, Mexico) in this area. Is there government ambition and already progress for modal shifts from road? What is the role of climate protection and other policy objectives? Are barriers overcome with innovative approaches? Where does international technical cooperation come in all of this? And what common themes, patters or solutions emerge when comparing the country cases? Friedel Sehlleier, Tanya Mittal, Xuan Ling, Karen Martinez Lopez, Deepak Baindur R ailways are one of the most energy-efficient, safest, and least carbon-intensive- ways to- transport goods. As part of a balanced multimodal transport system, they support economic integration, competitiveness and trade. In most regions of the world, however, rail has either been losing market share to road freight over the past 10 to 20 years or has hardly changed, often despite government plans to shift more freight to rail. In Europe, a political renaissance for rail freight is underway, driven by the decarbonization agenda as well as by its resilient performance during the pandemic. Furthermore, shifting from road transport to rail or inland waterway is the most popular freight action in the national climate strategies submitted to the UNFCCC, according to the tracker of climate strategies for transport of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ) and the SLOCAT Partnership on Sustainable, Low Carbon Transport. This article illustrates key challenges and policy solutions in advancing intermodal freight transport, particularly in the context of emerging economies. The experiences of India, Mexico, China and Indonesia are reviewed in this regard. These countries cooperate with GIZ on strategies for greener freight transport and on putting their modal shift objectives into practice, with funding from the German government’s International Climate Initiative and from the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. The article highlights selected cooperation activities. China The Chinese government has strongly promoted the development of a multimodal freight transport system in recent years. A key element are the Multimodal Freight Transport Hubs (MFTH) that serve as connection between road, rail, rivers, sea and air. Railways are considered the backbone of the system in which other modes are integrated. They currently account for 9.5 % of all freight transport in China, compared to 74.5 % for road freight. A set of action plans provide the political foundation, including for example: the Source: GIZ BEST PRACTICE Rail Freight International Transportation | Collection 2022 15 Rail Freight BEST PRACTICE ‘Medium and Long-term Development Plan for the Logistics Industry (2014-2020)’, the ‘Action Plan for the Construction of Logistics Corridors (2016-2020)’, or the ‘National Logistics Hub Layout and Construction Plan’ etc. The latter was enacted in 2018 and aims to complete the construction of the multimodal transport system by the end of 2025. Advanced standardized intermodal facilities and equipment shall be widely used for mainline transport and regional distribution throughout China with a common set of rules and specifications, following the vision of “one single system” logistics. Up to 2022, over 40 MFTH have already been build (Figure 1). In addition, the railway infrastructure serving the hubs is advancing rapidly as the Ministry of Transportation along with other agencies supports over 100 port consolidation and transportation railroad projects. It is also reported that the service efficiency of the MFTH has been steadily improving through initiatives like express trains between certain hubs or double decker container trains. Moreover, multimodal transportation hubs are increasingly rich in service types and develop innovative intermodal solutions, e. g. rail-air connections for high-value goods. Multiple challenges remain however for developing the MFTH system. First, many constructions of the hubs and the transport networks are behind their planned schedule and thus the multimodal connectivity remains limited in many places. Second, there is a serious lack of multimodal transport operators who could integrate various transportation resources and assume full transportation responsibilities. Third, the exchange of information along the transport supply chain is far from seamless and efficient as a standard system could not yet be operationalised. There are many data islands. These further weaken the administration’s limited ability to evaluate the latest market dynamics and the MFTH’s service quality, or to plan further projects. To address the latter issue, the Sino-German Cooperation on ‘Low Carbon Transport’ project of GIZ China has supported the Transport Planning and Research Institute of MoT on a pilot project to “Establish & Implement an Evaluation System for MFTH Management in China”. Taking reference from international experience, it is designed to objectively evaluate the development status and service level of MFTH, to provide a scientific basis for the government’s decisions, to improve the service level of MFTH for enterprises, and eventually to promote China’s high-quality development of intermodal transport. The government is currently planning further action to establish an MFTH assessment system. Mexico Most of the Mexican rail services are freight-oriented. The network of 23,731 kilometers connects industry with ports and with the U.S. border. Less than 1 % is electrified. The main products transported by rail are corn, cement, containers and iron and steel for the automotive industry. Railways transport a significant 13.6 % share of freight in Mexico. They come third after road transport (56 %) and maritime transport (30 %), according to 2017 government figures which include international transports. Rail freight even slowly gained market share over the past three decades, yet it stagnated in recent years. The positive trend resulted from major rail reforms in the 1990s from a publicly run rail service to a rail system under private concessions, which made freight tariffs drop and boosted private investments in infrastructure and services. Mexico’s transport model, based on concessions, has favoured infrastructure development in the regions with the highest economic growth to the detriment of less developed areas. This, together with the lack of comprehensive long-term planning and criteria for the allocation of investment based on the needs of the population, has led in recent years to a disorderly growth of transport, deterioration of infrastructure and concentration on road transport as the main means of transport. There is an oligopoly of rail concessionaires who barely compete as they operate on separate corridors that are poorly connected. In addition, investments in infrastructure need a boost - basically no new tracks were built over the past two decades. To address underinvestment, the Mexican government launched an infrastructure development strategy 2020 to 2024 which includes a sectoral programme on transport. It aims to encourage the construction of railways for freight transport in areas with economic development potential to improve network connectivity in production centres and ports. In 2021, twenty-one passenger and freight rail projects were in different stages of development worth EUR 23 billion of investments, with many projects in the less developed Southeast. The strategy explicitly recognizes rail freight as an intervention that can cut CO 2 and air pollution and thus contribute to Mexico’s international climate goals. Mexico has pledged reduce a total of 48 Mt CO 2 eq by 2030 from the transportation sector. The NDC lack further details on freight sector action yet the need for a greener freight system is evident by the fact that close to 60 % of air pollutants in Mexico are caused by freight vehicles. To generate the conditions and incentives towards a multimodal freight market, the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources and the Ministry of the Communications, Infrastructure and Transportation cooperate with the GIZ Sustainable Transport Program in Mexico. The Ministry Figure 1: MFTH operation in China Source: UPS Figure 2: Bulk goods transport in Mexico Source: GIZ International Transportation | Collection 2022 16 BEST PRACTICE Rail Freight of Economy and the Railway Transport Regulatory Agency (ARTF) are also involved, especially for the development of regulations for quality infrastructure and good practices in the railway system. To highlight the benefits associated with rail, the National Private Transport Association and GIZ jointly developed a calculation tool for GHG emissions and air pollutants for freight transport. A pilot application of the tool for companies that use two major freight transport corridors from Mexico City to La Paz and to Mexicali demonstrated that road-rail intermodal transport emits about less 50 % CO 2 and around 30 % less air pollutants than road transport. With these results, the ANTP will promote modal shift to companies across Mexico. The tool also enables companies which already go intermodal to estimate their transport emissions and use the results for reporting and marketing. Mexico has committed internationally to reduce a total of 48 Mt CO 2 eq by 2030 from the transportation sector through its NDC. The NDC doesn’t contain further details on freight sector action, but the need for mitigation is evident by the fact that close to 60 % of air pollutants in Mexico are caused by freight vehicles. India The Indian Railways (IR) operates the 4th largest network in the world with 123,542 kilometres of tracks. By 2019, it had employed 1.3 million people becoming world’s eighth largest employer. About 9,146 freight trains runs daily on its network moving at a slow average speed of 24 kmph. Though, the rail freight traffic is increasing over the years, the sector is unable to uphold surge in freight share and facing a continuous decline since 1950 falling from 89 % to below 20 % of freight volume in 2020. Bulk cargo like coal, iron ore, cement, fertilizers and food grains make up 90 % of the transported commodities. Freight transport remains the major revenue earner for IR, at 64 % during FY19. The profits are used to cross-subsidise the passenger segment. Why shippers in India increasingly prefer road over rail-based transport can be seen from figure 3. The market perceives railways as too slow, too expensive, less reliable, and not well connected to other transport systems. The Government of India (GoI) aims to reverse the trend. India’s institution for policy planning Niti Aayog targets a freight modal share of 45 % by 2030. To achieve this, the GoI has substantially increased the annual capital expenditure for increasing rail capacity and improving rail infrastructure to EUR 625 billion by 2030 (which is 4- times the level in 2014). On top of that, India wants a 100 % electrified network of broad-gauge railway by the end of 2023 - and is on track to achieve that goal. To identify priority projects, IR announced the National Rail Plan (NRP) in 2020. It aims to create capacity that would accommodate growing traffic demand, and to increase efficiency and profitability of IR. Part of the plan are dedicated freight corridors with higher carrying capacity and speed that shall be constructed with private investments with fully electrified double stack container facilities. Building on the NRP, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry launched the GatiShakti National Masterplan for Multimodal Connectivity in October 2021. The masterplan has a huge EUR 1.2 trillion budget and is designed to integrate and coordinate the infrastructure projects of 18 ministries to break departmental silos, integrate various transportation modes and address issues relating to last mile and multi-modal connectivity. More recently, in December 2021, the Ministry of Railways came out with the “GatiShakti Multi-Modal Cargo Terminal” policy, aiming to establish 100 new terminals within three years. A National Logistics Policy is also under preparation, targeting to cut logistic costs from 14 % to 10 % of GDP. The Green Freight India Project by GIZ is assisting the Ministry of Commerce and Industry and logistics actors to make these plans work. It delivers knowhow on how multimodal logistical infrastructure is governed in Germany and in Europe, and it supports government initiatives with a potential to save CO 2 emissions from freight transport in India. One specific area of cooperation is the revitalization of Roll-on Roll-off (Ro-Ro) services where whole trucks are loaded on rail wagons and thereby achieve savings in travel time, truck maintenance costs and emissions. A pre-feasibility study for potential corridors for starting Ro-Ro services found that their currently limited commercial viability could be improved with dis- 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% Challenges Weightage Erstellt von: Seite 5 Low level of reliability Improper location of intermodal terminals Lack of door to door facility by single party Poor connectivity by road Lots of documentation and formalities Multiple handling High waiting time for full load No schedule for train to start High freight rates Poor availability of rakes/ wagons Freight tariffs not flexible Low technological skill in loading/ unloading High stoppage time during journey High waiting time at signals Less storage space Figure 3: Challenges in Rail Freight Movement Source: Stakeholder Survey by Tanya Mittal, 2020 Figure 4: Rail loading dock in Indonesia Source: GIZ International Transportation | Collection 2022 17 Rail Freight BEST PRACTICE counted haulage rates. Additional recommendations relate to designing Ro-Ro wagons that can handle larger trucks, to developing suitable facilities in terminals, to choosing rail link routes with spare capacity, or to involve private operators in traffic consolidation and service delivery. Another project milestone is the launch of online ‘Freight GHG Calculator’ which shippers, operators and logistic service providers can use for calculating and comparing total cost of transportation and GHG emissions between various modes of transport for a fixed Origin-Destination pair. IR is using the calculator to award its freight customers with ‘rail green points’ which they can use for PR purposes, and to raise awareness of rail’s environmental benefit. Indonesia Indonesia is another regional giant in Asia, home to more than 270 million people and a per capita GDP of USD 4,292 in 2021. Railways are used for goods transport on the main islands Java and Sumatra which are both economic production centres and geographically large enough for railways to make sense. Indonesia’s railways transported 53 million tonnes of goods in 2021, 10 % up from the previous year. Freight transportation has become a lifeline for the business of the country’s rail operator PT Kereta Api Indonesia amid the Covid-19 pandemic. Coal has historically been the dominant commodity, accounting for about 75 % of the volume and mainly on Sumatra. The rail-based transport of containers, cement and fuel products has also grown significantly, yet at a lower level and predominant on Java. The Ministry of Transportation plans to boost rail freight. Since 2018, the Ministry’s Railway Masterplan aims for a modal share 11 to 13 % of the total national freight market or 534 million tonnes by 2030. This would be a 10-fold growth from today’s volume. In addition, the National Logistics System Policy as well as Indonesia’s NDC Roadmap endorse rail freight as a strategy to strengthen logistics performance and to mitigate transport CO 2 emissions. However, the path to multiplying rail freight in Indonesia is filled with challenges. In the private sector, there is low interest to undertake rail infrastructure projects because intermodal rail freight is perceived as unattractive by logistics industry players. Rail freight transport has low demand for several reasons, including high costs and low quality of service - e.g. low frequency of trains, long transit or waiting times, and multiple handling risks (see Figure 4). There are also only very few rail freight service providers and thus a lack of business innovation and of tariffs that can compete with trucking services. The root cause of the low competitiveness of rail freight compared to trucks is the lack of adequate infrastructure. This means substantial investment is required to make rail competitive with road transport. However, for Java Island, the government’s priority programmes in the next five years will focus more on developing passenger transportation. Considerably less budget has been allocated for rail freight projects such as connections between ports and the railway system. Despite the ambitious modal shift target, strong political drive and a clear action plan are not yet in place. Because of these challenges, potential investors remain cautious. The GIZ TRANSfer project used its funding from the German government’s international climate initiative to lead a three-year dialogue with the Ministry of Transportation, the railway operator, other government agencies and the logistics industry with a view to address the challenges. In the process, the Ministry introduced simplified licensing requirement for multimodal transport operators and included several port-rail connection projects in its 2020 to 2025 Five-year-plan and in the government’s list of infrastructure projects of strategic priority. The government also issued Presidential Regulations in 2019, 2021 and 2022 to support rail port integration and rail sidings to industrial areas in various provinces of Java. Nonetheless, the various projects seem to be stuck in the pipeline, with little progress in planning or implementation. To mobilise momentum and financial resources from international development banks, GIZ has proposed to bundle the various project under the umbrella of a rail-port connectivity investment programme. The idea is to adopt a unified approach in project planning and preparation, and especially funding and financing, while still recognising the individuality of each project. The programmatic approach aims at achieving larger scale impacts and creating an opportunity for donor agencies to invest additional and focused funding. Conclusion The four case studies signal a positive outlook for rail freight in emerging economies. Governments recognise the role of rail in an integrated multimodal transport system and have set ambitious goals for rail freight. The modal shift policies are motivated by a desire to develop efficient national logistics systems that strengthen competitiveness and economic development. Furthermore, the various strategies recognise railways as a relieve for congestion, accidents, air pollution as well as growing transport CO 2 emissions. Significant public investments in rail and terminal infrastructures have been planned in all four country cases. Not least since the pandemic, freight transport has become a lifeline for the domestic railway operators. Impacts from the policies and investments will take years to materialize. The choice for rail will remain challenged by a multitude of factors such as the perception and demand by shippers, by the alignment of various policies and actions, or by the level of competition between transport modes. Infrastructure expansion is critical for success but must be complemented by an enabling environment for multimodal service providers, by investments in the monitoring of freight data and in policy evaluation, by a fair regime of taxes, incentives and subsidies for different transport modes, and by digitalisation and innovation. All this requires a sufficient set of decision-makers in each country who are committed to support the rail freight agenda. International cooperation helps to strengthen their capacity in developing effective policies and projects. ■ Xuan Ling Senior Technical Advisor, Sino-German Cooperation on Low Carbon Transport, GIZ, Beijing (CN) Xuan.Ling@giz.de Karen Martinez Lopez Technical Advisor, Sustainable Transport Programm, GIZ, Mexico City (MX) karen.martinez@giz.de Tanya Mittal Junior Transport and Infrastructure Advisor, Climate Friendly Freight Transport in India Project, GIZ, New Delhi (IN) Tanya.Mittal@giz.de Friedel Sehlleier Advisor G310 - Energie, Wasser, Verkehr, GIZ Bonn (DE) friedel.sehlleier@giz.de Deepak Baindur Deputy Project Manager, Climate Friendly Freight Transport in India Project, GIZ, New Delhi (IN) deepak.baindur@giz.de International Transportation | Collection 2022 18 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Logistics Bundling challenges in Hub-and-Spoke networks Focus on rail transport with a case of MegaHub in-Hannover-Lehrte Hub-and-Spoke, Intermodal transport, Rail-Rail transshipment A typical implementation of the Hub-and-Spoke (HS) structure in the rail system is the new rail-rail transshipment terminal, which facilitates the rapid and simultaneous transfer between different traffic flows. Based on literature and focus group interviews, this paper identifies the bundled tasks involved in implementing the HS structure at network and terminal levels and analyzes the potential challenges in terminal operations. Ralf Elbert, Hongjun Wu S hifting freight transport from road to rail and intermodal road-rail transport is an ambitious goal of the European Commission to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector [1]. In this context, Hub-and- Spoke (HS) system has been identified as an efficient way to attract low-volume demands over short distances [2], where the cargos for different origin-destination (OD) pairs could be consolidated to a large and longhaul train in a hub to realize transportation scale economies [3, 4, 5]. A sophisticated bundling between different traffic flows is required to enable the operation of such a complex system and ensure the efficient use of resources [6]. However, it is not an easy task to complete the overall bundling of all relevant traffic flows. In this paper, we will discuss the potential challenges in the bundling tasks of HS structure around a rail-rail and road-rail transshipment terminal, which enables the implementation of the HS structure in a rail system. As a result, we propose answering the following two questions: •• What bundling decisions are involved in- the implementation of the HS structure? •• What are the challenges in operating the rail transshipment terminal? To answer these two questions, this paper will systematically summarize the bundling-related decision problems based on a literature review, and will analyze the challenges in terminal operations