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Strategies and solutions for tomorrow’s transportation Where do we stand with mobility? STRATEGIES How to give EV batteries a second life BEST PRACTICE Urban mobility in Bavaria and Ukraine PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS What role synthetic fuels can play in the future SCIENCE & RESEARCH Ways to minimize traffic accidents International Transportation www.international-transportation.com Collection | October 2023 Volume 75 Would you prefer to read Internationales Verkehrswesen and International Transportation on-screen? Symply switch your aktive subscription from printed copies to e-journals - it’s nothing but an e-mail to service@trialog.de Or select the electronic journal from the very start. Take more convenience: Your transportation journal is on-hand at any time - with your tablet, desktop, smartphone, … www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de/ abonnement Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft | Baiersbronn | service@trialog.de ePaper-EAZ_IV_TranCit.indd 3 ePaper-EAZ_IV_TranCit.indd 3 11.11.2018 18: 27: 05 11.11.2018 18: 27: 05 PROFESSIONAL EXPERTISE - ANYTIME IN YOUR POCKET International Transportation | Collection 2023 3 Wojciech Paprocki POINT OF VIEW Is road transport of-goods reliable? T he digital transformation of the European economy is accelerating. Many years ago, high-tech leaders from US and China gained a dominant position in the market for digital services. Europe-based companies continue to dominate the market for physical goods, most of which are produced using analog technologies. These goods are traded between partners within the continent, with remainder being transported via seaports to customers in other regions of the world. Cargo flows on the land route are mainly transported by trucks. More than 75 % of the transport performance is carried out by road. Rail and inland waterways play a complementary role. For many years, the European Union and the governments of many member states, as well as Switzerland, have sought to limit the role of road haulage in the European transport system. This objective has not been achieved. Shippers created more and more demand, preferring the flexibility of road transport. At the same time, they have avoided using the services of the carriers of the other two modes of transport, disappointed by the instability of their operational processes. In addition, shippers have gained experience that prices of rail and water transportation services are not attractive. Over the past three decades, European shippers have become accustomed to the fact that road transport services are always available. The increase in the supply of services was strongly influenced by the entry of carriers from Central Europe. Their significant position in international transport services is reflected, for example, in traffic statistics on German highways. Only half of the heavy trucks are registered by a carrier based in Germany. Every fifth vehicle is registered in Poland. For several years, the phenomenon of decreasing availability of services has been noticeable, the main reason for which is the shortage-of drivers on the labor market in most EU member states. Since the beginning of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, thousands of drivers who started working for carriers in Poland and other EU countries before 2022 have left the labor market. As a result, the shortage of drivers has been exacerbated. There are several factors that could lead to structural imbalances in the road transport market. In addition to the driver shortage phenomenon described above, there is a risk that private companies from the SME sector will not be able to cope with new challenges: the digitalization of operational processes in logistics chains and the implementation of technological solutions leading to the decarbonization of transport. Of the millions of people (almost exclusively men) who work as drivers, the majority belong to the 40+ generation. This means that only a minority of these professionals was “born with a smartphone in their hand”. Shippers and logistics operators press drivers to use new applications in a perfect way. It faces the social resistance. The training courses for drivers are effective, but they do not cover everyone. There is a growing group of private carriers who do not want to adapt to the new requirements and withdraw from the market. In the SME group, primarily in the micro-enterprise subgroup, there are no capital resources at all to try to join the rolling stock replacement process and start using new drives and new energy carriers. European shippers, de facto dependent on road transport, underestimate that their strategic suppliers would reduce their human and material potential. Such a scenario for the coming years can be implemented exactly at a time when the governments of Western European countries, including Germany and France, will stimulate the reindustrialization of the economy. The option of increasing cargo by rail or inland waterways cannot be considered realistic, since the infrastructure of these two modes of transportation does not allow to increase the volume and ensure the stability of operations. There are three ways to reduce this risk. •• Firstly, it is necessary to quickly and significantly improve the social working conditions of drivers. It is crucial to attract new people to this profession, including women. A change in work organization can be of great importance. For example, if drivers were rotated on the route of cargo transportation, their work cycle would allow them to return home and spend the night there. With the use of digital technologies, it is feasible to plan the disposition of personnel and fleet in appropriate time intervals on selected sections. •• Secondly, it is possible to expand the offer of intermodal operators. Their offer is quite rich on the north-south axis, but very modest on the east-west axis, e. g. between Poland/ Czech Republic/ Hungary and France/ Spain. •• Thirdly, the use of larger rolling stock, i.e. one set of tractor, semi-trailer and trailer, can be used more often. And I think that should be feasible. Wojciech Paprocki, Prof. Dr. hab. The Institute for Infrastructure, Transport and Mobility, SGH Warsaw School of Economics, Warszawa (PL) International Transportation | Collection 2023 4 BEST PRACTICE 14 Unlocking the potential of Google’s mobility data Benno Benjamin Bock Robert Schönduwe 18 Autonomous shuttles in Bavarian Bad Birnbach Research for an AI-supported future of public transport in rural areas Nicole Wagner-Hanl Julian Wagner Leandra Rüpplein Thomas Huber 20 Urban mobility in Ukraine: Eight building blocks for a green recovery What does it need to foster sustainable mobility in post-war Ukrainian cities? Marta Pastukh Mathias Merforth Viktor Zagreba Armin Wagner FOCUS 6 EU mobility update - Single European Sky: New framework for interoperability rules - European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) fit for purpose - Rail Transport: New harmonised EU standards to support cross-border rail - EU funding for alternative fuels infrastructure STRATEGIES 8 The new EU Battery Regulation Reducing Europe’s dependency on supplying raw materials Elisabeth Gütl 10 Improving the circularity of e-bus batteries Regulatory framework and end of life management for Li-Ion batteries in Colombia, India and Tanzania Frederick Adjei, Inga Hilbert, Viviana López Hernández, Andreas Manhart, Deepali Khetriwal, Shruti Dalal, Silvani E Mng’anya, Dorah Swai, Haji Rehani, Luka Yohana, Ángel Eduardo Camacho Up-to-date news and information at www.international-transportation.com Photo: 609118 / pixabay PAGE 6 Photo: Nicole Wagner-Hanl / Fraunhofer IML PAGE 18 International Transportation POINT OF VIEW 3 Is road transport of goods reliable? Wojciech Paprocki International Transportation | Collection 2023 5 CONTENT Collection 2023 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS SCIENCE & RESEARCH COLUMNS Photo: Steve Cross / pixabay PAGE 26 Photo: 652234 / pixabay PAGE 36 44 Forum Events 46 Editorial panels | Imprint 31 Towards Vision Zero V2X Communication for Active Vulnerable Road User Protection Fabian de Ponte Müller Estefania Munoz Diaz Stephan Sand Clarissa Böker Lukas Merk 36 Semi-trailer in Germany Ongoing success story in driving the modal shift from road to rail Eugen Truschkin 39 Significance map pedestrian traffic Leipzig Mapping the relevance of the built environment for pedestrian traffic as the basis for strategic network development Friedemann Goerl Frederik Sander Robert Guschel Caroline Koszowski Regine Gerike 23 Public Transport Management - where do we stand? André Maia Pereira Josep Laborda 26 Synthetic fuels in the traffic of the future On water, on land and in the air: a look at standards compliance and material compatibility Jens Artz Philip Ruff 29 Dimethyl ether as an alternative fuel Can a diesel run on carbonneutral liquefied petroleum gas? 30 Automotive vehicles need an all-round view to minimize traffic fatalities Kobi Marenko KNOWLEDGE AT A GLANCE Previously published issues of International Transportation Oct 2022: Mobility turnaround Oct 2021: Changing the game Oct 2020: Transforming transport June 2019: Best practice May 2018: Urban mobility May 2017: Managing public transport May 2016: Smarter on the move Oct 2015: Looking ahead May 2015: Urban transport www.international-transportation.com International Transportation | Collection 2023 6 Photo: © Ivan Shimko / Unsplash Photo: Alexandre Lallemand / Unsplash Single European Sky: New framework for interoperability rules T he European Commission has adopted a new set of rules to better manage interoperability between the systems and constituents used to provide air traffic management (ATM) and air navigation services (ANS). The new framework, comprising five regulations, will increase interoperability, make the performance of ATM ground equipment more uniform, and support the introduction of innovative technologies. Ultimately, this will lead to a more modern European ATM network. The new rules take a single market approach, reducing fragmentation within the ATM ground equipment market, and clearly allocating responsibilities for demonstrating compliance, in particular on the detailed specifications that will be now issued by the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). They also strengthen EASA’s role as certifying authority for both airborne and ground equipment, ensuring that both are done consistently. With digitalisation and data exchange between systems on the ground and in the air becoming more common, it now makes sense from a safety perspective to apply the same approach to both system sets. Finally, the new conformity assessment framework consolidates existing interoperability rules, adapting them to the EASA framework. This includes, for example, rules on the equipment required on board aircraft for the use of the SES airspace, common requirements for ATM/ ANS providers concerning datalink and surveillance, as well as flight planning elements within the Standardised European Rules of the Air. The Single European Sky (SES) also needs reform in other areas to effectively govern the performance of monopoly air navigation service providers, as well as to enable network-centric operations orchestrated by the European Network Manager. This will address the air congestion that has a negative impact on the climate and environment. The ongoing negotiations between the European Parliament and Council on SES2+ address these problems. The new rules replace eight SES interoperability implementing regulations: •• A delegated act on the rules for conformity assessment of ATM ground equipment introducing a regime with certification and declarations; •• An implementing act on approval of design and production organisations concerning obligations and privileges of such organisations (Regulation (EU) 2023/ 1769); •• An implementing act on airspace usage requirements concerning required equipment on board the aircraft used for communication, navigation and surveillance for the use of European airspace (Regulation (EU) 2023/ 1770); •• An amendment to the ATM/ ANS common requirements regulation (Regulation (EU) 2023/ 1771); and •• An amendment to the Standardised European Rules of the Air regulation (Regulation (EU) 2023/ 1772). With the adoption of Regulation (EU) 2018/ 1139 (the new EASA Basic Regulation), the Interoperability Regulation was repealed, although some elements continued to apply provisionally until September 2023. The European Parliament and Council tasked the Commission with developing - within these five years - a new set of rules to govern the interoperability of systems and constituents. The EASA Basic Regulation also mandates the development of rules as regards the certification or declaration of ATM ground equipment and for organisations involved in their design or production. https: / / ec.europa.eu EU mobility update Selected mobility guidelines and new regulations in Europe FOCUS European Union International Transportation | Collection 2023 7 European Union FOCUS European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) fit for purpose A Commission evaluation of Regulation (EU) 2018/ 1139 on common rules in the field of civil aviation and establishing a European Union Aviation Safety Agency (‘EASA’) has given a positive appraisal of EASA’s performance and added value. The evaluation assessed the Regulation’s effectiveness in reaching its objectives, efficiency, relevance in responding to the stakeholder needs, coherence with other EU legislation and policy actions, and its overall EU added value. The evaluation also reviewed EASA’s performance in relation to its objectives, mandate, and tasks. The findings are analysed in an accompanying Staff Working Document. EASA has been very successful in delivering on its tasks and Regulation (EU) 2018/ 1139 continues to provide a sound legal framework for the Agency’s operations. It has succeeded in its core tasks of rulemaking, certification and standardisation, and fulfils its role in ensuring common rules and standards for aviation safety are applied. EASA is at the forefront of developing and implementing innovative technologies, such as unmanned aircraft systems and electric aircraft, among others. This will help Europe maintain its international competitiveness in the aviation and aircraft manufacturing sectors. Despite some identified areas for improvement - one of them being appropriate long-term financing for EASA’s activities - aviation stakeholders consider the overall quality of the system as very good. The results of this evaluation are contained in a report adopted by the Commission on 12 September 2023. https: / / transport.ec.europa.eu/ document/ download/ 9778fd57-82c0-421b-86caa623cd43242b_en Rail Transport: New harmonised EU standards to support cross-border rail T he European Commission published a package of revised technical standards to improve rail interoperability across borders - the so-called ‘Technical Specifications for Interoperability’ (TSIs). The 2023 TSI package is considered as a key milestone along the path to making smooth cross-border train trips across the EU a reality, but should also clear the way for new innovative technologies. TSIs applied across the EU make the EU rail sector more efficient because they eliminate 25 different sets of national rules. Reducing complexity and parallel rules helps to improve affordability and lower the basic cost of rail operations. Ultimately, the sector will respond better to the needs of long distance, cross-border services, and be able to a wider, more innovative range of rail services to citizens and transport clients. Too often, national rules still force trains to stop at borders, when driving from one EU country to another. The cost of stopping trains at internal EU borders, and having to change crews and locomotives that are not certified for the next network’s national requirements, has slowed down the development of truly European services. The revised TSIs modernise and harmonise current technical standards for rail, eliminating the need for national rules that complicate cross-border rail operations. The revised standards also align with TEN-T requirements and introduce a common framework for technical and operating conditions for ERTMS, the European Rail Traffic Management System, and combined transport, granting more flexibility for operators in intermodal transport, for example. They also reflect recent technological developments, introducing rail innovation in a consistent manner. They pave the way for automatic train operations over ERTMS and digitalise technical and operating information for train drivers and rail staff, such as common infrastructure route and rule books for example, ensuring access to rail network knowledge. The revised TSIs entered into force on 28 September 2023. https: / / eur-lex.europa.eu/ legal-content/ EN/ TXT/ ? uri=OJ: L: 2023: 222: TOC Photo: © 46173 / pixabay EU funding for alternative fuels infrastructure T he European Commission announced 26 projects from twelve Member States that will receive funding to install alternative fuels infrastructure along the trans-European transport network (TEN-T). These projects will accelerate the creation of the comprehensive network of alternative refuelling infrastructure needed for the widespread use of low-and zero-emission vehicles in all transport modes. It is the second AFIF funding round of 2023 after March 2023. Commissioner for Transport Adina Vălean said: “The numerous applications for AFIF funding received underline the transport industry’s interest in pushing ahead with the switch to more sustainable transport - on roads, in the sky and at sea. Our investment of EUR 352 million will translate into approximately 12,000 charging points, 18 hydrogen refuelling stations, and the electrification of ports and airports, including the port of Rotterdam and 37 Spanish airports. More information: https: / / cinea.ec.europa. eu/ news-events/ news/ transport-infrastructure-over-eur-352-million-eu-fundingboost-greener-mobility-2023-09-11_en STRATEGIES EV batteries International Transportation | Collection 2023 8 The new EU Battery Regulation Reducing Europe’s dependency on supplying raw materials Electric vehicles, EU battery regulation, Rare earth elements, Raw materials Global sales of electric vehicles are on the rise. A temporary supply shortage or scarcity for some raw materials could be critical for Europe since it has a high dependency on other countries supplying raw material. To counteract this, the European Union has proposed a new battery regulation. Elisabeth Gütl W ith an increasing number of electric vehicles on the roads comes the rising demand for raw materials that are required for the manufacturing of electric vehicles. Along with this surge in demand, a temporary supply shortage or scarcity for some raw materials might occur in the future. This is especially critical for Europe since it has a high dependency on other countries supplying raw material. To counteract this, the European Union has proposed a new battery regulation, replacing the existing Batteries Directive 2006/ 66/ EC, including implementing targets for waste battery recovery. Europe’s dependency on raw materials for electric vehicles Along with the increasing effect of climate change and the resulting political actions to counteract it, more and more electric vehicles can be seen on the roads. This presents not only a major challenge in setting up the necessary infrastructure, but also with regards to the raw materials and the ramp up of their mining. When comparing the amount of minerals needed in an electric vehicle to the amount needed in a conventional car with an internal combustion engine, a significantly higher number of minerals is needed in order to manufacture an electric vehicle. A graph by the International Energy Agency provides a comparison between electric and conventional cars for some of the minerals used, showing that electric vehicles need around six times more minerals than conventional vehicles (see figure 1, steel and aluminum not included in the figure) [1]. Since the mining of most raw materials happens outside of Europe, Europe has a high dependency on several supplying countries which mine the raw materials needed for electric vehicles. When taking a closer look on the different components of electric vehicles, it is possible that different raw materials could be scarce in the future. Today’s mining capacity for example of lithium and cobalt is not sufficient to cover the forecasted demand for batteries in the future. To meet the expected demand in the future, the current cobalt production must be three times the current one; for lithium it would be even six times the current lithium production [2]. The permanent synchronous motor, one type of commonly used motors in the powertrain of electric vehicles, consists of a magnet using rare earth elements as raw material. Regarding rare earth elements, Europe is highly dependent on China, being the country with the highest export number of rare earths. The term ‘rare earths’ does not imply that the raw materials themselves are rare, however the mining produces toxic waste as a by-product and they must also be concentrated enough to result in profitable mining [3]. To reduce the dependency on countries supplying critical raw materials and to move forward into a more sustainable future with a higher recycling quota, the European Union agreed to change the existing battery directive to a new EU battery regulation. The new EU battery regulation The EU Battery Directive 2006/ 66/ EC, targeting batteries and accumulators, has been in place since the year 2006 and specifies limits for hazardous materials in batteries or accumulators like mercury or lead, which are presenting a risk for humans and the environment. The Directive furthermore sets collection targets for portable batteries and divides them into three different classes: portable, automotive, and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Copper Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Graphite Zinc Rare earths Others [kg/ vehicle] Conventional car Electric car Figure 1: Comparison of minerals used in electric and in conventional cars [1] EV batteries STRATEGIES International Transportation | Collection 2023 9 industrial batteries. However, for the movement towards a more sustainable and greener future, the EU Battery Directive is no longer meeting the expectations to support this transition. Therefore, the old EU battery directive will be replaced by a new EU battery regulation, which has a binding force for every member state of the European Union and contains several changes, as follows: •• A new battery category will be introduced with electric vehicle batteries; •• Improvement of the battery value chain; •• Setting specific recycling targets which are gradually increasing; •• From 2027 it will be a requirement for labels on batteries and accumulators to include information regarding the hazardous substances contained or type of battery. In particular, the new recycling targets were tightened, forcing battery-makers from 2027 onwards to recover for example 90 % of nickel and cobalt, the percentage rising to 95 % in 2031 and to recover 50 % of lithium from 2027 onwards, rising to 80 % in 2031. Another novelty in the new EU battery regulation will be the statement of CO 2 balance of batteries used in electric vehicles, as well as the labelling and information on the components of batteries and how much recycled content they contain. Already from July 2024 onwards it is planned that batteries must indicate a carbon footprint declaration [4]. For some raw materials the recycling techniques and processes are adequate and the recycling quota is high, whereas for raw materials, like rare earth elements or lithium, a ramp-up is still necessary to reduce the dependency. Recycling methods for raw materials According to the study on the EU’s list of Critical Raw Materials [5] several raw materials are considered as critical with a supply risk and of economic importance, including lithium and rare earth elements. Referring to the mentioned scarcity of raw materials as lithium and considering that the mining capacity of lithium might not be able to meet the future market demand, recycling technologies for lithium are becoming an important pillar and a widely discussed topic. To recycle lithium, a raw material of a battery in an electric vehicle, the first step is discharging the battery below a hazardous voltage level before dismantling it. The process step that separates the different materials of a battery is called mechanical pre-treatment but needs further processing in the form of a hydrometallurgical process step in which impurities are also removed-[6]. The composition of raw materials used in the magnet of permanent synchronous motors can vary, but rare earth elements are a crucial part of it. When it comes to rare earth elements, there is a differentiation according to their atomic numbers, making rare earth elements with atomic numbers between 57 and 63 light rare earth elements and between 64 to 71 heavy rare earth elements. neodymium, part of neodymiumiron-boron permanent magnets (NdFeB magnets) is a light rare earth element, with China being the most important supplier globally with a market share of 86 %. Dysprosium, a heavy rare earth element, is added to magnets to increase the temperature stability against demagnetization. Again, there is a high dependency on China as the global supplying country, with 86 % being the most important supplier for dysprosium [5]. For the recycling of rare earth elements different approaches and methods are possible but making hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical methods are the most common ones. They both offer the potential for individual rare earth elements recovery to be reused in magnets [7]. Conclusion In moving towards a greener and sustainable future the demand for certain raw materials is increasing. For electric vehicles some raw materials are especially critical with a high supply risk, particularly rare earth elements, part of permanent magnets in permanent magnet synchronous motors. Ramping up mining to meet future demand can be one benchmark to meet the expected market demand, but robust recycling methods can offer a significant source of supply in the future. To encourage and accelerate this ramp up of recycling, the new EU battery regulation paves the way to a more sustainable future. ■ REFERENCES [1] World Energy Outlook Special Report. www.iea.org/ data-andstatistics/ charts/ minerals-used-in-electric-cars-compared-to-conventional-cars (accessed 2023, July 03). [2] Maisel, F.; Neef, C.; Marscheider-Weidmann, F.; Nissen, N. (2023): A forecast on future raw material demand and recycling potential of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles. In: Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol: 192. [3] www.eias.org/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2016/ 02/ EIAS_Briefing_ Paper_2014-7_Ebner.pdf (accessed 2023, June 27). [4] www.europarl.europa.eu/ RegData/ etudes/ BRIE/ 2021/ 689337/ EPRS_BRI(2021)689337_EN.pdf (accessed 2023, June 27). [5] Blengini, G.; et al. (2020): Study on the EU’s list of Critical Raw Materials Final Report. [6] Neumann, J.; Petranikova, M.; Meeus, M.; Gamarra, J.; Younesi, R.; Winter,M.; Nowak, S. (2022): Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries— Current State of the Art, Circular Economy, and Next Generation Recycling. In: Advanced Energy Materials, Vol. 12. [7] Fujita, Y.; McCall, S.K.; Ginosar, D. (2022): Recycling rare earths: Perspectives and recent advances. In. MRS Bulletin 47, pp. 283-288. Elisabeth Gütl, Dipl.