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www.international-transportation.com LOGISTICS City logistics developments Intermodal semi-trailer transportation Realization and testing of the Extended Market Wagon MOBILITY Corporate mobility management FORUM History Logistics Collection | December 2024 Volume 76 UVK Verlag - Ein Unternehmen der Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG Dischingerweg 5 \ 72070 Tübingen \ Germany \ Tel. +49 (0)7071 97 97 0 \ info@narr.de \ www.narr.de BOOK RECOMMENDATION This comprehensive textbook gives an insight into all relevant aspects of business administration, as they are all subject to fundamental changes due to the transformation to a more sustainable economy. It starts with the background on sustainability and the scienti c classi cation of sustainable business administration. Next, it sheds light on the boundary conditions regarding environmental economics and social responsibility. The next section deals with management functions, from strategy and international management to change management, legal implications and HR management. The last part focuses on value creation. Here, the authors shed light on the in uence of sustainability in all areas of the corporate value chain, from procurement on to production and ending with marketing and sales. Also addressed are expert functions such as environmental management or sustainable product design, which are essential in driving sustainable innovation in a dynamically changing environment. Dietmar Ernst, Robert Gabriel, Ulrich Sailer (eds.) Sustainable Business Management 2 nd edition 2023, 396 p. €[D] 42,90 ISBN 978-3-7398-3201-2 eISBN 978-3-7398-8201-7 Ulrich Sandten-Ma Editorial Director Dear readers, we are proud to present to you this first international issue of the journal International Transportation, published by expert verlag - the well-established German language journal Internationales Verkehrswesen, which celebrates its 77th anniversary in 2025, is published now in Tübingen. With this change, we can announce some benefits for the authors of the journals. Every scientific article is now assigned a DOI, and all authors can send us their ORCIDs for improved identification. Furthermore, we are improving the meta data management and indexing of the journals to increase impact in industry, administration and scientific communities. As you may know, the international issue of International Transportation is published once a year, so you will have plenty of time to send us your manuscripts for publication during the year. Please feel free to contact us with any questions or ideas you may have. In this issue, you will find a spotlight on logistics with perspectives from both industry and science, as well as the history of the Autostradas in Italy. We hope that you will find something of interest. This issue was published in December 2024. We wish you a happy and successful year 2025. Kind regards A warm welcome to our English-speaking readers U. Sandten-Ma © Lukas Wehner P. Sorg © Lukas Wehner Patrick Sorg Editor EDITORIAL DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0071 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 3 PAGE 6 Photo credit: © Dávid Lajos Sárdi Semi-trailer 10 Quo Vadis, Intermodal Semi-Trailer Transportation? Eugen Truschkin, Emin Huseynov, Remmon Sarka LOGISTICS Urban transportation 6 Consolidation-based city logistics developments in the system of the concentrated sets of delivery locations Dávid Lajos Sárdi Science 22 Realization and testing of the Extended Market Wagon Reaching TRL6 with an innovative freight wagon in Fr8Rail 4, a Europe’s Rail Project David Krüger, Christian Gomes Alves, Nicolai Schmauder, Mathilde Laporte, Robert Winkler-Höhn, Gerhard Kopp Just read on: Specialist and scientific articles from International Transportation online from the year 2000 onwards in the article overview on the archive page on the web. www.internationalesverkehrswesen.de/ archiv TOPICS, KEYWORDS, AUTHORS ... Photo credit: © iStock.com/ Milos-Muller PAGE 10 PAGE 22 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 4 PAGE 31 PAGE 26 CONTENT Collection 2024 TOPICS 2025: INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORTATION 1. Social aspects of the mobility transition 2. Resilience and transport 3. Traffic planning 4. Logistics MOBILITY Science 26 Driving Change in Corporate Mobility Management— Comprehensive Perspectives on Mobility Budgets for Employees Lea Heide Schwehn, Tobias Heußler, André Bruns FORUM History 31 A hundred years ago: Were the autostrade to the Upper Italian lakes the first freeways? Wolfgang F. Jaeger COLUMNS 03 Editorial 42 Editorial panels | Imprint Current topics, dates and the extensive archive can be found at www.internationales-verkehrswesen.de Photo credit: © PURICELLI 1925 Photo credit: © iStock.com/ Tirachar International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 5 flows are consolidated, can solve this problem by requiring fewer delivery transactions. In these systems, suppliers deliver to the consolidation center [5], and from there, we can deliver the goods to the stores through cross-docks in a consolidated way. However, a shortcoming of the previous studies is that they do not pay enough attention to where significant improvements can be made and which urban areas are the best for implementing new city logistics systems. In my dissertation [6], I focused on urban areas with a large number of delivery locations in a small area with significant delivery needs (such areas were examined previously only in some papers [7] [8]); I defined these areas as concentrated sets of delivery locations. The related benefits 1. Introduction Nowadays, green considerations have led to a strong focus on efficient and environmentally friendly urban transportation, within which urban freight transport is responsible for significant emissions and traffic congestion, while mainly the last sections of these supply chains are the most expensive delivery steps, and the urban freight transport demands are still increasing [1]. The European Union has also set ambitious targets for emissions in recent years [2] [3]. To meet these targets, the development of urban freight transportation is significant within transportation. Previous results suggest that consolidation-based schemes [4], where urban freight have already been demonstrated in several cities, with significant reductions in emissions and the number of deliveries [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]. 2. Urban concentrated sets of delivery locations As the first step, I examined the different types of urban delivery locations (i.e., stores and accommodations). First, I focused on the case of Budapest, Hungary, where I worked with data from 35 shopping malls, 15 markets, the Váci utca shopping area, and 12 hypermarkets. To analyze their characteristics, I introduced the degree of concentration, which defines how many delivery locations can be found per unit of urban area. Based on this, for the Consolidation-based city logistics developments in the system of the concentrated sets of delivery locations Urban transportation, emissions, traffic congestion, freight transportation, city logistics Selected: Friedrich-List-Preis Dávid Lajos Sárdi DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0072 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 6 whole city with around 25000 stores [16], there are 47.8 stores/ km 2 . For comparison, I calculated the degree of concentration of shopping malls (4762 stores/ km 2 ), markets (12365 stores/ km 2 ), the Váci utca shopping area (804,1 stores/ km 2 ), and hypermarkets (688,2 stores/ km 2 ). All the values are significantly higher than the Budapest average, indicating that it is essential to handle these areas separately from a city logistics aspect. Additionally, 20.6% of Budapest‘s total stores are located within these areas; still, they cover only 0.3% of the total urban area (74-fold difference). Further data from Hungary [17] [18] [19] and from Austria [20] [21] have confirmed this trend. Considering these results and the findings of previous city logistics projects, I introduced a new clustering for the urban delivery locations (see Figure 1). The urban delivery locations have been divided into two groups: single delivery locations and concentrated sets of delivery locations, where several stores are concentrated in a relatively small area. In the case of an open infrastructure set, the road infrastructure defines the area, e.g., in a shopping area. A closed infrastructure set can be defined as any building with delivery locations, e.g., a shopping mall. To carry out the further steps of the research, a complex data collection methodology [22] was developed to analyze these sets. The methodology consists of expert interviews, observations, and a questionnaire covering all logistics topics, with an additional topological model for open infrastructure. Between 2015 and 2020, 1239 stores were visited for data collection, of which 627 (50.6%) answered, of which 344 (54.9%) stores‘ data could be used later for simulation. This helped overcome the problem that it is impossible to model these systems without data. Additionally, the survey results confirmed that the supply of goods to the stores of the concentrated sets is currently not coordinated; the stores mainly organize their deliveries themselves, and they deliver goods in small, non-standard units with high frequency. 3. Consolidation-based concepts for the concentrated sets of delivery locations After collecting data, the current structure of the city logistics system of the concentrated sets was formulated, and it became possible to develop consolidationbased concepts based on the current operation and the published experiences. In the reorganized concepts, a consolidation center is placed between the sets and the suppliers. In this structure, larger volumes of goods are delivered from the consolidation center in larger vehicles (using larger capacity road vehicles or cargo trams in the two examined concepts) to the crossdocks of the sets. From the cross-docks, the goods are moved to the stores after deconsolidation. After describing the two reorganized system concepts to be investigated, I modeled the examined systems with mesoscopic level simulation [23]. The first step of the modeling was to develop a mathematical model describing the logistic processes and the cost structure. Finally, a mesoscopic-level discrete event simulation was built for the examined concepts. In all cases, 30day periods were considered. I built the simulation model in MS Excel. After verification, validation, and experiment design, I compared the current system with the reorganized concepts based on the simulation results. In the current system, 6860 delivery transactions/ month are required to serve the 344 modeled stores in 6 examined concentrated sets of delivery locations, which is reduced to 3249 transactions in the reorganized concept using trucks (-52.6%) and 2703 transactions by using trams (-60.6%). As a result, the mileage, fuel consumption, and emissions will also be reduced. In the case of CO 2 , in the current system, 199.3 tons/ month are the emissions, compared to 91.9 tons in the truck-only solution (-53.9%) and 84.4 tons with cargo trams (-57.7%). It was also essential to examine the evolution of logistics costs. The current system‘s total logistics costs in one month are approx. 