of Mega- Hub in Hannover-Lehrte, a typical application of the rail transshipment terminal with hub function, through a focus group interview. Flow bundling around rail transshipment terminals In general, bundling refers to the process of combining traffic flows from different relations into a common train by sharing a part of the journey [7]. It usually happens in 3 basic network structures as illustrated in Figure 1: Line network, feeder/ fork network, and Hub-and-Spoke network [8]. Here in the line network and feeder network, the partly overlapped traffic flows and the traffic flows from the same origin region or to the same destination region, are bundled together in the overlapping paths [9]. In comparison, the center hub connects all directions with long-haul and large-capacity direct trains, each train loads the LU for different destinations and exchanges them with trains to other directions at the hub-[10]. The rail transshipment terminal is a critical connecting point on the rail network, it serves as a central hub connecting the traffic flows in different directions [9, 11]. Distinct from the traditional shunting systems with a hump or flat shunting yard, rail transshipment terminals consist of several parallel tracks to stop trains with loading units (i.e., containers, swap bodies, and semi-trailers) of different destinations, these loading units (LUs) could be transferred to their designated positions of next carrier by sorting facilities, i.e., gantry cranes and shuttle vehicles [6, 8]. According to the involved carriers for LU exchange, the rail transshipment terminals could be divided into rail-rail transshipment terminals and intermodal road-rail transshipment terminals [11]. The former refers to a new rapid transshipment in which the bundled traffic flows (trains) simultaneously appear at the terminal, this operation is also known as pulses or train bundles [6]. Most LUs move directly between trains without intermediate stacking (Figure 2a), so the transfer process could be sped up from one day to a few hours [10]. While most traffic flows via a road-rail transshipment terminal are bundled indirectly as shown in Figure 2b. It means that the exchange process between some traffic flows requires the participation of another subsystem such as the storage system [3] [7], this process always leads to an increasing path and time of movement [12, 13]. The direct exchange only appears when the bundled trucks are waiting at the truck lanes beside the specific container to be operated [8, 11]. Bundling planning on Hub-and- Spoke structure To identify the decision problems related to the planning process for the traffic flow bundling on the HS network and in hubs mentioned previously, a systematic literature review was conducted in the Science Direct and Scopus databases using the search strings (Hub-and-Spoke OR Transshipment) AND (rail OR railway OR intermodal transport). The review results were summarized at the network level and terminal levels. International Transportation | Collection 2022 19 Logistics PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Network-level bundling refers to the process of temporal and quantitative bundling of transportation services to ensure cargo flows arrive at their destination on time [7]. This process is always related to the topic “service network design problem (SNDP),” that is, optimally assigning transport services to bundles and optimally assigning cargo flows to services [5]. In many articles, the second step is referred to as a “multi-commodity flow problem” or a “cargo routing problem” [14]. Because there have been very few studies of the SNDP on Huband-Spoke (HS) networks focusing on railrail transshipment, while the majority have focused on liner shipping and combined transport, which could also be applied to the rail network because both have fixed schedules and capacities, the literature, including liner shipping, are also summarized in this section. Time and cost were the main decision factors in the assignment problem, so the minimization of total transit time [15] or total cost (can be transferred from maximization of profit) [2, 16] of LUs was the main optimization objective used in the literature. Some literature used a penalty and discount to describe late and early arrival [17, 18, 19], while some literature decided to cancel the order or increase carriers in the case of overcapacity [5]. The mode of transportation involved heavily influenced the decision strategy. The schedule and capacity of trains were always fixed and served as a hard constraint [15], while truck capacity has been commonly assumed to be unlimited [20], i. e., a truck is always available for an additional service due to its high flexibility, constantly a train is difficult to respond to uncertainties. At the terminal level, the trains via a railrail transshipment terminal have to be assigned to bundle slots of inbound and outbound flows to reduce split moves and revisits, it refers to another topic “transshipment yard scheduling problem” [12]. The number of the vertical and horizontal movements of sorting facilities could also be transferred to a minimization function of cranes’ total processing time [13]. This process was typically constrained by the terminal’s tracks and sorting capacity [12, 13]. Container delays were also considered, with all trains departing according to the fixed schedule and the delayed containers being required to wait at the terminal and be re-assigned to the train in the next circle [12]. Furthermore, reducing the total handling time by optimizing the movement path of LUs is also a trend in the studies for rail transshipment terminals [11]. This process refers to a series of decision problems such as: Determining the positions on outbound trains; assigning the operation area of cranes; determining the handling sequence [13]. Whereas most containers at road-rail transshipments terminal are handled in two spilt moves as shown in Figure 2b [11]. Reducing the handling time in the storage subsystem and increasing the direct move between trucks and trains were usually discussed, which in many studies related to “storage location decision” and “parking position assignment problem” for trucks and trains [11, 13]. Challenges in practical case: MegaHub in Lehrte MegaHub terminal is the first rail-rail transshipment terminal in Germany, which serves as an intermodal terminal for combined road-rail transport at the same time. It was already planned in the 1990s but officially became operational to the public in April 2021 [10]. MegaHub roles as a typical center hub in the Hub-and-Spoke network. As illustrated in Figure 3, five direct train bundles have been in operation via Mega- Hub in Lehrte until the end of 2021 [10, 21]. Each inbound direct train loaded the loading units (LUs) for different destinations and has been operated with a fixed circulation schedule and a fixed number of wagons. The trains meet at MegaHub only in a short bundle slot for LUs’ exchange [21]. A part of the LUs stays on trains and the remainder of the LUs must be transferred to other trains or trucks at MegaHub via semi-automated gantry cranes and Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs). To identify potential challenges in the actual operations of the MegaHub, we investigated the actual and expected operational conditions of MegaHub using a focus group interview. It was held at the Mega- Hub in Lehrte on May 2021 with MegaHub’s relevant stakeholders, including the terminal operator, the intermodal operator Kombiverkehr and Kombiconsult, and the railway undertaking DB Cargo. The group interview lasted 6 hours and was attended by 3 researchers and 8 invited interview participants with expert knowledge of rail freight transport operations, handling processes, and operations data of the MegaHub. During the group interview, we gained a comprehensive understanding of operational processes and actual operations data in 2021 of the MegaHub from different participants’ perspectives. Some unclear information from the group interviews was clarified via follow-up communication with the participants. After the data collection, we analyzed and summarized the data from the perspectives of flow bundling on the HS network and in the hub and concluded the challenges in the actual operation of the MegaHub as follows. Line network Feeder network Hub-and-spoke network Flow of mixed destination Figure 1: 3 forms of traffic flow bundling on the network All figures by the authors Traffic flow A Traffic flow B TTrraaffffiicc ffllooww AA Traffic flow B Additional subsystem and transport cycle (split move) a. Direct bundling b. Indirect bundling direct move Figure 2: Direct and indirect bundling of traffic flow in hubs International Transportation | Collection 2022 20 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Logistics a. Rail-Road transshipment remains dominant Between 04-12/ 2021, a total of 1,855 trains drove to and from the MegaHub for LU exchanges, involving about 20,000 loading units. Approximately 40% of the LUs were shipped to the bundled terminal without transshipment. Two-thirds of transshipment flows were moved between trains and trucks, with rail-rail transshipment accounting for only one-third. Figure 4 depicts the proportional relationship between these three traffic flows. In terms of data, the MegaHub served more combined road-rail transport in 2021. The role of the central hub function in the rail network was not as significant as expected. This situation is related to the current route planning of trains via Mega- Hub. Intermodal operators stated that bundled trains would be more attractive to customers if they have a shorter transit time or a higher service frequency. However, improving the route of bundled trains remains a challenge. b. Imbalance of inbound and outbound flow Figure 5 depicts the proportionality of inbound and outbound traffic flow in the various bundles. There are apparent differences between inbound and outbound flows in different directions. In connection with Figure 3, an interesting finding about this assignment strategy is that the flow imbalance is more significant for the train bundles with distance imbalance of involved two journeys. The traffic volume between the MegaHub and Verona is more than three times the traffic volume between the MegaHub and Kiel, while the distance between the hub and Verona is about five times the distance to Kiel. Direct trains maintain near-full occupancy over the extra-long distance, lowering the average transportation cost along this section significantly. However, for the relatively short journey, much empty occupancy results in capacity waste and increased average transportation costs. The trade-off between these two parts remains a significant challenge for the flow allocation decision on a rail-based HS network. c. Relative low punctuality The delay problem in German rail freight transport is not new. In 2020, DB Cargo achieved a punctuality rate of 77.6 percent in Germany [22], whereas the punctuality of 5 train bundles via MegaHub is around 60 percent on average in 2021 and varies significantly by direction. The punctuality of direct trains between MegaHub and Rotterdam (and v.v.) is over 85 percent, but only Duisburg MegaHub in Hannover-Lehrte Lübeck Kiel München Verona Rotterdam Lovosice Ludwigshafen Scandinavia Hamburg Figure 3: Train bundles on MegaHub (up to the end of 2021) 41% 20% 39% 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 Loading units Rail-Road transshipment Rail-Rail transshipment No transshipment Figure 4: Composition of loading unit flow operated on MegaHub in 2021 Duisburg DUSS Lübeck Skandinavienkai Hamburg Billwerder München Riem Kiel Verona Interterminal Ludwigshafen KTL Lübeck CTL Rotterdam Europoort Lovosice M e g a H u b 0 5000 Loading units Figure 5: Inbound and outbound flow for different train bundles via the MegaHub (04-12/ 2021) International Transportation | Collection 2022 21 Logistics PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS around 30 percent between MegaHub and Lübeck Skandinavienkai (and v.v.). Delays can be caused by various factors, including technical failures, constructions, roadblocks, staff shortages, and delays caused by previous delays. Due to critical delays, simultaneous train arrivals are frequently impossible, implying that planned connections are no longer available. In such cases, arriving trains must choose between two scenarios: waiting, which causes further delays, and departing on time, which causes container backlogs at the hubs. d. Semi-automated sorting system MegaHub’s sorting system consists of semiautomated gantry cranes and AGVs between inbound and outbound tracks, with an annual transshipment capacity of 269,000 LUs [23]. Most LUs were directly handled by cranes and AGVs, and some stacking positions also stand in the crane’s operating area for temporary parking. This sorting system is supported by a special operation control system, which aims to minimize energy consumption and wear. It directs AGVs to automatically deliver LUs to the designated wagon, avoiding unnecessary crane movement, and optimizing the operation path and brake process between crane positions to achieve energy efficiency. However, the position selection decision is completed by crane drivers, this operation control system only provides suggestions of open positions for handling. Conclusion Through the literature-based and realworld case studies, we found that the bundling on a rail-based Hub-and-Spoke network revolves around two main points: synchronization and traffic imbalance. The trains on the HS network need to arrive at the hub as synchronized as possible, and the transshipment must be completed in a short time, which puts more pressure on the schedule bundling and the sorting process, as well as makes the trains being more sensitive to time delays. Nevertheless, the amount of rail freight demand varies from region to region, how to balance overloads and empty loads in bundles, and how to stimulate the switch from road to rail remains a challenge. ■ LITERATURE [1] European Commission (2020): Sustainable & smart mobility strategy. [2] Bell, M. G.H.; Liu, X.; Rioult, J.; Angeloudis, P. (2013): A cost-based maritime container assignment model. In: Transportation Research Part B: Methodological 58, pp. 58-70. [3] Alicke, K. (2005): Modeling and optimization of the intermodal terminal Mega Hub. In: Günther, H. O. (Ed.): Container terminals and automated transport systems. Logistics control issues and quantitative decision support. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 307-323. [4] Boysen, N.; Fliedner, M.; Kellner, M. (2010): Determining fixed crane areas in rail-rail transshipment yards. In: Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review 46 (6), pp. 1005-1016. [5] Lium, A.-G.; Crainic, T. G.; Wallace, S. W. (2009): A Study of Demand Stochasticity in Service Network Design. In: Transportation Science 43 (2), pp. 144-157. [6] Boysen, N.; Jaehn, F.; Pesch, E. (2011): Scheduling Freight Trains in Rail-Rail Transshipment Yards. In Transportation Science 45 (2), pp. 199-211. [7] Hu, Q.; Corman, F.; Lodewijks, G. (2015): A Review of Intermodal Rail Freight Bundling Operations. In: Corman, F.; Voß, S.; Negenborn, R. R. (Eds.): Computational Logistics, vol. 9335. Cham: Springer International Publishing (Lecture Notes in Computer Science), pp. 451-463. [8] Kreutzberger, E.; Konings, R. (2016): The challenge of appropriate hub terminal and hub-and-spoke network development for seaports and intermodal rail transport in Europe. In: Research in Transportation Business & Management 19, pp. 83-96. [9] Rupp, J.; Boysen, N.; Briskorn, D. (2022): Optimizing consolidation processes in hubs: The hub-arrival-departure problem. In: European Journal of Operational Research, 298(3), pp. 1051-1066. [10] Kombiverkehr (2022). Transport system MegaHub Hannover Lehrte. Kombiverkehr. https: / / www.kombiverkehr.de/ en/ transport/ megaflexible/ [11] Boysen, Nils; Fliedner, Malte; Jaehn, Florian; Pesch, Erwin (2013): A Survey on Container Processing in Railway Yards. In Transportation Science 47 (3), pp. 312-329. [12] Boysen, N.; Jaehn, Florian; Pesch, Erwin (2012): New bounds and algorithms for the transshipment yard scheduling problem. In: J Sched 15 (4), pp. 499-511. - Fedtke, S.; Boysen, N. (2017): A comparison of different container sorting systems in modern rail-rail transshipment yards. In: Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies 82, pp. 63-87. [13] Cichenski, M.; Jaehn, F.; Pawlak, G.; Pesch, E.; Singh, G.; Blazewicz, J. (2017): An integrated model for the transshipment yard scheduling problem. In: J Sched 20 (1), pp. 57-65. [14] Elbert, R.; Müller, J. P.; Rentschler, J. (2020): Tactical network planning and design in multimodal transportation - A systematic literature review. In: Research in Transportation Business & Management 35, p. 100462. [15] Andersen, J.; Crainic, T. G.; Christiansen, M.: (2009): Service network design with management and coordination of multiple fleets. In: European Journal of Operational Research 193 (2), pp. 377-389. [16] Koza, D. F. (2019): Liner shipping service scheduling and cargo allocation. In: European Journal of Operational Research 275 (3), pp. 897-915. [17] Balakrishnan, A.; Karsten, C. V. (2017): Container shipping service selection and cargo routing with transshipment limits. In: European Journal of Operational Research 263 (2), pp. 652-663. [18] Müller, J. P.; Elbert, R.; Emde, S. (2021): Integrating vehicle routing into intermodal service network design with stochastic transit times. In: EURO Journal on Transportation and Logistics 10, p. 100046. [19] Trivella, A.; Corman, F.; Koza, D. F.; Pisinger, D. (2021): The multi-commodity network flow problem with soft transit time constraints: Application to liner shipping. In: Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review 150, p. 102342. [20] Paias, A.; Ruthmair, M.; Voß, S. (Eds.) (2016): Service and Transfer Selection for Freights in a Synchromodal Network. 7th international conference, ICCL. Lisbon, Portugal, September 7-9. Cham, Switzerland: Springer (Computational logistics). [21] DB Cargo (2021). Was gibt es Neues im MegaHub Lehrte? www. dbcargo.com/ rail-de-de/ logistik-news/ offiziell-im-dienst-megahub-lehrte-6349114 [22] DB (2021). Punctuality. Integrated Interim Report 2021. https: / / zbir. deutschebahn.com/ 2021/ en/ interim-group-management-report/ product-quality-and-digitalization/ punctuality [23] DB AG (2022). We load freight quietly and energy-efficiently. DB. https: / / gruen.deutschebahn.com/ en/ measures/ megahub Ralf Elbert, Prof. Dr. Professor, Chair of Management and Logistics, TU Darmstadt (DE) elbert@log.tu-darmstadt.de Hongjun Wu, M.Sc. Research Associate, Chair of Management and Logistics, TU Darmstadt (DE) wu@log.tu-darmstadt.de Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft | Schliffkopfstrasse 22 | D-72270 Baiersbronn Tel.: +49 7449 91386.36 | Fax: +49 7449 91386.37 | office@trialog.de | www.trialog-publishers.de Let’s keep in touch editorsdesk@international-transportation.com advertising@international-transportation.com International Transportation | Collection 2022 22 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Technology Modular platform concept for shunting locomotives Sustainable vehicle architectures for existing vehicles through modularity Shunting, Modularity, Vehicle platform, Rail freight, Sustainability, Efficiency Rail freight vehicles are long-lived and enormously varied. This applies especially to shunting locomotives. Shunting locomotives on the market have an interwoven and interface-rich architecture. On the other hand, there is the discussion about cost efficiency and sustainability. This paper therefore presents a modular platform concept for the sustainable modernization of vehicles. Julian Franzen, Jannis Sinnemann, Udo Pinders, Walter Schreiber R ail transport is seen as the key to sustainable freight transport. Nevertheless, diesel-powered vehicles are predominantly used for shunting and the last mile. The vehicles used for this purpose are put under economic constraints due to tight budgets and the need for economy. As a result, life cycle cost optimization and digitalization approaches are more and more increasing. Innovations are gradually finding their way into research and the market, although mainly for new vehicles. Following on from current sustainability discussions, sustainable and green traction concepts for shunting vehicles are also coming into focus. While green traction technologies are currently not available in a market-ready solution, they are potentially available in a few years. In summary, maintainability, digitalization and sustainability of shunting vehicles will be the key boundary conditions for vehicle architectures in the coming years. State of the art and current challenges There are various types of shunting vehicles with two to four axles, depending on the intended use. All different types have the same basic structure. In principle, the structure of a locomotive can be divided into the running gear (wheelsets, bogies, brake components), the vehicle frame with buffers and the superstructures. The superstructures include the drive train, the brake frame, the auxiliary equipment, the driver’s cab and control components [1]. Currently, the development of shunting vehicles is mostly based on function fulfillment, i.e. the provision of traction to fulfill the transport task. The results are vehicle architectures with interwoven, complicated and interface-rich arrangements of vehicle components. This fact has a negative impact on the maintainability of the vehicle because it results in high workloads and therefore in financial expenses as well as downtimes. At the same time, there are many variants of vehicles in stock. This diversity results from different vehicle configurations delivered by the manufacturer and replacements made during maintenance and modernization. Due to the long life of shunting locomotives, modernizations of existing vehicles are often advantageous from a commercial point of view compared to the acquisition of new vehicles, resulting in the existence of further modernized variants [2]. From the point of view of maintainability, the large number of variants, which is favored by inadequate documentation of modifications, means that maintenance work has the character of a single project and economies of scale cannot be exploited. Furthermore, shunting vehicles have hardly been digitally integrated into value chains to date [3]. Due to the diversity of the individual vehicles (even of the same series), digitalization efforts, e.g. IoT solutions for component monitoring, have a high individual project character and are accordingly not scalable. Moreover, methods, e.g. for predicting component states, are based on reference data. This data cannot be provided due to the lack of data availability and thus prevent the application of such methods. Typically, shunting vehicles are currently equipped with diesel engines. Even if railway-specific engines comply with emission limits, alternative forms of traction are increasingly attracting the interest of operators [2]. With current vehicle architectures, the integration of modern diesel engines represents a common modernization at reasonable cost. Alternative topologies based on accumulators, fuel cells or the combustion of hydrogen in diesel engines cannot be integrated into existing vehicles, or only at unacceptable expense, due to completely different operational and spatial requirements. The state of the art, outlined for vehicle architectures of existing vehicles, is therefore not open to overarching concepts that consider maintainability, digitization and sustainability. Modularity as an enabler The previously mentioned challenges result in new requirements for vehicle architectures of both existing and new vehicles. Due to changing operational and legal requirements, the flexibility of vehicle architectures is becoming more important. A further challenge for the cost-efficient, sustainable operation and maintenance of an existing vehicle is the management of the diversity of variants. Only when vehicles become comparable from a maintenance perspective, economies of scale can be activated to save costs and increase benefits. In this context, the methodical modularization of the vehicle structure represents a promising approach. Rail vehicles are complex technical systems consisting of many components with interdependencies. By definition, the concept of modularity addresses the state of a system in which dependencies International Transportation | Collection 2022 23 Technology PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS between the individual components of a system are kept low and component interactions take place via unified interfaces [4]. This can be seen as the opposite of the current state of the art for structures of existing shunting vehicles. Figure 1 shows the methodical modularization of the locomotive structure to create an open vehicle platform. Starting from a target system (e. g. a shunting locomotive that has to be modernized due to its age), modularization is carried out in compliance with the usual process specifications (RAMS, CSM-VO according to EU/ 402/ 2013, DIN EN 50126 ff.) to ensure functional safety by first identifying the essential (safety relevant) functions of the target system (e.g. providing traction). Based on these, individual functions are identified in the next development step that are necessary to fulfill the main functions (e. g., increasing the motor speed, filling the flow transmission, controlling the traction motors, etc. to provide traction). The preparation of the overall structure is done with respect to modularity by forming assemblies, which in turn may consist of one or more components and are used to perform a single function. These assemblies are separated from one another in terms of mechanics, energy and signaling, and are connected to one another by defined interfaces. Thus, assemblies can be subjected separately to a safety assessment to promote interchangeability within the framework of the modular principle. The overall system architecture finally results from the arrangement of the assemblies on the vehicle, considering safety, approval and operation requirements. If the project is successfully implemented, approved and tested, the concept is standardized and becomes part of the standardized vehicle platform. The existing vehicle platform is the starting point for the realization of individual customer requirements, which are integrated into the existing standard. This can involve replacing individual components and assemblies (e. g. the engine module with a different performance class) or adding (software) modules to implement individual safety and non-safety-related functions. In addition, the modular architecture allows to implement alternative drive topologies within an acceptable cost framework thanks to economies of scale. However, the core of the implementation remains the approvable standard of the platform locomotive. Realization and advantages of the platform locomotive The Westfälische Lokomotiv-Fabrik Reuschling applies the modular vehicle platform for the modernization of dieselhydraulic shunting vehicles. In the process, the vehicle structure of an existing vehicle is designed in the course of updating the technical structure from the point of view of a modular standard. Figure 2 shows the model of an existing modernization standard for the LHB 530C series. As can be seen from the model, there is a consistent separation of the most important components and assemblies of the superstructure in separate frames and carriages. This achieves a flexibility that not only affects maintainability, as explained in more detail in the following section, but also operational processes. For example, hoods that are easy to dismantle can significantly reduce the complexity of the transport of shunting locomotives to operating locations by road, because the vehicle does not have an oversize body. In this way, costs can be reduced and processes be streamlined. The use of the modular principle to realize individual customer requirements affects not only the design but also the control unit of the vehicle. The control and software architecture of the platform locomotive is also modular in design, so that once modules have been replaced or substituted, there is no need to go through a complete software approval process; instead, all that is required is an examination of the module involved, its interfaces and the impact on the overall system. Vehicle structures based on the modular principle have many advantages. These are presented below in more detail but not exhaustive for the aspects of maintainability, digitization and alternative drives. Maintainability Mechanically, the use of quick-release fasteners to attach the individual modules to the vehicle frame and the storage of components on slides greatly accelerates maintainability and interchangeability. Due to the modular design and better accessibility, times for troubleshooting can be significantly reduced. In extreme cases, modules can be exchanged with identical ones. As a result, downtimes and costs are reduced because disassembly activities, waiting times for services or components are reduced and operational capability can be restored more quickly. An example of mounting a compressor on a carriage for simplified maintainability is shown in figure- 3. By pulling the carriage out, the component can, in contrast to current state of the art architectures, be quickly and easily maintained. The concept also allows procurement to be extended to related, e.g. automotive, suppliers. For example, truck engines of suitable performance classes can be used as part of the platform concept, with exhaust gas standards, lower procurement prices and times, larger quantities, and a highly available maintenance network. Overall, life cycle Figure 1: Procedure for modularization and creation of a standardized vehicle platform Figure 2: CAD drawing of a shunting locomotive modernized according to the modular concept (LHB 530C) International Transportation | Collection 2022 24 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Technology costs can thus be consistently reduced in the realization phase, but especially during use and maintenance. Digitalization As shunting vehicles are increasingly integrated into the operator’s IT infrastructure, the vehicles require appropriate infrastructure and connectivity. The IT infrastructure on vehicles ranges from simple localization sensors (GPS) to decentralized computing capacities for data evaluation, for example for condition monitoring. Furthermore, a decentralized control periphery is implemented on the vehicle. This means that modules are connected to the central control unit via a common link, e.g. Profinet, and components are not wired separately, as it was previously the case. This means that only one instead of several signal cables are required per module, which reduces the amount of cabling, required space and potential errors e.g. due to line damage. Lastly, data availability is guaranteed and the flexibility of the data infrastructure on the vehicle is ensured in order to make replacements or extensions, e.g. for the application of artificial intelligence methods. Sustainability As described previously, the vehicle platform allows drive trains to be considered with a large degree of freedom. Currently, diesel-hydraulic drives are predominantly implemented for shunting vehicles. Using advanced engine technology, these are characterized by reduced emissions and lower consumption (up to 50 % fuel savings compared to existing engines) with the same or higher performance. In the near future, as shown by initial feasibility studies conducted by numerous operators, alternative drive technologies will additionally influence the decision-making space in modernization projects of shunting vehicles. While alternative combustion drives, e.g. gas engines, can be integrated into existing standards due to their similarity to existing solutions, the challenge for green hydrogen-based drives is much more challenging due to storage and refueling. Accordingly, different powertrains can be expected due to different energy conversion processes with different spatial as well as safety requirements. While it does not seem realistic to integrate hydrogen-based drive solutions into state-of-the-art vehicle bodies, the platform concept provides a suitable basis for the realization of such concepts. However, due to the long decision-making cycles, it is important to prepare architectures for corresponding solutions now. Conclusion To date, the concept described for modularizing the vehicle architecture has been implemented for ten shunting locomotives and further vehicles are currently being retrofitted. Modularization of vehicle architectures is also regularly used in some cases, e.g., for remotorization. Observations and experience gained in practice have confirmed the advantages of modularity for maintainability. In the area of digitalization, the decentralized and modular control architecture provides a resilient basis for vehicle control and diagnostics. In addition, it has already been possible to implement sophisticated digitalization projects using the platform concept (see e. g. a3-Lok [5] and RangierTerminal 4.0 [6]). The integration of alternative drive technologies will most clearly shape the further development of the platform concept in the coming years, especially for existing vehicles. The combination of different sustainable energy supplies on the vehicle (hydrogen combustion, fuel cell, battery) in conjunction with their respective novelty poses technical problems for the platform concept on the one hand, because fundamentally different boundary conditions exist with regard to spatial arrangements, interactions and signal and material flows. Apart from the technical functionality, the legal, social and economic constraints of alternative drive technologies also determine the design of a sustainable vehicle platform. Even if the first pilot applications for very limited use cases will appear in the near future, the development of a marketable vehicle platform for sustainable drive topologies will initially be in the focus of research and development due to the issues to be solved. Nevertheless, Westfälische Lokomotiv-Fabrik Reuschling considers the development of a suitable platform concept to be without alternative for seriously achieving sustainability and zero emission targets. ■ LITERATURE [1] Janicki, J.; Reinhard, H.; Rüffer, M. (2020): Schienenfahrzeugtechnik. [2] Höft, U. (2016): Mehr Güter auf die Schiene, aber wie? Ansätze und Vorschläge zur Attraktivitätssteigerung des Schienengüterverkehrs. Gutachten für die Fraktion Bündnis 90/ Die Grünen im Deutschen Bundestag. [3] Müller, S.; Lobig, A.; Liedtke, G. (2016): Chancen und Barrieren für Innovationen im deutschen Schienengüterverkehr: Eine innovationstheoretische Perspektive. In: Zeitschrift für Verkehrswissenschaft 87 (3), S. 177-206. [4] Magee, C.; Weck, O. (2004): Complex System Classification. In: INCOSE International Symposium 14 (1), S. 471-488. [5] Geischberger, J.; Falgenhauer, R.; Hanisch, R.; Franzen, J.; Grunwald, A. (2021): RangierTerminal4.0: Automatisiertes Rangieren im JadeWeserPort . In: Der Eisenbahningenieur 12/ 2021, S. 43-46. [6] Franzen, J.; Lingen, M.; Pinders, U.; Kuhlenkötter, B. (2019): Reduction of system-level lifecycle costs through movement-based operation adjustment for railway vehicles. In: Proceedings of the 12th World Conference on Railway Research. Figure 3: Better accessibility of components e.g. by mounting on slides for better troubleshooting and maintainability Jannis Sinnemann, Dr.-Ing. Innovation Manager, Westfälische Lokomotiv-Fabrik Reuschling GmbH & Co. KG, Hattingen (DE) j.sinnemann@reuschling.de Udo Pinders, Dipl.-Ing. Dipl.-Wirt.-Ing. CEO and Shareholder, Westfälische Lokomotiv-Fabrik Reuschling GmbH & Co. KG, Hattingen (DE) u.pinders@reuschling.de Julian Franzen, Dr.-Ing. Head of Innovation, Westfälische Lokomotiv-Fabrik Reuschling GmbH & Co. KG, Hattingen (DE) j.franzen@reuschling.de Walter Schreiber, Dipl.-Ing. Management Board and Shareholder, Westfälische Lokomotiv-Fabrik Reuschling GmbH & Co. KG, Hattingen (DE) w.schreiber@reuschling.de International Transportation | Collection 2022 25 CADMUSS - an innovative project to improve maritime safety Collision prevention, Safety, Maritime transport chains, Ship encounters The evaluation of a (maritime) traffic situation requires sound training and professional experience. Decisions can be made based on this training and experience. (Partially) autonomous ships must be trained or require generalized algorithms to react appropriately in any situation. The goal is for vessels to be able to determine the technical manoeuvring distance and the required personal perceived safety distance. Sönke Reise, Carsten Hilgenfeld, Diego Piedra-Garcia A utonomous or semi-autonomous vehicles require a wide range of technical support systems with corresponding software in order to navigate safely in traffic. In the case of manually controlled vehicles, humans take over many of these tasks. One of these tasks is the situation-dependent assessment of safety distances to other vehicles. In motor vehicle traffic, this assessment depends, among other things, on the driving speed, the skill and experience of the driver as well as other circumstances such as the condition of the road and weather conditions. It is easy to see that the “safe” distance can vary greatly from case to case. The CADMUSS project focuses on this topic in the maritime environment. It is intended to make a contribution to collision prevention and thus to increasing the safety of maritime transport chains. International shipping is at the beginning of an epochal change. In addition to moving away from fossil fuels, ships will operate more autonomously in the future. This means that, in addition to the human judgement of the ship’s command, technical and digital systems for assessing a hazardous situation will also play a prominent role. This article aims to highlight the CADMUSS project and the associated scientific and practical significance and relevance for maritime decision-makers. Initial situation and project objectives Several thousand maritime accidents occur each year [1]. In many cases, groundings or contact with infrastructure or other floating objects in the water are relatively inconsequential. In the case of contact with other ships, on the other hand, great damage to the ship and crew can occur. In 2020, 49 major ships were lost as a result of maritime accidents [2]. The causes of these accidents are varied and often there is not just one single reason that led to the accident, but rather a chain of causes. Reconstructing the course of events leading to the accident is just as important in the maritime industry as it is for all other modes of transport and serves to identify who caused the accident and clarify the question of liability. This makes it all the more important to reduce accidents at sea and to develop suitable assistance systems for this purpose. To assess the risk of a possible accident, two distances must be evaluated. Image: Hulki O. Tabak / Unsplash Technology PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS International Transportation | Collection 2022 26 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Technology The first is the minimum technical distance. This describes the minimum distance that ships must be away from each other in order to avoid a collision while taking the best possible accident-prevention course of action. If the distance is less than this, a collision is possible due to the manoeuvring characteristics of the ships (including stopping distance and course keeping inertia). In other words, if the minimum technical distance is not achieved, ships could collide if the ship’s command makes the wrong decisions. In the area of a port entrance, two ships regularly pass each other at a small distance without touching, as the ship’s command behaves in accordance with the traffic regulations. Theoretically, however, a collision would be possible by changing course within the minimum technical distance. The second is the “comfort distance”, which is determined by the subjective sense of safety of the ships command and depends, among other things, on the type of ship, the sailing speed and the weather conditions. The responsible ship’s command will endeavor to keep clear of other vessels as necessary as possible and not allow them to encroach on the comfort distance. If another vessel is within the comfort distance, this triggers extra caution and manoeuvring readiness on the part of the ship’s command on duty. Without doubt, the knowledge of these distances and the recognition of them is of outstanding importance for the development of assistance systems. This is the overarching goal of the CADMUSS project (Collision Avoidance Domain-Method Used by Ships and aShore). Specifically, CADMUSS aims to generate models for calculating the minimum technical safety distance of ships [3]. In addition, the personal safety distance (comfort distance) of the ship’s command is to be determined as a function of the weather conditions and the type of ship. These two safety distances are to be integrated in the form of a demonstrator both in shipboard operations, but also on land-based VTS (Maritime Traffic Safety) and in web applications. As an additional challenge, not only a 2D but also a 3D safety zone will be investigated. While the 2D safety zone represents a bird’s eye view, the 3D part will include the depth profile and the underwater hull. The project has Polish and German partners from science and industry: •• Gdynia Maritime University [PL]. •• Gdansk University of Technology [PL] •• Navsim Technology [PL] and •• FleetMon | JAKOTA Cruise Systems [DE] •• Wismar University [DE] •• IN-Innovative Navigation GmbH [DE] Project structure The project has been ongoing since September 2020 and is scheduled for completion in autumn 2023. The processing is divided into nine work packages. In the first step, relevant scenarios and collision avoidance strategies are evaluated by means of expert interviews. From this, the requirements for the user interfaces, which are still to be developed, and for the user experience are to be compiled. Based on this, the most extensive part, the development of a 2D ship domain concept, is undertaken. “Ship domain” stands for the immediate area around a ship. For this purpose, the academic project partners develop concepts for the comfort zone and the maneuver zone. With these results - based on historical data - a data model can then be created whereby the question of data provision must not be neglected. In any case, relevant data include AIS position data, weather data, static and dynamic ship data as well as information on the respective location with regard to possible traffic separation areas, maximum draught and maximum speed. In addition to the data provision, data interfaces have to be defined. In order for the tool to be versatile, applications and interfaces to the ships and the traffic control centres have to be created and questions of system architecture have to be answered. After that, the development of a 3D model can begin, which, unlike the 2D model, takes into account the underwater hull and thus also the vertical ship movements as a result of the sailing speed and the swell. In the further course, ship-to-ship encounters are simulated in order to be able to determine the dimensions of the safety areas. The simulations are performed for a predefined set of controlled variables and boundary conditions. For example, the loading and stability conditions of the ship, weather conditions, bathymetric profile of the area (nature and structure of the seabed) and type of evasive manoeuvres. For this purpose, the most advanced numerical model of ship dynamics is used. As a result, a wide range of the ship safety area is calculated for a set of input parameters. Safety models can then be developed. The ship-based safety model provides the ship’s command with an operational decision-making tool. Based on this model, a modified type can be generated that can be used on shore by traffic control centers and web applications. After an evaluation of the previous results by the project partners and the comparison between the on-board, land-based and web-based demonstrator, further seabased and land-based parts are to be integrated. This will then involve the dynamisation of the areas, since, as mentioned at the beginning, these are among other things depending on the vessel speed. In addition, the model must provide a user interface that promises a positive user experience with the integration of the 2D and 3D models. Finally, applicability studies are foreseen to turn the demonstrator into a marketable product to improve maritime safety. Figure 1: Methodology for recording and assessing risk in ship encounters [4] Figure 2: Visualization of the maneuvering zone of a