-Ing. Subject Matter Expert - System Engineering, Magna Powertrain, Traiskirchen (AT) elisabeth.guetl@magna.com STRATEGIES EV batteries International Transportation | Collection 2023 10 Improving the circularity of e-bus batteries Regulatory framework and end of life management for Li-Ion-batteries in Colombia, India and Tanzania Electric buses, Circular economy, Colombia, India, Tanzania The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH commissioned the development of a measures catalogue for inclusion of circular economy principles into e-bus planning and procurement. In this vein, a series of three workshops were organized in Bogotá, Dar es Salam and New Delhi with the core aim of presenting the developed measures. The article is the result of three study tours organized parallel to the workshops and presents short summaries on the status regarding the e-mobility targets, regulatory frameworks, and current capacities for end-of-life (EoL) management of Lithium-Ion batteries. Frederick Adjei, Inga Hilbert, Viviana López Hernández, Andreas Manhart, Deepali Khetriwal, Shruti Dalal, Silvani E Mng’anya, Dorah Swai, Haji Rehani, Luka Yohana, Ángel Eduardo Camacho T he transport sector is known to be the third highest emitter of greenhouse gases globally and presents a challenge in achieving emissions [1] with further research placing it second on the hierarchy of problematic sectors to control [2]. The message is clear: emissions reduction in the transport sector is difficult to realize. To compound issues further, highly congested cities suffer the public health effects of air pollution. In 2019 alone 4.5 million deaths were recorded as result of ambient air pollution [3]. The situation is more pronounced in transitioning economies such as Colombia, Tanzania, and India where policy makers must balance the need to increase public infrastructure, and reduce road congestion while achieving emissions reduction targets. To support this, GIZ commissioned the Oeko-Insitut e.V. for the development of a measures catalogue for inclusion of circular economy principles into e-bus planning and procurement. The catalogue is designed to be a practical guide for policy makers and procurement practitioners in transitioning economies to address the needs of policy formulation, procurement tendering, maintenance, and sound EoL management of e-bus components, particularly batteries. In this vein, a series of 3 workshops were organized in Bogotá, Dar es Salam and New Delhi with the core aim of presenting the catalogue to governments, municipalities, and transport agencies. Parallel to the workshops, study tours were conducted in each of the countries (Colombia, Tanzania, India respectively). The following country specific analysis is the result of these study tours. Short summaries present the status quo of the electric vehicle targets and market development, regulatory frameworks, and current capacities for EoL management of Lithium-Ion batteries. Colombia E-mobility targets and market development The Colombian government implemented a National Strategy for Electric Mobility in 2019, aimed at increasing the share of electric mobility in the country. The country is working towards it’s targets, but progress has already been made especially in cities like Bogotá, which has achieved its ambitious target of 1,485 e-buses in 2023 and has set a further target for 100 % e-bus purchasing by 2023 [4]. Colombia’s market has shown significant progress in the transition to electric mobility, partially due to government incentives such as reduced VAT, zero tariffs, preferential tax rates and exemptions from transit restrictions for electric vehicles. The increasing adoption of electric mobility will lead to a substantial increase in EoL batteries, prompting the government to develop a revised regulatory framework for their management. Regulatory framework The EoL management of batteries in Colombia has been regulated since 2010, starting with Resolution 1297 which focused on portable Li-Ion batteries. This resolution established take-back and collection systems based on the principles of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). In the following years, a total of 31 collection systems for batteries were approved by the responsible authority in Colombia, and 12,000 collection points for portable batteries were installed in the country [5]. The regulatory framework was later enhanced by Resolution 2246 in 2017, introducing management indicators for better monitoring and evaluation. In 2022, Resolution 851 replaced the previous framework, extending the scope to include industrial and electric vehicle batteries, and explicitly aligning its requirements with EPR principles. According to the new regulatory framework, the collection of Li-Ion batteries from electric vehicles will be mandatory from 2024 onwards. The requested collection rate will start with 0.5 % in 2024, increasing to 23 % in 2033. Current capacities for EoL management of Li-Ion batteries Currently, there are three collective schemes: Pilas con el ambiente, Recopila and ARBAM-(Motorola) and 27 individual schemes operating in the country, mostly focused on portable batteries. However, the take-back scheme Recoenergy, currently in EV batteries STRATEGIES International Transportation | Collection 2023 11 charge of collecting used lead-acid batteries, plans to expand its capacities to include the collection of Li-Ion batteries from vehicles in the coming years. Additionally, there are two active Li-Ion battery recycling plants in Colombia, Altero (Figure 1), and Innova Ambiental, both with smaller processing volumes due to insufficient collection volumes. Furthermore, two companies focused on reuse or repurposing of Li-Ion batteries were identified. The start-up BatX offers energy storage systems. For the assembly of their systems, the company integrates recycled and reused components of Li-Ion batteries. The second company Recobatt repurposes used Li-Ion batteries from electric vehicles for second life applications. Challenges and outlook The increasing number of e-buses will lead to a rise in EoL batteries, and while Colombia has introduced requirements for their collection and management, these will only become mandatory from 2024 with low collection rates initially. This may result in a significant gap between targets and actual waste battery volumes due to the rapid growth of the e-vehicle market, highlighting the need for improved regulatory frameworks and investment conditions for scaling up recycling infrastructure. India E-mobility targets and market development The Indian government has implemented initiatives such as the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan and the Phase-II of the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric vehicles (FAME) scheme to promote electric vehicles (EVs) and boost domestic manufacturing capabilities. According to e-Amrit, a portal handled by the National Institute for Transforming India [6], there were 380 EV manufacturers registered in India until 31st July 2021 (this includes passenger cars, two and three wheelers, buses, and others). The country aims for substantial adoption of EVs, targeting 70 % of commercial cars, 30 % of private cars, 40 % of buses, and 80 % of two-wheeler and three-wheeler sales to be electric by 2030. With the increasing adoption of EVs and the significant number of buses in India’s public transport system, there is a growing need for battery EoL management. By the year 2030 the annual market for recycling of Li- Ion batteries in India is expected to be around 22 to 23 GWh, which could translate into market opportunities estimated around USD 1,000 million-[7]. Regulatory framework In India, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, along with Central and State Pollution Control Boards, administer the regulations for EoL waste management. Various rules and guidelines have been published to promote circularity and sound EoL management of valuable resources, including plastic, tires, EoL vehicles, e-waste, batteries, lubricants, and oil. The handling and management of used batteries have been regulated since 2001, and the rules were further amended in 2022 to include a wider scope of batteries and introduce EPR obligations. Figure 2 summarizes the evolution of battery and e-waste management regulation in India. The Battery Waste Management (BWM) Rules 2022 in India cover all types of batteries, including E-vehicles, portable, automotive, and industrial batteries. Under the current regulation, every producer is obliged to collect and recycle minimum 70 % of the quantity of batteries placed on the market in the three preceding financial years starting from Fiscal Year 2024-2025. Recovery targets for batteries for various applications are shown in figure 3. The rules also include mandatory targets for battery recycling and recovery to pro- Figure 1: Altero: Modular Li-Ion battery recycling facility in Colombia Source: Oeko-Institut e.V. Figure 2: Evolution of battery and e-waste management rules in India Source: Dds+ STRATEGIES EV batteries International Transportation | Collection 2023 12 mote investment in recycling technologies and create sustainable business opportunities. The reuse of recovered materials is mandated to enhance circularity and reduce dependency on imported battery cells. Current capacities for EoL management of Li-Ion batteries The recycling of Li-Ion batteries is a growing industry in India, driven by the increasing adoption of EVs. Start-ups are establishing recycling facilities to extract critical raw materials and repurpose waste batteries. At least 30 recyclers have been identified in India, primarily processing defective and discarded batteries, and some are signing agreements with EV OEMs for future EoL battery collection. Figure 4 depicts the names and locations of 18 out of 30 identifies Li-Ion battery recyclers in India. Most recyclers in India currently produce black mass through crushing and shredding batteries, but some are establishing leaching plants to extract valuable metals. Three business models have been identified: remanufacturing battery packs, metal recovery from black mass, and repurposing for second-life applications. This last one is focusing on developing proprietary technology for the testing and refurbishment of lithium cells from used automotive. Furthermore, recyclers are investing in technologies like spectroscopy to improve recovery processes and increase material purity. These developments contribute to creating a comprehensive value chain for sound EoL battery management and support the ecosystem for Li-Ion battery cell manufacturing in India. Challenges and outlook The lack of battery manufacturing plants in India is also a drawback, but government schemes such as the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for Advanced Cell Chemistry (USD 2.49 billion) and the FAME Scheme (USD 1 billion) are aiming to support local industry efforts in ramping up battery manufacturing capacities. However, the collection system for batteries and safe transportation of waste batteries from cities to recycling plants need improvement to ensure sufficient volumes for recycling. Awareness among stakeholders in public transportation is crucial for promoting better performance and prolonging the lifespan of e-bus batteries, thereby reducing the volume of waste batteries requiring end-oflife management. Nevertheless, the implementation of BWM rules and EPR principles is expected to enhance waste battery collection nationwide and reduce dependency on battery cell imports. Tanzania E-mobility targets and market development Tanzania currently has the highest deployment of electric vehicles in East Africa, primarily consisting of twoand three-wheelers. However, the overall market penetration is still low, and electric buses have not been deployed yet due to a lack of clear government policies supporting e-mobility. Subsequently, total investment in e-mobility companies is still very limited and the existing 11 e-mobility local companies have only been able to raise USD 1 million so far [8]. Additionally, the uncertainty regarding future end-of-life battery volumes highlights the dependence on future policy frameworks and supporting measures from the Tanzanian government. Regulatory framework Tanzania’s regulatory framework currently does not explicitly address the EoL management of electric vehicle batteries. However, the recently reviewed Environmental Policy recognizes the need for integrated waste management systems and mentions the lack of clear policy guidance on e-waste management. The main legislation governing environmental management, the Environment Management Act No.4 of 2004, is expected to address Li-Ion battery management in its new version, considering the promotion of electric vehicles for reducing carbon emissions. However, more attention is currently given to the management of used lead-acid batteries, and the implementation of a draft policy for lead-acid batteries faces challenges related to scope and institutional responsibilities. Current capacities for EoL management of-Li-Ion batteries Currently, Tanzania has limited capacity for managing used and EoL Li-Ion batteries. Chilambo General Trade Company Ltd. is the only company in Tanzania that accepts these batteries (Figure 5), primarily from solar energy applications, but the bulk of the collected batteries are cobaltand nickel-free LFP chemistry, which poses recycling challenges. Attempts to sell the collected batteries for testing and reuse in second-life applications in Kenya have been unsuccessful, leading to prolonged storage. In 2022, the batteries were eventually exported by a foreign trader, and their final destination is unknown. www.ebus.transformative-mobility.org Page 4 2030 the annual market for recycling of Li-Ion batteries in India is expected to be around 22 - 23 GWh, which could translate into market opportunities estimated around $1,000 million [3]. Regulatory framework In India, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, along with Central and State Pollution Control Boards, administer the regulations for EoL management of waste. Various rules and guidelines have been published to promote circularity and sound EoL management of valuable resources, including plastic, tires, EoL vehicles, e-waste, batteries, lubricants, and oil. The handling and management of used batteries have been regulated since 2001, and the rules were further amended in 2022 to include a wider scope of batteries and introduce EPR obligations. Figure 2 summarizes the evolution of battery and e-waste management regulation in India. Figure 2: Evolution of battery and E-waste management rules in India. (Source: Dds+) The Battery Waste Management Rules 2022 in India cover all types of batteries, including E-vehicles, portable, automotive, and industrial batteries. Under the current regulation, every producer is obliged to collect and recycle minimum 70% of the quantity of batteries placed on the market in the three preceding financial years starting from FY 1 2024-2025. Recovery targets for batteries for various applications are shown in figure 3. Figure 3: Recovery targets for the batteries from different sectors as per BWM rules 2022 (Source: own elaboration) 1 FY: Fiscal year % Figure 3: Recovery targets for the batteries from different sectors as per BWM rules 2022 Source: own elaboration Figure 4 : Li-Ion battery recyclers in India Source: Dss+ EV batteries STRATEGIES International Transportation | Collection 2023 13 Challenges and outlook Currently, Tanzania lacks comprehensive services for Li-Ion battery maintenance, testing, reuse, repurposing, and recycling, partly due to the relatively new field of electric mobility and limited market size. The development of such capacities depends on the demand from e-mobility providers and manufacturers as well as the willingness to invest in high-quality battery maintenance and end-of-life management. Government policies can also play a role by implementing minimum requirements and establishing roles and responsibilities through EPR systems. ■ LITERATURE [1] Schwanen, T. (2020): Low-Carbon Mobility in London: A Just Transition? In: One Earth 2 (2), pp. 132-134. DOI: 10.1016/ j.oneear.2020.01.013. [2] Ayetor, G. K.; Quansah, D. A.; Adjei, E. A. (2020): Towards zero vehicle emissions in Africa: A case study of Ghana. In: Energy Policy 143, p. 111606. DOI: 10.1016/ j.enpol.2020.111606. [3] Fuller. R.; Landrigan, P. J.; Balakrishnan, K.; Bathan, G.; Bose-O’Reilly, S.; Brauer, M.; Caravanos, J.; Chiles, T.; Cohen, A.; Corra, L.; Cropper, M.; Ferraro, G.; Hanna, J.; et al. (2022): Pollution and health: a progress update. In: The Lancet Planetary Health 6 (6), pp. 535-547. DOI: 10.1016/ S2542-5196(22)00090-0. [4] TUMI e-bus Mission (2022): Bogotá Colombia, Deep dive City. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH (ed.). [5] Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible (2017): Resolución No. 2246: Por la cual se modifica el articulo 10 de la Resolución 1297 de 2010 y se dictan otras disposiciones, MADS. [6] NITI; Aayog, G. I. (2021): Status quo analysis of various segments of electric mobility and low carbon passenger road transport in India. www.niti.gov.in/ sites/ default/ files/ 2021-04/ FullReport_Status_ quo_analysis_of_various_segments_of_electric_mobility-compressed.pdf (last accessed on 15 May 2023). [7] JMK Research & Analytics (2019): Lithium ion Battery Manufacturers/ Battery Recycling Companies India. https: / / jmkresearch.com/ electric-vehicles-published-reports/ recycling-of-lithium-ion-batteries-in-india-1000-million-opportunity/ (last accessed on 15 May 2023). [8] Courtright, T.; Ondanje, W.; Giki, P. (2023): Barriers to e-mobility in Tanzania. https: / / aemda.org/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2023/ 03/ TZEVBarrierReport.pdf (last accessed on 17 Apr 2023). Figure 5: Storage and dismantling area of Chilambo General Trade Company Ltd. Source: Oeko-Institut e.V. Thank you to our TUMI e-bus Mission Partners: Frederick Adjei Researcher, Oeko-Institut e.V., Germany f.adjei@oeko.de Inga Hilbert Researcher, Oeko-Institut e.V., Germany i.hilbert@oeko.de Viviana López Hernández Researcher, Oeko-Institut e.V., Germany v.lopez@oeko.de Andreas Manhart Researcher, Oeko-Institut e.V., Germany a.manhart@oeko.de Deepali Khetriwal Consultant, DSS Sustainable Solutions, India deepali.sinha@consultdss.com Shruti Dalal Consultant, DSS Sustainable Solutions, India shruti.dalal@consultdss.com Silvani E Mng’anya Principal Program Manager, AGENDA for Environment and Responsible Development, Tanzania semnganya@gmail.com Dorah Swai Program Officer, AGENDA for Environment and Responsible Development, Tanzania swaidorah@yahoo.com Haji Rehani Program Officer, AGENDA for Environment and Responsible Development, Tanzania htrehani@yahoo.com Luka Yohana AGENDA for Environment and Responsible Development, Tanzania luka.yohana@yahoo.com Ángel Eduardo Camacho Independent Consultant, Colombia angelca98@gmail.com International Transportation | Collection 2023 14 BEST PRACTICE Mobility data Unlocking the potential of Google’s mobility data Tracking, Travel survey, Mobility demand, Google location history The widespread adoption of smartphones has facilitated the collection of multimodal mobility data. Google Location History (GLH) has gained considerable popularity and has a large user base. This article discusses the importance of GLH data and illustrates its value by identifying specific use cases. It also presents ongoing initiatives in which individuals donate GLH data for research purposes. In particular, the adequacy of the collected data is validated, demonstrating their reliability and suitability for rigorous analyses. Benno Benjamin Bock, Robert Schönduwe O ur mission is to organise the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful [1] - this is Google’s mission statement. One domain with a pressing need for high-quality information is the transportation sector. Smartphones enable continuous collection of multimodal travel data making them a valuable solution. Google particularly is collecting such data as evidenced by its timeline function. Meanwhile, a lack of reliable and representative knowledge on individual mobility patterns for transportation analysis persists. Traditionally, such data is mainly collected through irregular surveys using diverse questionnaire-based approaches. [2] Smartphone-based surveys are only conducted in few cases. [3] Therefore, it is crucial to explore the potential of Google’s (and other big tech companies’) treasure trove of mobility data. This paper aims to showcase data donation approaches and provide an initial assessment of the data quality. Continuous GPS-based data collection, exemplified by monomodal methods like floating car data, showcases the effectiveness of passive data collection. [4] Companies like Inrix and TomTom demonstrate how this data can be made accessible to a wider group of practitioners. Mobile network data extends the data’s coverage to further trips, but the mode detection comes with high uncertainty. [5] However, to achieve the objectives of the mobility transition (‘Verkehrswende’ in German), continuous collection of multimodal data representing all transport modes is necessary. A multimodal mobility monitor is needed to gather, process and make the data universally accessible and usable. Foto: PhotoMix-Company/ pixabay BEST PRACTICE Mobility data International Transportation | Collection 2023 15 Mobility data BEST PRACTICE In principle, such a monitor would align seamlessly with Google’s mission statement and is likely achievable leveraging its databases. On big tech’s trail Google’s data has vast potential in providing comprehensive information on mobility demand. It offers detailed insights into individual mobility, including origins, destinations, routes, and mode types. This data can be utilised to compute key performance indicators like modal split values for cities (cf. Table 1) or origin-destination tables. Moreover, the spatial and temporal coverage of Google’s data is unparalleled. With the continuous and widespread availability of Google Maps’ timeline function, it is likely the most comprehensive source of actual mobility demand data available. Currently, access to Google’s mobility data for research and planning purposes is limited. The Covid-19 open data repository, available until 2022, provided some mobility data. [6] Furthermore, the Google Environmental Insights Explorer [7] offers modal split data for various cities worldwide from 2018 to 2022. However, access to this data is restricted to council employees, requiring an application process. Given the limited accessibility to this data, what can we say about the data collection and quality? It’s likely that readers of this article have a Google account and can access their personal mobility timeline via Google Maps. Surveys suggest that approx. 