498000 EUR. In the reorga- Figure 1: Clustering of urban delivery locations Urban transportation  LOGISTICS DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0072 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 7 4. Correlation between the city logistics development and the level of concentration As the next step, I investigated the relationship between the concentration of urban areas, their city logistics development level, and the city logistics development potential. For this, a ranking model was created based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process method [33]. The ranking model developed aims to assess the current city logistic development of urban zones and their potential for city logistic development. The ranking criteria were built around these objectives. Since two different ranking values (thus two different sets of criteria) had to be defined, applying two AHP-based rankings was necessary [34]. To assess the importance of the criteria, I used an expert evaluation process involving 18 experts. It was also required to define a fictive zone for the tests since AHP can only measure the zones compared to each other, so a theoretical zone with relatively good characteristics was added. Using the AHP-based ranking model, I examined Budapest‘s previously modeled concentrated sets. Based on the ranking results, all of them are currently in medium development and have medium development potential, which aligns with our previous observations. These results allowed us to examine the correlation between the concentration and the rankings. Next to the simple degree of concentration, the area-proportional degree of concentration was introduced, which defined how much store floor area could be found per unit of urban area. Based on correlation analysis between the rankings and the degrees of concentration, I concluded that the higher the simple degree of concentration, the more developed the examined zone is (medium correlation). It was also found that the higher the area-proportional degree of nized system, this value will decrease to approx. 405000 EUR when using trucks (-18.7%) and approx. 373000 EUR when using cargo trams (-25.2%), primarily because of the reduced delivery costs. The most critical parameters are compared in Figure 2, where the current system is 100%. Based on these results, the reorganized solutions will be more efficient and require fewer delivery transactions, with less consumption, lower emissions, and lower logistics costs. In the modeling phase, I also examined the application of cargo bikes based on the system‘s geometrical structure. Nowadays, they are increasingly used in city logistics, using a wide range of technologies [24] [25] [26] [27], usually combined with other transport modes [28] [29]. The related research results [30] [31] show that their integration can reduce emissions and congestion. In my research, I investigated how these devices could be integrated into the system of the concentrated sets. For this, I developed a new concept based on the radial urban structure, dividing the sets into two groups: sets on the internal city ring and sets on the rays starting from the ring. In the concept, there is a consolidation center, larger trucks can make deliveries to the cross-docks of the sets, and cargo bikes are used for the deliveries on the rays. For this, I defined a graph-theory-based model [32]. Based on this, I built a macroscopic simulation model to investigate the new concept with different cargo bike technologies, which can serve 14.9%-46.9% of the stores in the system. In the case of all the shopping malls in Budapest, 19-20 trucks and 19-38 cargo bikes will be needed based on the simulation. This shows that integrating a relatively small number of cargo bikes in the new concept could efficiently move large volumes of goods, relieving congestion. concentration, the less developed the zone is (medium/ high). Regarding development potentials, the higher the simple degree of concentration, the less developable the zone is (weak/ medium), and the higher the areaproportional degree of concentration, the more developable the zone is (high). 5. Summary In the research related to the concentrated sets, there are several possible future directions. One of these is the further development of the simulation models. For this, the MS Excel-based models are replaced by Python-based DES models [35]. Another significant research direction is to explore the potential use of drones in the examined system [36]. Next to this, as investment issues are also important, the sizing of system components should be examined; here, the cross-docks and the loading areas are the most important. In addition, I will pay special attention to the new concepts with cargo trams and urban waterway solutions. In summary, I can say that my research has produced a new city logistics toolkit to help research projects and developments. In my research, a new clustering and data collection methodology was developed to provide data for projects. If we already know the characteristics of the sets, we can model their systems; for this, mesoand macroscopic-level models are available. Finally, once the sets have been modeled, it will be possible to rank them, for which the ranking methodology has already been developed. These tools are planned to be used in several projects, and we have already incorporated them into several research proposals (e.g., HORIZON2020). Additionally, we are also developing cooperation with the Centre for Budapest Transport, the Municipality of Budapest, and other relevant stakeholders, within the framework of which we expect to participate in several projects aimed at developing the city logistics system of Budapest with this toolkit. ■ REFERENCES [1] GKI Digital (2021). 2020-ban három évet ugrott előre az e-kereskedelem. URL: https: / / gkidigital. hu/ 2021/ 03/ 25/ 2020-online-kiskereskedelem/ (Accessed on 24/ 09/ 2024) [2] European Comission (2022). 2030 Climate Target Plan. URL: https: / / ec.europa.eu/ clima/ eu-action/ eur opean gre en deal/ 2030 climate -tar getplan_en (Accessed on 24/ 09/ 2024) [3] European Commission (2020). 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Transportation Research Procedia, 4, pp. 361-373. DOI: https: / / doi.org/ 10.1016/ j. trpro.2014.11.027 [27] Berlin.de (2018). Lieferverkehr nachhaltig gestalten - Modellprojekt startet in Berlin. URL: https: / / www.berlin.de/ sen/ uvk/ presse/ weiteremeldungen/ 2018/ artikel.693029.php (Accessed on 24/ 09/ 2024) [28] Tom Parr (2017). DHL‘s multimodal Amsterdam logistics chain. Rippl. URL: https: / / www.rippl.bike/ en/ rippl-36-boat-bike-dhls-multimodal-amsterdam-logistics-chain/ (Accessed on 24/ 09/ 2024) [29] LogistikTram (2022). System. URL: http: / / www.logistiktram.de/ index.html (Accessed on 24/ 09/ 2024) [30] Sandra Melo, Patrícia Baptista (2017). Evaluating the impacts of using cargo cycles on urban logistics: integrating traffic, environmental and operational boundaries. European Transport Research Review, 9 (30). DOI: https: / / doi. org/ 10.1007/ s12544-017-0246-8 [31] Keyju Lee, Junjae Chae, Jinwoo Kim (2019). A Courier Service with Electric Bicycles in an Urban Area: The Case in Seoul. Sustainability, 11 (5), 1255. DOI: https: / / doi.org/ 10.3390/ su11051255 [32] Krisztián Bóna, Dávid Lajos Sárdi (2021). A geometrical structure-based new approach for city logistics system planning with cargo bikes and its application for the shopping malls of Budapest. Applied Sciences, 11 (8), 3300 (Special Issue Intelligent Mobility in Smart Cities). DOI: https: / / www.doi.org/ 10.3390/ app11083300 [33] R. W. Saaty (1987). The Analytic Hierarchy Process - What It Is and How It Is Used. Mathematical Modelling 9 (3-5) pp. 161-176., DOI: https: / / doi. org/ 10.1016/ 0270-0255(87)90473-8 [34] Krisztián Bóna, Dávid Lajos Sárdi (2021). City Logistics Analysis of Urban Areas: An Analytic Hierarchy Process Based Study. Journal of System and Management Sciences, 11 (2), pp. 77-105. DOI: https: / / www.doi.org/ 10.33168/ JSMS.2021.0206 [35] Krisztián Bóna, György Lipovszki, Dávid Lajos Sárdi (2023). Application of microscopic discrete event-based simulation in the modeling of the city logistics systems of concentrated sets of delivery locations. Journal of Simulation, online. DOI: https: / / www.doi.org/ 10.1080/ 17477778.202 3.2272967 [36] Dávid Lajos Sárdi, Krisztián Bóna, PhD (2021). Application possibilities of delivery drones in the case of concentrated sets of delivery locations in Budapest. : Editor: Tomislav Letnik. pp. 127-142. URL: https: / / www.fgpa.um.si/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2023/ 10/ Conference-Proceedings_ compressed.pdf (Accessed on 24/ 09/ 2024) Photo credits: © Dávid Lajos Sárdi Dávid Lajos Sárdi, Ph.D., Senior lecturer, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Faculty of Transportation Engineering and Vehicle Engineering, Department of Material Handling and Logistics Systems david.sardi@logisztika.bme.hu ORCID: 0000-0002-1585-3503 Urban transportation  LOGISTICS DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0072 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 9 ropean semi-trailer manufacturers revealed that the production ratio between craneable and non-craneable semi-trailers has remained constant over the years, with semi-trailer production seeing growth overall during the same time. There are a number of technology providers in the market that facilitate access for non-craneable semi-trailers to intermodal transport through horizontal transhipment technologies. Among the leaders in this segment in Europe are CargoBeamer (see Figure 1), Helrom (see Figure 2) and Moda- 1 Introduction Semi-trailers stand out as the predominant loading unit in the European continental transportation segment. In Germany, for instance, 72% of road transport activity in 2022 was conducted by semi-trailers (Federal Motor Transport Authority, 2023). Approximately 95% of all semi-trailers are non-craneable, meaning they cannot be vertically shifted to rail without special equipment (e.g., NiKRASA, r2L). An interview conducted