fictitious ship [1] International Transportation | Collection 2022 27 Technology PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Findings to date Assessment of the safety of ship encounters Ships encounter each other on a daily basis, and the narrower the waters, the shorter the distances between them. This can be well observed in Europe in the Kadet Trench and the Fehmarn Belt. The challenge in the project is to use data - and not personal observation of the situation - to record and evaluate the respective situation. Figure 1 shows the basic procedure for assessing the safety of ship encounters. In a first step, all relevant data about the focussed ship, the ships in its (immediate) vicinity have to be collected with regard to static and dynamic ship and sailing data. In addition, environmental data (wind, visibility, water depth, ...) also play a role. In a further step, a situation picture of the situation must be created from this data. It should be noted that this situation is dynamic, i.e. it changes continuously and can become more critical or less critical. This is relevant for the situational analysis required in the third step. As a result of this situational analysis, a yes or no decision must be made as to whether the risk of a collision is acceptable (because ships in the close range are not currently on a collision course) or unacceptable (because a collision is likely). If the algorithm, which has not yet been defined, comes to the conclusion that there is a risk and that this risk is not acceptable, possible manoeuvres must be examined and evaluated, as a result of which the best and most suitable manoeuvre is initiated in the final step. Further challenges in assessing a situation occur because the expected minimum passing distances and the time until this distance is reached change with every second. Furthermore, this data does not allow a reference to the (necessary) manoeuvre space and the actual time remaining for a manoeuvre. Therefore it needs to be combined with other data. At this point, the two distances already mentioned must then be considered more in detail, with a further challenge in the subjectively assessed “comfort zone”. Development of the 2D Ship Domain Concept Taking into account the findings from the expert surveys, the various aforementioned data sources, it is possible to develop and implement a draft calculation algorithm for maneuver zones. An example of this can be seen in figure 2. This model was then used with data from a known real ship to verify the algorithm. The result is shown in figure 3. The results shown in figure 2 and figure 3 were generated using SIMDAT, a simulation software specially developed by ISSIMS GmbH (HSW). It should be noted that the zones shown in figures 2 and 3 appear static, but these are highly variable and dynamic depending on the ship parameters and environmental conditions (e. g. wind direction and strength), increasing the complexity of the calculations. Procedure and interim conclusion In the next steps, an extensive demonstration and experimental environment is set up to simulate and test the influences of different variables. Furthermore, this serves the development of the safety modules for ship and shore side. In addition, the 2D model is extended by the 3D model, which is based on the vertical ship movements as a result of the sailing speed and the wave motion. The ambitious project shows first successes. It could be shown that it is technically possible to process tens of thousands of objects in less than 50 milliseconds and thus to make a meaningful decision as to whether a ship is running on a collision course in the close range. The 2D Ship Domain concept has proven to be applicable and consequently the definition of the comfort and manoeuvring zone. ■ The CADMUSS project is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy within the funding announcement “MarTERA ERA-NET COFUND” [5] and is supervised by Project Management Jülich (PtJ). LITERATURE [1] JAKOTA Cruise Systems, 2021. Online available: www.fleetmon.com/ maritime-news/ [2] Alliance, 2021. Online available: www.agcs.allianz.com/ news-andinsights/ news/ safety-shipping-review-2021-press-de.html [3] JAKOTA Cruise Systems, 2021. Online available: www.cadmuss.tech [4] Wismar University of Applied Sciences, internal CADMUSS project presentation, 2021. [5] Project Management Jülich, 2021. Online available: www.martera.eu Carsten Hilgenfeld, Dr. FleetMon | JAKOTA Cruise Systems GmbH, Rostock (DE) hilgenfeld@fleetmon.com Diego Piedra-Garcia FleetMon | JAKOTA Cruise Systems GmbH, Rostock (DE) piedra@fleetmon.com Sönke Reise, Prof. Dr. Professor for Transport and Logistics, Wismar University of Applied Sciences, Rostock (DE) soenke.reise@hs-wismar.de Figure 3: Visualization of the maneuvering zone of a RoPax ferry [4] International Transportation | Collection 2022 28 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Software Modern authentication solutions for fleet management Safe on the road thanks to driver identification and access-control Authentication solution, Fleet management, User authentication, Access control, Driver identification Protect people, data and vehicles and optimize costs and processes while keeping an eye on regulatory compliance: vehicle fleet operators face a number of requirements. Modern authentication solutions based on radio frequency identification (RFID) and mobile technologies for driver identification and access control help to meet these challenges. They can significantly improve the utility of telematics and other fleet management solutions. To make the implementation a success, there are important aspects to consider. Johannes Weil W hether it’s a tradesman’s business, a logistics group, a transport company or a municipality, numerous companies, organizations and public institutions depend on their fleets running as smoothly, safely and cost-effectively as possible. Accordingly, demand and supply are growing steadily in terms of hardware and software solutions for optimizing fleet management. According to estimates, the total market volume for such intelligent fleet management solutions will be around 500-billion euros 1 by 2025. Telematics and other fleet management solutions offer a wide range of functions to support fleet managers. For example, they help managers view vehicle positions and routes in real time. This facilitates planning and makes it possible to give employees direct feedback on their driving behavior. In addition, managers can easily monitor whether operating times and regulations are being adhered to. To exploit the potential of such fleet management solutions, it is important to know who is behind which wheel. In addition, it must be ensured that only authorized persons who have the necessary qualifications use the company vehicles. This calls for an intelligent authentication solution that can be linked to telematics systems. It not only allows unique driver identification, but also enables reliable access control, while protecting the drivers’ personal data at all times (figure 1). Reliable authentication with RFID and mobile technologies A modern authentication solution based on RFID or digital credentials, also called mobile credentials, is ideally suited for fleet management. A simple and inexpensive option for implementing user authentication and access control is a badge equipped with an RFID tag, which most employees already carry in the form of an ID card. When the card is held up to the reader, the identification process is automatic and the authorized driver is given immediate access to the vehicle. It is also possible to use digital credentials based on NFC (Near Field Communication) or BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) technologies, with which a large proportion of all mobile devices such as smartphones are equipped. The readers required for the authentication process are installed in the dashboard; either they are already integrated on site, or they can be easily retrofitted. Figure 1: For fleet managers it is important to know who is behind which wheel. Image: Elatec / Shutterstock International Transportation | Collection 2022 29 Software PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Benefits for fleet management: Improve safety, transparency and efficiency For the operation and management of a fleet of vehicles, modern authentication solutions offer a number of advantages. Security Access control with a authentication solution increases the level of security. It protects against theft and misuse - both in terms of data and the valuable fleet vehicles. The risk of traffic hazards, personal injury and vehicle damage is significantly reduced. This is because only authorized drivers who have the necessary qualifications, such as the appropriate driver’s license, are given access to fleet vehicles with their ID card. Authorizations can be assigned individually for each employee and thus restricted to specific vehicles. Compared to vehicle keys, RFIDand smartphone-based solutions for access control have a decisive advantage: an ID card with a picture or a smartphone is much less likely to be passed on. In addition, RFIDand smartphone-based solutions are harder to clone than physical keys. Transparency Process and cost optimization play a central role in fleet management. Here, driver identification provides important services. The ability to track drivers and routes in real time allows optimization potential to be identified and implemented. Deployment planning, productivity analyses, and the creation and evaluation of safety statistics are simplified. It is also possible to monitor driver behavior and check compliance with operating hours. The drivers’ personal data is protected at all times. Efficiency Access to fleet vehicles can be via cards, key fobs or mobile credentials, which can be quickly deactivated via a central system in the event of loss or revocation of authorization. This reduces the cost and effort of key management (see figure 2). An authentication solution also reduces administrative effort in the area of personnel management; for accounting purposes, driver authentication data can be easily fed into the time recording system and payroll accounting. How to achieve successful implementation To ensure that the introduction of an authentication solution based on RFID, NFC and BLE is a success, three aspects require special attention during implementation. Flexibility through universal readers In many companies and organizations, employee badges are already used for applications such as access control or the time and attendance system. The fleet management application should integrate seamlessly with the company’s existing systems. This is the only way to ensure uniform and time-saving administration and maximum user convenience at the same time. The challenge: a variety of card technologies are available on the international market, each with its own data formats, communication frequencies and security functions. Different technologies may therefore be in use within a company or facility - especially if multiple locations are maintained, possibly even in different countries. However, most readers are only capable of reading a few card technologies. One solution is offered by multi-frequency readers, which are compatible with up to 60 transponder technologies commonly used worldwide. The universal devices, which for example the solution provider Elatec has in its portfolio, use both RFID for authentication and access as well as the technologies NFC or BLE. This means that mobile devices can also be integrated into the system, providing the greatest possible flexibility. Reliable protection of people, inventory and-data The readers used must be equipped against both physical tampering and hacker attacks and support advanced encryption. Only then will they provide the level of security required to control access to fleet vehicles and support a secure authentication process. Last but not least, this protects sensitive data - such as the personal details of employees or drivers and internal information such as route plans or driver behavior - from misuse. However, to effectively and holistically secure an RFID-based authentication solution, it is not enough to look at the reader alone. It is necessary to include the entire system in the company’s security concepts. A must: remote updates for widely dispersed fleet vehicles Requirements and IT infrastructures change over time, making adjustments necessary. Only with a flexible system that provides for optimization, adaptation and upgrades will companies and organizations be on the safe side in the future. For fleets in particular, the option of mobile remote configuration is extremely important. After all, vehicles are often widely scattered and must also be available for use. If remote updates are possible, all installed readers in a fleet can be easily updated, regardless of their location, without incurring downtime for the vehicles or cost-intensive for technicians. ■ 1 www.grandviewresearch.com/ press-release/ globalsmart-fleet-management-market Johannes Weil Head of Industry Team Europe, ELATEC- GmbH, Puchheim (DE) info-rfid@elatec.com Figure 2: Drivers can get access to fleet vehicles via cards, key fobs or mobile credentials. Image: Elatec International Transportation | Collection 2022 30 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Technology Generating robust dispatching solutions Taking into account block sections’ operational risk Dispatching, Rescheduling, Risk mapping, Operational risk analysis Not least because of the increasing demand for transport and limited possibilities to expand railway infrastructures, efficient dispatching approaches gain in importance. The Institute of Railway and Transportation Engineering at the University of Stuttgart developed a proactive dispatching algorithm, which automatically generates robust dispatching solutions while taking random disturbances in dynamic circumstances into account. Ullrich Martin, Markus Tideman, Weiting Zhao N ot least because of the increasing demand for transport and limited possibilities to expand railway infrastructures, efficient dispatching approaches gain in importance. Hence and thankfully funded within the framework of a German Research Foundation (DFG) project, the Institute of Railway and Transportation Engineering at the University of Stuttgart developed a proactive dispatching algorithm, which automatically generates robust dispatching solutions while taking random disturbances in dynamic circumstances into account [1]. Therefore, the proposed algorithm consists of two major processes as depicted in figure 1: The operational risk analysis, which is performed in offline mode and the generation of dispatching solutions in online mode-[2]. The main idea behind this dispatching approach is that the negative impact of disturbances on the operational quality strongly depends on the points of their appearance. By dividing the infrastructure into block sections and by disturbing railway operation on every block section separately in offline mode as shown in figure 2, the resulting operational risk index of every block section of the studied network can be calculated based on the resulting average total weighted waiting time. Finally, an operational risk map can be obtained. This risk map remains valid as long as neither significant changes in infrastructure nor in railway operations program occur [3]. According to figure 3 and based on the findings of the operational risk analysis, the dispatching solutions are generated in online mode, which means during real time operation. To ensure a lasting effect of the generated solutions, the investigated time span is divided into stages (1 st task). At the beginning of every stage, the train runs of the current timetable are artificially prolonged according to the risk levels of the block sections a train passes (2 nd task). Regarding this linkage, a detailed description is made in the next section. The underlying idea is, to add implicitly especially for high-risk block section larger additional recovery times, whereby the timetable is more robust against potential disturbances. Then, it is checked whether the modified timetable contains blocking time conflicts. If no conflicts are detected, the current timetable will be maintained until the beginning of the next stage. Otherwise, the conflicts are solved by retiming or reordering as it is described in [4] and partly in the next section (3 rd task). Methods The proposed dispatching algorithm is based on several widespread used scientific methods such as Tabu Search algorithm as well as Monte Carlo method. The latter one is used for creating sufficient disturbance scenarios during the operational risk analysis (see [3]). In addition, the inverse cumulative distribution function is utilized in connection with the aforementioned linkage between the risk index of a specific block section and the prolonging of the train runs along this section. Depending on the characteristics of the investigated railway network, the block sections are classified according to their risk index into so-called risk level (L). To prolong the train runs, it is necessary to establish a functional relationship between the risk level of a block section and the additional recovery times (x) to be added in the 2 nd task (see figure 3). Those additional recovery times represent potential disturbances like dwell time extensions, departure time extensions, running time extensions and entry delays. Unfavorably, it is difficult to directly link x to L, which is why a cumulative distribution function (P) serves as a bridge that linearly relates P to L Figure 1: General workflow of the dispatching algorithm International Transportation | Collection 2022 31 Technology SCIENCE & RESEARCH with maximum-minimum normalization [1,-4]. Concerning this, the underlying mathematical derivation is given in formula 1: (1) It can easily been seen that x depends on P max (maximum value of cumulative probability function), P min (minimum value of cumulative probability function), L max (maximum value of operational risk level), and L min (minimum value of operational risk level) as well as L. While L represents the individual risk level of a specific block section, the four other variables are predefined by the user before using the dispatching algorithm. As described in the introduction and according to figure 3, it is investigated whether these prolonged train runs are coming into conflict with each other. If they do so and a user-defined threshold that represents a maximum allowable total weighted waiting time is exceeded, the conflicts are rated as significant conflicts. In this case, the train runs are reordered with the help of Tabu Search algorithm. At this, neighboring train orders starting with the current train order are generated and the corresponding total weighted waiting time is calculated iteratively, until a user-defined aspiration and/ or termination criteria is satisfied. In this way, a balance between the quality of the solution and the computation time is ensured [4]. Results In this paper, special attention is paid to the linkage between the calculated risk index or rather risk level of a block section and the additional recovery times that are added on the trains passing through this block section. In the framework of a case study, a reference railway network was utilized that consists out of 35 block sections. Under the assumption of L max = 5 (maximum value of operational risk level) and L min = 1 (minimum value of operational risk level), the operational risk analysis revealed the classification shown in table 1 [2]. To obtain the additional recovery times based on the shown risk classification and by utilizing the formula shown in figure 4 a few more assumptions had to be made in the case study [4]: •• The maximum value of cumulative probability function P max is set 0,95 •• The maximum value of cumulative probability function P min is set 0,05 •• The negative exponential distribution with rate parameter β = 10 minutes Figure 2: Workflow of the operational risk analysis Figure 3: Workflow of the generation of dispatching solutions International Transportation | Collection 2022 32 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Technology serves as the probability distribution function f(x) All these things considered, the resulting additional recovery times for the train runs can be obtained. As an instance, table 2 shows the additional recovery times imposed on freight train runs depending on the risk level of the block sections. It should be noted that entry delays are only relevant for block sections functioning as an entrance to the investigated railway network and that dwell time extensions and departure time extensions are only relevant, if the timetable of a specific train run contains a stop in the specific block section. Modifying the current timetable according to the obtained, partly very large additional recovery times and continuing the workflow of the generation of dispatching solutions as depicted in figure 3, it might be assumed that the resulting maximum throughput capacity of the investigated railway network would be compared to other widely used dispatching principles significantly lower. In fact, extensive testing within the case study proved for 1,650 assumed disturbed timetables that the proposed dispatching algorithm offers even a 2.68 or rather 4.46 percent higher maximum throughput capacity than greedy algorithm and first come first serve-principle [1]. Conclusions and Contributions The dispatching algorithm described in this paper possesses considerable advantages. First, railway dispatchers can effectively be relieved. This can be traced back to the automatic generation of dispatching solutions as well as to their increased robustness against potential disturbances. Second, the first major algorithm process, which is the operational risk analysis, can be utilized for effective timetable planning by disclosing high-risk block sections long before real time railway operation. Building on this, recovery times can be spread more efficient along the train runs. This supports a good balance between capacity utilization and operation quality. Furthermore, the algorithm is capable to solve various conflict types such as following, crossing, merging and opposing conflicts and it is basically possible to adapt the algorithm to any other railway network implemented in RailSys software. Moreover, the proposed dispatching approach provides further flexibility. On the one hand, the length of the stages (see Figure 3, 1st task) can be adjusted depending on the application case. On the other hand, the probability distribution function, which is used to link the risk level of a specific block section to the additional recovery times, can be set individually. Concluding all, the proposed dispatching algorithm is a promising approach to raise railway operation quality in the event of disturbances. Not least because of the algorithms’ high flexibility, one of the current research work of the Institute of Railway and Transportation Engineering at the University of Stuttgart deals with its adaption in the field of other transport modes. ■ REFERENCES [1] Martin, U.; Tideman, W.; Zhao, W. (2018): Risk Oriented Dispatching of Railway Operation under the Consideration of Random Disturbances in Dynamic Circumstances (DICORD). DFG-project (MA 2326/ 22-1) - in progress, Institute of Railway and Transportation Engineering, Stuttgart [2] Tideman, W.; Martin, U.; Zhao, W. (2019): Proactive Dispatching of Railway Operation. Proceedings to 8th International Conference on Railway Operations Modelling and Analysis (ICROMA) - Rail- Norrköping 2019, Norrköping, Sweden, June 17th - 20th, 2019, pp. 1605-1614 [3] Zhao, W. (2017): Hybrid Model for Proactive Dispatching of Railway Operation under the Consideration of Random Disturbances in Dynamic Circumstances, vol. 22, Books on Demand, Norderstedt, Neues verkehrswissenschaftliches Journal [4] Zhao, W. ; Martin, U.; Cui, Y.; Liang, J. (2017): Operational risk analysis of block sections in the railway network. In: Journal of Rail Transport Planning & Management, 7 (4), pp. 245-262, DOI: 10.1016/ j. jrtpm.2017.09.003 Markus Tideman, M.Sc. Former research assistant, Institute of Railway and Transportation Engineering (IEV), University of Stuttgart (DE) post@ievvwi.uni-stuttgart.de Weiting Zhao, Dr.