50 % of smartphone users have Google Location History (GLH) activated. [8] When the Google Maps app is installed and location history recording is enabled, it consistently captures movement profiles linked to the users’ Google account. This data is transferred seamlessly with the account; ensuring continuity even when switching devices or logging in on different devices. The GLH data offers detailed and accurate insights into mobility demand data collected via smartphone. In principle, GLH data can be considered as continuous and comprehensive tracking, comparable to smartphone tracking. [9, 10, 11] It serves as a valuable basis for generating movement profiles and travel/ activity diaries. Users access their data through Google Maps, either via the mobile app (see Figure 1) or the website (see Figure 2). The data is presented as a personalised travel diary, showcasing activities, locations and routes. Also, users can view their trajectories on maps and in tabular form, showing origins, destinations routes and any intermediate stops like transit stations. Additional insights can be explored through tabs like ‘Statistics’ and ‘Places’, offering overviews of distances travelled by different mode types, or locations visited. GLH data has been collected globally since 2012 [12], primarily from Android users through an opt-out mechanism. In Germany, explicit opt-in consent is required for data collection. Users provide this consent when installing Google Maps or adjusting settings on their smartphones or Google accounts. The comparatively long services lifespan enables users to access data from the previous decade - a time before introduction of services like Uber, eScooters and the Deutschlandticket in Germany. Users can export their GLH data using the Google Takeout website, designed specifically for exporting Google data. The exported GLH data is spread across multiple JSON files, encompassing over 100 attributes and 38 mode types (referred to as ‘activity types’ by Google). For a comprehensive overview of the exported data format, Bergillos offers valuable insights. [13] GLH data use cases GLH data, containing geospatial information, time data, and modes of transport, holds significant potential for transport policy and planning. However, discussions regarding aggregated GLH data are currently limited primarily to research and academia. To assess the data’s potential, it’s essential to differentiate between three levels: (1) individual GLH data sets, (2) aggregated GLH data from sample populations, and (3) hypothetical aggregated GLH data from the entire user population. The differentiation provides a comprehensive understanding of the data’s scope and its implications for research and analysis in the field. The relevant use-cases for this audience include urban and transportation planning, and social sciences. Decoding traffic patterns, investigating congestion hotspots, and monitoring travel behaviour are possible. The data enhances the understanding of people’s movement and lifestyle in urban and rural spaces. Ruktanonchai also highlights the potential for fighting infectious diseases and responding to catastrophic events. [8] Additionally, commercial usage in market research seems logical as the data can provide insights into consumer behaviour, shopping patterns, and location or mobility preferences of certain target groups. This is the most likely path for Google to generate added value in-house. Small-scale projects showcase the potential insights that can be derived from individual GLH data, providing a glimpse into its possibilities. [14, 15]: Some have provided technical assistance in formatting and processing the data such as the GitHub-user GmoncayoCodes. [16] Just a few years after GLH data became available, attention was focused on how smartphone tracking could establish an individual mobility feedback system. [17] Figures 3 and 4 show the potential of the data for longitudinal surveys of mobility patterns. The left chart shows all trips made by one of the authors over the past year, categorised by the four main mode types. It reveals mixed usage of all four modes, highlighting a seasonal preference for bicycles with a minimum in December. Notably, a significant decrease in trip volume is observed in September 2022, corresponding to a Covid-19 related quarantine period. This example supports the assumption that the data can be used to estimate the impact of the recent pandemic on mobility. The right chart presents the same data as passenger-kilometres per mode type, exhibiting higher overall fluctuation. Similar to studies involving data donations from tracking [18, 19, 20], GLH data can be collected by a group of individuals Figure 1: Screenshot of Google’s Timeline in an Android System Sources of all pictures: Catchment 2023 International Transportation | Collection 2023 16 BEST PRACTICE Mobility data willing to share their data. In German mobility research, there are very few published studies of this kind. The authors conducted proof-of-concept studies - in collaboration with a local transport authority and a university class. The generated GLH datasets allowed for addressing important questions: How did the sample react to certain events? What does the use of transport modes look like in certain areas or times? How can the accessibility and transport connections of places be described? The sample size can be tailored to the research question, with small surveys providing insights into specific sites or behaviours, and large (representative) studies offering general insights like modal split development. Aggregating GLH data from consenting users can yield robust mobility-related KPIs. This approach has the potential to address challenges like revenue sharing for the Deutschlandticket at a decisive and nationwide scale, as demonstrated in the xMND research project with mobile network data. [21] Our approach to gather GLH data Currently, external access Google’s GLH data is challenging. However, a potential workaround is to design a data donation process. The GLH data donation procedure can be divided into the following steps: 1. Survey design including data protection concept 2. Recruitment and onboarding of participants 3. Preparation of GLH data collection 4. Optional: Definition of a survey period 5. Export of GLH data 6. Evaluation and further analysis of GLH data For this approach, developing a data protection concept in collaboration with a data protection officer is crucial. It is necessary to prepare a participant declaration that complies with data protection requirements. Once these prerequisites are met, the recruitment and onboarding of participants can begin. Participants in the survey group are requested to adjust their Google settings for a specified period, if the optional survey period is chosen. If needed, the users’ settings can be configured in a joint workshop. Participant engagement is crucial for the success of the study. Given the numerous services and functionalities in the Google ecosystem, clear instructions are necessary for user interactions like activation or data export. It’s also important to provide separate guidance for Android and iOS users to enable the location history function. Once activated, users can easily access the generated data via the Google Maps app, which offers a simple menu navigation and a user-friendly experience. Visualising and editing proposed routes is also straightforward, although the complexity of editing options may require additional instructions for survey participants to ensure consistent data quality. It might be beneficial to schedule two exports: one ‘raw’ and one ‘edited’ data export with intermediate validation. This approach would provide two comparative datasets, enabling insights into the changes made during the validation process. During the survey, various experiments can be conducted based on the research question. However, for traffic-related survey, it is important to maintain the participants’ smartphone and mobility behaviour unchanged. Data quality The meaningful use of GLH data is supported by data quality, which can be categorised into the following areas: Figure 2: Screenshot from the Google Maps web-application Figures 3 and4: Modal-split high-chart of one person in one year (left: trips, right: pkm) International Transportation | Collection 2023 17 Mobility data BEST PRACTICE •• Quality of geolocation •• Quality of route detection incl. location recognition •• Quality of means of transport recognition •• Quality of temporal assignment It’s important to note that the assessment of the data quality is limited to a snapshot in time. It is expected that Google, as the producer and owner of the data, is constantly working on improving the system. The use of AI holds potential for significant advancements in data quality, particularly due to the verification provided by users, which serves as a valuable training data set. Among the international studies assessing the quality of GLH data, the study conducted by the Netherlands Forensic Institute is noteworthy. [22] The study advises that “Google locations and their accuracies should not be used in a definite way to determine the location of a mobile device”. In a walkability study, Lindquist found that approx. Two-thirds of participants contributed valuable datasets, while the remaining participants provided infrequent GLH data due to variations in smartphone settings.-[23] In public transport data, certain gaps or stochastic changes can be observed, particularly for individual modes such as ‘bus’. Google acknowledges: “These changes are the result of improved inference models that better distinguish between modes. Overall, these changes improve the accuracy and usability of the emission estimates in the long term.” [7] Similar issues are present regarding data completeness. For instance, bus or motorbike shares may not be displayed for every year. In a recent comparison with modal split information from the German travel survey Mobilität in Deutschland (MiD) (see Table 1), one of the authors found that Google data from the Google Environmental Insights Explorer consistently underestimates bicycle mode shares compared to MiD, while walking occurs more frequently in Google. [24] Overall assessment of Google data Based on the information available for this article, the value of the mobility demand data that Google could provide is undeniable. It is unfortunate that the company chooses to restrict access to this valuable information beyond government employees. Meanwhile, stakeholders dedicate considerable resources to obtain mobility data through travel surveys. The unmatched spatial and historical coverage of Google’s GLH data presents an opportunity for innovation in the transport sector. The use-cases demonstrate that the interest extends beyond transport-related inquiries. Like other data sources for mobility demand, GLH data has both advantages and disadvantages, along with its own peculiarities. The main concern the authors highlight is the limited understanding of trips and leg definitions, identification of mode types and activities, and aggregation methods used to estimate global values like modal split. As early as 2016, Lindquist summarised that “[…] researchers relying on these data must be prepared for unanticipated changes in the data collection process […]”. [23] At the time of writing, little has changed in this regard. In summary, the potential gains from exploring GLH data outweigh the potential drawbacks. We recommend the mobility community to delve further into this data source for their purposes and encourage tech giants to provide open access to their data for the benefit of research and society. ■ SOURCES [1] https: / / about.google.com (access: 18th July 2023). [2] Lanzendorf, M.; Schönduwe, R. (2018): Datenerhebungen zur Erfassung des Mobilitätsverhaltens. In: Handbuch der kommunalen Verkehrsplanung, S. 1-24. [3] Pronello, C.; Kumawat, P. (2021): Smartphone Applications Developed to Collect Mobility Data: A Review and SWOT Analysis. In: Arai, K.; Kapoor, S.; Bhatia, R. (Eds.): Intelligent Systems and Applications. Springer, pp. 449-467. [4] Bock, B.; Schönduwe, R. (2021): Black-Box Mobility. In: WZB Discussion Paper, https: / / bibliothek.wzb.eu/ pdf/ 2021/ iii21-601.pdf (access: July 2023). [5] Harrison, F. D.; Duke, W.; Eldred, J.; Pack, M.; Ivanov, N.; Crosset, J.; Chan, L. (2019): Management and Use of Data for Transportation Performance Management: Guide for Practitioners. [6] https: / / google.com/ covid19/ mobility/ (access: 18th July 2023). [7] https: / / insights.sustainability.google/ (access: 18th July 2023). [8] Ruktanonchai, N. W.; Ruktanonchai, C. W.; Floyd, J. R.; Tatem, A. J. (2018): Using Google Location History data to quantify fine-scale human mobility. In: Int. J. Health Geogr., 17, p. 28. [9] https: / / motion-tag.com (access: 18th July 2023). [10] https: / / posmo.coop (access: 18th July 2023). [11] https: / / www.trivectorsystem.se (access: 18th July 2023). [12] MacLean, D.; Komatineni, S.; Allen, G. (2015): Exploring Maps and Location-Based Services. In: Pro Android 5. Apress, Berkeley, CA, pp. 405-449. [13] https: / / locationhistoryformat.com/ (access: 18th July 2023). [14] https: / / www.achim-tack.org/ coronayear (access: 18th July 2023). [15] https: / / medium.com/ @ggonzalezzabala/ graph-your-own-googlelocation-history-in-tableau-e362d1d8f18d (access: 18th July 2023). [16] https: / / github.com/ GmoncayoCodes/ ActivityPointLocationGenerator (access: 18th July 2023). [17] Sengupta, R.; Walker, J. L. (2015): Quantified traveler. Travel feedback meets the cloud to change behaviour. Access 47, 3-7. [18] https: / / movinglab.dlr.de/ en/ (access: 18th July 2023). [19] https: / / www.freemove.space/ (access: 18th July 2023). [20] Kapp, A. (2022): Collection, usage and privacy of mobility data in the enterprise and public administrations. In: Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies. [21] MotionTag (2021): Gemeinsamer Endbericht Extended Mobile Network Data. Projektendbericht xMND-Projekt. [22] Rodriguez, A.; Tiberius, C; van Bree, R.; Geradts, Z. (2018): Google timeline accuracy assessment and error prediction. In: Forensic Sciences Research, 3: 3, pp. 240-255, DOI: 10.1080/ 20961790.2018.1509187 [23] Lindquist, M.; Galpern, P. (2016): Crowdsourcing (in) Voluntary Citizen Geospatial Data from Google Android Smartphones. In: Journal of Digital Landscape Architecture. 1., pp. 263-272. [24] https: / / catchment.de/ blog_google_s_modal_split_de.html (access: 18th july 2023). Modal Split Source Year Car Pedestrian Bicycle PT Berlin Google 2018 28 39 7 27 MiD 2017 34 27 15 25 Hamburg Google 2018 36 36 7 21 MiD 2017 36 27 15 22 Bremen (city) Google 2018 45 28 12 15 Bremen (state) MiD 2017 39 25 21 14 München Google 2018 35 29 8 29 MiD 2017 34 24 18 24 Stuttgart Google 2018 35 34 3 28 MiD 2017 40 29 8 23 Table 1: Synopsis of Google shares 2018 and Modal split figures from MID 2017 Benno Benjamin Bock Founder and CEO, Catchment GmbH, Berlin (DE) benno@catchment.de Robert Schönduwe, Dr. Guest lecturer, Technical University, Berlin (DE) schoenduwe@h2-mobility.de International Transportation | Collection 2023 18 Autonomous shuttles in-Bavarian Bad Birnbach Research for an AI-supported future of public transport in-rural areas Autonomous mobility, Artificial intelligence, AI mobility, Barrier-free mobility, On-demand mobility, Reinforcement learning, Predictive demand Can artificial intelligence (AI) improve the use of autonomous minibuses? Shuttles that know when and where they are needed - that is the ambition in the KI4autoBUS research project. More efficient fleet control, including design and use for people with mobility impairments, is being developed and tested as part of the project. For the project, the autonomous buses in use in Bad Birnbach (Lower Bavaria) are being converted to be barrier-free and temporarily controlled in the background with innovative AI-software. Nicole Wagner-Hanl, Julian Wagner, Leandra Rüpplein, Thomas Huber T he idyllic municipality of Bad Birnbach in the Lower Bavarian district of Rottal-Inn has been a pioneer of autonomous mobility in Germany. Since 2017, DB Regio Bus has been operating autonomous shuttles from the French manufacturer EasyMile in regular service. Since May 2022, the regular service has been supplemented by an ondemand service (Figure 1). This service visits 20-virtual stops whenever there is a demand. As part of the research project KI4autoBUS, the Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics IML, together with its partners Q_PERIOR AG, DB Regio Bus, qdive GmbH, and FMS Future Mobility Solutions GmbH, is working on the further development of autonomous shuttles as part of a holistic mobility service in Bad Birnbach. The goal of the project is to develop an AI-driven software that optimally adapts the limited number of shuttles to the needs of the users, creating an integrated and efficient on-demand mobility service through Shuttle Service in Bad Birnbach. Photo: Nicole Wagner-Hanl/ Fraunhofer IML BEST PRACTICE Autonomous mobility International Transportation | Collection 2023 19 Autonomous mobility BEST PRACTICE targeted transportation planning and fleet optimization. To achieve this goal, Q_ PERIOR is working with its AI specialists from qdive to develop an algorithm that considers mobility needs across the entire public transport system through static and situational data and adjusts the offering flexibly. As a first result, it has been shown that Artificial Intelligence can learn most effectively using a reinforcement learning model that requires minimal data. Furthermore, the mobility app “Wohin-du-Willst” will be enhanced with simple and intuitive functions, such as profile information, to enable all users to access the mobility service. During the project, one shuttle will also be modified to accommodate mobilityimpaired individuals, meaning it will be equipped with additional components to offer barrier-free rides. The autonomous decision-making process of the AI enables optimal transportation planning tailored to the specific requirements of each individual user, especially for disabled persons or vulnerable user groups who face challenges in maintaining independent mobility. Fraunhofer IML is responsible for the scientific coordination of KI4autoBUS. They conduct the requirements analysis, usability and acceptance evaluations, and are involved in the transferability of project results and scientific exploitation. Conclusion on the use of AI Added value for mobility providers and travelers? - An innovative component for optimizing public transport? For the optimization of on-demand shuttles in Bad Birnbach, modern technology using AI has been chosen, which can help save resources and enhance new forms of mobility. The self-learning algorithm is intended to ensure that the offering can flexibly and quickly respond to various user needs. The optimization through AI offers advantages for users by avoiding long waiting times through predicting ride requests or determining the most convenient waiting stop. At the same time, mobility providers benefit by minimizing empty trips, optimizing fleet size, and reducing operating costs through improved shuttle utilization. From the perspective of mobility providers, the entire public transport system can benefit from AI-driven fleet and traffic planning. When flexible services such as ondemand mobility complement existing public transport offerings into an integrated overall service, and this service becomes increasingly automated in the coming years, self-learning systems will be necessary to be efficient and user-oriented. Complex and automated mobility services, particularly in rural areas, require the support of AI technology. Applied research and user-centered development have shown that mobility will increasingly adapt to the individual needs of travelers in the coming years, for example, through new offerings based on autonomous vehicles in public transport. The foundation of these mobility services relies on real-time data about traffic, traveler demand, and the availability of interconnected services. The secure processing and analysis of this data in distributed systems will be crucial success factors for the mobility of tomorrow. ■ Leandra Rüpplein, M.Sc. Consultant for digital public transport solutions, Q_PERIOR AG, Munich (DE) leandra.ruepplein@q-perior.com Thomas Huber, Dr. Leiter Innovative Verkehrskonzepte, R.RS-BY-VV, DB Regio Bus, Ingolstadt (DE) thomas.ta.huber@deutschebahn.com Julian Wagner, Dr. rer. nat. Senior Data Scientist, qdive GmbH, Munich (DE) julian.wagner@qdive.io Nicole Wagner-Hanl, M.A. Consortium management KI4auto- BUS, Project Manager Mobility and Digitalization, Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics IML, nicole.wagner-hanl@iml.fraunhofer.de Figure 1: Route network autonomous driving Source: DB Regio Bus The project is funded by the Bavarian Ministry of Economic Affairs, Regional Development and Energy (StMWi) as part of the Digitization funding program, in the Information and Communication Technology funding area, and is expected to run until the end of 2023. LITERATURE KI4autoBUS: Optimization of Barrier-Free Mobility through Autonomous Shuttles - Development of an AI-Based Solution for Planning and Control of Public Transport Services. www.iml.fraunhofer.de/ de/ abteilungen/ b3/ Projektzentrum_Verkehrslogistik_Prien/ Referenzen/ kl4autobus. html, 03 July.2023 International Transportation | Collection 2023 20 BEST PRACTICE Urban mobility Urban mobility in Ukraine: Eight building blocks for a green recovery What does it need to foster sustainable mobility in post-war Ukrainian cities? Ukraine, Sustainable mobility, Recovery, Reconstruction This article discusses the challenges and opportunities for sustainable mobility in post-war Ukrainian cities. The discussion covers various building blocks of sustainable mobility, such as regulatory reform, financing, local value creation and planning approaches. The focus is on providing a framework for futureoriented decision making. Marta Pastukh, Mathias Merforth, Viktor Zagreba, Armin Wagner T he war in Ukraine has a significant impact on urban transport infrastructure, with variations between regions. The eastern regions have suffered from physical destruction, while the central and western regions face challenges in accommodating refugees and dealing with resource shortages. Preexisting problems of underinvestment, lack of strategic guidance for urban mobility and the need for fleet renewal exacerbate the situation. A joint report by the World Bank, the Government of Ukraine, the European Union and the United Nations estimates total damage to the transport sector at USD 35.7 billion by February 2023, while reconstruction and immediate recovery needs are estimated at USD 92.1 billion. Reconstruction, which is already underway, is critical to maintaining urban services and the country’s economic viability (Figure 1). At the same time, the debate about the nature of this reconstruction is growing. Although numerous papers have been published on green recovery in general and on specific sectors in particular, few discuss Ukraine’s urban mobility systems. In this regard, we should be aware of the following: •• In Ukraine, despite Russian aggression, considerable efforts are currently being made to keep the transport system running and modernize it at the same time. New and renovated vehicles, enhanced services and new roads are being completed even during the war. Innovative approaches such as cashless ticketing are also being pursued. Overall, the efforts of Ukrainian workers and decision-makers in the transport sector are very high and worthy of full recognition. •• In Ukraine - as in many other countries - urban transport has no proper place within national structures. Cities thus maintain a great deal of ownership over urban transport issues and thus see greater opportunity for transformational change - a positive thing that should not be undone. Yet these municipalities often lack appropriate governance structures and access to funding - which is even more true for medium-sized and small cities. •• “Healing” the tremendous war damages wrought on public transport systems, urban roads, bridges and vehicle fleets is not only necessary to getting the Ukrainian economy back on track. It could also trigger the rise of a new strategic sector with economic growth and employment opportunities, as we will later outline. Against this backdrop, this paper outlines eight essential building blocks for a green recovery in urban mobility as part of broad reform agenda in Ukraine. By implementing the suggestions in this proposal, Ukraine and its international partners will Figure 1: Bomb attack on Saltivske tram depot in Kharkiv Source: Міністерство внутрішніх справ України / commons.wikimedia.org International Transportation | Collection 2023 21 Urban mobility BEST PRACTICE reduce reliance on imported fossil fuels, greenhouse gas emissions, and the number of people killed in vehicle-related accidents - while constantly improving quality of life. The eight building blocks interconnect and reinforce each other as they form the foundation for a sustainable development of urban mobility. In a sense, they shape the institutional and administrative framework required for the further development of urban mobility in Ukraine. 