in April 2024 by the authors of this article with one of the leading Eulohr (see Figure 3). These companies have demonstrated rapid network expansion along with increased marketing efforts in recent years. Concurrently, there is notable demand for craneable semi-trailers for vertical transhipment using conventional gantry cranes (see Figure 4). This paper aims to outline current developments and discuss possible future scenarios in intermodal semi-trailer transportation across Western European countries (Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Poland and the Netherlands), while considering both Quo Vadis, Intermodal Semi-Trailer Transportation? Intermodal, ModalShift, SemiTrailer, Greendeal, Truckonrail, horizontaltransshipment, transportpolicymeasures Semi-trailers stand out as the predominant loading unit in the European continental transportation segment. In Germany, for instance, 72% of road transport activity in 2022 was conducted by semitrailers. Approximately 95% of all semi-trailers are non-craneable, meaning they cannot be vertically shifted to rail without special equipment (e.g., NiKRASA, r2L). There are a number of technology providers in the market that facilitate access for non-craneable semi-trailers to intermodal transport through horizontal transhipment technologies. This paper aims to outline current developments and discuss possible future scenarios in intermodal semi-trailer transportation across Western European countries (Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Poland and the Netherlands), while considering both vertical and horizontal transhipment technologies. Eugen Truschkin, Emin Huseynov, Remmon Sarka DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 10 vertical and horizontal transhipment technologies. In 2022, Germany, France, Spain, Poland and Italy accounted for almost two thirds of the total tonnage transported in the EU (Eurostat, 2024c). In this paper, we have opted to use the broader term “intermodal transport” rather than the specific term “combined transport” owing to its wider dissemination in the transportation industry. The paper examines the prospects of both types of technologies by analysing global macro trends, business models and transport policy measures. Furthermore, a survey was conducted with various stakeholders from the railway sector during RailFreight® Summit 2024 (15-17 April in Warsaw) to assess possible future outcomes. The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 discusses macro trends influencing intermodal transportation, followed by Section 3, which explores the specific impact of business models in freight forwarding on the modal shift. In Section 4, we provide a brief overview of existing EU transport policy measures for the selected countries which impact both horizontal and vertical transhipment options. Section 5 presents the survey results of our field research, while Section 6 highlights current developments in the intermodal transport market in the EU related to semi-trailers. Section 7 discusses observed trends, and finally, Section 8 concludes with our view on the prospects for both technology types. 2. Macro trends influencing the intermodal transportation market In today’s interconnected and rapidly evolving global landscape, intermodal transportation has emerged as a pivotal component of the supply chain, facilitating the seamless movement of goods across various modes of transportation. The dynamics of intermodal transportation are not solely shaped by industryspecific factors; rather, they are deeply intertwined with broader macro trends. These macro trends influencing intermodal transportation do not generally fall into isolated social, economic, technological or political (regulatory) categories, but instead represent a combination of these aspects. Understanding these multifaceted macro trends is crucial for stakeholders in the transportation and logistics sectors to navigate the complexities and capitalize on the opportunities presented by the evolving landscape. Here we are attempting to identify and describe the key relevant macro trends shaping intermodal transportation today, exploring how they are redefining the industry and what it means for the future of global trade and logistics. It should be also noted that both road and rail components of intermodal transport chains are susceptible to external effects. Thus, the described macro trends affect both road and rail transport but to a different extent and bear certain specifics in each freight segment. Industry vulnerability to economic downturns Transportation is inherently sensitive to economic fluctuations and external shocks. Economic downturns and unforeseen events, such as the global pandemic, have profoundly impacted the transportation business and, by extension, intermodal transport. These disruptions have not only altered demand patterns but have also highlighted the vulnerabilities and adaptability of intermodal transportation and its separate elements. Lower consumer spending and reduced business activities typically lead to a decline in freight demand, increasing competition among trucking companies and driving down freight rates. Despite this, road transportation in the EU showed resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic, with only a 1% decline in volumes (tkm) in 2020 compared to 2019 (Eurostat, 2021), while rail transport saw a 6.1% reduction over the same year (Eurostat, 2021). These indicators might seem contradictory at first, as there are numerous factors supporting the idea of stronger resilience of railways against the short and mediumterm effects of the latest economic downturn. First, longer waiting times at the borders, quarantine requirements and other COVID-19 related limitations jeopardized international freight transport by road and led to delays and losses in the road freight sector. Secondly, medium and long-term contracting practice (unlike spot contracts, which are widespread in road transportation) protects railway operators and freight forwarders from initial drops in market demand, giving rail greater market stability. However, one factor that might be playing a major role supporting road transportation is the cargo structure or the nature of the transported goods. In other words, various commodity groups are affected in a different way. While rail transport, which is heavily used for bulk and raw materials, can suffer when industrial production declines and the demand for freight transport subsequently drops, road transportation still enjoys a relatively stable market for transporting FMCG and perishables. This is because consumers prioritize non-discretionary spending on essential goods like food and medical supplies during crises, a trend supported by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which suggests that consumption of essential goods increases when GDP declines (Loxton et al., 2020). Figure 1: CargoBeamer technology (Source: https: / / www.cargobeamer.de/ ) Figure 2: Helrom technology (Source: https: / / en.helrom.com/ trailer-rail) Figure 3: Modalohr technology (Source: https: / / www.lohr.fr/ catalogue/ the-lohr-systemterminals/ ) Figure 4: Craneable semi-trailer at DUSS Terminal Hamburg Billwerder (Source: Iuliia Kozina, DB Engineering & Consulting 2024) DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 11 ry technologies, efficient driver training, and lower friction of steel wheels on steel tracks. Naturally, this implies higher sensitivity of road transportation toward the fluctuations of the fuel prices. Conversely, rail transport is less affected by diesel prices, benefiting from a transition to electric and hybrid locomotives. According to the European Commission (2023), approximately 80% of rail freight in Europe uses electric traction, mitigating diesel dependency. However, rising electricity costs have raised concerns about rail transport’s competitiveness. To counter this, measures like Germany’s electricity price cap, effective until 2030, aim to maintain rail’s advantage and prevent a modal shift back to road transport. With regard to road transport, current trends indicate that it will gradually catch up to rail in terms of transitioning to electric power in the medium to long term. Currently, 96.9% of all trucks run on diesel or petrol (see Figure 5), with only 0.1% being electric (ACEA, 2023). The EU’s commitment to achieving carbon-neutrality by 2050 is driving significant investment in green transport solutions. In response to this new market reality, major truck manufacturers are de- Fuel costs, efficiency and transition towards sustainability The cost of fuel is another important external factor that affects the transport industry. In this context, rail is significantly more fuel-efficient and less dependent on diesel fuels in general. This is attributed to railway transportation’s superior operating power-to-freight volume ratio, meaning significantly lower energy per ton kilometre consumption than trucks. Studies indicate rail fuel efficiency can be three to six times higher than road, depending on route and operational specifics (e.g., speed and number of stops en route). For instance, CSX Corporation (2023), a major railway and transport company in the United States, reports up to 3.9 times higher fuel efficiency for freight trains compared to trucks. Similarly, the Association of American Railroads (2023) confirms that rail transport is three to four times more fuel efficient than trucking. Moreover, Rail Freight Forward (2023), a European coalition of rail freight companies, refers to the Austrian Federal Environment Agency (2017) and states that rail is six times more fuel efficient than road transport. This greater fuel efficiency is attributed to factors such as modernized fleet, energy recoveveloping and introducing new hydrogen and electric truck models. In 2020, European truck manufacturers Scania, Daimler, Volvo, MAN, DAF and Ford jointly committed to achieving full decarbonisation by 2050, with only electric or hydrogen trucks being manufactured from 2040 onwards. Despite these efforts, rail and intermodal transport remain significantly more energy-efficient and eco-friendly than road transport. Growing awareness of sustainability and strict environmental regulations are key drivers increasing the demand for intermodal transportation. Driver availability Labour supply is a critical factor in the transportation sector. The European trucking industry faces a significant driver shortage, with over 380,000 unfilled positions (a 10% shortage) in 2021, projected to reach 745,000 by 2028 (UNECE; IRU, 2023). According to a Statista survey (2021), 45% of fleet operators cite a lack of skilled personnel and 46% cite difficulty in attracting young people as primary reasons for the shortage (see Figure 6). In contrast, although there is also a locomotive driver shortage in Europe, it is much less significant. The current shortage in Germany is around 750 drivers but it is being compensated for by involving and training foreign workforce. The truck driver shortage is one of the reasons behind the general tendency of shifting to rail, although it should only be regarded as a situational factor rather than a primary reason for the shift. The shortage affects first and last mile deliveries to a lesser extent, where trucks cover shorter distances, allowing higher turnover. In the future, the truck driver shortage can be partially alleviated through the introduction of autonomous driving technology and by attracting more foreign drivers. Digitalization and telematics Adoption of digital technologies and telematics systems in intermodal transport improves operational efficiency, tracking and route optimization. Digitalization and automation practices are especially important for intermodal transportation due to the higher number of interfaces between the participants and components of the logistics chain, which calls for greater alignment and synchronization. Advanced technologies like wireless communication, sensors, and online platforms propel digital transformation, improving business performance and setting new quality standards. Key areas of digitalization include digital capacity management, wagon tracking, autonomous train operation, cybersecurity, predictive maintenance, e-documentation, electronic do- Figure 5: Truck transportation still relies almost entirely on conventional fuels (Source: ACEA, 2023). Figure 6: Reasons for the truck driver shortage according to fleet operators (Source: Statista, 2021). LOGISTICS  Semi-trailer DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 12 cument exchange, and ETCS Level 3. There are various digital platforms on the market that provide digital services, including the following: ƒ Digital Capacity Management (DCM) platforms are essential tools in the intermodal freight transportation sector, helping optimize infrastructure capacity and asset utilization. Here are some examples of Digital Capacity Management platforms used by leading intermodal operators and logistics providers: - SPEAK Capacity Management System - Rail Facilities Portal (RFP) - Intermodal Capacity Exchange (ICE) ƒ Digital Marketplace platforms for intermodal transport provide space for operators to list their capacities and services and for forwarders to book these services. Some notable platforms in this sphere are: - Rail-Flow - Modility ƒ Transport Management System (TMS) platforms are crucial tools for managing and optimizing transportation operations, including route planning, freight booking, carrier selection, shipment tracking and document exchange. Here are some examples of leading TMS platforms used by logistics providers, shippers and carriers worldwide: - WOLF (Web Oriented Logistics Framework) platform - Transporeon - Oracle Transportation Management (OTM) The market extends beyond the examples provided, reflecting a dynamically evolving landscape. As the demand for digitalization in intermodal transportation grows, new platforms and solutions continue to emerge, offering innovative ways to optimize and streamline transportation operations across the supply chain. Infrastructure conditions and capacity Congestion in rail networks and at intermodal terminals can lead to delays and reduced operational efficiency. However, various European projects on capacity improvement are continuously addressing this issue. For instance, a number of initiatives within the European TEN-T railway network prioritize addressing current challenges related to railway infrastructure capacity and conditions. While a major issue for the rail segments of intermodal transport chains, infrastructure capacity constraints generally have less of an impact on road transportation due to the higher availability of alternative road routes compared to rail. Technological improvements Advancements in technology are gradually influencing and transforming the landscape of intermodal freight transportation, particularly with the emergence and increasing maturity of modern horizontal transhipment technologies. Horizontal transhipment uses specialized equipment and infrastructure, which allows seamless transfer of semi-trailers between road and rail and provides an alternative to conventional intermodal operations at terminals. In addition to advancements in terminals and infrastructure, developments in rolling stock further bolster the competitiveness and sustainability of rail transportation. The introduction of more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly locomotives (e.g., hybrid locomotives) increases operational flexibility, lowers operating costs and reduces environmental impact. At the same time, increased automation and the introduction of autonomous driving can improve the efficiency of road transport in the foreseeable future, reducing labour costs and enhancing safety in semi-trailer transportation. 3. Business models in the transportation market and their impact on the modal shift “Over the time freight forwarders’ role has changed. Instead of only acting as an intermediary, many freight forwarders actually became transport operators and have their own transportation assets. Furthermore, to achieve competitive rates, most of them are holding contracts or special arrangements with other transport operators. This makes them less neutral in their decision-making.” (Vassallo, 2007). This section lays out the reasoning for the behaviour of freight forwarders described above in greater detail. Figure 7 illustrates possible contractual arrangements in the road freight transport market. It demonstrates that a shipper can either hire a road hauler directly or outsource the transport to a forwarder. In the latter case, the forwarder can act as an intermediary or operate the transport using its own fleet. If acting as an intermediary, the forwarder can perform the contract with another forwarder or hire a road hauler for transportation. In our work we therefore make a distinction between two general forms of dispatching among forwarders: own fleet or subcontracted fleet. One way of hiring subcontractors involves utilizing spot market internet platforms (e.g., Trans.eu, TimoCom), which connect the supply side with the demand side. Given that the average duration of partnerships in road-based networks is 7.6 years (Schmoltzi & Wallenburg, 2010), the nature of the “regular” relationship between two parties can be considered closer and more integrated than in the case of spot market contracts. Using the framework developed by Zinn and Parasuraman (1997), the relationship between a forwarder and a road hauler can be described as focused. Such relationships are characterized by a strong commitment to using partner resources. The general finding of Truschkin et al. (2014) suggests that transport subcontracting could be considered a barrier to the modal shift from road to intermodal transport. Empirical data supported this central hypothesis, indicating that the current form of dispatching influences the willingness to transition to intermodal transport. Specifically, forwarders that hire subcontractors (road haulers) in road freight transport exhibit less willingness to switch transport modes, even when there is a competitive advantage to doing so. It appears that companies, regardless of the form of dispatching, are locked into their core competence: road transport. This tendency is less pronounced in cases where companies have their own fleet. Additionally, research by Truschkin et al. (2014) revealed a correlation between company size and the willingness to shift to rail, with larger companies finding intermodal transport more attractive. In summary, apart from additional hard factors (such as the performance criteria of a transport mode, where transport cost and time are the most prominent), the business model of the forwarder can be considered an important factor that impacts the mode choice. 4. Transport policy measures supporting vertical and horizontal transhipment This section focuses on current policies and initiatives targeting environmentally sustainable transportation modes, mainly concentrating on intermodal transport by semi-trailers. First, the section assesses EUwide goals. Second, it explores policies implemented by specific countries. European policies The European Union has created a framework of policies and measures to facilitate Figure 7: Contractual forms in road freight transport Semi-trailer  LOGISTICS DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 13 EUR 15 million to Helrom in 2023 (HELROM Trailer Rail, 2023). Helrom, a company based in Germany, appeals to the market segment of non-craneable semi-trailers with Megaswing wagons, providing a one-stop-shop solution, offering traction, wagons and terminal operations from a single source. The Fleet Renewal Program for Heavy Commercial Vehicles (“Flottenerneuerungsprogramm für schwere Nutzfahrzeuge”) promotes trailer use by subsidizing intelligent trailer technologies and CO2 reduction measures in new vehicles. It also provides funding for upgrading non-craneable to craneable semi-trailers. The program offers up to 60% of the validated purchase price for each ITT measure, capped at EUR 5,000 per measure, and has a budget of EUR 257 million, valid until 2025 (eurotransport.de, 2022). Spain Spain’s situation vividly shows that rail freight transport has stagnated for over 20 years compared to Germany and other European countries. However, the government has implemented several provisions to revive rail freight transportation, including the Mercancías 30 strategy and the Recovery, Transformation and Resilience Plan (ALG Global, 2023). The European Commission has also agreed to a EUR 2.5 million scheme proposed by Spain to encourage the purchase of craneable semi-trailers. The effort, co-financed by the Recovery and Resilience Mechanism (RRF), will cover some of the expenses of investing in acquiring craneable semi-trailers (European Commission, 2021). Furthermore, the Spanish government has given a EUR 17.3 million boost to Ermewa Ibéricato expand and improve its rail freight activities in Spain. Ermewa Ibérica will use the funding to manufacture 150 Shimmns coil transport wagons and 50 state-of-the-art pocket wagons (adapted for carrying semitrailers) that will be carried out in 2024. (Railtarget, 2024). France In France, the rail transport sector is expected to improve significantly, as there are plans to invest EUR 100 billion in rail upgrades by 2040 (Railway Technology, 2023). The French government is also adopting subsidies for wagonload freight and general infrastructure