-Ing. Former research assistant, Institute of Railway and Transportation Engineering (IEV), University of Stuttgart (DE) post@ievvwi.uni-stuttgart.de Ullrich Martin, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Director, Institute of Railway and Transportation Engineering (IEV), University of Stuttgart (DE) ullrich.martin@ievvwi.uni-stuttgart. de AUF EINEN BLICK Nicht zuletzt aufgrund des steigenden Transportbedarfs und eingeschränkter Möglichkeiten zum Ausbau von Bahninfrastrukturen gewinnen effiziente Dispositionsansätze an Bedeutung. Daher hat das Institut für Eisenbahn- und Verkehrswesen der Universität Stuttgart im Rahmen eines von der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) geförderten Projekts einen proaktiven Dispositionsalgorithmus entwickelt, der unter Berücksichtigung zufälliger Störungen bei sich dynamisch ändernden Situationen automatisch robuste Dispositionslösungen generiert. Der entwickelte Algorithmus besteht aus zwei Hauptprozessen: Der betrieblichen Risikoanalyse, die im Offline- Modus durchgeführt wird, und der Generierung von Dispositionslösungen im Online- Modus. Besonderes Augenmerk wird in diesem Beitrag auf die Verknüpfung dieser beiden Prozesse gelegt, indem in einer sogenannten betrieblichen Risk Map die Beförderungszeiten der Zugfahrten entsprechend der in dieser Risk Map enthaltenen Risikostufen der einzelnen Blockabschnitte verlängert werden. Darüber hinaus gibt dieser Artikel eine kurze Einführung in den vorgeschlagenen Dispositionsalgorithmus im Allgemeinen. Außerdem werden kurze Auszüge einer Fallstudie beschrieben, die die Wirksamkeit des Algorithmus belegen. Risk level Block section designation 1 (lowest risk) B18, B24, B29, B32, B33, B34, B35 2 B1, B2, B15, B16, B17, B30, B31 3 B3, B5, B9, B10, B22, B23, B25 4 B4, B11, B13, B14, B26, B27, B28 5 (highest risk) B6, B7, B8, B12, B19, B20, B21 Table 1: Operational risk levels of the block sections in the context of the case study Additional recovery time [min] to compensate … Risk level … dwell time extensions … running time extensions … departure time extensions … entry delays 1 (lowest risk) 0.26 0.51 0.26 1.03 2 1.04 2.08 1.04 4.15 3 1.97 3.93 1.97 7.86 4 3.10 6.21 3.10 12.42 5 (highest risk) 4.58 9.16 4.58 18.33 Table 2: Additional recovery times imposed on freight train runs on the specific block sections International Transportation | Collection 2022 33 European Friedrich-List-Award 2022 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Transport policies - in-challenging times T his year the European Platform of Transport Sciences - EPTS - awarded the “European Friedrich List Award” for the 17th consecutive time. This prize, dedicated to young transport researchers, is named to honour the extraordinary contributions of Friedrich List, the visionary of transport in Europe of the 19th century, being a distinguished economist and respected transport scientist committed to the European idea. The European Friedrich List Award is given for out-standing scientific papers in each of the categories Doctorate paper and Diploma paper, addressing topics in the transport field within a European context. In 2022 the award was conferred during the 20th European Transport Congress, taking place from 9 to 10 June 2022 at the University of Győr, Hungary, simultaneous to the 12th Conference on Transport Sciences. This conference was established by the Department of Transport of the University of Győr to facilitate the cooperation between professionals and disseminate research results in the field of transport. On the following you will find a short selection of this year’s Friedrich List Award submissions in drafts. The next European Transport Congress will take place from 25 to 26 May 2023 at the Czech Technical University in Prague, at the same time as the Smart Cities Symposium 2023. More about this coming events on page 49. ■ Source: University of Győr The next ETC will take place in Prague. Photo: Helena Kankovičová Kováčová / Pexels International Transportation | Collection 2022 34 SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Award 2022 Models for optimizing parallel public transport services Between and within parallel domestic (long-distance and regional) public transport services Parallel public transport systems, optimization models, long-distance transport, regional transport One of the international problems of public transport system is that domestic (long-distance, regional) links are served both by buses and trains in parallel, furthermore it also appears in road systems connecting hamlets, as flexible systems have been operated besides traditional public transport services. This situation can result in a competition, generating a non-sustainable system. This mainly exists in countries, where the interurban public transport is based on a public service contract. The created models for optimizing the parallel public transport systems can be applied generally. András Lakatos B ased on the mentioned issues in the abstract, three topic areas have been identified: 1. Analytical and user preference-based modelling of long-distance public transportation 2. Modelling of parallel public transport services at the regional level 3. Modelling of parallel services concerning interurban bus services The various optimization models are interrelated, and if all of them are applied, the whole system of parallel transport services can be transformed into a sustainable and efficient network. The existing and recurring international problem [1] of parallel bus and train links in long-distance (within the border of each country) public transport has been addressed here. The aim of examining longdistance parallel public transport systems is to determine which transport mode or modes, or may be parallel links can ensure that public transport would be sustainable and efficient. The factors taken into consideration are user and operator parameters, and travel distance. In order to achieve this, a mathematical method, regression analysis [2] was applied to analyze the changes of temporal and cost values with respect to distance. An internationally applicable 5-step model was defined to solve this problem (Figure 1, top). In addition to this analytical approach, this study also aims to explore preferences of passengers for choosing transport modes. In order to achieve this and to be able to reach the highest possible level of services, the correlations between analytical aspects and passenger preferences concerning the quality of services depending on distance have been identified. Passengers take into consideration several parameters when deciding on the mode of transport. [3, 4, 5] Travel time, travel costs, comfort and motivation were examined as the influencing factors of mode choice. The complex correlations behind their mode choice have been explored and a model for user behavior has been set up based on revealed and stated preference types of questionnaires containing equal to reality parameters in order to determine the user preferences with respect to travel distance and passenger motivation in the case of parallel public transport links. The importance of each parameter in the decision-making process of users has been determined based on the answers to the questionnaires. The aim of examining regional parallel public transport systems is to create a complex, compact and generally applicable service quality index in order to evaluate and optimize regional parallel links (Figure 1, bottom). Moreover, to identify each value of the service quality index, some traffic organization measures (in some cases based on European best practices) result in an increase in the level of transport services, while costs are decreased. A mathematical method, the logit model [6] is used to explore the correlations between the values of the service quality index and the number of passengers, analyzing the extrema of utility functions [7]. The value of a quality index (M) has been calculated (Equation 1) based on some comprehensive parameters (travel time, available services, number of inhabitants) (Table 1). M n t p n t p daily travel j daily travel i,j,b = ⋅ ⋅ − ⋅ ⋅ 1 1 jj j n     = ∑ 1 i,j,b i,j,v i,j,v Based on objective functions [8] (Equations 2 and 3), interval boundaries for the values of quality parameters have been defined. These were validated by the logit model-based evaluation of the following values: number of passengers using parallel bus and train links, offered travel times, offered travel costs. M → max (2) K invest. i,j,k → min. (3) Traffic organization measures to maximize the M value have been defined for each interval, while minimizing investment costs (K invest. i,j,k ). In such rarely populated areas, the integration of the already existing traditional and demand-responsive transport systems [9] is suggested in order to create an economically sustainable system with the increasing of the service levels, i.e. ensuring that the hamlets are served at a higher level. International Transportation | Collection 2022 35 European Friedrich-List-Award 2022 SCIENCE & RESEARCH A generally applicable, demographical and public transport service level data based 7-step complex and compact model is created for optimization, which allows for the reorganization of transport performance in a way that operational costs do not rise (Equation 5), but the level of service is increased (Equation 4). Z → max (4) C day → min. (5) The model allows for replacing the traditional public transport network with a flexible system. Results To implement the long-distance parallel model into practice, a Hungarian case study was chosen. In Hungary, there are several parallel long-distance links, most of them are Budapest-centered. Based on this, travel chains between Budapest and 15 county seats or towns with county rights have been determined. During the evaluation, polynomial regression has been fit to the value pairs, i.e. travel time, as user parameter and travel distance; and unit cost per place in the vehicle, as operator parameter and distance. The optimization possibilities of long-distance public transport modes have been divided into 3 sections according to the relative position of the functions and deviation values (Figure 2, top). The competitiveness of buses even for long distances can be enhanced if Tempo1 00 (the allowed maximum speed is 100 km/ h on motorways) quality buses are applied. It has been demonstrated that the deviation of unit costs per seat in the vehicle is inversely proportional to distance. Based on revealed and stated questionnaires, user preferences change depending on travel distance. Three distance intervals have been defined, according to which user expectations concerning travel time, comfort and costs change. It has been proven that the distance intervals corresponding to mode choice are in harmony with the suggestions for traffic organization measures defined analytically. For shorter travels (under 150 kilometers) the users choose the bus service because of its reliability and the travel time, while in case of longer domestic mobility needs (above 180 kilometers) passengers pays extra money for the comfort (travel time is not so important) which can be guaranteed by railway service. Between 150 to 180 kilometers travel time and comfort affects in a same level regarding mode choice. The applicability of the regional model has been proven through a case study, which includes the optimization for all of the 7 regions of Hungary, handling all the parallel bus and train links of the country. It has been declared that calculating the quality index values for each parallel links and travel time and travel cost based utility functions, interventions can be suggested (Figure-2, bottom). The level of service can be increased solely by traffic organization measures, without the need for considerable investments. Regarding parallelism within the (bus) transport mode, a case study for an area in Hungary (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén county) was conducted, based on the 7-step model. The public transport service for ‘dead-end’ villages with a diminishing population can be improved by replacing traditional service in case of detours - as a feeder system to traditional main traffic - with demand responsive transport and the effective distribution of the present resources, without extra costs, which is beneficial both for users and operators. That replacing the traditional service with DRT service can decrease the Variable Description Dimension i departure (settlement) - j arrival (settlement) - k transport mode (b - bus, v - train) - t travel i,j,k total time required for covering the distance between the centres of i and j settlements, by k mode of transport min n daily i,j,k number of vehicles per day running between i and j settlements, by k mode of transport piece p j the proportion of the number of inhabitants of the given settlement and the total number of inhabitants of the settlements served by the given service - Table 1: Legend for Equation (1) Figure 1: 5-step model for optimizing parallel long-distance public transport (top); the optimization model for regional parallel public transport links (bottom) All figures: Author 01 Selection of parallel longdistance public transport links 03 04 DEFINITION OF TRAVEL CHAINS User parameters: 𝑡𝑡 ������ �𝑥�𝑥� � ∑𝑡𝑡 ����������������� �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑡𝑡 ������� �𝑥�𝑥� ∑𝑡𝑡 ����������������� �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑡𝑡 ������ �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑡𝑡 ������ �𝑥�𝑥� 𝑡𝑡 ������ �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑡𝑡 ��������������𝑥�� �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑡𝑡 ���������������� �𝑥� 𝑡𝑡 ������ �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑡𝑡 ��������������𝑥�� �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑡𝑡 ���������������� �𝑥� 𝑠𝑠 ������ �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑠𝑠 ������ �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑠𝑠 ��������𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑠𝑠 ������ �𝑥�𝑥� 𝑠𝑠 ������ �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑠𝑠 ��������������𝑥�� �𝑥� 𝑠𝑠 ������ �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑠𝑠 ��������������𝑥�� �𝑥� 𝑡𝑡 ������𝑥����𝑥�𝑥� � ∑𝑡𝑡 ����������������� �𝑥�𝑥� � 𝑡𝑡 �������𝑥����𝑥�𝑥� Operator parameters: 𝐶𝐶 ������𝑥�𝑥� � � ��������𝑥�𝑥�𝑥��������������𝑥� ����������𝑥� CALCULATION OF USER AND OPERATOR PARAMETERS Modelling of correlations between parameter values 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑥𝑥 � � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 � � � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 � ��� � � ��𝑥𝑥 ��� 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑀𝑀 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 �� � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 �� � 𝑀𝑀�𝑦𝑦 � � 𝑀𝑀 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 �� � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 �� 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑀𝑀 𝑦𝑦 � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑀𝑀 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 �� � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 �� 𝑥𝑥 �� � 𝑀𝑀 𝑦𝑦 � 𝑥𝑥 �� 𝑀𝑀 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 �� � 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑥𝑥 �� 𝑥𝑥 �� � 𝑀𝑀�𝑦𝑦 � 𝑥𝑥 �� � Correlation variable: 𝑟𝑟 �� � � ∑ �� � ��̅ ���� � ���� ���� � � �� � ������ REGRESSION ANALYSIS From user and operator perspectives DETERMINATION OF THEORETICAL DISTANCE-BASED BOUNDARIES 05 Analysis of the possibilities of developing the model DEVELOPING 02 Selection of-parallel- public transport lines Collecting service-quality data Calculation of-quality parameters Defining the interval boundaries for the values of- quality parameters Validating the interval boundaries for the values of- quality parameters Defining the traffic organization measures Optimized public transport network National-Bus Timetable STATISTICAL-OFFICE Changes of-timetables National-Railway Timetable Travel time Frequency Local-public transport timetable Route planning software Local-public transport timetable Route planning sotfware Access-and- egress time Access-and- egress time Population register Travel time Frequency Access-and- egress time Access-and- egress time AB AB Fares LOGIT-MODELL Defining the interval boundaries for the values of-quality parameters Feeder service- within the city Feeder service- within the city Domestic travel VALIDATION OPTIMIZATION National-Bus Timetable ‐ Database Access-and- egress time ‐ Data LOGIT-MODEL ‐ Mathematical calculation or activity ‐ First step of-the optimization Selection of- parallel-public transport lines Route planning software ‐ Software LEGEND International Transportation | Collection 2022 36 SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Award 2022 costs by more than 50 EUR in the morning off-peak period, 228 EUR daily. Conclusions One of the international (especially in Middleand East-Europe) problems of public transport system is that domestic long-distance links are served both by buses and trains, in a parallel manner. Furthermore, there are parallel bus and train services in all regions of the countries, and several cross-country parallel links are also existing. This situation can result in a competition between the two modes, generating a system that is not sustainable. Parallel services are present not only between modes, but also within branches. This is characteristic of road systems connecting hamlets, as in these regions demand-responsive social transport systems have been maintained by local governments for closed communities in the past 20 years, while the state-ordered parallel traditional public transport services have also been operated. This means that both human resource management and vehicle management work suboptimally, in total in a wasteful manner. Generally applicable, complex, mathematical-based models for the optimization of the mentioned parallel public transport systems were developed. The complexity of the models is represented by the parameters considered (both from user and operator perspective). The practical applicability of the models is demonstrated through Hungarian case studies. The developed models can have a decision support function in the rationalization of parallel public transport systems. Adapting to the transport strategy and concept of each country, the parallel links/ systems exist between and within the different modes of transport can be optimized in time, either simultaneously or sequentially, according to the models. Regarding future research, the evaluation of the factors examined in the model developed for the optimization of parallel services between modes of transport. Within road public transport, the external effects (environmental and accident costs) can be quantified with a CBA based on guide document. Furthermore, the analysis of user preference and parameter-based long-distance models can be extended to parallel international public transport in order to optimize the division of labor in transport. ■ REFERENCES [1] Fleischer, T. (2005): Fenntartható fejlődés-fenntartható közlekedés. University Library of Munich, Germany. www.vki.hu/ ~tfleisch/ PDF/ pdf05/ fleischer_fe-fejl-fe-kozl_kmszle05-12.pdf (Access: 10.06.2016) [2] Buis, M. L. (2019): Logistic regression: When can we do what we think we can do? www.maartenbuis.nl/ wp/ odds_ratio_3.1.pdf (Access: 29.05.2016) [3] Kosztyó, Á.; Török, Á. (2007): Döntésmodellezés a közúti közlekedési módválasztásban. In: Marketing & Menedzsment 41(1), 48-51. http: / / real.mtak.hu/ 5258/ (Access: 09.10.2018) [4] Kövesné Gilicze, É.; Debreczeni, G.; Csiszár, Cs. (2014): Személyközlekedés. www.ktkg.bme.hu (Access: 10.06.2018) [5] Kroes, E. P.; Sheldon, R. J. (1988): Stated Preference Methods: An Introduction. In: Journal of Transport Economics and Policy 22(1), pp. 11-25. www.jstor.org/ stable/ 20052832 (Access: 27.05.2018) [6] Hajdú, L. (2004): A logisztikus függvény és a logisztikus eloszlás. In: Statisztikai szemle 82, pp. 991-1011. www.ksh.hu/ statszemle_arch ive/ 2004/ 2004_10-11/ 2004_10-11_991.pdf (Access: 10.08.2016) [7] Fishburn, P. C. (1970): Utility Theory for Decision Making. https: / / apps.dtic.mil/ sti/ citations/ AD0708563 [8] Rardin, R. L. (1997): Optimization in operations research. In: Prentice Hall, pp. 919. https: / / industri.fatek.unpatti.ac.id (Access: 01.08.2019) [9] Tóth, J.; Horváth, B. (2006): Rugalmas közlekedési rendszerek tervezésének alapjai (utascsoportok, elméleti modellek). In: Közlekedéstudományi Szemle 56(7), pp. 263-268. http: / / real-j.mtak. hu/ 10810/ 7/ Kozlekedestudomanyi_2006_07.pdf (Access: 02.01.2020) András Lakatos, PhD