1. Develop a National Urban Mobility Policy Programme (NUMP) in Ukraine to align urban transport planning and policymaking in all cities with European perspectives and the Lugano Principles. A NUMP will enhance the capability of cities to plan, finance, and implement projects sustainably while harmonizing laws, norms, sector strategies, investments, and support programs. Efficient coordination and effective support from the national to the city level will improve investment conditions and bring urban mobility systems on to a sustainable and low carbon track. The development of a NUMP should actively support directional economic development decisions such as digitalization and higher value creation through renewable energy production, smart electric components, vehicle/ bus/ tram production, and battery production. 2. Develop and adopt Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMP) as a prerequisite for investments and decision-making in urban transport A SUMP provides a structured process that can help cities create an integrated, green, accessible, and affordable mobility infrastructure that moves citizens and goods in a sustainable and inclusive way locally, while globally reducing transport-related GHG emissions. The multi-stakeholder approach taken by the SUMP also strengthens cooperation and participation among different stakeholders and interest groups, leading to higher acceptance and ownership of the proposed measures. The use of traffic planning methodologies as well as data collection and management should be mandatory in order to improve SUMP processes. The establishment of effective mobility departments responsible for all aspects of mobility planning will be crucial, as they will be in a position to influence and manage the underlying causes of mobility trends. Example Lviv (see Figure 2): The city of Lviv developed a SUMP that was formally approved in 2018. The SUMP process supported awareness-raising measures for deputies, decision-makers and district administrations. All stakeholders agreed that the pedestrian as well as public transport should be prioritised at the top of the mobility pyramid (an inverted structure); that facilitated the decision to create separate lanes for PT and trolleybuses. It has become easier to justify projects to international organisations when they are included in the SUMP. At the institutional level, the SUMP process addressed a lack of institutionalisation; a significant change came with the establishment of a new department for urban mobility and street infrastructure. Prior to that, the transport office was under the domain of the Department for Housing. 3. Strengthening and integrating local public transport systems requires implementing a threetier structure. Local authorities should define policy goals, while a non-commercial entity (such as a transit alliance) manages and pays for transport services. Bus and rail operators should be contracted to deliver services. This approach can integrate all public transport services and modes in a city or region into one attractive and easy-to-use system. It may make sense to establish transit alliances starting from oblast capitals and integrating functional transport areas of surrounding hromadas. Additionally, a Ukraine-wide fare and ticketing system could be introduced using digital possibilities. 4. Launching a national Innovation and upscaling campaign An innovation program for shared learning to promote sustainable mobility should be launched. It should focus on five thematic areas including Transport Demand Management, Livable Cities, Climate-transformative mobility, Smart mobility, and Transparent governance in mobility. The program should encourage cities to propose and implement sustainability-oriented reform projects using renewable resources and domestic know-how. A Secretariat should be established to evaluate proposals and monitor implementation, with funding provided by the National Fund for Sustainable Urban Mobility. The program should also include seminars, publications, and media activities to promote the dissemination of knowledge and encourage participation from stakeholders. Foreign donors are invited to provide funding and share their experience. 5. Securing adequate funding for mobility policy in Ukraine To address the issue of funding, Ukraine needs to explore the concept of user financing and complementary funding for transport investments, with funds for service and maintenance. Funding should also reflect the internalization of negative external effects such as air pollution, traffic congestion, and climate change. To provide good local public transport, state and municipal subsidies are common in many countries, where high socio-economic benefits such as accessibility to workplaces, reduced noise, emissions, and resource consumption, and accident prevention are recognized. It is important to make the benefits of subsidizing these services clear, transparent, and reflected in increased user figures. One solution is the establishment of a National Fund for Sustainable Urban Mobility. This fund could be linked to the national road fund and replenished through increased fuel taxes on petrol and diesel or based on vehicle registration tax. It is crucial to emphasize that the political responsibility for funding and financial pri- Figure 2: Planned transport hub in Lviv Source: Institute for Spatial Development Lviv International Transportation | Collection 2023 22 BEST PRACTICE Urban mobility oritization should lie with the cities and hromadas. 6. Shifting towards participatory planning approaches and modern design principles Municipal streets and public spaces should be reconstructed based on elaborate planning processes involving public participation and competition between designers, with a focus on more ambitious designs for sustainable mobility. This involves prioritizing mobility management and mixed traffic in city centers (as compared to the often rigid separation today) and residential areas, and establishing a strong link between spatial development and mobility. Prioritization should be based on economic, social, and environmental impacts, with walking and public transport given priority over general traffic and parked vehicles. Local decision-makers and technical staff should be empowered to implement these changes, and systematic capacity building should be promoted. National standards in vehicle manufacturing, road construction, and technology should also be reformed to reflect new developments. 7. Promote sustainable transport industries as building block of the new Ukrainian economy. Ukraine should focus on developing sustainable transport industries to boost its economy - including by modernizing its urban infrastructure and expanding its capacities as a producer of locomotives, railway coaches, buses, trams and electric supplies. To achieve this, Ukraine could develop an Urban Mobility Industry & Investment Strategy that provides a comprehensive overview of investment options for the production of sustainable mobility vehicles, supplies, and infrastructure in Ukraine for domestic and international clients. By doing so, Ukraine can create modern jobs, transform its economy, and position itself as a production hub ready for European and global markets. 8. Endurance and persistence for ongoing reform and adaptation A green recovery approach offers the opportunity to speed up previously initiated reforms, to reform comprehensively as well as ambitiously and in line with European practices and objectives. To accelerate ongoing regulatory reform, upgrading of skills, and international networking, we suggest conducting a comprehensive analysis of the need for reform and benchmarking against European standards. This should cover topics such as legislative basis, academic curricula, and international networking. Ukraine has committed to sustainable mobility-oriented actions under the Association Agreement with the EU, but progress reports have been delayed due to the war. For its implementation, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine on October 25, 2017 with Resolution No. 1106 approved the “Plan of measures for the implementation of the Association Agreement”. The document was adopted in May 2018, and an Implementation Plan to it was adopted three years later, in April 2021. Both documents are large in scope and scale, and have at least 17 mentions of sustainable mobility-oriented actions that are in line with EU Green Deal. The plan contains more than 120 tasks in the field of transport, most of which relate to legal and economic regulation in the sector of rail transport, aviation, sea, and river traffic. Just three tasks concern urban public transport, and the government has not delivered on this commitment yet. The government should prioritize implementing these commitments, and an observatory can be used to monitor progress and ensure communication. Summary The above building blocks are not an exhaustive overview of all the challenges related to sustainable mobility in post-war Ukrainian cities. Other crucial issues such as inadequate statistics, corruption, poor road safety, lack of urban logistics strategies and lack of parking management have not been discussed. The aim is to present basic building blocks that can provide a framework for future-oriented decisionmaking. The choices made for or against individual approaches and priorities within each of these areas will have a significant impact on mobility in Ukrainian cities over the coming decades. Therefore, before making any decisions, it is essential to assess whether the measures will make individual car use more attractive or promote walking, cycling and public transport. The decision should be in line with the new paradigm that favours diverse, attractive and affordable mobility with minimal negative impacts. The policy course for sustainable mobility in Ukraine will be set over the next few years. It is clear that there are no onesize-fits-all solutions, quick wins or lowcost options. Success will only come from continuous and systematic policy development and positive intellectual conflict of ideas. ■ SOURCES A full version of this article can be found here: https: / / transformativemobility.org/ anchoring-green-recovery-of-urban-mobility-inukraine-eight-building-blocks/ Ukraine Rapid Damage and Needs Assessment: March 2023, the World Bank, the Government of Ukraine, the European Union, the United Nations The Urban Transport Sector in Ukraine - A baseline report in the context of the War of 2022 and prospects for a cgreen post-war recovery of Ukraine (Viktor Zagreba, Demayn Danylyuk) Prepared by Oresund LLC, Ukraine at the assignment of the European Climate Foundation. October 2022 Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) Toolkit SUMP learning programme for mobility practitioners National Urban Mobility Policies and Investment Programmes (NUMP) Toolkit UKRAINE - RAPID DAMAGE AND NEEDS ASSESSMENT“ (World Bank, Ukrainian Government, EU) Sustainable Urban Transport - Financing from the Sidewalk to the Subway; Capital, Operations, and Maintenance Financing (Arturo Ardila- Gomez and Adriana Ortegon-Sanchez) Urban Mobility in Ukraine: The 13 billion Euro gap - The next decade’s reform and investment needs (Mathias Merforth, prepared by GIZ- SUTP), April 2014 Armin Wagner Senior Advisor Sustainable Mobility, GIZ, Eschborn (DE) armin.wagner@giz.de Marta Pastukh Advisor Sustainable Mobility, GIZ, Eschborn (DE) marta.pastukh@giz.de Mathias Merforth Project Manager Sustainable Mobility, GIZ, Eschborn (DE) mathias.merforth@giz.de Viktor Zagreba Chairperson, NGO Vision Zero (UA) viktor@zagreba.com Public transport PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS International Transportation | Collection 2023 23 Public Transport Management - where do we stand? Public transport, PTM, Mobility data, Data standards The key function of Public Transport Management (PTM) is to merge behavioural science and systems engineering to determine how to improve the flow of passengers on mass public transport. The efficiency of a transport system depends on several elements, such as available technology, governmental policies, the planning process, and control strategies. The key element lies in the digitalisation approach of all public transport services as well as real-time information, thus standardization is necessary for a consistent and comprehensive definition of how data is to be reported. André Maia Pereira, Josep Laborda P ublic Transport Management (PTM) represents a set of various solutions and tools that aim at making public transport services more efficient and sustainable for operators and drivers while putting the end-users at the centre of the approach. Its key elements comprise fleet and terminal management as well as real-time passenger and driver information. Nowadays PTM encompasses various electronic systems such as automatic fare collection system (AFCS), security and surveillance systems (passenger, driver, transport, payment, etc.) and collection of solutions to increase cost-efficiency and minimise the environmental impact. Public transport as well as its management systems become more and more cooperative, integrated and automated which can provide various intelligent transport solutions. Furthermore, digitalisation policy creates a level playing field for various companies to offer their services and creates favourable conditions for new companies to enter the market with new services. There are more than 50 PTM-systems installed across the globe, 15,000 connected vehicles, 5.5 million passengers per day and 500 million monitored kilometres per year [1]. Each PTM system includes a number of smaller sub-systems that allows the management authority at any time to analyse the required data to make certain decisions. These systems include everything from fleet management tools, traffic management and planning, parking and road safety, realtime vehicle tracking to journey planning applications for end users [2]. In figure 1, important stakeholders, their activities and added value to the business model can be found, in which the focal point of a PTM system is the end-user of the public transport. In this business model, the information on growing public transport users’ demand is detected by the system, which is based on the travelling patterns of users, infrastructure, availability of public transport, low emission zone, park & ride, etc. The solution is offered by the system for more reliable arrival times based on trip time advice and floating traffic data. Therefore, less waiting for the arrival of the transport, short travel time, comfort, safety, as well as efficiency of public transport use, which implies lower costs, fewer accidents, congestions, and efficient use of Mobility as a Service (MaaS) services. A value-in-use of this business model is the optimal public transport system for a traveller. For more information on this, see [3]. As PTM is based on congregating and analysing all received data that streams from various sub-systems that are working together and in a harmonious way, standardization (related to representation and exchange of data about public transportation systems) can aid to the interoperability of different systems, as many interoperability problems arise from the use of old information systems to manage operational data such as schedules and tariffs. Each PTM system operates with mobility data. Mobility data is information about travel that is collected using digitally ena- Figure 1: Business model radar for Public Transport Management [3] PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Public transport International Transportation | Collection 2023 24 bled mobility devices or services. The mobility data is typically recorded as series of latitude/ longitude coordinates and collected at regular intervals by smartphones, on-board computers, or app-based navigation systems. The mobility data may include information about trips, for instance: •• origins, •• destinations, •• trip length, •• trip route, •• start and end times •• and information about the vehicles used, such as: •• vehicle location, •• average speed, •• direction, •• sudden breaking, •• emissions. All mobility data can contain static and dynamic/ real-time information. Static information includes: •• routes and schedules; while dynamic information includes: •• traffic conditions, •• real-time public transport schedules (expected time of arrival), •• information pertaining to bus stops, •• incidents. The data is physically stored on a server that provides access to the client applications of different types and roles, based on access permissions [2]. Wireless broadband provides the high-speed connectivity needed and a proven solution that can be deployed at a fraction of the cost and time of fibre or wired connectivity. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to have a comprehensive, consistent, and agreed set of parameters for data to be easily communicated and used. GTFS stands for “General Transit Feed Specification” which defines a common format for public transportation schedules and associated geographic information. GTFS feeds can be used for trip planning, ridesharing, timetable creation, mobile data, visualisation, accessibility, analysis tools for planning, real-time information, and interactive voice response (IVR) systems [5]. Additionally, other extensions were proposed, as follows: •• GTFS-Flex [6] is an extension to enable trip planning for various types of demand-responsive or special transport services for people with disabilities. As an example, the trip planning software OpenTripPlanner [7] generate trips combining demand-responsive and fixed route service. Figure 2 presents a comparison between the original GTFS and the proposed extension GTFS-Flex model. •• GTFS-Realtime [8] allows maps to convey dynamic information about when public transport is actually arriving and departing, rather than relying on static, preset schedules. It also allows PT agencies to provide real-time updates about their fleet to application developers. Alternatives to GTFS and its extensions include the standards GOFS (General Ondemand Feed Specification) developed by MobilityData and the REST API/ XML. GOFS aims to integrate on-demand services with other mobility options in common platforms for travellers. REST API/ XML acts as an alternative to GTFS-Realtime. Moreover, the following standards will be mandatory for all MaaS actors in Europe in 2023: •• NeTEx (Network Timetable Exchange) [9] is a public transport data standard developed under the aegis of CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation). It provides a means to exchange data for passenger information such as stops, routes timetables and fares, among different computer systems, together with related operational data. •• SIRI (Service Interface for Real-Time Information) [10] is a protocol that allows exchange of dynamic information about public transport services and vehicles. Just as NeTEx, SIRI is based on Transmodel for public transport information. SIRI has mainly seen uptake in Europe, but some US agencies, offer real-time information about their services through SIRI. The main benefit of SIRI is that it may convey more details about public transport than GTFS-RealTime. There are several examples of solved challenges that are related to standardizing shared data: •• Trip planning: enables trip planning for various types of demand-responsive or paratransit service. •• Dynamic information about on PT: conveys information on real-time arrival and departing prediction of public transport. •• Fleet information: allows PT agencies to provide real-time updates about their fleet to application developers. •• Information on a specific segment of a trip: allows user to request information on a single stop without having to download data on the whole public transport system. •• Vehicle information: Information report the real-time information about available vehicles location of a vehicle, vehicle type, and current battery charge. •• Exchange/ integration of information between various systems: exchanges data for passenger information such as stops, Figure 2: GFTS and GFTS Flex Diagram [4] Public transport PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS International Transportation | Collection 2023 25 routes timetables and fares, among different computer systems, which can be collected from various stakeholders. •• Cost reduction: reduces administrative burdens related to data sharing. •• Data analysis: timetable creation, visualisation, analysis tools for planning, realtime information, and interactive voice response (IVR) systems. Depending on the collected data and the PT services that need to be supported by the PTM system, different outputs are obtained and they can be used as the main KPIs. Here we focus on selected outputs since different PTM systems have different purposes to achieve: •• location of origin and destination information for riders, •• waiting times at the location, •• information on average boarding per PT line, •• information on boarding time at each stop, including specific times throughout the day, •• data on load-factor and estimation of vehicle crowding, •• identification of first/ last-mile barriers to ridership, •• information on fleet availability, •• information on transportation means availability (vehicle, bikes, scooter, etc.), •• breakdown of common line transfers. As an equivalent to the levels of MaaS integration topology, an evolution of the levels of Mobility Management is briefly shown in figure 3. This presentation focuses on penetration and contribution of mobility data in each level that corresponds to Maas Integration levels. In total, there are 5 levels, yet since the Level-0 represents no integration or no information, it is not discussed