improvements. France intends to boost wagonload services by shifting from road to rail freight. The French authorities will provide EUR 450 million in financial support by the end of 2025. These subsidies are expected to cover 30% of first and last-mile service costs (International Rail Journal, 2022). In addition, the French government plans to increase rail’s share of the French market by 2030 from 32 billion 2030. Therefore, further investments and careful planning is needed to increase the availability of terminals across the Trans- European Transport Network (European Commission, 2022). TEN-T Regulation (EU) No. 1315/ 2013 is a fundamental part of the European Union’s Trans-European Transport network, which is a key tool in developing an integrated, efficient, multimodal and high-quality transport infrastructure in the EU. It covers railways, inland waterways, short sea shipping routes, roads connecting urban nodes, airports, maritime and inland ports, and terminals (European Commission, 2013). This policy aims to shift up to 30% of long-distance road freight over 300 km to other transport modes by 2030, increasing to over 50% by 2050 (European Commission, 2011). The European Union has an additional initiative for intermodal transport with the Combined Transport Council Directive 92/ 106/ EEC. This directive lowers the authorization barriers for intermodal transport (eliminates quantitative restrictions, exempts road cabotage restrictions on road section and provides financial grants for promoting certain modes of intermodal transport) (European Commission, 1992). The directive was revised on 7 November 2023 improving its definition, increasing the benefits and introducing transparency and accountability. The amendment extends the scope of the directive to various intermodal transport activities and introduces the application of rules through eFTI platforms. Other benefits include being exempted from driving bans, discounted infrastructure charges, exemption from registration fees, and the establishment of a terminal construction fund based on the status quo An analysis of EU countries shows that national programs and subsidies promote intermodal transport. Below is an overview of country-specific measures supporting intermodal semi-trailer transportation. Germany The updated German government’s funding guidelines for transhipment facilities in combined transport ( “Richtlinie zur Förderung von Umschlaganlagen des Kombinierten Verkehrs” ) through the Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport, came into effect on 1 December 2022 (Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport, 2024). These guidelines aim to encourage more extensive investment in intermodal terminals, both vertical and horizontal. Per these guidelines, the project’s budget should equal or exceed EUR 100,000; aid can cover up to 80% of the investment. Another policy measure provides a dedicated support for horizontal transhipment technologies. For example, the Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport allocated the transition to a more sustainable and green transportation system. A prominent example of these policies is the European Green Deal, which aims for net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 (European Commission, 2024). The main objective is for policies to be consistent with the European Union’s overarching objective of reducing net greenhouse gas by at least 55% by 2030 relative to 1990 (European Council, 2024). To achieve this goal, Fit for 55 includes measures to update the scope of the EU emissions trading system. The new ETS 2 uses a cap-and-trade system, which implies a predefined cap on total greenhouse gas emissions from regulated installations. The ETS 2 DIRECTIVE 2003/ 87/ EC requires energy and fuel suppliers to purchase allowances for their emissions and includes emissions from road transport, residential, and other industrial sectors previously excluded from the EU ETS(European Commission, 2023). This expansion is likely to boost interest in rail transport, a greener and more eco-friendly alternative to road and air transport. In addition, to standardize the calculation of emissions and to make reporting easier, the EU implemented the CountEmissionsEU policy in July 2023 which adopted the ISO 14083: 2023 calculation standard to increase transparency in carbon emission reporting (International Road Transport Union, 2023). In addition to the CountEmissionsEU policy described above, the EU’s Eurovignette Directive (EU 2022/ 362) applies road pricing to vehicles over 3.5 tonnes through the vignette (a time-based fee) and the toll (a distance-based fee) (European Union, 2022). This directive impacts road freight transport costs and operations, potentially increasing reliance on rail transportation and making intermodal solutions more attractive. Moreover, the Eurovignette Directive allows for higher charges on more polluting trucks, promoting cleaner vehicles and alternative transportation modes. Along with Fit for 55, RePowerEU is another essential policy for the European Union. The policy became critical after Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine. RepowerEU began in May 2022 and is vital to the EU’s energy conservation efforts, clean energy generation, energy source diversification and commitment to the wider European transformation toward a greener, more sustainable transportation network (the European Council, 2022). The EU states must address several challenges to implement policies for sustainable intermodal transportation. Existing transhipment capacity in the EU is not expected to meet the demand driven by the planned expansion of network capacity by LOGISTICS  Semi-trailer DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 14 Results Survey respondents represent various sectors within the transportation market, ranging from railway operators to individuals from the education sector. Approximately half of the respondents are logistics service providers and railway operators, while the remaining respondents come from various other fields of business. The following figure (see Figure 8) illustrates the fields of business of the survey respondents. When considering macro trends, particularly the impact of rising fuel costs, respondents generally anticipate that rising fuel costs will further incentivize a shift to rail and intermodal transportation. Twelve respondents support this view, attributing it to the direct correlation between fuel costs and the competitiveness of road transportation compared to rail transportation, which is much more fuel efficient over long distances. Fourteen respondents express a neutral view regarding the influence of fuel cost increases on the shift to rail transportation, while three respondents disagree that rising fuel expenses will stimulate a further shift to rail and intermodal transportation. Figure 9 below illustrates the distribution of the collected responses. Another macro trend the survey explored was the development of modern technical solutions in road transportation. Respondents generally agree that the advancement of technical solutions, will enable the trucking industry to maintain its substantial market share. Thirteen respondents support this view, attributing it to the lies on highly coordinated work with other European countries. To support this, the Dutch government offers subsidies to install ERTMS (European Rail Traffic Management System) and is arranging to build new railway lines. ERTMS is a single signalling and speed control system on all European railways. Other than the policies to upgrade the existing fleet, no direct policy measures supporting intermodal transportation with semi-trailers could be identified for the Netherlands. 5. Field research Methodology The authors of this article designed a questionnaire for the purpose of addressing key elements of the aforementioned sections, namely macro trends and transport policy measures, where the general perspective of the respondents was examined. In addition to the sections mentioned, the questionnaire included a question regarding the potential development scenarios of semi-trailer transhipment technologies. The questionnaire comprised one A4 page in total. 150 copies were printed and distributed at the reception desk of the RailFreight® Summit 2024 (15-17 April in Warsaw) during the registration process for attendees. Conference participants were then able to submit the completed survey forms to the reception desk at the conference. A total of 29 responses were collected. The results are summarized below. tonne-kilometres to 64 billion tonne-kilometres. The French government’s measures also involve unifying freight operators by forming the Alliance 4F group (Railtarget, 2021). Other than the government’s plans to increase rail capacity and improve the existing infrastructure, no direct policy measures supporting intermodal transportation with semi-trailers could be identified for France. Italy In Italy, similar to other European countries, there are measures to promote a shift towards rail transportation. The FerroBonus incentive, adopted by the European Council in 2016 to back the modal shift from road to rail, has been extended by the European Council and the Italian government until the end of 2027 (RailFreight.com, 2023). Funding will be granted for 2023-2027, with a minimum of EUR 22 million available yearly (RailFreight.com, 2023). We did not identify any direct policy measures in Italy to support intermodal transportation with semi-trailers. Poland Similarly to other EU countries, Poland’s transportation strategy is to increase the rail’s market share. Poland has a higher proportion of long-distance goods transported by road than other European states, with 75% of goods carried over distances above 300 km by trucks, compared to the EU average of 40.5% in 2020. (Polandweekly, 2024). The scarcity and irregular distribution of intermodal terminals and transhipment hubs is the largest obstacle to overcome to increase of rail’s market share. To address this challenge, the European Council allocated EUR 130 million to develop Polish railways, mainly for investments in road, rail and intermodal terminals (UIIR, 2024). The European Commission has also approved EUR 180 million in funding for investments in intermodal transport within Poland. This measure will help to cover up to 50% of eligible costs through direct grants until the end of June 2026 (UIIR, 2024). Furthermore Poland is increasing its efforts to combat CO2 emissions through the procurement of pocket wagons, a project spearheaded by CEUTP. The project includes plans to purchase 92 wagons/ pocket platforms enabling intermodal trailers to be loaded and transported. (Centre for EU Transport Projects, 2021). Netherlands Around 80% of rail freight in or from the Netherlands is designed for another country. Rail transportation in the country re- Figure 8: Fields of business of the respondents Figure 9: Distribution of responses collected on the effects of fuel cost on transportation modes Semi-trailer  LOGISTICS DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 15 gure 11 below shows the distribution of the collected responses. Information on policies promoting the adoption of vertical and horizontal semitrailer technologies does not appear to be readily accessible to industry players, as fourteen respondents generally disagree that there is a good level of accessible information on transport policy measures supporting vertical and horizontal semi-trailer transhipment. Eight respondents express a neutral view on this issue, while five respondents believe there is a sufficient level of information that is accessible to them. Figure 12 below shows the distribution of the collected responses. When exploring the potential development of semi-trailer transhipment technologies, the prevailing opinion among respondents points to an EU network with compatible vertical and horizontal technologies operating within one intermodal network. Twenty respondents see this scenario as a likely reality. In contrast, seven participants foresee a fragmented EU network characterized by non-collaborating providers of technologies, where different technologies have their own routes and are not compatible with other vertical or horizontal technologies. Figure 13 below shows the data distribution. 