Research Fellow, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), Budapest (HU) lakatos.andras@kjk.bme.hu Figure 2: Theoretical boundaries in Hungary, determined by regression functions (top); suggested measures, depending on the precise values of the quality index (bottom) Competition of railway and coach in distances under 150 kilometers parallel lines between 150-180 kilometers Optimizing Above 180 kilometers coach has a complementary role No-interventions needed Proper reconstruction or major- intervention needed The-vechicles should stop-in- towns with lower number of- inhabitants,-and- connect them with the local- centre Using DRT The-vechicles should stop- only in-towns with higher number of- inhabitants Increasing the quality of- service Increasing the quality of-service Carrying from and-to the railway by bus,- connections needed in-the timetable Using DRT The-vechicles should stop- only in-towns with higher number of- inhabitants The-role of- the bus service-in-the public transport network should be- revised No-interventions needed BUS-SERVICE RAILWAY-SERVICE ‐5 ‐2 +2 +5 M Business- politically reduced fare Businesspolitically reduced fare The-vechicles should stop-in-towns with lower number of- inhabitants,-and- connect them with the local-centre International Transportation | Collection 2022 37 European Friedrich-List-Award 2022 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Design of transport infrastructure considering sustainability criteria in selected German regions Transport infrastructure, Sustainability, Region, Sustainable development The research object of this thesis is the analysis of the transport infrastructure (road, rail, waterway) of a study region in relationship to the sustainable development. The impact of the transport infrastructure on the sustainable development of a region is analyzed, based on ecological and socioeconomic indicators. In addition, the transport demand and the relationship between population density and transport infrastructure are examined. The objective of the thesis is analyzing and presenting the effects of transport infrastructure on the sustainable development of a region. The ecological analysis includes a forecasting procedure with the indicator of land use. The socioeconomic analysis examines the development of seven indicators: population development, total net migration, commuter balance, unemployment rate, employment rate, household income, gross domestic product. Stefan Schomaker T he 1987 report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) of the United Nations (UN), also known as the Brundtland Report, includes the requirement of sustainable development, which involves meeting the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [1]. The so-called “3-pillar model” of sustainability was established, consisting of an ecological, an economic and a social dimension. In 2015, the UN member states adopted the 2030 Agenda, the Sustainable Development Goals. The core of the 2030 Agenda was formed by a total of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which take into account all three dimensions of sustainability in equal measure [2]. The relevance of the transport infrastructure in the context of a sustainable development becomes clear in the current sustainability strategies of the United Nations, the European Union as well as the Federal Republic of Germany, from which a need for action as well as the reason for the choice of the topic can be derived. The Agenda 2030 includes the effort to develop sustainable transport systems [3]. The EU sustainability strategy of 2006 also explicitly states that transport systems must meet economic, social and ecological requirements and thus minimize their impact on the economy, the environment and society [4]. The success of the European Green Deal depends, among other subjects, on a sustainable transport system [5]. The importance of transforming the economy into a sustainable development has made it clear by resource increase, energy demand, raw material price, and the political EU climate neutrality objective by 2050. It can also be seen that, in terms of sustainability strategies and political efforts at global, European, and national level, transport and transport infrastructure are important for sustainable development. The necessity to design the transport infrastructure in a sustainable way is taken up in this thesis and analyzed for selected regions in Germany. This work provides a scientific contribution to sustainable development in the field of transport infrastructure. Transport and transport infrastructure can make an important contribution to sustainable development. Objectives The work objectives are analyzing and presenting the effects of transport infrastructure on the sustainable development of a region. Based on these results, options for action to realize the sustainable development of a region in connection with the transport infrastructure are formulated. The main objective is to determine the conditions for the sustainable development of a region and the influence of transport infrastructure on a region. Furthermore, the development of economic, ecological and social sustainability indicators is necessary to measure the sustainable development of a region. Possible mechanisms of interaction between the transport infrastructure and the sustainable development of a region must be described. Likewise, potential conflicts between often desired economic impulses [6] and negative ecological impacts of transport infrastructure development have to be presented. From this context, corresponding research questions can be derived. Thus, it is also the objective of the thesis to clarify the research question, which effects do the regional transport infrastructure has on the economic, ecological and social development of a region. Furthermore, the question is to be answered, which measures are necessary in relation to the transport infrastructure in order to promote the sustainable development of a region. Research results First, the article shows insights into the relationship between population density of a region and transport infrastructure den- International Transportation | Collection 2022 38 SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Award 2022 sity (Table 1). If the population increases, this is potentially related to an increasing demand for mobility. However, a causal relationship is not necessarily given [7]. There is a strong correlation between population density and transport infrastructure density for the individual counties and independent cities of the three study regions. Connected with the ecological analysis is the question of whether the respective study region achieves the target value for the daily increase in settlement and transport area in 2030. As a conclusion, it can be stated that in two of the three study regions, the development of the regional transport infrastructure can be recognized as ecologically sustainable, since the region-specific target values are not reached in 2030. In the context of the analysis, it should be noted that the indicator does not exclusively include the transport infrastructure area, but that the settlement area is also included in the calculation. Within the framework of the ecological analysis, it was found that the share of settlement area in the above-mentioned indicator corresponds to approx. 63 percent throughout Germany and the share of transport area to approx. 37 percent [8]. The greater influencing factor on this indicator is therefore to be seen in the expansion of new settlement areas. It can be concluded for the socioeconomic analysis that a high transport infrastructure density in a county or a countyfree city is not synonymous with a comparatively good socio-economic situation of the analyzed city or county. On the other hand, a comparatively good socioeconomic situation of a county or a county-free city does not necessarily require a high transport infrastructure density. It can be stated on the basis of the results of the socio-economic analysis for the study regions, that a high transport infrastructure density is not a sufficient condition for a positive socioeconomic development of the region. In summary, the effects of transport infrastructure on the sustainable development of a region must be evaluated in a differentiated manner. They are to be distinguished between the ecological and the socio-economic impacts on a region. A strong linear relationship between a high transport infrastructure density and a high result of the socio-economic analysis cannot be statistically proven for the study regions. Accordingly, the transport infrastructure is to be regarded as necessary, in terms of socio-economic impulses for a region. However, transport infrastructure is not a sufficient condition. In order to follow the guiding principle of the Regional Planning Act (ROG) [9] and the Commission for Equal Living Conditions [10], a potential approach of the transport infrastructure would be to improve or expand the connection and linkage of the counties and independent cities with high and low socio-economic results. Finally, based on the empirical analysis, the conclusion is that there is both an environmental and a socioeconomic impact of transport infrastructure in terms of sustainable development of a region. The daily increase in settlement and transport area can be influenced by observing the regionspecific target value. Likewise, regions can benefit from the expansion and new construction of transport infrastructure as well as from improved connections and links between (central) locations by triggering growth effects. These have a positive effect on the socio-economic indicators mentioned above and thus the development of the region can correspond to a sustainable development. Eliminating the bottlenecks is additionally important for the design of the transport infrastructure, considering the sustainable development of a region. The Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan carries out bottleneck analyses and gives priority to transport infrastructure measures where bottlenecks (congestion in road traffic, congestion in rail traffic) exist in the respective mode of transport to eliminate them. Congestion and train delays create capacityrelated bottlenecks that sometimes cause considerable waiting times. Reducing as well as resolving waiting times or bottlenecks has both environmental and socioeconomic benefits. Traffic-related emissions can be reduced and transportation costs can be lowered due to the time advantage. Thus, bottleneck elimination is also an important measure in the design of transportation infrastructure that promotes sustainable development of regions. Furthermore, it should be emphasized that the long-term development of transport infrastructure should not be considered exclusively from the national level, but is part of the European transport infrastructure policy [11]. A unified European transport area is the goal of the development of a- trans-European transport network (TEN-T), including an overall network (completion 2050) as well as a core network (completion 2030). Accordingly, all modes of transport are to be developed in such a way that a sustainable and economically efficient transport system is ensured. The research results of this work can make an important contribution to this. ■ Full Dissertation Schomaker, S. (2022): Gestaltung der Verkehrsinfrastruktur unter Berücksichtigung von Nachhaltigkeitskriterien in ausgewählten deutschen Regionen. Lingener Studien zu Management und Technik, Band 21. Münster: LIT-Verlag. REFERENCES [1] UN (ed.) (1987): Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, “Our Common Future”. Oslo, p. 54 [2] UN (ed.) (2015): Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. New York, pp. 1 [3] UN (ed.) (2015): Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. New York, p. 8, 21 [4] Rat der Europäischen Union (Hrsg.) (2006): Überprüfung der EU- Strategie für nachhaltige Entwicklung − Die erneuerte Strategie. Brüssel, p. 10 [5] Europäische Kommission (Hrsg.) (2020): Strategie für nachhaltige und intelligente Mobilität: Den Verkehr in Europa auf Zukunftskurs bringen, COM(2020) 789. Brüssel, p. 1 [6] Art. 176 AEUV, ABl.EU C 326 from 26 October 2012 [7] Kühnel, S.; Dingelstedt, A.: Kausalität. In: Baur, N.; Blasius, J. (Hrsg.) (2019): Handbuch Methoden der empirischen Sozialforschung. Wiesbaden: Springer VS, , pp. 1401 [8] Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis) (Hrsg.) (2016): Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Fischerei, Bodenfläche nach Art der tatsächlichen Nutzung, 2015. Fachserie 3 Reihe 5.1, Wiesbaden, pp. 19; own calculation [9] Raumordnungsgesetz from 22 December 2008, § 1 Abs. 2 [10] Bundesministerium des Inneren, für Bau und Heimat (BMI) (Hrsg.) (2019): Unser Plan für Deutschland, Gleichwertige Lebensverhältnisse überall, Berlin [11] Regulation (EU) No. 1315/ 2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council from 11 December 2013, ABl.EU L 348 Study region Correlation coefficient Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania r xy = 0,9964 Lower Saxony r xy = 0,9568 North Rhine-Westphalia r xy = 0,9542 Table 1: Statistical correlation between population density and transport infrastructure density Source: Own calculation Stefan Schomaker, Dr. Research assistant, Institute for Management and Technology, Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences - Campus Lingen (DE) s.schomaker@hs-osnabrueck.de International Transportation | Collection 2022 39 European Friedrich-List-Award 2022 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Effects of travel time VMS on-urban traffic Attitudes to travel times displayed on variable message signs and effect on route choice Variable message sign, Travel time, Route choice, Sensitivity function, Stated preference Expected travel time information on variable message signs (VMS) supports even capacity utilization on the road network. To justify the importance of VMS in urban traffic, general user attitude to VMS was assessed and route choice decisions were investigated through stated preferences. Logit model was used to show how route choices are affected by changing expected travel time, reliability of travel time, and perceived travel time of alternative routes. Applying logistic regression, functions were defined that describe the sensitivity of route change depending on expected travel times. Renáta Bordás A ccording to mobility reports (e.- g. published by Inrix, Tom- Tom), congestion is a key issue in many cities causing bottlenecks and generating high external costs. [1, 2] Variable message signs (VMS) and coordinated traffic signals are traffic management tools that support traffic flows to be led on roads with more free capacity. The novelty of this research is to explore the effects of travel time VMS on traffic in the urban environment as this topic is not thoroughly investigated in scientific papers. Expected travel times displayed on variable message sign make drivers change their planned route to an alternative one with less travel time. By influencing route choice decisions, expected travel time signs shift the uneven capacity utilization on the network towards equilibrium. With utilized capacities, congestion relief can be achieved that goes with less delay, driver stress, fewer stops, and conflicts on roads. To assess the importance of travel time VMS, it was essential to unfold the current system’s ability to influence traffic and to learn about its impact on route choice. Therefore, the general attitude and response of traffic participants to expected travel time VMS were assessed. Urban route choice decisions are interpreted based on the effects of expected travel time, reliability of travel time, and perceived travel time. Furthermore, functions were defined that describe the sensitivity of route change regarding the expected travel times displayed on variable message signs. Finally, subnetwork criteria for further application of the results were specified. This paper reports about the assessment of VMS network impacts and its real potential to be used as a traffic management tool. This own research was made to support a R&D project about traffic management. Survey methods and structure Stated preference methods offer the possibility to identify behavioural responses to choice situations that cannot be observed and measured in real time on the roads. In the present research, a wide range of route choice predictor variables were observed with this practice, that would have not been perceptible on the road network with revealed preference methods. [3] The compiled questionnaire served as a two-step survey of users’ reactions to the VMS. Firstly, a general section aimed at exploring driving habits and common user attitudes to travel time VMS. In the second part, respondents were required to state their preferences in discrete choices and hypothetical situations regarding route choices. In the discrete choice experiment (DCE), respondents expressed their preferences based on route attributes as respondents were required to choose one of a set of product cards that referred to traffic conditions of different routes of the same destination. According to the model, the respondents associate different degrees of utility to attributes and levels, the sum of which determines which route is more beneficial to them. [4] The second part of stated preference research carried corresponds to contingent valuation, where respondents were asked how much extra travel time they tolerate to stay on their planned route and how much extra travel time make them change their route due to congestion. Questions according to the mentioned survey methods were asked from the target population, that were people who have ever met travel time VMS. Participants attended from Budapest and selected parts of its agglomeration as the sample area. The sample size can be considered reliable. Attitude to travel time variable message sign In the questionnaire, participants evaluated the usefulness and accuracy of the VMS panels on a five-point Likert scale. Overall, results show positive user attitude towards the VMS system. 81 % of respondents considered the VMS useful and 58 % considered them accurate in displaying the expected travel time. Accuracy got less positive reviews because more respondents remained neutral in this case. In the subset of active driver respondents who have ever seen a VMS panel with travel times displayed, 20 % of drivers take the VMS into account during driving. In the subset of those, who regularly drive on routes where VMS panels are deployed, 24 % of drivers consider the travel time information displayed. International Transportation | Collection 2022 40 SCIENCE & RESEARCH European Friedrich-List-Award 2022 Effects of travel time, travel time reliability, and perceived travel time The characteristics of suburban trips and the surrounding network of VMS panels were observed in Budapest to set the levels- of route attributes. The following route attributes were placed on card pairs with fractional factorial design in DCE questions: •• travel time (10 minutes, 15 minutes, 20-minutes), •• travel time reliability (60 %, 90 %, 99 %), •• perceived travel time (few intersections, many intersections). The levels of route attributes were set to be approximately equidistant on the utility function. [5] The reliability of travel time is expressed as follows: with x % reliability, there is x % chance the driver will complete the route within the given travel time and 100−x % chance that it will take more than that. Perceived travel time is expressed in the number of intersections and turns, which can affect the perception of comfort and thus the perceived travel time through decelerations, stops, and higher risk of accidents. Proper encoding of attribute levels was essential for correct results of the logit model that was used to assess the discrete choices. In the logit model the usual terms “success” (1) and “failure” (0), as the outputs of DCE, represent choosing a given card and not choosing that. Odds of success are defined as the ratio of the probability of success (P x ) over the probability of failure (1-P x ). Equation (1) presents, that according to the model the natural logarithm of the odds, that is the logit of probability, is a linear function of the explanatory variables. The parameters of utility functions are estimated by maximum likelihood method which is an iteration procedure. [6] (1) Logit model was run on two data sets. One dataset contains the responses to situations where respondents had to arrive at exact time (e.g., meeting), the other dataset is based on the responses when drivers could arrive at any time to their destination (e.g., shopping). 