here. In the past years, many cities have achieved Level 1 of Mobility Management, securing access to mobility data from private fleet operators. With this data, public agencies can make more informed decisions about where to place new infrastructure (e.g., kerb loading, scooter parking), ensure that services are equitable (i.e., that they are accessible in historically underserved communities), and determine how new mobility services can be leveraged to reduce congestion and climate impacts. Level 2 of mobility management is achieved when cities are able to leverage the data that they receive from mobility operators to set more effective policies. Level 3 mobility management is achieved when cities effectively leverage pricing strategies, including subsidies, to influence how travellers decide whether to walk, drive, use micromobility, or use public transport. With Level 4 mobility management, public agencies will be able to influence how travellers make transportation decisions across modes to promote societal goals: reducing transportation climate impacts, limiting congestion, and expanding equitable access to mobility. In order to reach Level 4 mobility management, cities will need an access to data from the various transportation services delivered on their public right-of-way in order to make data driven decisions, including the implementation of pricing and subsidies. Level 4 mobility management can more easily be achieved together with Level 4 MaaS solutions. That is, the mechanism through which real-time information about transportation options, and specifically new pricing and subsidies, could be more easily delivered to a large population of travellers through one, or more likely, multiple, MaaS consumer-facing applications. ■ REFERENCES [1] Public Transport | SWARCO. www.swarco.com/ solutions/ publictransport [2] Ambrož, M.; Korinšek, J.; Blaž, J.; Prebil, I. (2016): Integral management of public transport. Transportation Research Procedia, vol. 14, pp. 382-391. [3] Pribyl, O.; et al. (2021): State-of-the-art assessment. Deliverable 2.1 of the nuMIDAS project (H2020). https: / / numidas.eu/ index.php/ project-deliverables [4] MobilityData/ gtfs-flex - githubmemory. https: / / githubmemory. com/ repo/ MobilityData/ gtfs-flex [5] General Transit Feed Specification - TransitWiki. www.transitwiki. org/ TransitWiki/ index.php/ General_Transit_Feed_Specification [6] MobilityData/ gtfs-flex: A data format that models flexible public transportation services as an extension to GTFS. https: / / github.com/ MobilityData/ gtfs-flex [7] OpenTripPlanner - TransitWiki. www.transitwiki.org/ TransitWiki/ index.php/ OpenTripPlanner [8] GTFS Realtime Overview | Realtime Transit | Google Developers. https: / / developers.google.com/ transit/ gtfs-realtime [9] NeTEx | Network Timetable Exchange. https: / / netex-cen.eu/ [10] SIRI standard - Transmodel. www.transmodel-cen.eu/ siri-standard/ [11] Populus. www.populus.ai/ ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This article was the result of the joint efforts and contributions of all the nuMIDAS project partners involved: Sven Maerivoet, Bart Ons and Kristof Carlier (TML), Steven Boerma, Rick Overvoorde, Anton Wijbenga, Tessel van Ballegooijen, Dennis Hofman, Levi Broeksma, Martijn Harmenzon, Luc van der Lecq, and Jaap Vreeswijk (MAPtm), Evangelos Mitsakis, Dimitris Tzanis, Chrysostomos Mylonas, and Maria Stavara (The Centre for Research & Technology - Hellenic Institute of Transport, CERTH-HIT), Carola Vega, and Eglantina Dani (Factual Consulting), Ondřej Přibyl, Magdalena Hykšová, Jana Kuklová, Pavla Pecherková, and Jan Přikryl (Czech Technical University in Prague, CTU), Valerio Mazzeschi, Alessandro Lue, Gabriella Atzeni, Fabio Vellata, Valerio Paruscio, and Roberta Falsina (Poliedra Polytechnic Milano), Pablo Recolons, Ramon Pruneda, and Xavier Conill Espinàs (Àrea Metropolitana de Barcelona, AMB Informació), Valentino Sevino, Alessandro Giovannini, Cristina Covelli, Paolo Campus, and Adriano Loporcaro (Agenzia Mobilità Ambiente Territorio, AMAT), and Eli Nomes, Tim Asperges, and Fatma Gözet (City of Leuven). André Maia Pereira, Ing. Ph.D. candidate and researcher, Czech Technical University, Prague (CZ) maiapand@fd.cvut.cz Josep Laborda CEO & Managing Partner, FACTUAL, Sant Cugat Del Valles (ES) josep@factual-consulting.com Figure 3: Levels of MaaS integration and data-led mobility management [11] International Transportation | Collection 2023 26 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Alternative fuels Synthetic fuels in the traffic of the future On water, on land and in the air: a look at standards compliance and material compatibility E-fuels, Synthetic fuels, Standards, Regulations, Drop-in Ignition off, fuel cap out, nozzle in and off you go. This scenario happens millions of times every day at gas stations around the world. We are used to filling up our cars without thinking about whether the fuel is suitable for our car in the first place. Even when boarding an airplane or ship, we don’t waste a thought on the fuel. This is made possible by a complex structure of standards, directives, regulations, and laws, which ensures that all available fuels meet strict quality requirements. Jens Artz, Philip Ruff F or fossil fuels such as gasoline, diesel or kerosene, there is a historically evolved regulatory framework of national and international standards, regulations, directives and laws that are continuously updated and developed. This ensures nationally and internationally uniform, consistent fuel qualities for specific applications. Opening the market for alternative fuels In order to open up the market in the future for alternative “green” fuels produced synthetically or by biogenic processes, the extent to which existing technical and regulatory requirements are met must be examined at an early stage. Six fuelor technology-related requirements are particularly relevant for a successful market launch with maximum ecological benefits (Figure 1) and were the focus of a study by the ‘NormAKraft - Normkonformität alternativer Kraftstoffe’ (‘conformity to standards of alternative fuels’) project of the German Federal Ministry of Economics and Climate Protection (BMWK). For example, with only a few exceptions, there is an obligation to register chemical substances and mixtures with the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). Extensive physicochemical and (eco-)toxicological data are used to evaluate and guarantee the safe handling of the products. The following principle applies: “No data no market”, which is why the REACh registration status of the respective fuel is of essential importance for market entry. In addition, standards are a basic prerequisite for the market launch of fuels in Europe. Non-standardized fuels may not be marketed within the EU. For fuels and their blends that are not covered by the current regulatory framework, new standards must therefore be developed, or existing ones adapted and these in turn incorporated into the relevant national and international directives and regulations. Since this procedure can take several years, the relevant work should begin at an early stage of fuel development. Otherwise, the market entry may be delayed further. To enable unrestricted utilization in the existing fleet and existing infrastructures for storage, transport and distribution, the material compatibility should be as high as possible. In the past, incompatibilities with materials for example, when high ethanol blends were used led to considerable uncertainty and temporary non-acceptance by consumers due to inadequate communication. In order to identify and respond to such challenges at an early stage, the behavior of various components is already being investigated at different temperatures and storage times. If the alternative fuel shows comparable or even better performance than the fossil product, and this with significantly reduced fuel-specific emissions, then the chances are high that it can establish itself on the market and REAChregistration (ECHA) regulations e.g. RED / FQD & BImSchV emissions regulated & non regulated material compatibility no harm standardization DIN EN, ISO, IMO, ASTM performance fit for purpose fuel technology Figure 1: The six most relevant fuelor technology-related requirements for a successful market launch of synthetic fuels Source: Dechema International Transportation | Collection 2023 27 Alternative fuels PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS thus make a contribution to the energy transition in transport. Fact Sheets on standard conformity and material compatibility of alternative fuels In their fact sheets on the conformity to standards and material compatibility of alternative fuels, the NormAKraft partners evaluated all currently possible alternative fuels as well as their blends with conventional fuels with regard to the fulfillment of these six core criteria. The evaluation covered: •• synthetic alternatives for classic fuels (hydrocarbons) - synthetic diesel (Fischer-Tropsch) - synthetic gasoline (methanol-to-gasoline) - synthetic paraffinic kerosene / Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) •• oxygenated fuels (Oxygenates) - methanol - dimethyl ether (DME) - oxymethylene ether (OME) - dimethyl carbonate and methyl formate (DMC/ MeFo) •• gaseous fuels - hydrogen - methane - hythane (methane-hydrogen mixture) - ammonia in marine applications The various production routes of the fuels studied are shown in figure 2 (for more detailed information on this, please refer to the further literature). Market lead for drop-in fuels The results from NormAkraft have shown: With the appropriate production capacities, in particular such synthetic fuel alternatives could quickly establish themselves on the market, that are already able to substitute conventional fuels to a high degree or even completely. These alternatives are also known as “drop-in” fuels. They include, for example, synthetic diesel and synthetic kerosene (both based on the Fischer-Tropsch process), but also the gases methane and hydrogen. These options already have REACh registrations and standardizations as fuels, are part of the relevant regulations and, in addition, their material compatibility, performance and emission behavior have been tested on the vehicle or aircraft. Renewable hydrogen and renewable methane are currently the only options in Germany that can be used as full substitutes - that is, 100 percent. Synthetic diesel may be blended at up to 28 percent according to the ordinance, and synthetic kerosene at up to 50 percent according to the international ASTM standard. Gasoline from the methanol-to-gasoline process and kerosene from the methanol-to-jet process are also about to be marketed, although the latter has not yet found its way into the ASTM standard. In contrast, other options are still under development, including the more specialized oxygenated fuels DME, OME, DMC/ MeFo, but also hythane and ammonia. Compared with conventional fuels, the oxygenated fuels have advantages above all in terms of emission behavior, since they burn in a much cleaner fashion due to the absence of carbon-carbon bonds. Thus, individual pollutants, such as soot or nitrogen oxides, are almost completely absent due to favorable operating modes. However, there is still a considerable need for research and development for some of these options regarding material compatibility and the design of new types of combustion concepts. These aspects are particularly challenging in the case of existing vehicles. In the case of the oxygenated options under consideration, standardization as a fuel is still pending at European level in Germany, initial standardization work is underway for methanol, while technical specifications (pre-standards) exist for dimethyl ether and oxymethylene ether. In the US and China, methanol is already being offered today, in O 2 geothermal hydropower industrial point sources H 2 O renewable energy co-/ electrolysis chemical conversion H 2 / CO H 2 wind solar biomass direct air capture (DAC) biogenic point sources CO 2 CO 2 water alternative fuels hydrogen (H 2 ) methane (CH 4 ) ‚hythane‘ (H 2 + CH 4 ) synthetic diesel synthetic gasoline synthetic kerosene (SAF) dimethyl ether (DME) oxymethylene ether (OME) dimethyl carbonate (DMC) methyl formate (MeFo) methanol ammonia (NH 3 ) N 2 air separation methanation Fischer-Tropschsynthesis methanol-to-gasoline methanol-to-jet oxygenate-synthesis methanol-synthesis Haber-Boschsynthesis Figure 2: Schematic overview of the various synthetic fuel production pathways for widespread use in diverse modes of transportation Source: Dechema International Transportation | Collection 2023 28 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Alternative fuels some cases at high blending rates (85 to 100 percent). Anyhow, an EU standard does not yet exist, which is why this alternative fuel cannot be marketed in Germany yet. Challenges in the production of renewable hydrogen In addition, the regulatory framework for all synthetic fuels based on renewable electricity and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is still challenging. This is especially true regarding renewable hydrogen, which is an essential building block to produce synthetic fuels. The Delegated Act on Article 27 of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) is particularly critical in this respect. This is mostly because the regulations it contains on ‘additionality’ and on the ‘temporal and geographical correlation’ (simultaneity) of the electricity generation create major hurdles, especially for pilot projects. But also, the question regarding where the CO 2 for fuel production may come from in order to be classified as climate-friendly has been challenging to date. The carbon sources favored by climate policy are very energyintensive or not yet technologically mature (direct air capture), or only available in limited quantities (use of biomass and waste streams). The availability of a constant carbon source is an important criterion for the choice of the production site and, under current conditions, limits the development of the technology and thus the market ramp-up under current conditions. This is because the Delegated Act on GHG methodology (Article 28 of RED II) limits the use of CO 2 from industrial point sources both in time (until 2036 from electricity generation, or until 2041 from other industrial processes) and to cases that are listed in the ETS or a comparable CO 2 levy system. On a positive note, the drafts of the revised RED III for transport in general and the ReFuelEU Aviation as well as the FuelEU Maritime regulations for shipping already include dedicated sub-quotas for Renewable Fuels of Non-Biological Origin (RFNBOs) as part of the legislation. Conclusion In summary, it can be said that, despite existing system compatibility, renewable fuels will have difficulty establishing themselves in the market without a defined regulatory framework. In the case of electricity-based fuels, the framework conditions for the provision of renewable electricity (additionality and simultaneity requirement) in particular must be worked out at the European level, and the standardization of individual options such as methanol, dimethyl ether, oxymethylene ether or ammonia must be further advanced. In the specific case of synthetic diesel fuels, the possibility of placing them on the market as pure fuels is also still pending in Germany. ■ Jens Artz, Dr. Senior Advisor E-Fuels and E-Chemicals, DECHEMA Gesellschaft für Chemische Technik und-Biotechnologie e.V., Frankfurt am Main (DE) jens.artz@dechema.de Philip Ruff, Dr. Projektmanager, DECHEMA Gesellschaft für Chemische Technik und Biotechnologie e.V., Frankfurt am Main (DE) philip.ruff@dechema.de AT A GLANCE ‘NormAKraft - Normkonformität alternativer Kraftstoffe’ (‘conformity to standards of alternative fuels’) was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economics and Climate Protection (BMWK) as a sub-project of the accompanying research for the “Energy Transition in Transport” initiative (Begleitforschung Energiewende im Verkehr, BEniVer) and coordinated by DECHEMA Gesellschaft für Chemische Technik und Biotechnologie e.V.. The seven partners from applied research and industry successfully completed the project on December 31, 2022. The complete study (in German) is available as a free download on the DECHEMA e.V. website. https: / / dechema.de/ normakraft IV Drittel quer.indd 2 IV Drittel quer.indd 2 28.08.2018 16: 22: 46 28.08.2018 16: 22: 46 International Transportation | Collection 2023 29 Alternative fuels PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Dimethyl ether as an alternative fuel Can a diesel run on carbon-neutral liquefied petroleum gas? A research consortium led by Ford Research and Innovation Center Aachen is currently investigating a solution: They explore the technical conditions under which diesel vehicles can run on dimethyl ether (DME) as an alternative fuel. D imethyl ether (DME) is a gas that has similar physical properties to the liquid gases propane and butane and is also liquid at an atmospheric pressure of 5 to 6 bar. Like its sister molecule methanol, DME can be produced particularly efficiently and costeffectively as a climate-neutral energy source and is characterized by emissionreducing properties in diesel engine combustion (virtually soot-free when used as a pure fuel with simultaneous reduction of nitrogen oxides). This is of interest, for example, in freight transport, where more than 95 % of mediumto heavy-duty commercial vehicles still use diesel engines. Technical adaptations are required to enable existing and new vehicles to run on dimethyl ether. Previous studies have shown that it is possible to operate diesel engines with 100 % DME, but that this requires significant effort (injection components, combustion process, exhaust gas aftertreatment, tank system) in terms of conversion. The research consortium is therefore investigating new DME-based fuel blends as solutions for existing vehicles that require minimal retrofitting effort and are therefore costeffective. Ideally, the conventional system components already installed in the vehicle are retained. Another advantage of this solution is that, with DME/ diesel blends, both the lubricating properties and the energy content are virtually retained at the appropriate blending rate. On the one hand, the fuel blends under investigation can be refueled premixed (static blending), but would also allow both components to be blended upstream of the high-pressure fuel pump (potentially dynamic blending). With dynamic blending, even flex-fuel operation (diesel or DME/ diesel) would be possible while retaining the original diesel system. Different dimethyl ether blends-tested In addition to the technical development of such a retrofit solution, the project also focuses on determining possible fuel blends. Tec4Fuels GmbH - a competence center for conventional and alternative fuels and their application in existing and new technologies - is testing dimethyl ether. They test blends with liquid fossil or renewable fuel components such as mineral oil-based diesel, paraffinic fuels in accordance with EN15940 and biodiesel for use in diesel engines. This suitability testing relates both to the compatibility of the fuels in varying blends with each other and their impact on the materials of fuel-carrying components, such as high-pressure pumps, fuel filters, seals and injectors. Initial studies indicate that a blend of 80 % petroleum-based diesel and 20 % DME meets compatibility requirements. Other DME blends, such as with fatty acid methyl ester (biodiesel) or gas-toliquid products (paraffinic diesel), will be investigated as the project progresses. The selection of suitable efficient and sustainable propulsion technologies for future mobility requirements is complex and is determined not only by the need for environmental compatibility (CO 2 and pollutants), safety and feasibility, but above all by affordability at the consumer end. Dimethyl ether offers advantages such as sufficient energy density and ignition and combustion properties comparable to diesel fuel, with significantly low soot formation, which enables the increase of the compression ratio and thus an increase in thermodynamic efficiency and more efficient fuel consumption. In addition, when DME is produced as eFuel, it is possible to reduce well-to-wheel emissions of CO 2 by more than 90 %. ■ www.tec4fuels.com Hardware-in-the-loop test rig for qualifying the liquid gas dimethyl ether as a fuel. Photo: Tec4Fuels International Transportation | Collection 2023 30 PRODUCTS & SOLUTIONS Safety Automotive vehicles need an-all-round view to minimize traffic fatalities Autonomous sensors, Perception radar, Safer driving Chrysler introduced the first driver assistance system in the form of cruise control in 1958. Cruise control was able to automatically control longitudinal acceleration, but it was not able to “see” its surroundings. The automotive industry is now about to make a huge technological leap, with high-definition imaging radar playing a much larger role. However, in order to further support drivers and make road traffic even safer - moving toward vision zero - it is necessary for all data from all sensors and from every direction to be processed together. This all-around view creates a 360-degree image of the driving environment that identifies stationary objects and the size and shape of obstacles, thus providing information on whether an area is passable or not. Kobi Marenko W hen automotive vehicles are on the road, they need to be aware of what is happening all around the vehicle and process information from all directions simultaneously, without gaps and without making assumptions. This is a basic requirement for traffic safety. But for human drivers, it’s impossible to process information in this way. No matter how skillful drivers may be or how many mirrors are positioned around the car, they can’t see in all directions at the same time or process this information at once. This is where autonomous sensors and their supplementary perception algorithms come in. They enable a complete, continuous, and unified understanding of the driving environment. The challenge so far: Cameras offer highly detailed information for perception algorithms, but they don’t function well in some conditions, such as rain, fog, snow, darkness, or blaring lights. While radar operates well in all those conditions, until now it could not provide data detailed enough to support perception algorithms due to low resolution. Today, perception radar is the sensor that will close this gap, for the first time enabling 360-degree perception in all environments and road conditions and will be the key sensor to supplement optical sensors. Toward safer driving by merging all-sensor data In order to merge data from several sensors, the algorithm must first be adapted; tracking, ego movement, free space mapping and classifications must each be done multiple times. The challenge is to support the perception algorithms by merging all data from individual sensors into a continuous, uniform representation of the driving scenario that reliably records the vehicle’s surroundings. An example to illustrate: A dense and long traffic jam is difficult to master with only a front radar. However, when rear-facing radar is used in combination with side radars, it gives the vehicle a complete understanding of the driving environment and how it is likely to evolve over the course of the journey, covering traffic merging into your lane, which should be considered for driver assist and for autonomous driving. The more directions that are covered by sensors, the more data will be processed, thus greatly improving long-range detection, which is essential to reliably complementing optic sensors. A 360 degree view with new-abilities A comprehensive image of the surroundings, such as that provided by 360 perception leveraging Arbe’s Phoenix Perception Radar and Lynx Surround Imaging Radar, is critical for a variety of advanced autonomous and ADAS applications. It can detect stationary and moving objects in the following scenarios: •• Crossing traffic at intersections or junctions •• Merging onto a highway while detecting the fast traffic coming from behind and from the side •• Changing lanes on highways by mapping the adjacent lanes •• Backing out of a parking space onto the road All of these situations require