6. Semi-trailer intermodal market development The theoretical market potential for trailers in the EU’s intermodal transport can be determined using the latest Eurostat statistics (see Table 1 and Table 2), which provide data on the overall number of semi-trailers (across both load capacity categories) for selected countries, as well as the total for the EU. The main takeaways can be summarized as follows: ƒ The overall number of semi-trailers in the EU has increased from 866,817 in 2013 to 2,302,333 in 2022 (countries like Spain, France and the Netherlands first started providing data in 2014 or later). ƒ Applying a 95% share (the share of non-craneable semi-trailers) to the overall number of semi-trailers in 2022 (2,302,333) would result in 2,187,216 noncraneable semi-trailers in the EU. This theoretical market potential for the modal shift from road to rail is constrained by the distance range and the prevailing business models in the transportation market (see Section 3). One of the primary goals of the EU is to shift 30% of road freight over 300 km to other modes such as rail or waterborne transport by 2030, and to shift more than 50% by 2050 (European Commission, 2011). According to the latest UIC report (UIC, 2023), 46.1% of total freight transport The next survey question aims to explore transport policy measures, particularly the impact of subsidies offered by governments to promote and encourage the adoption of vertical and horizontal semi-trailer transhipment within the European Union. Eleven respondents acknowledge the positive impact that subsidies have on vertical and horizontal transhipment. Twelve respondents express a neutral view regarding this issue, while six contend that the government subsidies have not encouraged the adoption of vertical and horizontal semi-trailer transhipment technologies within the region. Fidirect impact that technological advancements may have on enhancing vehicle fuel efficiency, cost-effectiveness and autonomy, thereby impacting the competitiveness of road transportation compared to rail and other transportation modes. Eleven respondents express a neutral view regarding the influence of technological advancements on the competitiveness of trucking, while five respondents generally disagree that technological advancements will allow trucking to sustain its high market share. Figure 10 below shows the distribution of the collected responses. 4 10 8 5 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Please rate the accessibility of information regarding transport policy measures supporting vertical and horizontal semitrailers transshipment within the EU on a scale from 1 to 5 1 - Strongly disagree 2 - Disagree 3 - Neutral 4 - Agree 5 - Strongly agree 2 4 12 9 2 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% The subsidies offered by governments have encouraged the adoption of vertical and horizontal semi-trailers transshipment technologies within the EU 1 - Strongly disagree 2 - Disagree 3 - Neutral 4 - Agree 5 - Strongly agree 4 10 8 5 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Please rate the accessibility of information regarding transport policy measures supporting vertical and horizontal semitrailers transshipment within the EU on a scale from 1 to 5 1 - Strongly disagree 2 - Disagree 3 - Neutral 4 - Agree 5 - Strongly agree 2 4 12 9 2 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% The subsidies offered by governments have encouraged the adoption of vertical and horizontal semi-trailers transshipment technologies within the EU 1 - Strongly disagree 2 - Disagree 3 - Neutral 4 - Agree 5 - Strongly agree 1 / 1 Figure 10: Distribution of responses collected on the effect that modern technical solutions in trucking will have on market share Figure 11: Distribution of responses collected on subsides for horizontal semi-trailer transhipment technologies within the EU Figure 12: Distribution of responses collected on the accessibility of information on policies supporting vertical and horizontal semi-trailer transhipment within the EU Figure 13: Responses collected on potential scenarios of the development of semi-trailer transhipment technologies Global EU network (compatible vertical/ horizontal technologies operating in one intermodal network Global EU non-collaborating networks (own routes non-compatible with further vertical/ horizontal technologies) Estimation of the development of semi-trailer transhipment technologies LOGISTICS  Semi-trailer DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 16 major driver of railway haulage growth in Europe. The semi-trailer segment appears to contribute the most to this growth, with an annual growth rate of 12% among all intermodal loading units in the case of Germany. This section discusses possible drivers of this development - both with positive and negative impacts - based on the insights gathered in the previous sections. Positive drivers impacting intermodal semi-trailer transportation Vulnerability to economic downturns and fluctuations varies across different commodity types, with a stronger impact observed on rail transportation compared to road. This mostly stems from the very nature of consumption and consumer behaviour during the periods of crisis, followed by the changes in industrial output of various commodities, ultimately affecting transportation volumes. At the same time, intermodal transportation of semi-trailers carrying primarily essential and non-discretional goods are not impacted as much as rail transport. This notion is further supported by recent statistical data (see Figure 14), which indicates a less than 1% decrease in intermodal transport volumes during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, thus demonstrating notable resilience of intermodal transportation compared to railway transport. Innovations in digitalization and telematics systems enhance operational efficiency, tracking and route optimization, streamlining transportation operations across the supply chain and encouraging more decis- 2011 and 2021 (in terms of tkm), while overall rail freight transport performance increased by 3% in the same period. In Germany, the share of intermodal transport in total rail freight increased from 29% in 2018 (UIC, 2021) to 43.1% in 2021 (UIC, 2023), surpassing the European average indicator of 30% (UIC, 2023). Overall, a similar trend to a previous survey (Truschkin, 2023) can be observed - the strongest increase in rail transport performance is generated in intermodal transport, specifically in the segment of non-accompanied semi-trailers in the case of Germany. As indicated in Figure 15, the increase in the share of non-accompanied semi-trailers in intermodal transport is mainly driven by import, export and transit transports, with transit routes showing a consistent increase in transport performance in the observation period. In the context of the insights provided regarding the business models in the transportation market (see Section 3), see Figure 16, which provides an overview of the ownership structure of semi-trailers by company size in commercial road haulage in Germany in 2020. Of the total 216,738 semitrailers, 68% are owned by micro and smallsized enterprises (up to 49 employees) as per the EU SME definition 2003/ 361 (staff headcount). The following section discusses possible drivers of the depicted development. 7. Discussion Continuous growth can be observed in intermodal transportation, which serves as a performance in the EU (excluding sea and air) in 2020 was conducted by road on distances under 300 km, which corresponds to 59.5% of overall road transport performance in the EU in 2020 on distances under 300 km. It is evident that the market potential is significantly constrained due to a high number of semi-trailers being used for short distances (no EU-wide data on semi-trailer transport distances could be obtained). The next figure (see Figure 14) shows transport performance (tkm) by loading unit in intermodal transport in Germany. Germany was selected as a case due to its role as the largest contributor to rail freight transport performance in the EU, with 125 billion tkm in 2022, or 31.3% of total EU performance (Publications Office of the European Union, 2024). The main takeaways can be summarized as follows: ƒ Overall transport performance (tkm) in intermodal transport in Germany more than doubled from 25.78 billion tkm to 50.03 billion tkm between 2005 and 2023. ƒ Semi-trailers (non-accompanied transport) continue to see the most dynamic increase, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 12% among all types of intermodal transport units (CAGR containers/ swap bodies = 2%; CAGR ROLA = 6%) between 2005 and 2023, reaching the historical peak of 34.96% in 2023. According to UIC (2023), the overall transport performance of intermodal transport in Europe increased by 51% between TIME 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Germany 14,598 14,650 15,032 15,579 16,955 17,948 20,366 21,714 23,748 24,847 Spain no data 13,887 13,793 13,717 13,768 13,695 13,589 13,587 13,568 13,581 France no data no data no data no data no data 17,541 17,684 17,598 17,956 18,279 Italy no data no data no data no data no data no data no