1,728 observations were used in both datasets analyses, and 4 iterations were needed for the results. At a 5 % significance level, the model is statistically significant. Coefficients were converted to changes in the probability of a card’s choice resulting from a one-unit change in the attribute. A summary of the results with some indicators of model fitting is shown in Table 1. Values underlined are considered statistically significant at a 5 % significance level. Overall, based on these values, it can be concluded for the three attributes that travel time is not a significant factor in route choice between 10 to 20 minutes if the reliability of this information may vary and the driver needs to arrive at exact time to their destination. Apparently, most people usually have 10 minutes of spare time when they need get on time to their destination. Therefore, in the case of an exact arrival time, the reliability of the information and the number of nodes and turns were the determining factors in the decisions. The number of junctions and turns had a negative effect on the probability of choice, presumably uncertainty was associated with this attribute. With the condition of not determined arrival time, changing travel time had the largest impact on card choices, while a decrease in reliability to 90 % did not show a significant change in choices. It can be concluded that respondents were more willing to take risks (in certainty) to get to their destination faster as they had no chance of being late for their destination. Sensitivity of route changing Regarding two illustrative subnetworks of Budapest, respondents stated how much extra travel time (due to congestion) makes them change their chosen route to an alternative one. The input was the increased travel time of the planned route, and the binary output was the options to stay on ∆ Px Travel time Reliability of travel time Number of intersections Goodness of fit from 10 min. to 15 min. from 15 min. to 20 min. from 99% to 90% from 99% to 60% from few to many LR chi2(4) Prob> chi2 Pseudo-R2 arrive at exact time -0,42% -0,43% -12,05% -53,22% -4,60% 375,75 0,0000 0,1569 arrive at any time -14,58% -16,11% 0,69% -11,52% -1,18% 150,07 0,0000 0,0626 Table 1: Effects of route attributes on probability of route choice Figure 1: Sensitivity functions in different route conditions Source: Author International Transportation | Collection 2022 41 European Friedrich-List-Award 2022 SCIENCE & RESEARCH route (0) or change route (1). Equation (2) shows the logistic regression formula by which route change probability was assigned to the minute values of the expected travel times . The function was fitted by maximum likelihood method. (2) The dataset contains only the responses of those who are willing to change their route based on VMS. The diversity of the functions can be seen in Figure 1. Different route conditions that define the sensitivity of route choice (slope of regression functions) are defined in Table 2. The criteria relate to the length of the routes, the information about the alternative route and the similarity of the alternative routes concerned. Considering the criteria above, sensitivity functions can be used for estimating travel time VMS effects on traffic in similar subnetworks to the sample ones in the questionnaires. Furthermore, these results facilitate the deployment design process of the VMS system. Conclusion The importance of travel time VMS has been justified as a positive user attitude was assessed and 24 % of active drivers concerned consider VMS in their route choice. The reliability of the travel time information is of the atmost relevance for drivers in route choice. Drivers tend to react even at small travel time excess with route changing. In case of congestion, drivers are willing to change their route more likely if the alternative route is more similar and expected travel time information is available for the alternative route as well. These statements concern road sections of 10-20-30 minutes in urban and suburban environments. Survey results support determining potential spots on the network where VMS deployment would have significant benefits for traffic participants and operators. Historical VMS data and traffic data with the sensitivity functions made it possible to calculate realized travel time benefits at a given subnetwork of Budapest for a given period. Time benefits realized also proved the significant role of the current system in managing capacity utilization. Travel time VMS system contributes to leading traffic flow from congested paths, thus reducing travel time, stops, conflicts and stress for drivers. Road network operators also have the potential to incorporate prediction in the VMS system for more efficient traffic management. This research provides a basis for the development of traffic management strategies that include congestion forecasting in expected travel time signs. Thus, operators would be able to intervene before congestion occurs or in the very initial phase. This research has shown the extent to which the current VMS system influences traffic and that the reliability of travel time information plays a crucial role in route choice decisions. It is worth continuing to work on this topic by modeling the effects of travel time VMS and creating a strategy with prediction to be able to intervene in the queueing in a very initial phase. ■ equation 1 equation 2 equation 3 equation 4 equation 5 equation 6 equation 7 β 0 -4,4957 -5,9868 -4,8419 -4,1041 -3,7814 -5,0971 -5,3839 β travel time 0,2148 0,5106 0,3488 0,4254 0,3322 0,5048 0,5276 R 2 0,4070 0,3851 0,3845 0,5029 0,0670 0,4076 0,4254 Route conditions for application of coefficients Route of 8-30 minute-drive (uncongested) x x x x x Route of 2-20 minute-drive (uncongested) x x Expected travel time information is available on alternative route x x Heterogeneous characteristics of alternatives x x x x x Homogeneous characteristics of alternatives x x No traffic information about the alternative route x Urban region x x x x Suburban region x x x Table 2: Subnetwork criteria for further application of the equations Renáta Bordás, MSc. Transportation Engineer, Department for Transportation Planning, Főmterv Civil Engineering Ltd., Budapest (HU) bordas.renata@fomterv.hu The research reported in this paper was supported by the market-driven research, development and innovation projects (2019-1.1.1-PIACI-KFI-2019-00330). REFERENCES [1] B. Pishue, P. (2021): INRIX Global Traffic Scorecard. https: / / inrix.com/ (Access: 2022.04.25.) [2] TomTom International BV, Traffic Index 2021. www.tomtom.com/ en_gb/ traffic-index/ ranking/ (Access: 2022.04.25.) [3] Kroes, E. P.; Sheldon, R. J. (1988): Stated preference methods In: Journal of Transport Economics and Policy (Vol. 22), No. 1, pp. 12-25 [4] Baji, P. (2012): A diszkrét választás módszere. In: Statisztikai Szemle (Vol. 90), No. 10, pp. 943-963 [5] Daly, A.; Dekker, T.; Hess, S. (2016): Dummy coding vs effects coding for categorical variables: Clarifications and extensions. In: Journal of Choice Modelling (Vol. 21), pp. 36-41 [6] Hajdú, O. (2016): Ökonometria, Budapest, BME Üzleti Tudományok Intézet pp. 89-97 International Transportation | Collection 2022 42 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Rail technology Lightweight design of the Extended Market Wagon An innovative freight wagon developed in Fr8Rail 4, a-Europe’s Rail project Lightweight, Freight, Europe’s Rail, Fr8Rail The Extended Market Wagon is a design concept for an advanced lightweight freight wagon and has been developed as part of the Fr8Rail 4 project in Europe’s Rail. Fr8Rail 4 is focused on improving the efficiency and capacity of rail freight through the use of modern technologies, design strategies and operational concepts. Using tools such as topology optimizations and FEM structural analysis, as well as-the incorporation of design elements focused on the use of the DAC and single wheelset running rear, a new, innovative lightweight freight wagon design has been achieved. David Krüger, Christian Gomes Alves, Nicolai Schmauder, Mathilde Laporte, Robert Winkler-Höhn, Gerhard Kopp T he Extended Market Wagon (EMW) is a design concept for an advanced lightweight freight wagon and has been developed as part of the Fr8Rail 4 project in the Shift- 2Rail IP-5 programme, now subsumed into the Europe’s Rail Joint Undertaking. Fr8Rail 4 is focused on improving the efficiency and capacity of rail freight through the use of modern technologies, design strategies and operational concepts. For the Extended Market Wagon, developed in concert with partners in the Competitive Freight Wagon (CFW) consortium, this means lightweight wagon frame and bogie structures, aerodynamic cladding, advanced onboard telematics, and a modern operating strategy designed to compete with road freight transportation [1]. Train and freight handling are designed to be highly automated, with the status of the train and its systems being electronically monitored and the securing and release of the transported containers being fully remotely operable. The EMW, as the concept was developed in the course of the previous Fr8Rail project phases, is planned to be operated as a block train of permanently coupled wagon pairs offering rapid transportation of swap bodies and containers on closed loop or point-topoint routes between intermodal terminals and other customers. The vehicle concept itself consists of a two-axle wagon with a specific container configuration, as shown in Figure 1. According to the requirements set out in the Fr8Rail project, the wagons are compatible with the G2 profile, resulting in a loading height under 1,000 mm in order to transport 2.9 m tall high cube swap bodies. The selection of the loading level influences the design of the concept significantly, since the wheelset dimension and also coupling height are also affected by this parameter. The German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, DLR) is responsible for accommodating these requirements and specifications in the course of its structural implementation of the full-scale demonstrator. A primary focus of the DLR’s Institute of Vehicle Concepts is the conceptualization, detailed design and hardware realization of the structural components of the EMW. These components include the frame of the wagon, the new type of single-wheelset bogie designed specifically for it, and the structural components required to connect these assemblies and form a fully functional freight wagon. In order to arrive at a structurally optimized lightweight design, models of the available design envelopes for the wagon and bogie frames are generated and discretized in a pre-processor before boundary conditions and the relevant masses and load cases are applied in accordance with EN 12663-2 [2]. In the course of a finite-element (FE) based topology optimization, multiple load cases are applied to the model and the stress/ strain distributions in the design volume are calculated. According to these results, the density of more highly stressed elements is increased and the density of less stressed elements is reduced. This process is repeated through several iterations until the boundary conditions set for this optimization are fulfilled and at the same time an Figure 1: Dimensioned conceptual view of the EMW All figures: Project team International Transportation | Collection 2022 43 Rail technology SCIENCE & RESEARCH optimum mass is achieved. The optimization goal of the solver is to minimize the mass while taking local deformations and global stiffness into account (Figure 2). This process is carried out separately for the wagon and bogie frames, with the results of the topology optimizations forming a load-path adapted skeleton according to which a detailed sheet metal design is elaborated under consideration of manufacturability, cost and durability. These demands on the wagon structure, which are often at odds with one another, require an iterative methodology of designing parts, performing FE analyses and optimization runs and reworking the design, finally resulting in the car body structure shown in Figure 3 [3]. The coupling loads are transferred to the solebars on both sides of the wagon in order to achieve a continuous flow of forces with the upper and lower plates in the running gear areas. The automatic container locks are integrated into the solebars on both sides and mounting positions for integrating the necessary electronics in wagon onboard units (WOBU) are attached to the web of the solebar. Of particular note are the angled corners of the wagon frame, resulting from the lack of a traditional buffer beam. As the swap bodies overhang their corner castings by almost a metre and the wagon is designed exclusively for use with centre buffer couplers like the forthcoming European Digital Automatic Coupling (DAC), the structure of the wagon can be truncated at the corners in order to save weight. The design of the wagon frame weldment, which was calculated and detailed in collaboration with Hörmann Vehicle Engineering GmbH, uses conventional materials such as S355 J2 but optimizes the contours of the structure, material thicknesses and weight-reduction cut-outs in order to arrive at a minimal mass. Sheet metal forms the bulk of the structure, with machined parts incorporated at specific locations, for instance in order to accept the air springs and running gear linkages. For the demonstrator, it was necessary to machine these parts from solid stock. In a later series implementation, casting would likely be a more cost-effective option and potentially offer additional weight saving potential. For the bogies, the special requirements of the EMW necessitated an entirely new design compared to existing bogie frames. As previously described, the wagon’s low loading height (under 1000 mm in order to transport high-cube swap bodies in the G2 loading gauge) limits the wheel diameter to only 850 mm. This, in addition to the structural requirements of the wagon and the planned operating speed of 140 km/ h, required the incorporation of wheelmounted disc brakes along with their associated brake calipers. To meet these requirements with improved ride quality while still reducing wear and noise, the new bogie was conceived with a two-stage suspension and a kinematic design that enables large steering angles at low speeds while still remaining stable at high speeds and over a wide range of conicities. To incorporate all these features, a topology optimization was carried out in order to identify a lightweightoptimized structure for the bogie frame (Figure 4). A detailed, manufacturable design for the bogie frame was generated based on this topology optimization (Figure 5) and analyzed in cooperation with Prose Engineering. For the FE-based strength analysis, all required loads from EN 13749, the damper loads, hard stop loads as well as special situations such as lifting and failure scenarios were considered. To evaluate the running characteristics of this new type of bogie and ensure good driving stability and derailment safety, multi-body simulations were carried out under consideration of the given use case and EN 14363. The simulations of an unloaded wagon showed highly stable running behaviour at all speeds up to 200 km/ h and thus similarly good behaviour for the loaded wagon at its maximum operational speed of 140 km/ h. In order to ensure these running characteristics, the suspension decouples the wheelset from the bogie frame through rubber primary springs, minimizing unsprung mass and dynamic wheel loading. In the secondary stage, the connection between the bogie and wagon frames is established through four air springs, two traction rods and both vertical and yaw dampers. The air suspension offers the lowest possible accelerations for the goods to be transported and also allows for the ride height to be varied according to operating conditions and needs. The two traction rods, depicted in orange in the lower left of in Figure 5, transfer the Figure 2: Structural topology optimization results for the EMW wagon frame. Above, detail view of the bogie area. Below, side view of the entire frame, showing optimized bracing in the web of the solebar. Colours denote relative densities of the finite elements. Views not to scale. Figure 3: The complete finished wagon frame of the EMW International Transportation | Collection 2022 44 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Rail technology longitudinal and lateral forces between the wagon and the bogies, for example with longitudinal accelerations of 3g. The resulting equivalent force in the axis of the rods is approximately 56 kN. In order to reduce the mass of the rods, a topology optimization was also carried out for these components and their design carried out accordingly. The diagonal arrangement of the traction rods forms a virtual pivot point in the middle of the chassis frame and thus enables a load-independent radial steering of the wheelset in small radius curves. At high speeds, on the other hand, two yaw dampers limit this yaw movement and thus ensure safe running. The bogie frame is made of S355 J2 and has a mass of approximately 490 kg. The four air springs mounted at the corners of the frame are regulated with separate level control systems, with roll moments between wagon and bogie frame being resisted by a mechanical stabilizer mounted on the wagon frame. Moments arising from brake use are resisted purely by the air springs, as their stiffness and distance along the length of the wagon are sufficient to limit any rotation of the bogie frame about the wheelset axis to an insignificant level. With all components and systems in place, the complete bogie has a mass of approx. 2,820 kg. Using tools such as topology optimizations and FEM structural analysis, as well as the incorporation of design elements focused on the use of the DAC and single wheelset running rear, a new, innovative lightweight freight wagon design has been achieved (Figure 6). Thanks to structural optimization and a pragmatic focus on lightweight design, the EMW has a tare weight of only 12,000 kg [3]. In relation to its length of 16.84 m, the car is 19.6 % lighter than the comparable LGS 580 [3, 4] and 6.7 % lighter than the 5L next [5]. The presented lightweight mechanical design approach of the EMW is an important enabler for reductions of greenhouse gas emissions in the freight transportation sector. A low vehicle mass, high payload and high specific energy efficiency with reduced aerodynamic drag, together with technologies that enable highly flexible operation and a high degree of automation, will allow a new generation of freight wagons to complement current rail freight offerings while promoting the decarbonization of the freight sector through the displacement of fossil-fuelled road freight traffic. ■ This project has received funding from the Shift2Rail Joint Undertaking (JU) under grant agreement No 101004051. The JU receives support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme and the Shift2Rail JU members other than the Union Figure 4: Topology optimization result for the EMW bogie frame Figure 5: Finished single-wheelset bogie design for the EMW. The bogie frame in blue connects all components and transfers forces to the two orange traction rods (lower left), which converge toward the centre of the bogie, forming a virtual pivot point. Figure 6: Finished design for the EMW in display configuration, shown with partial aerodynamic cladding installed International Transportation | Collection 2022 45 Rail technology SCIENCE & RESEARCH REFERENCES [1] Bänsch, R., et al. (2022): CFW - Das Schienengüterverkehrskonzept von morgen. In: Eisenbahningenieur, Issue 9, September 2022. [2] EN 12663-1 Railway applications - Structural requirements of railway vehicle bodies - Part 1: Locomotives and passenger rolling stock (and alternative method for freight wagons), DIN e.V., 2010. [3] Kirkayak, L., et al. (2022): Lightweight Design Concept Methodology of the Extended Market Wagon: A Shift2Rail Project [Konferenzbeitrag]. In: World Congress on Railway Research 2022, Birmingham, UK, 06.-10. June 2022. [4] Gueterwagenkatalog DB Cargo (2021): <https: / / gueterwagenkatalog.dbcargo.com/ katalog/ nach-gattung/ Lgs-580-5852654> (accessed: 22.04. 2021). [5] Hofstetter, S. (2019): Weiterentwicklung Schienengüterverkehr: vom 5L-Wagen zum intelligenten Güterzug. In: ZEVRail Tagungband, SFT Graz 143, S. 88-91. Robert Winkler-Höhn Research Associate, Institute of Vehicle Concepts, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Stuttgart (DE) robert.winkler-hoehn@dlr.de Gerhard Kopp, Dr.-Ing. Department Head, Institute of Vehicle Concepts, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Stuttgart (DE) gerhard.kopp@dlr.de Mathilde Laporte Research Associate, Institute of Vehicle Concepts, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Stuttgart (DE) mathilde.laporte@dlr.de Christian Gomes Alves Research Associate, Institute of Vehicle Concepts, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Stuttgart (DE) christian.gomesalves@dlr.de Nicolai Schmauder Research Associate, Institute of Vehicle Concepts, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Stuttgart (DE) nicolai.schmauder@dlr.de David Krüger Research Associate, Institute of Vehicle Concepts, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Stuttgart (DE) david.krueger@dlr.de FACING THE CHALLENGES OF MOBILITY Founded in 1949 - bound forward to face the challenges of tomorrow‘s mobility: With an editorial board of renowned scientists and an advisory board of directors, CEOs and managers from all transport industry areas, »Internationales Verkehrswesen« and »International Transportation« - the worldwide distributed English-language edition - rank as leading cross-system transport journals in Europe for both academic research and practical application. Rail and road, air transport and waterway traffic — »International Transportation« and »Internationales Verkehrswesen« stimulate a worldwide interdisciplinary discussion of the numerous defiances in mobility, transport, and logistics. The magazines are targeted at planners and decision makers in municipalities, communities, public authorities and transportation companies, at engineers, scientists and students. With peer-reviewed scientific articles and technical contributions the magazines keep readers abreast of background conditions, current trends and future prospects - such as digitalization, automation, and the increasing challenges of urban traffic. Read more about the magazines and the subscription conditions: www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de www.international-transportation.com INTERNATIONALES VERKEHRSWESEN AND INTERNATIONAL TR ANSPORTATION »Internationales Verkehrswesen« and »International Transportation« are published by Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft, D-Baiersbronn IV_Image_halb_quer.indd 1 IV_Image_halb_quer.indd 1 15.04.2018 19: 50: 55 15.04.2018 19: 50: 55 International Transportation | Collection 2022 46 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Academics Projects in a nutshell Overview of selected mobility research and projects Artemis Technologies unveils 100% electric passenger ferry N ew 24 metre vessels designed and built by the maritime design and applied technologies company Artemis Technologies represent ground-breaking green innovations for commercial ferries, radically different from traditional ferries in operation. The vessels should transform the global passenger ferry market as it races to decarbonise. Riding above the waves results in a comfortable ride, reducing effects of seasickness. First EF-24 Passenger ferry will be operated by Condor Ferries in 2024. This ferry is among several zero-emission vessels being developed by Artemis Technologies in Belfast, Northern Ireland, designed to provide commercially viable green transport solutions for operators, cities and governments across the world. With a top speed of 38 knots, the EF-24 Passenger ferry offers a range of 115 nautical miles at a 25 knots cruise speed and produces incredible fuel savings of up to 85% compared to conventional high-speed diesel ferries. Powered by the patented Artemis eFoiler electric propulsion system, the 24 metre vessels will “fly” above the water, providing a comfortable ride for up to 150 passengers on board, mitigating effects of