long-range, high-resolution detection of accurate object delineations, the ability to create an image of the vehicle’s surroundings in a large field of view, and free space mapping. ■ Kobi Marenko CEO, Arbe Robotics, Tel Aviv-Yafo (IL) info@arberobotics.com Source: Arbe Robotics International Transportation | Collection 2023 31 Safety SCIENCE & RESEARCH Towards Vision Zero V2X Communication for Active Vulnerable Road User Protection V2X Communication, Vulnerable Road User, ITS-G5, C-V2X, LTE Almost half of the casualties on European roads can be accounted to the group of the so-called Vulnerable Road Users (VRUs). The introduction of V2X Communication makes it possible to extend the awareness horizon of automated and autonomous vehicles, in order to avoid accidents with VRUs. In this paper we learn how V2X communication will protect VRUs, what requirements have to be met, what the key performance metrics are and how different communication and localization technologies perform. The Vision Zero goal is to reduce the road traffic casualties including VRUs to zero. Fabian de Ponte Müller, Estefania Munoz Diaz, Stephan Sand, Clarissa Böker, Lukas Merk I n urban road traffic, motorized vehicles coexist and share space with lessor non-motorized road users, as for instance pedestrian and cyclists. Passenger cars and trucks have a high mass and already at low speed carry great amount of kinetic energy that can cause severe damages in an accident. Pedestrians, cyclists and motorbikes are especially exposed, since they are not surrounded by a steel cage that could protect them in case of an impact. Therefore, pedestrians, cyclists and motorbikers are also known as Vulnerable Road Users (VRU). In Europe, according to the Annual Accident Report of the European Commission 22 %, 10 % and 19 % of all road fatalities correspond to pedestrians, cyclists and motorbikers, respectively [1]. Vulnerable Road User Protection Consequently, VRU protection has gained a lot of attention over the last years. Not only the legislator has pushed towards deploying new safety measures to protect VRUs, but also the automotive industry has gradually incorporated new VRU safety features into vehicles. Passive safety systems aim at minimizing the consequences of an accident. Helmets (worn by cyclists and motorbike) drivers are a good example of a passive safety measure. Some motorbikes are equipped with airbag systems that unfold in case of an accident to absorb the energy of the biker’s body hitting the front part of the motorbike. Passenger cars have also experienced changes in their design to minimize the injuries when hitting against pedestrians and cyclists, e. g. the wipers have been hidden behind the hood. Some passenger cars also feature a system that automatically lifts the hood to absorb part of the energy when an impact with a VRU is detected. Active safety systems aim at avoiding the occurrence of accidents. There has been a strong trend in the past two decades in equipping passenger cars with advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and safety systems, as for instance, the electronic Stability Program (ESP), pre-collision warning and automatic emergency brakes (AEB). Since 2016, the European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) extended the AEB test criteria to include also the detection of pedestrians. Though, car models to obtain the highest 5-star distinction require to be equipped with pedestrian detection systems. Some truck manufacturers have also put a right-turning assistant for detecting a bicycle in the driver’s dead-angle as an eligible safety system and the European Commission is considering making such systems mandatory across Europe. Active safety systems in vehicles rely on a sensor system that detects the presence of a VRU and enables the vehicle to predict a potential hazardous situation. Usually, cameras, radars or laser scanners are used to this end. These systems work well, especially when combined in a sensor fusion approach. However, they have in common that they can only detect VRUs in their unobstructed field of view. With the introduction of V2X communication, automated vehicles are able to exchange information with other road users, the road infrastructure and back-end servers. Hence, the automated vehicle evolves into a connected and cooperative vehicle, which opens new possibilities for protecting vulnerable road users. By incorporating communication capabilities, the limitations of on-board perception sensors of automated vehicles can partly be compensated. This can be accomplished in two different ways: cooperative VRU awareness and infrastructure-side awareness. Both paradigms are further explained next. Cooperative VRU Awareness In this approach, VRUs equipped with a dedicated electronic device can actively make themselves aware to approaching vehicles. Especially the smartphone or wearable devices, such as smart-watches or smart-glasses, make the possibility of exchanging information between vehicles and pedestrians practical. Today’s smartphones incorporate wireless communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi, cellular communication and Bluetooth and are equipped with multiple sensors, like global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers and motion sensors, that can help localizing accurately the device. International Transportation | Collection 2023 32 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Safety Smartphones feature a high-level of computational power, include a power supply and come along different human-machine interfaces, such as the display and the haptic and acoustic interfaces. The internal software architecture of these devices makes it relatively easy to deploy new software “Apps”, that make use of all these possibilities. The limiting factor for cooperative VRU protection is however still the size and weight of the devices, the prize and the battery consumption. Although, technological advancement will on the long run make these factors less heavy, a solution is required in the short term. In this regard, the strong increase in electric-bikes, pedelecs and e-scooters in the last years makes the option of cooperative VRU protection increasingly interesting. A relatively large power supply and the ability to transport more weight are key advantages to deploy active localization systems and communication technologies into these means of transport. Cooperative VRU Awareness requires two subsystems: high accuracy localization and reliable, lowlatency communication. VRU Localization For collision avoidance purposes it is necessary to pinpoint all road users on a common map. VRUs can compute their position using the GNSS-receiver embedded in their smartphone. However, a high positioning accuracy is required for collision avoidance purposes and it is difficult to achieve using only GNSS, especially in urban environments. Particularly, a position uncertainty (1 σ ) of less than half a meter is required to obtain a high detection rate keeping the false positive rate under 10 %. Figure 1 shows the receiver operating curves (ROC) in dependence of the vehicle and VRU position uncertainty at the collision instant. The position accuracy deduced with the information provided by the GNSS receiver embedded in commercial smartphones can be increased using the inertial sensors available in the smartphone as well or maps, among others. Our study shows that the position accuracy reached by GNSS aided by inertial sensors is still not enough for reaching the half a meter accuracy required for collision avoidance purposes. The blue curve in figure 2-left shows our combined GNSS and inertial sensor solution with a 2D position accuracy of 2,7 m (1 σ ), while the red curve uses only the GNSS position provided by the smartphone. We have used the smartphone Samsung Galaxy S20 in suburban environment. Likewise, figure 2-right shows the positioning results for bicycles. The blue curve represents the position accuracy for the combined GNSS and inertial sensors solution, while the red curve represents the GNSS-only position accuracy. For these experiments the Figure 1: Collision detection performance for three different positioning uncertainties (σ = [1m, 0.5m, 0.2m]) All figures by the authors unless otherwise noted Figure 2: CDF positioning error curves for pedestrian localization (left) and bicycle localization (right) using a smartphone in a suburban environment International Transportation | Collection 2023 33 Safety SCIENCE & RESEARCH same smartphone was attached to the handlebar of the bicycle in semi-urban environment. For VRU protection and robust collision avoidance, not only the position is important, but also speed and direction of movement are needed. Since these parameters are not known at infinite precision, also a measure of the accuracy is required. Further, since the aim is to avoid collision that are about to happen, reliable prediction of the movement is required. For a speed of around 40- km/ h, 1.5 seconds are required to get a vehicle to standstill. Hence, this is also the prediction time for the trajectory of the vehicle and the VRU. Whereas vehicle’s future trajectory might be well predicted in this timeframe due to its high mass, it will be more challenging for the case of a bicycle or even a pedestrian. Here dedicated movement and intention models for pedestrians and cyclists are the key to success. V2X Communication Mainly two communication technologies are regarded for exchanging information between VRUs and vehicles: ad-hoc wireless communication or cellular communication. Ad-hoc communication is a broadcast communication without centralized coordination and link establishment. Example of ad-hoc wireless communication are ITS-G5 (or DSRC), which are based on IEEE 802.11p/ bd, or Cellular-V2X over the LTE-PC5 interface. In principle, also traditional cellular communication over a base-station (Uu interface in 3GPP-LTE nomenclature) can be used to transmit the information from VRUs to vehicles. This, however, requires a central server to disseminate and geographically filter the information amongst nodes. The relevant performance metrics for the communication are the update rate, the end-to-end latency, the packet error rate (PER) and the communication range. The highest update rate foreseen for V2X is 10 Hz, although an adjusted update rate in dependence of the node dynamics is used. The end-to-end latency for the ad-hoc communication technologies is usually below 50 ms, as our link-level tests with ITS-G5 and C-V2X on an apron showed [2] (see Figure 3-left). The maximum communication range is dependent on the transmit power and possible obstructions and blockage due to vehicles and buildings. Here we can expect slightly better performance for C-V2X than for ITS-G5 due to the physical layer with improved coding mechanisms and hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ). Our direct performance tests for a V2V link showed that CV2X had indeed a better performance in terms of a lower PER compared to ITS-G5 when driving around buildings in an in an urban environment (see Figure 3-right). However, packet errors will occur not only due to low signal strength but also due to mutual interference with other nodes. Here, network simulations with different technologies will answer, which technology is mostly suited for crowded urban environments. To keep mutual interference at an adequate level, one approach is to lower the update rate or the TX power. These techniques are as well in the interest of a thrifty power consumption at the VRU’s wearable device. A vehicle driving at 50 km/ h (14 m/ s) will travel 22 m in 1.5 seconds. Hence, a 30 to 50 m transmission range seems appropriately to warn an approaching vehicle on time. We tested a bicycle-vehicle scenario in an urban canyon using ITS-G5 communication and using a TX power of 23dBm. Figure 4 shows the RX power, the range and the PER over time. It can be seen how 80 to 100 m range were achieved with a PER of less than 50 % with this setup. By extrapolation and visual inspection, it can be stated that even with a TX power between 0 to 5 dBm a coverage up to 50 m could be achieved. The line between localization and communication vanishes, when communication technologies are used for localization. This is possible with technologies as for instance IEEE 802.11bd Next Generation V2X, IEEE 802.15.4 Ultrawide Band (UWB) and IEEE 802.11az. The latter two use large radiofrequency bandwidths to per- Figure 3 left: E2E-delay for V2V link using ITS-G5 (blue) and C-V2X (red) for different message lengths. Right: PER for a V2V link in urban environment using ITS-G5 (blue) and C-V2X (red) Figure 4: Pedestrian-vehicle collision scenario in urban canyon. Distance between a pedestrian and a vehicle, PER for a direct ITS-G5 communication link and Rx power at the vehicle over time. International Transportation | Collection 2023 34 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Safety form precise round-trip delay measurements and estimate the distance between a moving node and several fixed anchor nodes. Out of several of these ranging measurements the position can be estimated [2]. Infrastructure-side awareness Cooperative VRU Awareness requires the VRUs to carry a dedicated electronic device and, thus, creating a hurdle to a broad system deployment and to a measurable impact to accident statistics. Infrastructure-side awareness represents a paradigm shift in VRU protection. It is not the VRU who actively makes other vehicles aware of its presence, but the road infrastructure. By using a suited perception system, as for instance a camera installed on a nearby pole, road users, including VRUs, are detected, localized and tracked. This information can be encoded into a Collaborative Perception Message (CPM) and transmitted over V2X communication. This approach has been tested at the test field for cooperative and connected driving in Düsseldorf in the frame of the KoMoDnext project. A camera system was placed above a pedestrian crossing and was able to detect crossing pedestrians and generating CPMs, which were broadcasted over ITS-G5, C-V2X and LTE [4]. Not only cameras are suited to detect VRUs at urban intersections. In the frame of the German-funded project VIDETEC, DLR and IMST have tested radio-based detection systems for VRU protection [5]. IMST develops 24 GHz and 77 GHz radar chips that enable anonymous road user classification by processing micro-Doppler signatures with the help of machine learning techniques. In this context, we evaluated a very promising technology based on processing radio signals termed Joint Communication and Sensing, which is foreseen to be a key technology for the future 6th Generation cellular communication. Every node of a distributed array of antennas around the intersection transmits periodic beacons that are received by all other nodes. By intelligent signal processing of the distorted incoming signal, the location and speed of road objects can be obtained. Independent of the perception means, the information about the presence, the movement, the direction and the type of VRU needs to be delivered into the automated vehicle to be fused with the on-board perception sensors, incorporated into its local dynamic map and considered by the vehicle’s automation [6]. To this end, three competing technologies for V2X have been tested in the Düsseldorf field test. At a roadside intersection three radio devices for ITS-G5, C-V2X and LTE were placed on a pole at a height of four meters. The coverage of all three technologies was tested by driving around the south-east block. It could be observed, that CPMs were received over the direct links before having visual connection to the intersection. Figure 5-left shows that a minimum coverage of 114 m could be measured. This represents more than 8 seconds when driving at a maximum speed of 50 km/ h and seems to be sufficient for warning the vehicle about crossing pedestrians. With LTE the highest coverage was obtained. However, a centralized approach will need to decide which information to forward to which vehicle according to distance or route. On the right figure 5, the E2E delay for all three technologies can be compared to each other. Again, C-V2X has slightly higher delay than ITS-G5, while LTE doubles the latency reaching values above 350ms. VRUs, unlike vehicles, are not restricted to move on roads and can very suddenly change their curse. For sudden events, as for instance a pedestrian making a “last-second” turn onto the street, this timeframe might be already too large to timely react. Especially, if further time for processing and actuation has to be considered. Towards Vision Zero The Vision Zero goal is to reduce the road traffic casualties to zero. V2X enabled connectivity and cooperation will support the highly automated vehicle to drive more efficient in urban environments, while maintaining a high level of safety. We have presented in this article that ad-hoc V2X communication, either through ITS-G5 or C-V2X, is able to convey information about the presence of VRUs in less than 100 ms making it possible for a vehicle to safely maneuver or come to standstill. Therefore, the V2X communication has a great potential to contribute to the Vision Zero. However, in real environments two key aspects of V2X communication have to be guaranteed, namely the robustness of the communication against mutual interference in highly congested environments and semantic “trustworthiness”. These two aspects are key to the vehicle automation that is necessary to avoid hazardous situations between vehicles and VRUs. Furthermore, we have discussed that the VRUs can contribute to their own safety by sharing their position computed e.g. with their own smartphone. However, the Road- Side Unit Figure 5 Left: Coverage of CPM transmissions from RSU at a vehicle during in Düsseldorf. Blue with ITS-G5, Red with C-V2X and Yellow with LTE. Right: E2E delay with all three technologies. Satellite picture provided by Google Earth. International Transportation | Collection 2023 35 Safety SCIENCE & RESEARCH position accuracy required for this safety critical application is difficult to meet in urban environments with the current technology. Last but not least, we have seen that RF-based perception system, as for instance Joint Communication and Sensing, are promising candidates to support and enhance camera-based systems for infrastructure based VRU perception. ■ REFERENCES [1] European Commission (2020): Annual statistical report on road safety in the EU 2021, Directorate General for Transport, May 2022. [2] De Ponte Müller, F.; Rashdan, I.; Schmidhammer, M.; Sand, S. (2021): ITS-G5 and C-V2X Link Level Performance Measurements. ITS World Congress 2021, 10.-11. Okt. 2021, Hamburg, Deutschland. [3] Ponte Müller, F.; Munoz Diaz, E.; Perul, J.; Renaudin, V.(2020): Urban Vulnerable Road User Localization using GNSS, Inertial Sensors and Ultra-Wideband Ranging. In: 31st IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, IV 2020. 2020 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, 20.- 23. Okt. 2020, Las Vegas, USA. ISBN 978-1-7281-6673-5. ISSN 2642-7214. [4] Böker, C.; Leich, A.; Andert, F.; Steuernagel, S. (2021): Investigations on Collective Perception for Left Turning Manoeuvres. ITS World Congress 2021, 11.-15. Sept. 2021, Hamburg, Deutschland. [5] Kulke, R.; Hägelen, M.; Jetten, R.; Schmidhammer, M.; De Ponte Müller, F.; Rashdan, I. (2021): Increased traffic safety by means of intelligent detection and localization technologies. EuRAD 2021 18 th European Radar Conference, 16.-18. Okt. 2021, London, UK. [6] Lapoehn, S.; Heß, D.; Böker, C.; Böhme, H.; Schindler, J. (2021): Infrastructure-aided Automated Driving in Highly Dynamic Urban Environments. ITS World Congress 2021, 11-15. Sept. 2021, Hamburg, Deutschland. Clarissa Böker Institute of Transportation Systems, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Braunschweig clarissa.boeker@dlr.de Lukas Merk Institute of Transportation Systems, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Braunschweig lukas.merk@dlr.de Stephan Sand, Dr. Team Leader Vehicular Applications, Institute of Communications and Navigation, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Weßling stephan.sand@dlr.de Estefania Munoz Diaz, Dr. Team Leader Multimodal Personal Navigation, Institute of Communications and Navigation, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Weßling estefania.munoz@dlr.de Fabian de Ponte Müller, Dr. Senior Researcher, Institute of Communications and Navigation, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Weßling fabian.pontemueller@dlr.de FACING THE CHALLENGES OF MOBILITY Founded in 1949 - bound forward to face the challenges of tomorrow‘s mobility: With an editorial board of renowned scientists and an advisory board of directors, CEOs and managers from all transport industry areas, »Internationales Verkehrswesen« and »International Transportation« - the worldwide distributed English-language edition - rank as leading cross-system transport journals in Europe for both academic research and practical application. Rail and road, air transport and waterway traffic — »International Transportation« and »Internationales Verkehrswesen« stimulate a worldwide interdisciplinary discussion of the numerous defiances in mobility, transport, and logistics. The magazines are targeted at planners and decision makers in municipalities, communities, public authorities and transportation companies, at engineers, scientists and students. With peer-reviewed scientific articles and technical contributions the magazines keep readers abreast of background conditions, current trends and future prospects - such as digitalization, automation, and the increasing challenges of urban traffic. Read more about the magazines and the subscription conditions: www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de www.international-transportation.com INTERNATIONALES VERKEHRSWESEN AND INTERNATIONAL TR ANSPORTATION »Internationales Verkehrswesen« and »International Transportation« are published by Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft, D-Baiersbronn IV_Image_halb_quer.indd 1 IV_Image_halb_quer.indd 1 15.04.2018 19: 50: 55 15.04.2018 19: 50: 55 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Rail transport International Transportation | Collection 2023 36 Semi-trailer in Germany Ongoing success story in driving the modal shift from road-to-rail Modal shift, Semi-trailer, Combined transport Over the last 15 years road transport has continued holding its dominant position, slowly increasing its share among other transport modes in Europe. In Germany, 71 % of road transport performance in 2021 was processed via semi-trailers - that can be considered as the dominant loading unit in the continental transportation segment. The goal of this article is to provide an update from our previous survey published in 2020. Eugen Truschkin O ver the last 15 years road transport has continued holding its dominant position, slowly increasing its share to 76.5 % in 2018 (in tkm) among other transport modes in Europe (UIC 2020). In Germany, 71 % of road transport performance in 2021 (220 billion tkm) was processed via semi-trailers (Federal Motor Transport Authority 2021) that can be considered as the dominant loading unit in the continental transportation segment. The goal of this article is to provide an update from our previous survey published in 2020. The hypothesis expressed in the conclusion of the previous survey: “further positive development in the modal shift of semi-trailers from road to rail in the next years can be expected” shall be examined against the latest developments (Truschkin 2020). In the following section current market- developments in the field of combined- transport by loading units are presented, followed by a discussion and a conclusion. Overview of market developments The following figure 1 represents the statistics of transport performance (tkm) by loading units in combined transport in Germany. Main takeaways can be summarized as follows: •• Overall transport performance (tkm) in combined transport in Germany has more than doubled from 25.78 b tkm to 52.08 b tkm in the period 2005-2021 •• Semi-trailers (non-accompanied transport) continue to demonstrate the strongest increase dynamics (CAGR semi-trailers non accompanied = 13 %) among all types of intermodal transport units (CAGR Containers/ Swap bodies = 2 %; CAGR ROLA = 5 %) 2005-2021 According to UIC (2020) the overall