data no data no data no data Netherlands no data no data 11,245 11,329 11,663 11,548 11,663 11,817 12,387 12,453 Poland 42,819 29,272 43,521 30,155 30,405 31,159 32,037 32,817 33,852 34,724 TOTAL selected countries 57,417 57,809 83,591 70,780 72,791 91,891 95,339 97,533 101,511 103,884 EU TOTAL (where data availab le) 118,652 109,887 136,297 125,744 131,639 155,244 155,712 157,342 158,525 162,376 % selected countries of EU TOTAL (where data availab le) 48% 53% 61% 56% 55% 59% 61% 62% 64% 64% TIME 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Germany 238,170 244,187 251,089 259,659 268,799 280,275 285,834 287,431 293,783 301,741 Spain no data 219,545 225,962 234,568 241,434 247,145 250,856 254,590 260,136 266,484 France no data no data no data no data no data 281,507 288,719 292,101 297,803 301,848 Italy no data no data no data no data no data no data no data no data no data no data Netherlands no data no data 67,435 68,191 69,853 72,022 72,228 71,128 72,333 73,955 Poland 234,519 256,643 276,722 305,038 327,416 354,672 378,856 398,605 433,022 460,838 TOTAL selected countries 472,689 720,375 821,208 867,456 907,502 1,235,621 1,276,493 1,303,855 1,357,077 1,404,866 EU TOTAL (where data availab le) 748,165 1,035,069 1,175,095 1,250,696 1,378,779 1,865,591 1,894,097 1,941,365 2,035,947 2,139,957 % selected countries of EU TOTAL (where data availab le) 63% 70% 70% 69% 66% 66% 67% 67% 67% 66% Table 1: Number of semi-trailers (20-30 t load capacity) (Source: Eurostat 2024b) Table 2: Number of semi-trailers (30-40 t load capacity) (Source: Eurostat 2024b) Semi-trailer  LOGISTICS DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 17 modes of transportation, including rail and intermodal transport. Rail transportation is characterized by significantly higher fuel efficiency compared to road transport. Considering the fuel price fluctuations on the world markets, higher fuel efficiency implies more cost stability in rail transport compared to road. Inin the number of semi-trailers in Europe, of which 95% are estimated to be non-craneable, enhances the total market potential of intermodal transport. Growing environmental consciousness and regulatory pressure are driving investments in green transport solutions, incentivizing the adoption of more eco-friendly ion makers to consider integrating intermodal transport solutions into their portfolio. Additionally, strong development of horizontal transhipment technologies, which demonstrate significantly higher handling efficiency than vertical transhipment technologies, encourages a shift towards intermodal transportation. A constant increase Figure 15: Distribution of transport performance of semi-trailers non-accompanied in intermodal transport by directions in % in Germany 2005-2021 Figure 14: Distribution of transport performance of loading units in intermodal transport (%) in Germany 2005-2023 LOGISTICS  Semi-trailer DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 18 We also highlighted further research that demonstrated a correlation between company size and willingness to shift modes (the larger the company, the more attractive intermodal transport becomes). We placed specific focus on investigating existing policy measures in the field of intermodal semi-trailer transportation in selected countries (Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Poland and the Netherlands), noting varying levels of progress in supporting specific semi-trailer technologies among these countries. Overall, we noted a lack of visibility regarding existing transport policy measures, which was also evident from the survey we conducted during the preparation of this article. Summarizing the above, we can conclude the following. Overall, the desired modal shift from road to rail in Europe is taking place at a rather slow pace. The major dynamics in rail transport development in Europe stem from intermodal transport, which experienced a 51% increase between 2011 and 2021 (UIC, 2023). Of the various loading units in intermodal transportation, semi-trailers have seen the most substantial growth, which is particularly evident in Germany, with an average annual growth rate of 12% between 2005 and 2023. We anticipate similar development for other countries what we studied, although no detailed statistics could be obtained here. A promising way to facilitate the cargo shift from road to rail for semi-trailer technologies would involve a symbiosis of vertical and horizontal transhipment methods. In other words, interoperability between existing systems (between horizontal and vertical technologies) would contribute to the development of an EU-wide network, preventing the creation of competing networks with different technologies. Additionally, the larger the company, the more attractive intermodal transport becomes. Since 68% of semi-trailers in commercial road haulage are owned by micro and small-sized enterprises in Germany (although a fragmented market is common throughout Europe), this can be seen as a further challenge for the modal shift from road to rail. Given that 46.1% of total freight transport performance in the EU (excluding sea and air transport) in 2020 was conducted via road over distances of less than 300 km, the market potential is significantly limited by the high number of semi-trailers utilized for short distances. In terms of horizontal transhipment technologies, the lack of interoperability between existing systems can also be considered a limiting factor. In this context, survey respondents envision the future of semi-trailer technologies as a symbiosis of vertical and horizontal transhipment - a promising direction for shifting cargo from road to rail. 8. Conclusion The goal of this paper was to present current developments and to discuss possible future scenarios in intermodal semi-trailer transportation in Europe. The paper began with a description of macro trends influencing intermodal transport, such as economic downturns, energy costs and alternative fuels, driver availability, digitalization, and technological improvements. In the next section, we examined the impact of particular forwarder business models (own fleet vs subcontracted fleet) on the mode choice. We determined that companies employing subcontractors were less willing to shift to intermodal transport. creasing fuel cost is a driver that stimulates modal shift from road to rail. This notion was also generally confirmed by the survey results presented in the field research, with 41% of respondents agreeing and 10% disagreeing. The driver shortage is another aspect that can be considered a conditional supporting factor for shifting to rail and intermodal transport. This shift will allow the use of trucking on shorter distances only, for first and last mile transportation, which will ensure higher vehicle turnover. When examining policies, we can observe that certain countries have already acknowledged the significance of semi-trailers as loading units for facilitating the modal shift from road to rail. Germany, Poland and Spain have already introduced dedicated transport policy measures and other government initiatives that promote the adoption of vertical and horizontal semitrailers. Negative drivers impacting intermodal semi-trailer transportation The gradual switch to carbon-neutral technology, such as electric and hydrogen-powered trucks, will support the trucking industry in sustaining its dominant market share among all transport modes. 45% of our respondents agree with this idea, whereas 17% disagree, as described in the field research. While rail and intermodal transportation currently lead in energy efficiency and ecofriendliness, the adoption of carbon-neutral technology in trucking in the medium and long term will enhance its competitiveness and align with evolving sustainability trends, maintaining its relevance in the transportation sector. Infrastructure constraints and congestion in rail networks and at intermodal terminals cause delays and reduce operational efficiency, impacting the railway segments (i.e., main leg segments) of intermodal transport chains in particular. When looking at existing policies, it becomes obvious that distribution of dedicated policy measures for semi-trailers also varies from country to country. That is, in the case of Italy, the Netherlands and France, no dedicated policy measures supporting semi-trailers in intermodal transport could be identified. In addition, accessibility of information on transport policy measures that promote the adoption of vertical and horizontal semi-trailer transhipment technologies can be considered rather low. The business models of forwarders are another driver that influences the modal shift decision. Companies employing subcontractors are less inclined to shift to intermodal transport than companies using their own fleet of semi-trailers. Figure 16: Ownership of semi-trailers in commercial road haulage in Germany in 2020 categorized by company size (216,738 total) (Source: Bundesamt für Logistik und Mobilität 2023) Semi-trailer  LOGISTICS DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 19 index.php? title=Road_freight_transport_statis tics&oldid=575068#In_2022.2C _Germany.2C _ France.2C _Spain.2C _Poland_and_Italy _accounted_for_almost_two_thirds_of_the_total_tonnage_transported_in_the_EU Eurotransport.de, 2022. 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Road freight transport statistics. https: / / ec.europa.eu/ eurostat/ statistics-explained/ It should be mentioned that space constraints at existing intermodal terminals in Europe often do not allow for the expansion of horizontal transhipment technologies. In such cases, the ability to load a semi-trailer using horizontal transhipment technology at the departure terminal, after it has been unloaded via vertical transhipment at the arrival terminal (where space constraints prevent the integration of horizontal transhipment technology), would facilitate connections to a broader network of terminals. This, in turn, would make intermodal transport more attractive to decision-makers. 