seasickness and producing minimal wake at high-speed, significantly reducing the impact on shorelines. Artemis Technologies is a spin-off from the Artemis Racing team that competed in the America’s Cup of which its founder, twotime Olympic champion Dr Iain Percy Obe is a four-time veteran. He says: “We have combined our experience from the worlds of high-performance sailing, motorsports, aerospace, and advanced manufacturing to design and develop an electric propulsion system that is quite simply a game changer for the maritime industry.” And in view of the propulsion system: “With hydrofoils that lift the boats out of the water, we are dramatically reducing drag. This is coupled with a submerged electric drivetrain that is exceptionally efficient, as proven through rigorous testing with our 12 metre eFoiler workboat, validating our digital simulations and performance prediction.” The ferries will be fully accessible, incredibly spacious with a range of facilities on board including bike racks, cabin bag and overhead storage, baby changing facilities, and charging points. The vessels will also feature a unique high-speed collision avoidance system developed with ECIT, part of Queen’s University Belfast. The system will ensure the safety of operations in port and close to shore by safely diverting the ferry on an altered path away from sea life, wildlife, debris and other in-water objects that might otherwise be obscured from view. Artemis Technologies has partnered with Condor Ferries to operate a pilot scheme using the first EF-24 Passenger ferry, runinng between Belfast and Bangor in Northern Ireland from 2024 on. Iain Percy Obe: “Many water-based cities around the world are grappling with the challenge of growing populations, congestion, and pollution. The EF-24 Passenger can provide an immediate green transport solution that competes economically with road and rail in places like San Francisco, New York, Venice, Istanbul, Dubai, and Singapore - anywhere around the globe that is seeking sustainable transport alternatives that balance the requirement for people to continue to move around with the need to reduce carbon emissions. Especially where new infrastructure is required like a new road or rail line, this ferry will not only be the cheapest, but also the fastest and least disruptive way to decarbonise transport networks in water-based cities.” Earlier this year on its continued mission towards the decarbonisation of maritime, Artemis Technologies launched the world’s largest 100 % electric foiling vessel, ‘Pioneer of Belfast’ and unveiled an electric workboat range including a 12 metre multi-purpose workboat and a 12 metre crew transfer vessel with a 24 metre crew transfer vessel also currently under development. www.artemistechnologies.co.uk EF-24 Passenger ferry Picture: Artemis Technologies International Transportation | Collection 2022 47 Academics SCIENCE & RESEARCH Systems solutions for hydrogen engines G erman technology group Mahle believes that by the year 2035 about 30% of all commercial vehicles worldwide will be purely electric with batteries or fuel cells. At the IAA Transportation trade fair in Hanover, Germany, the automotive supplier was premiering its new SCT electric motor (Superior Continuous Torque), which provides extremely high continuous power and is therefore especially suited to commercial vehicles. In addition, Mahle was presenting a new systems solution for cleaner combustion engines which can also be fueled with hydrogen - among others. “We provide the transport sector’s necessary contribution to climate protection through a realistic and technology-neutral view of customers and markets,” says Michael Frick, Chairman of the Management Board and CFO. The commercial vehicle sector is with about 20 % of the total sales a significant business area. In addition to the fuel cell, the use of hydrogen as a combustion fuel has the potential to make many heavy-duty and off-highway applications climate-neutral particularly quickly. Hydrogen engines are ideal for high load cycles with sudden load steps and handle heat, contamination and vibration well. At Mahle, more than 100 years of experience flow into the development of the necessary engine components. A new power cell unit was presented for the first time at the IAA — a system consisting of pistons, piston rings, conrods, pins and, if necessary, a cylinder liner as well as a high-pressure impactor for flushing the crankcase. This means that hydrogen can be used highly efficiently and safely in combustion engines with a long service life. www.mahle.com Hydrogen combustion components Picture: Mahle Group Clean Hydrogen: A long-awaited solution for hard-to-abate sectors? O ne of the world’s biggest climate challenges is decarbonizing fossil energy uses that cannot be directly electrified using renewable power. Among so-called “hard-to-abate” (HTA) sectors are major industries that rely on fossil fuels, either for high-temperature energy or for chemical feedstocks, together responsible for approximately 30% of the world’s annual CO 2 emissions. Another HTA sector is heavy-duty transportation such as trucking and shipping, which is harder to electrify than passenger transport because it would require enormous batteries that add to vehicle weight and take a long time to charge. As countries examine pathways towards decarbonization, relatively wealthy ones like the U.S. and much of Europe are pursuing strategies focused on renewable power generation and electric vehicles. China faces significantly different challenges due to a distinctive carbon emission profile resulting from the much larger roles that HTA heavy industries play in its economy. New research published in Nature Energy examines how China - by far the largest producer of iron, steel, cement, and building materials - can potentially utilize clean hydrogen (“green” and “blue” hydrogen) to decarbonize HTA sectors, and aid in achieving its 2030 and 2060 decarbonization pledges. Green hydrogen is made by splitting water molecules H 2 O - using renewable electricity, while blue hydrogen is produced conventionally, from fossil fuels, but combined with carbon capture and storage. The new paper from the Harvard-China Project on Energy, Economy and Environment, a U.S.-China collaborative research program based at the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, is the first study to date that uses an integrated modeling approach to evaluate the potential use of clean hydrogen across China’s energy system and economy, in order to meet its 2060 net-zero target. The study evaluated three questions: What are the key challenges of decarbonizing HTA sectors? What are the prospective roles for clean hydrogen as both an energy carrier and feedstock in HTA sectors? And would widespread application of clean hydrogen in HTA sectors be cost-effective compared to other options? To analyze the cost-effectiveness and role of clean hydrogen across China’s entire economy the team built a model of an integrated energy system that includes supply and demand across sectors. Results show that a widespread application of clean hydrogen in HTA sectors can help China achieve carbon neutrality costeffectively compared to a scenario without clean hydrogen production and use. Clean hydrogen can save USD 1.72 trillion in investment costs and avoid a 0.13% loss in the aggregate GDP (2020-2060) compared to a pathway without it. The researchers also examined the type of clean hydrogen - green or blue - that would be most cost effective. Their study indicates that the average cost of China’s green hydrogen can be reduced to USD 2 per kg of hydrogen by 2037 and USD 1.2 per kg by 2050, when it will be much more cost-effective than blue hydrogen (USD 1.9 per kg). “China has rich untapped resources of solar and wind energy, both onshore and offshore,” explains Chris P. Nielsen, co-author of the paper and Executive Director of the Harvard-China Project. “These resources give China advantages towards developing green hydrogen for use in its industrial and transportation sectors.” www.nature.com/ articles/ s41560-022-01114-6 Picture: Akidata21 / pixabay International Transportation | Collection 2022 48 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Academics Trials with world’s first urban autonomous passenger ferry T he autonomous passenger ferry “milli- Ampere 2”, developed by the Norwegian University of Science and Technology NTNU, is running shuttle traffic across the main channel in Trondheim until mid- October. The public can jump on board during the trial period and test the new technology, while researchers survey the public’s experiences. This is the first time a self-propelled electric passenger ferry has been put into trial operation along urban waterways. The technology has the potential to revitalize public transport in a sustainable way by using urban waterways in a new way, says Morten Breivik, an associate professor at NTNU’s Department of Engineering Cybernetics: “This is the first step towards a new form of micromobility in cities with urban waterways. - In the longer term, the technology can be further developed to create green, flexible and cost-effective transport along the entire Norwegian coast.” Breivik plays a key role in the interdisciplinary environment at NTNU that has developed the technology. The NTNU ferry was developed by researchers and students from several academic areas who collaborated to develop milliAmpere 2 and its precursor milliAmpere that was Norway’s very first prototype of an autonomous ferry, milliAmpere was built in 2016. Egil Eide, an associate professor at the Department of Electronic Systems, says that the team gained a lot of experience from the first version. The new milliAmpere 2 is significantly larger than its predecessor, has more advanced technology located under the deck along with a new, improved design. A number of sensors such as rangefinders, cameras, laser vision and radar are mounted on deck so that the automation system receives enough data about the surroundings to avoid collisions with land or other vessels. In addition, sensors have been installed that will give an operator in a landbased control room a good enough understanding of the situation to be able to take over control should the need arise. The passenger ferry has room for 20 people, but will be limited to a maximum of 12 passengers on board during the trial operation. Several countries are showing interest in the autonomous passenger ferry technology for urban areas. A delegation from France was in Trondheim this spring to look at the possibilities for acquiring and putting such passenger ferries into operation along the river Seine during the 2024 Olympics. www.ntnu.edu Picture: Kai T. Dragland / NTNU Picture: Siemens Mobility Digitalization and automation for driverless regional trains I n a project that will run until the end of 2024, Siemens (consortium leader) and 16 partners will facilitate advances in the driverless operation of regional trains with the aid of artificial intelligence (AI). Within the “safe.trAIn” project, which the German government is subsidizing, there is a budget of EUR 23 million available for this task. Solutions for meeting the requirements in this highly regulated and standardized environment have the potential to substantially boost the efficiency and sustainability of regional railway transportation. The digitalization and automation of train operation within the existing rail network is a key lever for rapidly achieving successful outcomes. The improvements being targeted range from shorter headways - and thus more flexibility for passengers as a result of more frequent intervals between trains - to greater cost efficiency, and they extend all the way to a clear increase in the availability of rail transportation. Based on the state of the art, conventional automation technology alone will not be enough to enable fully automatic railway operation. Artificial intelligence, however, offers major potential in this area. The challenge that has remained unresolved to date is that of finding a practicable way to link AI methodologies to the requirements and approval processes that apply in railway environments. This is where the “safe.trAIn” project comes into play. This project aims to lay a foundation for safe use of AI for driverless operation of rail vehicles and to thus address a key technological challenge hindering the adoption of driverless rail transportation. Until now, solutions for completely driverless and unattended operation of trains have been successfully operating exclusively in controlled and closed environments, such as subway tunnels. The safe.trAIn project is focusing on applying this technology for use in regional trains. Such trains operate in more open environments in which it is necessary, in particular, to reliably recognize obstructions - such as people on the lines as well as fallen trees or mudslides on the tracks, etc. The project goals are to perform integrated development of testing standards and of methods for using AI to automate rail transportation and to use example applications to verify the suitability of test standards. Focal points here will be on AI-based methods for driverless regional trains, approval-relevant validation of the product safety of the AI components, as well as testing processes and testing methods. Safe. trAIn will build on the results from the latest research and development activities and will continue the development of those activities in line with the new requirements. Important projects in this area are Shift- 2Rail, BerDiBa, ATO-Sense and ATO-Risk, and KI-Absicherung (“AI safeguarding”). www.siemens.com International Transportation | Collection 2022 49 Events FORUM Moving people and goods more sustainably Review: 20-22 September 2022, EU Urban Mobility Days, Brno (CZ) H ow can walking, cycling and public transport help combat oil dependency? Are people willing to choose more cycling and walking, less car use and more public transport at the expense of their comfort and habits? How can harmonised urban mobility data improve the traffic flow? Why are Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans so important? And how to pay for it all? - These were some of the questions being discussed in the context of Urban Mobility Days 2022 with took place from 20-22 September in Brno, Czech Republic. More than 1,000 transport professionals, policy makers and political representatives came together to discuss ambitious climate targets and how to transform urban mobility within the framework of this year’s theme “Moving people and goods more sustainably”. Changing the habits of a lifetime across the whole continent of Europe calls for decisive action through political commitments, such as the Climate-Neutral and Smart Cities Mission, as well as the engagement of citizens and young persons. As 2022 is the European Year of Youth, Urban Mobility Days put the spotlight on young voices and views, as Europe debates the big questions of climate resilience and reducing dependency on oil and natural gas following Russia’s aggression against Ukraine. As the leading event on urban mobility in Europe, Urban Mobility Days, taking place this year during European Mobility Week, also provided an opportunity to discuss the new EU Urban Mobility Framework adopted in December 2021. Jointly organised by the European Commission, Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport, and the Czech Presidency of the Council of the EU, Urban Mobility Days were organised as a hybrid event, with in-person attendance in Brno. The event showcased research and innovation projects which have received funding from the European Commission. To have a look at the programme, the presentations, and the speakers see the website: www.eumd.org/ en/ me/ programme Photo: Pavel Karásek / pixabay Focus on the resilience of smart cities Preview: 25-26 May 2023, Smart Cities Symposium Prague (SCSP) and 21st European Transport Congress (ETC), Prague (CZ) H osted by the CTU Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Transportation Sciences, the Smart Cities Symposium Prague (SCSP) and the 21st European Transport Congress (ETC) which will be held in Prague, Czech Republic, from 25 to 26 May 2023. The focus of both conferences will be mainly on research in the field of strengthening the resilience of smart cities. Researchers with different background are encouraged to participate and share their findings. The Symposium aims to be a multidisciplinary forum for exchanging ideas and best practices in the field of Smart Cities not limited to theory but also including real world applications. The European Transport Congress with the topic “Strengthening the resilience of smart cities”, organized by the European Platform of Transport Sciences - EPTS Foundation e.V, comes together with the European Friedrich-List-Award 2023 for young transport scientists. The Award (see page 33) will be conferred during the 21st ETC - please visit www.epts.eu. Application deadline is 13 January 2023. www.epts.eu/ etc2023 https: / / akce.fd.cvut.cz/ en/ scsp2023 Source: CVUT International Transportation | Collection 2022 50 Editorial Board Editorial Advisory Board Matthias Krämer Director Mobility and Logistics, Federation of German Industries (Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie e.V./ BDI), Berlin (DE) Gerd Aberle Dr. rer. pol. Dr. h.c., Emeritus professor of Gießen University, and honorary member of the Editorial Advisory Board (DE) Magnus Lamp Program Director Transport, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne (DE) Uwe Clausen Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing., Director of the Institute for Transport Logistics at Technical University (TU) Dortmund & Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics (IML), (DE) Florian Eck Dr., Managing Director of the German Transport Forum (Deutsches Verkehrsforum e.V./ DVF), Berlin (DE) Michael Engel Dr., Managing Director of the German Airline Association (Bundesverband der Deutschen Fluggesellschaften e. V./ BDF), Berlin (DE) Alexander Eisenkopf Prof. Dr. rer. pol., ZEPPELIN Chair of Economic & Transport Policy, Zeppelin University, Friedrichshafen (DE) Tom Reinhold Dr.-Ing., CEO, traffiQ, Frankfurt (DE) Ottmar Gast Dr., former Chairman of the Executive Board of Hamburg-Süd KG, Hamburg (DE) Barbara Lenz Prof. Dr., former Director of the Institute of Transport Research, German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V./ DLR), Berlin (DE) Knut Ringat Prof., Speaker of the Executive Board of the-Rhine-Main Regional Transport Association (Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund GmbH/ RMV), Hofheim am Taunus (DE) Wolfgang Stölzle Prof. Dr., Professor of Logistics Management, Research Institute for Logistics Management, University of St. Gallen (CH) Ute Jasper Dr. jur., lawyer, law firm of Heuking Kühn Lüer Wojtek, Düsseldorf (DE) Matthias von Randow Executive Director of the German Aviation Association (Bundesverband der Deutschen Luftverkehrswirtschaft/ BDL), Berlin (DE) Kay W. Axhausen Prof. Dr.-Ing., Institute for Transport Planning and Systems (IVT), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich (CH) Hartmut Fricke Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil., Chair of Air Transport Technology and Logistics, Technical University (TU) Dresden (DE) Hans-Dietrich Haasis Prof. Dr., Chair of Business Studies and Economics, Maritime Business and Logistics, University of Bremen (DE) Sebastian Kummer Prof. Dr., Head of the Institute for Transport and Logistics Management, Vienna University of Economics and Business (AT) Peer Witten Prof. Dr., Chairman of Logistics Initiative Hamburg (LHH); Member of the Supervisory Board of Otto Group, Hamburg (DE) Oliver Wolff Executive Director of the Association of German Transport Companies (Verband Deutscher Verkehrsunternehmen/ VDV), Cologne (DE) Oliver Kraft CEO, VoestAlpine BWG GmbH, Butzbach (DE) Ralf Nagel Former presidium member German Shipowners’ Association (Verband Deutscher Reeder/ VDR), Hamburg (DE) Detlev K. Suchanek Executive Partner, PMC Media House GmbH, Hamburg (DE) Jan Ninnemann Prof. Dr., Course head for Logistics Management, Department Maritime & Logistics, HSBA Hamburg School of Business Administration, Hamburg (DE) Sebastian Belz Dipl.-Ing., Secretary General of EPTS Foundation, CEO econex verkehrsconsult, Wuppertal (DE) Ben Möbius Dr., Executive Director of the German Federation of Rail Industries (Verband der Bahnindustrie in Deutschland), Berlin (DE) Ullrich Martin Prof. Dr.-Ing., Head of Institute of Railway and Transportation Engineering (IEV), Stuttgart (DE) International Transportation is a special edition of Internationales Verkehrswesen | vol. 74 Imprint Editorial board Prof. Dr. Kay W. Axhausen Prof. Dr. Hartmut Fricke Prof. Dr. Hans Dietrich Haasis Prof. Dr. Sebastian Kummer Prof. Dr. Barbara Lenz Prof. Knut Ringat Publishing house Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft Eberhard Buhl | Christine Ziegler Schliffkopfstr. 22, D-72270 Baiersbronn Phone +49 7449 91386.36 office@trialog.de www.trialog.de Publishing Director Dipl.-Ing. Christine Ziegler VDI Phone +49 7449 91386.43 christine.ziegler@trialog.de Editorial office Managing Editor Eberhard Buhl, M.A. Phone +49 7449 91386.44 eberhard.buhl@trialog.de editorsdesk@international-transportation.com Advertising Phone +49 7449 91386.46 Fax +49 7449 91386.37 anzeigen@trialog.de For advertisement prices, please see price list no. 59 of 01 Jan. 2022 Sales Phone +49 7449 91386.39 Fax +49 7449 91386.37 service@trialog.de Publishing intervals Quarterly, plus International Transportation Terms of subscription Subscriptions run for a minimum of 1 year and may be terminated at the end of any subscription period. 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Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft Baiersbronn-Buhlbach ISSN 0020-9511 EDITORIAL PANELS | IMPRINT Johann Dumser Director Global Marketing and Communications, Plasser & Theurer, Vienna (AT) GESAMMELTES FACHWISSEN Das Archiv der Zeitschrift Internationales Verkehrswesen mit ihren Vorgänger-Titeln reicht bis Ausgabe 1|1949 zurück. Sie haben ein Jahres-Abonnement? Dann steht Ihnen auch dieses Archiv zur Verfügung. Durchsuchen Sie Fach- und Wissenschaftsbeiträge ab Jahrgang 2000 nach Stichworten. Greifen Sie direkt auf die PDFs aller Ausgaben ab Jahrgang 2010 zu. Mehr darüber auf: www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft | Baiersbronn | service@trialog.de ePaper-EAZ_IV_TranCit.indd 4 ePaper-EAZ_IV_TranCit.indd 4 11.11.2018 18: 32: 23 11.11.2018 18: 32: 23