transport performance of combined transport in Europe increased by 34.3 % from 2009 to 2018 (referred to tkm), where overall rail freight transport performance increased by 17.8 % in the same period. For Germany, the share of combined transport in total rail freight has increased from 28 % in 2016 to 29 % in 2018, which is above the average indicator of 22.9 % in the European countries. Overall, the same picture as in the previous survey (Truschkin 2020) can be observed - the strongest increase in rail transport performance is generated in combined transport and specifically in the segment of non-accompanied semi-trailers in case of Germany. As indicated in figure 2, the driver for the share increase of non-accompanied semitrailers on combined transport mainly results from import, export and transit transports. Transit routes demonstrate constant increase in transport performance in the observed period. In other words, non-accompanied semitrailers appear to continue their success story in the modal shift from road to rail specifically on international routes in Germany, thus our previously stated hypothesis can be validated. Obviously, the vast majority of these transports are executed by cranable trailers due to the prevailing conventional vertical technologies. Yet, some of the existing horizontal transshipment technologies (e. g., CargoBeamer) are compatible with conventional ones and execute their operations at intermodal terminals equipped with gantry cranes or reach stackers. Figure 1: Distribution of transport performance of loading units in the combined transport (%) in Germany 2005-2021 Source: Destatis 2022 Rail transport SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation | Collection 2023 37 According to the interview executed by the author of this article in December 2022 with a representative of one of the leading European semi-trailers manufacturers, no increase of the share of cranable trailers in the incoming orders (cranable vs. non cranable) has been observed over the last years. At the same time the overall order volumes for trailers have demonstrated a constant increase over years. Cranable trailers are mostly ordered by large land transport freight forwarders. The overall growing number of semitrailers along with decreasing barriers for combined transport (addressed in the follow up sections) contribute to the increasing role of this loading unit. Horizontal transshipment technologies have demonstrated dynamic development over the past years Compared to the previous survey, the dynamic developments in the field of horizontal transshipment technologies can now be observed. Two technology providers Lohr and CargoBeamer steadily strengthen their market positioning establishing as market leaders in this segment. Helrom is one of the most recent developments in the field of horizontal transshipment technologies that were launched in 2019 with Megaswing-wagons (see figure 3). In following, these technologies are briefly presented. The Leipzig-based CargoBeamer AG operates the CargoBeamer Alpin train on the route Kaldenkirchen/ Venlo (Netherlands) via Cologne (Germany) to Domossola (Italy). A total of four new intermodal trains, two for Germany and Italy each, were added to schedule in 2020, followed by additional three in 2021. In total eleven roundtrips per week are offered on this route (CargoBeamer 2021a). In 2019 the company received a financial subsidy of 7 million euros for the construction of the terminal Calais in 2019 (CargoBeamer 2019), which was put into operation in July 2021 with the domestic route to Perpignan (CargoBeamer 2021b), allowing the operation of six train pairs daily, resulting in a total of 432 semi-trailers every day. The second expansion stage is scheduled for 2023 and will double the terminal’s capacity to a total of twelve daily train pairs. In October 2021 a new connection between Calais and Domodossola was added to the network, following the goal of providing intermodal transport streams towards Central and Eastern Europe (Cargo Beamer 2021c). CargoBeamer Terminal in Calais serves as the first so called “full” terminal, where semi-trailers are transshipped horizontally in opposite to other routes, where vertical conventional technology is in use. Three additional regular routes were added in 2022 - two on the France-Germany corridor: Kaldenkirchen-Perpignan and Cologne - Sète, and one on the domestic level in Germany between Rostock and Kaldenkirchen. The Lohr company with its technology Modalohr, currently possesses six terminals (terminals Aiton, Le Boulou and Calais, in France, terminal Orbassano in Italy, terminal Bettemburg in Luxemburg, terminal Poznan in Poland); seven more are “ready to build”, further six are under “detailed studies”, further fourteen are under “preliminary studies” (Modalohr 2022). The company Helrom addresses the market segment of non-cranable trailers with Megaswing wagons. These will be used on the Vienna - Duisburg route, initially with one daily train in each direction. Further corridors are to be added in the coming years with the goal of serving 50 routes by 2026. The network would then stretch from Stockholm in the north to Rotterdam in the Figure 2: Distribution of transport performance of semi-trailers non-accompanied in the combined transport by directions in % in Germany 2005-2021 Source: Destatis 2022 Figure 3: Horizontal transshipment technologies - Helrom, CargoBeamer, Modalohr - from left to right. On the top the conventional vertical transshipment via rail-mounted gantry crane Illustration: DB Engineering & Consulting GmbH SCIENCE & RESEARCH Rail transport International Transportation | Collection 2023 38 west, Perpignan in the south and the Bulgarian/ Turkish border in the east. Helrom intends to operate as a railway undertaking, leasing or renting the locomotives, also providing maintenance services for the wagons (DVZ 2019). Unlike the examples presented above, no terminal investments are required in case of this technology. Origins and destinations can therefore be selected in a flexible manner (DVZ 2022). Discussion Previous survey (Truschkin, 2020) assumed the undergoing market consolidation in the road transport sector as one of the reasons for the increasing role of semi-trailers in the modal shift from road to rail - the larger the company, the higher the willingness to shift from road to rail (Truschkin et al. 2014). According to the Federal Office for Goods Transport the number of transport companies in Germany in 2015 decreased by 9.3 % in the period of 2010-2015 (4.625 companies, most of them with up to 9 employees, closed their businesses). In the same period, the number of semi-trailers in ownership of transport companies with a total payload of >24,000 kg has decreased by 4.6 % (from 206,627 to 197,019) (Federal Office for Goods Transport 2016, 2012). The opposite trend however can be observed in the follow up years. In the period of 2015-2020 the number of transport companies in Germany increased from 45,051 to 46,902 (4.1 %), which is still lower than in 2010 with 49,676 transport companies in total. In 2015-2020, the number of semi-trailers in ownership of transport companies with a total payload of >24,000 kg has increased by 4.6 % (from 197,019 to 206,225) almost reaching a level of 2010 (206,627 semi-trailers in total) (Federal Office for Goods Transport 2021, 2016, 2012). Increasing efficiency of combined transport in terms of its competitiveness both for price and service level compared to road transport in longer distances (supply side) along with an increasing awareness of the ways of organizing combined transport operations among forwarding companies (demand side) can be considered as the main reasons for the observed developments. Evolving digital solutions specialized in combined transport, which also offer an easy-way of last mile transport organization include more decision makers to consider an additional transport solution in their portfolio. Additionally, strong development of horizontal transshipment technologies boosts the modal shift. Further reasons, which promote the attractiveness of combined transport are still the increasing driver-shortage, lower maintenance costs for semi-trailers in combined transport compared to road transport, exemption from certain regulatory policies (e.g., night driving ban, mandatory rest hours for drivers), as well as reduction of CO 2 emissions. Conclusion •• Summarizing the above, the following can be concluded. Overall, the desired modal shift in Europe from road to rail is currently taking place at a rather slow pace. The major dynamics in the rail transport development in Europe come from the continental combined transport with an increase of 34.3 % from 2009 to 2018 (UIC 2020). Hereby, the continental combined transport via semi-trailers demonstrates the strongest increase among other loading units (containers, swap-bodies, trucks). •• More transport companies (also smaller ones) appear to discover the benefits of combined transport its attractive economic, social and environmental conditions on longer distances - and include this transport option in the transport mode choice. •• Particularly in Germany, Deutsche Bahn’s “Strong Rail” program creates further prerequisites for developing modern, environmental-friendly and efficient railway system. The increase of competitiveness of the rail network is realized via the set of defined measures, including among others the modernization of rail infrastructure, construction and expansion of lines and nodes, technological innovation and digitization of the network, more efficient capacity management. •• Hence, we conclude this article with the same expectation as three years ago, where further positive development in the modal shift of semi-trailers from road to rail in the next years can be awaited. REFERENCES CargoBeamer, 2019. 7m € funding from the EU for the CargoBeamer “rail motorway” terminal in Calais. / www.cargobeamer.eu/ 7m-fromthe-EU-for-the-CargoBeamer-rail-motorway-terminal-in-Calais-852891.html CargoBeamer, 2021a. Six new weekly trains on Alps-route. https: / / www. cargobeamer.com/ news/ six-new-weekly-trains-on-alps-route. html CargoBeamer, 2021b. CargoBeamer opens terminal in Calais. https: / / www.cargobeamer.com/ news/ cargobeamer-opens-terminal-incalais.html CargoBeamer, 2021c. CargoBeamer adds Calais - Domodossola lane. https: / / www.cargobeamer.com/ news/ cargobeamer-adds-calaisdomodossola-lane.html DVZ, 2019. Barrierefreier Bahnzugang. DVZ 15.10.2019 https: / / www.dvz. de/ rubriken/ land/ schiene/ detail/ news/ barrierefreier-bahnzugang. html DVZ, 2022. Was Helrom treibt. Kombinierter Vekehr. DVZ - 23 08.06.2022 Destatis, 2019. Goods transport, Transport, performance. www.destatis. de/ EN/ Themes/ Economic-Sectors-Enterprises/ Transport/ Goods- Transport/ Tables/ goods-transport-lr.html#fussnote-1-62396 Destatis, 2022. 46131-0017: Beförderte Güter, Beförderungsleistung, Ladeeinheiten, Container (Eisenbahngüterverkehr): Deutschland, Jahre, Hauptverkehrsbeziehungen, Art der Ladeeinheit, Ladezustand. Zeitraum 2005-2021. www-genesis.destatis.de/ genesis/ / online? operation=table&code=46131-0017 European Commission, 2011. White Paper on Transport. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Federal Office for Goods Transport, 2021. Struktur der Unternehmen des gewerblichen Güterkraftverkehrs und des Werkverkehrs. Band USTAT 19 November 2020. Bundesamt für Güterverkehr, Köln. Federal Office for Goods Transport, 2016. Struktur der Unternehmen des gewerblichen Güterkraftverkehrs und des Werkverkehrs. Band USTAT 18 November 2015. Bundesamt für Güterverkehr, Köln. Federal Office for Goods Transport, 2012. Struktur der Unternehmen des gewerblichen Güterkraftverkehrs und des Werkverkehrs. Band USTAT 17 November 2010. Bundesamt für Güterverkehr, Köln. Federal Motor Transport Authority, 2018. Verkehr deutscher Lastkraftfahrzeuge (VD) Verkehrsaufkommen Jahr 2018 Federal Motor Transport Authority, 2021. Verkehr deutscher Lastkraftfahrzeuge (VD) Verkehrsaufkommen Jahr 2021 Modalohr, 2022. The LOHR System Terminals. https: / / lohr.fr/ lohr-railwaysystem/ the-lohr-system-terminals/ Truschkin, E. 2020. Semi-trailer on rail in Germany - the driver of a modal shift? International Transportation, Special Edition 1, Volume 72: 53-55 Truschkin, E., Elbert, R., Günther., A. 2014. Is transport subcontracting a barrier to modal shift? Empirical evidence from Germany in the context of horizontal transshipment technologies. Business Research, 7: 77-103 UIC 2020. 2020 Report on Combined Transport in Europe. Eugen Truschkin, Dr. Logistics Consulting, DB Engineering & Consulting GmbH, Berlin eugen.e.truschkin@deutschebahn. com Urban mobility SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 39 Significance map pedestrian traffic Leipzig Mapping the relevance of the built environment for pedestrian traffic as the basis for strategic network development Pedestrian traffic, Walking, Network planning, Urban street design, Points of Interest, Geodata This paper presents the methodology for developing a significance map for pedestrian traffic using the city of Leipzig as an example. Based on assumptions about the relevance and catchment areas of origins and destinations for pedestrian traffic, significance levels are assigned to public spaces. These represent the potential for pedestrian traffic that can be expected from the urban structures in the vicinity of the respective public spaces. The significance map created in this way allows for hierarchization of pedestrian networks and prioritization of measures promoting pedestrian traffic. Friedemann Goerl, Frederik Sander, Robert Guschel, Caroline Koszowski, Regine Gerike P edestrian traffic, both as movement between origins and destinations (walking) and as lingering in public spaces (place activities), is associated with many benefits. Spending time in public spaces is an essential quality of urban life and the liveliness of public spaces promotes the economic success of adjacent businesses as well as social security. Economically, ecologically and in terms of land consumption, walking is the most efficient way of getting around and it is a necessary part of most trips as a means of getting to and from motorized transport and in particular local public transport (LPT). Walking as a physical activity also directly contributes to the promotion of public health. These multiple positive effects of walking and place activities, which together materialize in the streets as pedestrian traffic, are increasingly being recognized, and many stakeholders show high commitment to its promotion from the strategic level of walking concepts [1, 2] to the design of attractive and safe street spaces [3]. This high significance of pedestrian traffic at the interface between urban, transport Leipzig, town square Photo: Falco / pixabay Urban mobility SCIENCE & RESEARCH SCIENCE & RESEARCH Urban mobility International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 40 and health planning is clearly at odds with the inadequate data situation. Street-level data on pedestrian volumes have traditionally been scarcely collected, primarily for reasons of costs and planning priorities: The recording of pedestrian volumes is timeconsuming because it has mainly been done manually; automatic counting stations are hardly used and show considerable inaccuracies [4]. In addition, the focus of studies and planning has so far often been on motorized traffic (individual and public), increasingly also on cycling but less on walking. Technological innovations offer promising opportunities to improve the data situation, e. g. on the basis of data collection with video cameras or other imaging technologies with increasingly automated extraction of pedestrian volumes and trajectories. However, these new technologies have so far only been applied selectively. The visibility of pedestrian traffic in mobility surveys is limited by the principle of the main mode of transport. Common modal split evaluations are based on the distribution of trips in the population across the different modes of transport but do not consider the individual segments of each trip. Typical walking shares in these evaluations are about 30 percent which only includes those trips which are entirely completed on foot. The walking done as a part of other trips, especially when LPT is used, is not visible [1]. In terms of relevant influencing factors, the “5 Ds” (Density, Diversity, Design, Distance to Public Transport (PT), Destination Accessibility) are the most widely used system in the international literature to classify spatial determinants of pedestrian volumes [2]. Density is usually operationalized as population density or proportion of built-up area to total area (“floor area ratio”) within a given radius of a street segment [3]. The diversity of land use is described in terms of measures of entropy or, more simply, proportions of particular uses [4]. Density and diversity are the two most important variables for explaining pedestrian volumes; they are consistently significant and show the highest effect sizes. Shorter distances to PT stops also increase walking volumes. Design variables at the network level are significant only in some studies and are operationalized, for example, by the density of network nodes per area or block sizes [4]. In recent studies, the network indicator “betweenness centrality” shows significant relationships with pedestrian volumes derived from the centrality of nodes and edges in a network [5]. Accessibility of local destinations such as supermarkets shows significant interactions with land use diversity and has less of an impact on pedestrian volumes [2]. The radius of street segments studied varies from 250 m to 800 m, with different radii often applied to different destinations (e.g., PT stops or supermarkets) [6]. These findings on the determinants of pedestrian traffic can be used to estimate the importance of streets and public spaces for pedestrian traffic based on built environment data, allowing for hierarchization of networks and prioritization of planning without having empirical data available. This paper presents such an approach using the city of Leipzig as an example. Based on assumptions about the relevance and range of origins and destinations (points of interest, POIs) as well as land uses (e. g. parks) for pedestrian traffic, each element of the public space is assigned a level of significance. These represent the pedestrian traffic potential that can be expected for the urban structures present in the vicinity of each space based on the findings generated in the literature. The method thus implicitly estimates pedestrian volumes. However, due to the lack of validation with actual numbers so far, the new method remains on the qualitative level of assigning potentials and does not claim to estimate pedestrian volumes quantitatively. However, it already allows for comparisons to be made between different urban areas and their importance for pedestrian traffic. Case study for the city of Leipzig With its dense urban structures, wide boulevards, and an attractive city center with few cars, the city of Leipzig offers very good conditions for pedestrians and committed itself early on to promoting this mode of transport. The Concept for Pedestrian Traffic in Leipzig, which was adopted in 1997, already committed itself to the goals of becoming a city of short distances to destinations and the strengthening of pedestrian traffic. This high priority is also visible in the strategic planning documents and activities that followed. These are, above all, the Urban Development Plan for Transport and Public Space from 2015, the creation of the position of a pedestrian traffic officer as the first city in Germany in 2018, and the Mobility Strategy 2030 in 2018 [1]. For the ongoing systematic promotion of pedestrian traffic, a threestage approach is envisaged with the following components: a) the pedestrian strategy as a conceptual basis, b) the pedestrian development plan for identifying networks and focal points for measures at the citywide level, and c) integrated local transport concepts at the district level, which also include pedestrian traffic. The demand-side goals formulated in the pedestrian strategy adopted in 2021 focus on the modal split share of pedestrian traffic, which is to be stabilized. Supply-side goals relate to the identification of networks, the development of attractive, accessible, and safe infrastructure, the strengthening of pedestrian-friendly mobility cultures, and the implementation of schemes for monitoring and evaluation. The significance map to be presented below works toward several of these goals (Figure-1). It enables, among other things, the evidencebased identification of citywide development priorities as a basis for network development, the prioritization of measures for the redesign or rehabilitation of street Figure 1: Significance map pedestrian traffic of the city of Leipzig Source: Authors Urban mobility SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 41 spaces, as well as traffic monitoring and public transport network planning. Methodology for the development of the significance map The literature summarized above shows that pedestrian traffic, in contrast to other modes of transport, has a particularly strong relationship with the surrounding built environment and urban structures. Origin and destination relationships along routes and axes over long distances are much less relevant than the direct surroundings with the respective urban development options and local situation. Given this background, the methodology for the creation of the significance map for the city of Leipzig is based on the assumption that specific pedestrian-relevant and -generating locations in roadside spaces as points of interest (POIs) as well as land uses such as green spaces each generate typical pedestrian volumes with typical ranges. The selection of POIs and land uses is based on the facilities with increased Group Type Data source Data type Influence area Significance Residence population focal points City raster area of the raster 1 -10 population *0,02 nursing homes City POI 500m 7 Educational facilities kindergartens City POI 200m 7 elementary schools City POI 200m 7 secondary schools City POI 200m 7 universities City/ OSM POI 400m 7 Services, retail and gastronomy stores OSM POI 200m 1 large-scale retail trade OSM, self collected POI 300m 10 gastronomy OSM POI 300m 2 Public buildings public administration and citizen offices City POI 300m 6 libraries & post offices City/ OSM POI 300m 6 police & judiciary OSM POI 300m 3 Places of assembly, sports & recreation sports facilities City/ OSM POI 200m 2 playgrounds OSM POI 200m 4 public pools City POI 200m 6 major events self collected POI 500m 20 hotels, guesthouses OSM POI 300m 3 museums, buildings of major importance City/ OSM POI 200m 6 Public transport stops bus stops City POI 300m 10 streetcar stops City POI 300m 15 local rail passenger transport stops City/ self collected POI 500m 20 Health hospitals self collected POI 500m 20 medical practices, health care supplies, social services City/ OSM POI 300m 3 Green, blue and square spaces cemetery City polygons area 10 forest/ woods City polygons area 10 community gardens City polygons area 5 squares City polygons area 10 bodies of water City polygons area + 100m 15 park/ landscaped green space City polygons area + 100m 20 Historic town centers on the outskirts of the city town centers historic maps Meilenblätter Sachsen, Berliner Exemplar polygons area 15 100m buffer around town centers historic maps Meilenblätter Sachsen, Berliner Exemplar polygons area 5 Tracking data no to low frequency Strava Metro Line + 20m buffer area 0 low frequency Strava Metro Line + 20m buffer area 10 medium frequency Strava Metro Line + 20m buffer area 50 high frequency Strava Metro Line + 20m buffer area 100 very high fequency Strava Metro Lnie + 20m buffer area 150 Table 1: Grouping of the Points of Interest (POIs) and land uses including influence areas and significance levels SCIENCE & RESEARCH Urban mobility International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 42 requirements for sidewalks listed in the Recommendations for Pedestrian Facilities (EFA) of the FGSV [7], which are adapted in typification and ranges based on the literature in combination with plausibility checks on site and considerations beyond that (Table- 1). Population focal points are incorporated as 100 m x 100 m grid data; educational institutions, services, public buildings, assembly/ sports and recreational facilities are more differentiated compared to the EFA [7]; for LPT, a distinction is made between bus, streetcar and SPNV (local rail passenger transport) stops and the ranges are adjusted in accordance with the local transport plan; a separate group for green, blue and open spaces is added to reflect their importance for pedestrian traffic. In addition to the range, each type of POI is assigned a significance, which in aggregation is equivalent to a weighting of the different types. The determination of the significance is carried out taking into account findings from the literature on the pedestrian traffic potential of certain types of POIs, expert knowledge and political votes on the prioritization of selected user groups such as children and senior citizens, with a range of one to 20 for the significance levels. Municipal policy committees, the expert public in the form of the Urban Working Group for the Promotion of Pedestrian Traffic and the Round Table for Pedestrian Traffic, as well as the city district advisory councils and local councils were intensively involved in the development of the significance map. For the classification of the significance of the population focal points, the persons registered in the 100 m × 100 m grid are multiplied by a coefficient of 0.02, thus generating a range from one to ten. This weighting has also been evaluated and adjusted several times within the administration and through the Working Group for the Promotion of Pedestrian Traffic in terms of its impact on the overall result. LPT stops are assigned a basic value according to table 1. In-addition, transfer stops are given five further points of importance, which are further increased in the case of shorter service intervals based on the local transport plan of the city of Leipzig [8]. In order to achieve a differentiated balance between inner-city and suburban locations, historic local subcenters in the Leipzig urban area were identified and their significance increased. Former sub-centers on the outskirts of the city of Leipzig are thus included in the evaluation as special cases with 10 points. To determine the significance for parks, tracking data from the company Strava is used to estimate pedestrian traffic that is independent of POIs. Since the tracking data particularly depicts recreational pedestrian traffic ( jogging, going for a walk), it allows for a more detailed analysis of the relevance of green spaces for pedestrian traffic. Spaces in green areas with a particularly high frequency receive up to 150 points, in order to establish a comparability to street spaces. This allows for adequate consideration of these land uses that are important for pedestrian traffic, including recreational travel that is less oriented to POIs. To determine the overall significance of a street segment across all POIs and land uses taken into account, a network analysis is performed around each POI which contributes to the overall significance with the respective range. No circles are drawn around POIs, but differentiated routing is performed along the actual street and the path network. The significance of the influence areas overlaying each street segment are weighted and added together to determine the overall significance for each street segment. The analysis is built on a route network which is based on two data sets. These are on the one hand the route network from OpenStreetMap (OSM) as lines and on the other hand traffic zones as polygons from the city of Leipzig. While the traffic zones only include those areas that are in the property of the Transport and Civil Engineering Office of the City of Leipzig, the route network of OSM also includes routes in green spaces (for which the Office for Urban Green Areas and Waters is responsible), routes in semi-public and private spaces and partly also informal routes, which ultimately also represent significant connections for pedestrian traffic. The OSM routes dataset was only adjusted for those routes that cannot be walked on by pedestrians (e.g., freeways and freeway on-ramps). The geodata of the POIs were for the most part directly available to the city of Leipzig. They were supplemented by OSM data if no comprehensive citywide data sets were available. In some cases, data sets from both sources were merged and identified duplicates were removed. Some data sets were manually researched and added due to a lack of availability. In addition to the POIs available as point data, raster data for the population density and polygons as area data for the green, blue and open spaces as well as historical locations were integrated. Spatial movement data were also included to represent leisure travel (going for a walk, jogging). This was of particular relevance for the green spaces. The analysis implemented in this way is based on an extensive dataset of individual elements of significance such as POIs (6,629 records), resident grids (46,000 records), green and water areas (3,085 records), as well as the tracking data. Results Figure 1 shows the final significance map for the entire city of Leipzig and figure 2 shows a section of the inner city. The highest significance values of more than 650 points are found in Leipzig’s city center, where a particularly large number of catchment areas of stores, services, restaurants, educational institutions (especially universities) and public buildings overlap. In general, it is apparent that services, retail and gastron- Figure 2: Significance map for pedestrian traffic of a section of the inner city of Leipzig Source: Authors Urban mobility SCIENCE & RESEARCH International Transportation (71) 1 | 2019 43 omy clearly shape the areas of significance for pedestrian traffic due to their concentration. The centers of levels A to D defined in the 2016 urban development plan (Stadtentwicklungsplan, StEP) [9] also stand out accordingly. Hence, there is a good correspondence between the pedestrian traffic potentials determined with the method described here and the spatial development goals of the city of Leipzig. There is also close correlation in the grading of the centers, with some deviations. For example, the D-center Connewitzer Kreuz shows a very high and the C-center Eutritzsch/ Delitzscher Straße a rather low expression in the significance levels. The Band C-centers defined in the StEP 2016 have maximum significance levels of about 200 to 250, while the D-centers are between 100 to 150. There are also areas beyond the centers defined in the StEP 2016 with very high levels of significance, such as Johannisplatz, Bayerischer Platz, the Musikviertel, and elevated significance areas within the city and sub-centers, such as Coppiplatz, Stannebeinplatz, or the Zweinaundorf subcenter. This shows the potential of these areas for future development. Overall, areas with good accessibility in the network perform better. The more access points a node has and the more routes lead to a location, the more areas of influence tend to overlap there, which in turn leads to higher levels of significance. Summary and outlook The significance map now available for the city of Leipzig allows for the evidence-based identification of potentials and development priorities for pedestrian traffic on an urban scale for the first time. With reference to the significance map, it is now possible to prioritize and hierarchize all emerging initiatives and measures from the perspective of pedestrian traffic. Given the large number of necessary measures for pedestrian traffic in the entire urban area, such a systematic approach is imperative to enable the systematic and strategic classification of pedestrian traffic concerns under the constraints of financial and human resources, while taking into account the objectives formulated in the various strategic planning documents [1]. The approach based on geodata is transparent and transferable to other cities. Because of the way the approach differentiates between locations, it enables a balanced consideration of the demands of the highly urbanized settlement structures as well as the requirements of the outer and settlement areas and the suburban residential areas. In order to validate the estimated potentials and significance levels, a comprehensive survey of actual pedestrian volumes would be suitable; this would further improve the validity of the results and thus also the weight of the significance map as an instrument in planning. ■ REFERENCES [1] Stadt Leipzig: Fußverkehrsstrategie - Die Overtüre. https: / / static. leipzig.de/ fileadmin/ mediendatenbank/ leipzig-de/ Stadt/ 02.6_ Dez6_Stadtentwicklung_Bau/ 66_Verkehrs_und_Tiefbauamt/ Verkehrskonzepte/ Fussverkehrsstrategie_Online_202 1 .pdf. Accessed July 17, 2023. [2] Ewing, R., Connors, M. B., Goates, J. P., Hajrasouliha, A., Neckerman,K., Nelson, A. C., Greene, W.: Validating Urban Design Measures. [3] Gascon, M., Götschi, T., de Nazelle, A., Gracia, E., Ambròs, A., Márquez, S., Marquet, O., Avila-Palencia, I., Brand, C., Iacorossi, F., Raser, E., Gaupp-Berghausen, M., Dons, E., Laeremans, M., Kahlmeier, S., Sánchez, J., Gerike, R., Anaya-Boig, E., Panis, L. I., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. 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Zweite Fortschreibung. https: / / static.leipzig.de/ fileadmin/ mediendatenbank/ leipzig-de/ Stadt/ 02.6_Dez6_Stadtentwicklung_Bau/ 66_ V e r k e h r s _ u n d _ T i e f b a u a m t / N a h v e r k e h r s p l a n / Z w e i t e - Fortschreibung-Nahverkehrsplan-Stadt-Leipzig-2019.pdf. Accessed July 17, 2023. [9] Stadt Leipzig: Stadtentwicklungsplan Zentren 2016. https: / / static. leipzig.de/ fileadmin/ mediendatenbank/ leipzig-de/ Stadt/ 02.6_ Dez6_Stadtentwicklung_Bau/ 61_Stadtplanungsamt/ Stadtentwicklung/ Stadtentwicklungsplaene/ STEP_Zentren/ STEP_Zentren_2016_Blaue-Reihe-Nr-62.pdf. Accessed July 17, 2023. Friedemann Goerl Stadt Leipzig, Verkehrs- und Tiefbauamt, Fußverkehrsverantwortlicher, Leipzig (DE) friedemann.goerl@leipzig.de Frederik Sander Stadt Leipzig, Verkehrs- und Tiefbauamt, Sachbearbeiter strategische Rad- und Fußverkehrsplanung, Leipzig (DE) frederik.sander@leipzig.de Caroline Koszowski Wiss. Mitarbeiterin, Integrierte Verkehrsplanung und Straßenverkehrstechnik, TU Dresden (DE) caroline.koszowski@tu-dresden.de Regine Gerike, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Integrierte Verkehrsplanung und Straßenverkehrstechnik, TU Dresden (DE) regine.gerike@tu-dresden.de Robert Guschel Stadt Leipzig, Stadtplanungsamt, Koordinierungsstelle “Leipzig weiter denken”, Leipzig (DE) robert.guschel@leipzig.de Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft | Schliffkopfstrasse 22 | D-72270 Baiersbronn Tel.: +49 7449 91386.36 | Fax: +49 7449 91386.37 | office@trialog.de | www.trialog-publishers.de Let’s keep in touch editorsdesk@international-transportation.com advertising@international-transportation.com International Transportation | Collection 2023 44 FORUM Events Is the sky the limit? Preview: 15 to 17 Nov. 2023, INAIR 2023, 12th International Conference on Air Transport, Tartu (EE) F or over a decade, the conference has been the premier destination for bringing together the brightest minds from academia and industry to share insights, innovations, and best practices. With a rich history of facilitating meaningful conversations and forging lasting connections, INAIT has become the go-to forum for anyone looking to stay ahead of the curve in their field. Whether a seasoned professional or just starting out, it is a great advantage to join the conference and experience the power of collaboration and inspiration. Being hosted by the Estonian Aviation Academy, the conference focuses on the advancements and challenges in the aviation industry. The presentations are about: Airport Operation And Design, Airline Operation, Safety And Security, Air Traffic Management, Human Performance, Aerospace Engineering, Urban Air Mobility, and much more. INAIR encourages attendees to think about the potential of aviation technology and how far it can go in the future. It also raises the question of whether there are limits to aviation innovation and what those limits might be. www.inairportal.uniza.sk Photo: © Ross Parmly / Unsplash Commercial vehicles in a net zero sector Preview: 21 to 25 November 2023, Solutrans 2023, Lyon (FR) T he 17th edition of the the two-yearly Solutrans trade show, to be held from 21 to 25 November 2023 at Lyon Eurexpo, is shaping up to be a strategically important event for all the players in the sector. With more than 90 % of its surface area already booked seven months before the event and an everincreasing number of exhibitors, Solutrans, the global hub for heavy and light commercial vehicles, is mobilising the sector‘s players more than ever and is planning a content-rich 2023 edition. The guiding theme of this year’s event: How to embed the commercial vehicle industry in a net zero sector? Transport has always provided essential connections. Not only do modes of transport need to be reinvented, but also its organisation and its touchpoints: the city must be a relay point. Consumer patterns are constantly changing. Transport is adjusting quickly to them, and with the least possible impact. Haulage has wasted no time in decarbonising its vehicles and transport. Other modes of transport must be invented to connect and round out the logistics chain. This year’s edition of the show will focus on 5 main topics: onboard intelligence, urban delivery, retrofit, tires and new energies. Together, citizens, consumers, politicians, carriers, logistics providers, are called upon to reinvent cities, reinvent a greener world. www.solutrans.fr Get your ticket here for free. Photo: © Francis Mainard / Solutrans Europe’s mobility flagship event Preview: 2 to 5 April 2024, Connecting Europe Days 2024, Brussels (BE) C onnecting Europe Days will bring together politicians, financial institutions, industry representatives, transport stakeholders and the European Commission to discuss concrete measures and exchange good practices on creating a fully decarbonised, resilient, seamless and digital transport and mobility network in Europe. It will take stock of the ambitious goals set out in the EU Green Deal and the Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy. The revised trans-European transport network (TEN-T) Regulation, with the launch of nine new European Transport Corridors and a revamped governance system led by eleven European TEN-T Coordinators, will be a central point of the discussions, as will the future of infrastructure funding and financing. Participants will also address the question of infrastructure climate resilience. Threats to transport connectivity, including Russia’s ongoing aggression against Ukraine, have repeatedly put the functioning of the EU Single Market at risk in recent years. Conference sessions will look at the EU transport network, its role in ensuring connectivity with the EU’s neighbours, and its preparedness and resilience against external threats. Participants will see stateof-the art innovations first-hand at an exhibition of EU-funded projects. The event is being organised together with the upcoming Belgian Presidency of the Council of the EU. For any questions related to the organisation of the event, please contact the Connecting Europe Days Secretariat: connectingeuropedays@wearemci.com International Transportation | Collection 2023 45 Events FORUM Barrier-free, accessible, inclusive cross-border public transport Preview: 1 to 5 July 2024, EPTS Summer School 2024, Maribor (SI) E uropean integration brings regions closer together, even across borders. Public transport services and timetables need to be coordinated to establish smooth and smart travel chains from point to point. 15% of the European population have some kind of disability and many more people are exposed to barriers in specific situations like carrying heavy luggage, travelling with a stroller, a broken leg or broken glasses. Moreover, a different country often means a different language. In the summer school the organizers - the European Platform of Transport Sciences (EPTS) in common with professors at Maribor and Vienna universities - will take all this into account and discuss what is necessary for convenient cross-border public transport, which is barrier-free, accessible and inclusive. They will do this not only by the input of experts and people with disabilities but also by selfexperience. The results shall serve as a role model for a series of new summer schools in the following years. Furthermore, the results shall be reported to the European Commission and shall be applied to similar cross-border settings within the EU. Registration for the summer school is open for students of all academic levels (Bachelor; Master, Doctoral). Further details about the organization, certification and cost contribution at the website. www.epts.eu EU Transport Day at COP28 Preview: 30 November to 12 December 2023, COP28, Dubai (AE-DU) A t UN Climate Change Conference COP- 28 the world will come together for the next round of climate negotiations. In the margins of the conference, the EU will organise several side events, including an ‘EU Transport Day’ on 6 December, bringing together policy makers and experts from the transport industry and civil society. All events will be livestreamed. COP 28 will take place from 30 November until 12 December 2023. Pre-sessionals will take place from 24 to 29 November. The Blue Zone is under the authority of the United Nations. The pavilion space is operated by the host country on a commercial basis in order to provide Parties and admitted observers with dedicated space to host their own private meetings and office accommodation. The pavilion space is not intended as a part of the formal intergovernmental process. Events hosted in pavilions are not part of the official COP programme. The events are a product of guidance from a diverse set of stakeholders on the outcomes they would like to see under each thematic day, also reflecting inputs from the open consultation process earlier this year. The COP28 thematic program is designed to unite a diverse range of stakeholders - all levels of governments, youth, business and investors, civil society, frontline communities, indigenous peoples, and others - around specific solutions that must be scaled up this decade to limit warming to 1.5 degrees, build resilience, and mobilize finance at scale. This set of solutions constitutes the response to the Global Stocktake, looking where the world stands on climate action and support, identifying the gaps, and working together to agree on solutions pathways to 2030 and beyond. https: / / transport.ec.europa.eu/ eutransport-day-cop28_en https: / / unfccc.int/ cop28 Photo: © Darcey Beau / Unsplash Photo: © Vitor Camilo / Unsplash International Transportation | Collection 2023 46 Editorial Board Editorial Advisory Board Gerd Aberle Dr. rer. pol. Dr. h.c., Emeritus professor of Gießen University, and honorary member of the Editorial Advisory Board (DE) Uwe Clausen Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing., Director of the Institute for Transport Logistics at Technical University (TU) Dortmund & Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics (IML), (DE) Florian Eck Dr., Managing Director of the German Transport Forum (Deutsches Verkehrsforum e.V./ DVF), Berlin (DE) Michael Engel Dr., Managing Director of the German Airline Association (Bundesverband der Deutschen Fluggesellschaften e. V./ BDF), Berlin (DE) Alexander Eisenkopf Prof. Dr. rer. pol., ZEPPELIN Chair of Economic & Transport Policy, Zeppelin University, Friedrichshafen (DE) Tom Reinhold Dr.-Ing., CEO, traffiQ, Frankfurt (DE) Ottmar Gast Dr., former Chairman of the Executive Board of Hamburg-Süd KG, Hamburg (DE) Barbara Lenz Prof. Dr., former Director of the Institute of Transport Research, German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V./ DLR), Berlin (DE) Knut Ringat Prof., Speaker of the Executive Board of the Rhine-Main Regional Transport Association (Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund GmbH/ RMV), Hofheim am Taunus (DE) Wolfgang Stölzle Prof. Dr., Professor of Logistics Management, Research Institute for Logistics Management, University of St. Gallen (CH) Ute Jasper Dr. jur., lawyer, law firm of Heuking Kühn Lüer Wojtek, Düsseldorf (DE) Matthias von Randow Executive Director of the German Aviation Association (Bundesverband der Deutschen Luftverkehrswirtschaft/ BDL), Berlin (DE) Kay W. Axhausen Prof. Dr.-Ing., Institute for Transport Planning and Systems (IVT), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich (CH) Hartmut Fricke Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil., Chair of Air Transport Technology and Logistics, Technical University (TU) Dresden (DE) Hans-Dietrich Haasis Prof. Dr., Chair of Business Studies and Economics, Maritime Business and Logistics, University of Bremen (DE) Sebastian Kummer Prof. Dr., Head of the Institute for Transport and Logistics Management, Vienna University of Economics and Business (AT) Peer Witten Prof. Dr., Chairman of Logistics Initiative Hamburg (LHH); Member of the Supervisory Board of Otto Group, Hamburg (DE) Oliver Wolff Executive Director of the Association of German Transport Companies (Verband Deutscher Verkehrsunternehmen/ VDV), Cologne (DE) Oliver Kraft CEO, VoestAlpine BWG GmbH, Butzbach (DE) Ralf Nagel Former presidium member German Shipowners’ Association (Verband Deutscher Reeder/ VDR), Hamburg (DE) Detlev K. Suchanek Executive Partner, PMC Media House GmbH, Hamburg (DE) Jan Ninnemann Prof. Dr., Course head for Logistics Management, Department Maritime & Logistics, HSBA Hamburg School of Business Administration, Hamburg (DE) Sebastian Belz Dipl.-Ing., Secretary General of EPTS Foundation, CEO econex verkehrsconsult, Wuppertal (DE) Ben Möbius Dr., Executive Director of the German Federation of Rail Industries (Verband der Bahnindustrie in Deutschland), Berlin (DE) Ullrich Martin Prof. Dr.-Ing., Head of Institute of Railway and Transportation Engineering (IEV), Stuttgart (DE) International Transportation is a special edition of Internationales Verkehrswesen | vol. 75 Imprint Editorial board Prof. Dr. Kay W. Axhausen Prof. Dr. Hartmut Fricke Prof. Dr. Hans Dietrich Haasis Prof. Dr. Sebastian Kummer Prof. Dr. Barbara Lenz Prof. Knut Ringat Publishing house Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft Eberhard Buhl | Christine Ziegler Schliffkopfstr. 22, D-72270 Baiersbronn Phone +49 7449 91386.36 office@trialog.de www.trialog.de Publishing Director Dipl.-Ing. Christine Ziegler VDI Phone +49 7449 91386.43 christine.ziegler@trialog.de Editorial office Managing Editor Eberhard Buhl, M.A. Phone +49 7449 91386.44 eberhard.buhl@trialog.de editorsdesk@international-transportation.com Advertising Phone +49 7449 91386.46 Fax +49 7449 91386.37 anzeigen@trialog.de For advertisement prices, please see price list no. 60 of 01 Jan. 2023 Sales Phone +49 7449 91386.39 Fax +49 7449 91386.37 service@trialog.de Publishing intervals Quarterly, plus International Transportation Terms of subscription Subscriptions run for a minimum of 1 year and may be terminated at the end of any subscription period. 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The publisher accepts no liability for any unsolicited manuscripts. Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft Baiersbronn-Buhlbach ISSN 0020-9511 EDITORIAL PANELS | IMPRINT Johann Dumser Director Global Marketing and Communications, Plasser & Theurer, Vienna (AT) Magnus Lamp Program Director Transport, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne (DE) Uta Maria Pfeiffer Department Head Mobility and Logistics, Federation of German Industries (Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie e.V./ BDI), Berlin (DE) GESAMMELTES FACHWISSEN Das Archiv der Zeitschrift Internationales Verkehrswesen mit ihren Vorgänger-Titeln reicht bis Ausgabe 1|1949 zurück. Sie haben ein Jahres-Abonnement? Dann steht Ihnen auch dieses Archiv zur Verfügung. Durchsuchen Sie Fach- und Wissenschaftsbeiträge ab Jahrgang 2000 nach Stichworten. Greifen Sie direkt auf die PDFs aller Ausgaben ab Jahrgang 2010 zu. Mehr darüber auf: www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de Trialog Publishers Verlagsgesellschaft | Baiersbronn | service@trialog.de ePaper-EAZ_IV_TranCit.indd 4 ePaper-EAZ_IV_TranCit.indd 4 11.11.2018 18: 32: 23 11.11.2018 18: 32: 23