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France to invest €100bn in rail upgrades by 2040. https: / / www.railwayte chn olo gy.com / news / f r ance -to inve s tr ail upgrades/ ? cf-view Eugen Truschkin, Dr., Director Rail and Intermodal Logistics Consulting (I.TAC 211), DB Engineering & Consulting GmbH (Deutsche Bahn AG) eugen.e.truschkin@db-eco.com Emin Huseynov, DB Engineering & Consulting GmbH (Deutsche Bahn AG) emin.huseynov@db-eco.com Remmon Sarka, DB Engineering & Consulting GmbH (Deutsche Bahn AG) remmon.sarka@db-eco.com Semi-trailer  LOGISTICS DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0073 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 21 T he EMW, as previously described, consists of semi-permanently coupled two-axle wagon pairs that can each transport two swap bodies [3]. In accordance with the requirements of the Fr8Rail project, the EMW was developed with a loading height of less than 1000 mm in order to be able to transport 2.9 m tall high-cube swap bodies even on routes with smaller loading gauges [3]. The choice of loading height has a significant influence on the design of the concept, as the wheelset dimensions and also the coupling height are affected by this parameter. The Institute of Vehicle Concepts at the DLR was responsible for the design, simulation, implementation, and assembly of the structural components of full-scale demonstrator [4]. The wagon and bogies frames were manufactured as welded assemblies using S355 J2-grade steel (Figure 1, Figure 2). For the assembly of the EMW, the various parts of all partners involved were assembled and installed over several weeks in summer 2022. This included wheelsets, electronics, aerodynamic fairings, couplers, automatic locking container pins and compact EP- Brakes. During assembly, various functions such as the remote access and localisation telematics as well as the hardware functionality of the type 5 Digital Automatic Coupler (DAC) and the air suspension were successfully tested. The type 5 DAC represents the highest level of automation for DACs, with coupling and decoupling able to be fully remote-controlled [5]. The completed EMW with all tested components was successfully presented at the InnoTrans in September 2022 (Figure 3), where many of the above functions were demonstrated to the interested public. Following the InnoTrans and in the period leading from 2022 to 2023, a series of experiments were planned which were designed to test and verify various simulated results and the overall running safety and stability of the wagon under real-world conditions. A testing site and an experienced testing provider were selected, the final choice being VÚKV at the test facility operated by VUZ (Výzkumný Ústav Železniční, a. s.). The tests planned were as follows: 1. Test for safety against derailment (quasi-static torsion test in accordance with EN 14363 Method 2) [6] Realization and testing of the Extended Market Wagon Reaching TRL6 with an innovative freight wagon in Fr8Rail 4, a Europe’s Rail Project Lightweight, freight, Europe’s Rail, Fr8Rail The Extended Market Wagon (EMW) (see article start image) is an advanced lightweight freight wagon that was developed as part of the Fr8Rail 4 project in Europe’s Rail in the Shift2Rail IP-5 programme. In a previous article, the lightweight design developed for the EMW by the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, DLR) within the Competitive Freight Wagon (CFW) consortium was described [1]. In the following article, the subsequent manufacture of the final wagon design will be described, as well as the display of the wagon at the InnoTrans 2022 in Berlin and its testing under real world conditions in Velim in Czechia. David Krüger, Christian Gomes Alves, Nicolai Schmauder, Mathilde Laporte, Robert Winkler-Höhn, Gerhard Kopp LOGISTICS  Science DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0074 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 22  Wagons in five loading conditions, empty to 24 tonnes loaded  Measurement of wheel forces on a test stand  Measurement of the wheel-rail forces in a flat 150m curve 2. Driving test in an instrumented curve at low speed (R = approx. 150 m)  unloaded and fully loaded with 24 tonnes  Forces measured using instrumented track in 3 measuring positions according to EN 14363 [6] 3. Driving test according to EN 15839 [7] in an S-curve with small radius (150 m)  Fully loaded with 24 tonnes 4. Driving test on a straight track and in curves with large radii (1400 m)  unloaded and fully loaded with 24 tonnes  Checking driving stability/ safety up to speeds of 140 km/ h The basic wheel-rail interaction forces (Y, Q) were measured in an instrumented track section as described above. The use of conventional measurement wheelsets was not practicable in view of the EMW’s non-standardized wheelsets and its use of wheel brake discs. As sufficient information could be collected with the help of instrumented tracks and various displacement and acceleration sensors, the production of measuring wheelsets was considered an avoidable risk. A wide variety of sensors were to be used to measure the relevant variables, such as draw-wire sensors, accelerometers and plunger-type displacement transducers. The following variables were measured by the VÚKV during the trials: 1. Wheelset yaw 2. Vertical primary suspension 3. Lateral primary suspension 4. Vehicle roll 5. Potential pitching movements of the bogie frame 6. Accelerations 7. Secondary suspension lateral travel 8. Secondary suspension vertical travel The tests were to include runs with both active and deactivated air suspension, but problems with the air suspension‘s sensor system became apparent after the period in which the wagon was parked outdoors over the winter of 2022/ 2023. Due to supply difficulties with spare parts, it was decided to carry out the tests with the air suspension switched off. As this condition (driving on emergency springs/ empty air springs) represents the most unfavourable configuration with the lowest possible torsional flexibility and is usually the most critical case, the tests are relevant for an evaluation of safe driving behaviour under these conditions. The tests began in May 2023 with the derailment safety test. This two-part test consisted of a torsion test to determine the wheel-rail forces with a mobile test stand (Figure 4) as well as on a section of instrumented track. With the test stand, a testing unit is mounted under each wheel to alternately lift diagonally opposed wheels. Displacing wheels at opposite ends of the wagon in opposite directions forces the EMW to twist about its x-axis, thus simulating driving in strongly twisted track, for example representing the transition into or out of a superelevated curve. The measurements were carried out with five dif- Figure 3 The EMW on display at the InnoTrans 2022 Figure 2 Welded EMW wagon frame being prepared for painting Figure 1 Wagon frame of the EMW during fabrication Science LOGISTICS DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0074 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 23 ferent loading scenarios, from completely empty to fully loaded. The loading was realized using steel frames with corner castings corresponding to the dimensions of 20-foot containers. Concrete slabs were placed in these frames until the target mass of 12 t was reached for each frame (Figure 5). After each increase in mass, the measurement was repeated to determine the Q/ Q relation. Despite the stiff emergency springs, the frame and emergency springs exhibited sufficient compliance without the wheels being unloaded, even when the empty wagon was twisted to the greatest extent. These results were later confirmed when the wheel-rail forces were measured in the instrumented track. The tests showed that the results of the torsion test in the unloaded wagon with deflated air springs corresponded very well with the results of the MBS. In the MBS, the minimum wheel contact force Qjk,min was 11.8 kN, whereas in the torsion test, Qjk,min was between 10.2 and 17.1 kN. The positive results of the previous tests indicated that the wagon was safe for higher speed testing on the large test ring. The driving tests were initially carried out in an unloaded state (Figure 6). The tests were started at a speed of 30 km/ h and the speed was gradually increased by 10 km/ h steps to the target speed of 140 km/ h. The unloaded tests were successful; the car remained stable and ran smoothly despite the air suspension being switched off. This was consistent with the simulation results from the multi-body simulation (MBS), which had shown stability up to 200 km/ h under most loading conditions. After the positive driving test results with the unloaded EMW, the wagon was loaded with 24 tonnes and testing continued. These tests also began at a speed of 30 km/ h, with the aim of gradually increasing this up to 140 km/ h. During the test, however, the rear wheelset began to develop unusual drag from approx. 30 km/ h in a curve with approx. 140 mm superelevation. For safety reasons, and in order to inspect the affected wheelset, the test was halted. An in-depth investigation of the cause was not possible with the resources and time available on site, however initial indications point to unexpected friction in the labyrinth seal. As the issue could not be solved at the time, it was decided to delay fur- This project has received funding from the Shift2Rail Joint Undertaking (JU) under grant agreement No 101004051. The JU receives support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme and the Shift2Rail JU members other than the Union. This publication reflects only the authors’ views. The JU is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains. Figure 4 EMW undergoing torsion testing on a mobile test stand Figure 5 Torsion testing of the EMW loaded with two 20-foot steel frames and concrete slabs to 140 km/ h Figure 6 The unloaded EMW being prepared for testing at up to 140 km/ h LOGISTICS Science DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0074 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 24 Photo credits/ Article start image: © Dimensioned conceptual view of the EMW with two high-cube swap-bodies, left the DLR’s FR8-LAB aerodynamic measurement container [2] ther test drives until further analyses could be carried out. Nevertheless, it was observed that the EMW exhibited stable and safe driving behaviour during the incident. With the conclusion of the EMW’s first extensive testing campaign, the vehicle has attained the level of maturity and technology readiness needed to prove its viability in the real world. The essential functions of the wagon have been successfully demonstrated, and evidence suggests that simple repairs and minor modifications of tolerances are all that will be necessary for the resolution of the problems described above. The tests themselves represent the culmination of the extensive work that went into preparing for them, but also the considerable effort by those involved to shepherd the wagon from its concept phase through the design, simulation, and manufacturing processes, all the way to the testing grounds in Velim in Czechia. ■ REFERENCES [1] Krüger, D et al: Lightweight Design of the Extended Market Wagon. In: Internationales Verkehrswesen, Issue 3, 2022 [2] Bell, J. and Henning, A. Full-scale aerodynamic measurements onboard a freight train during specific operating scenarios using the DLR FR8-LAB [Conference paper] In: Railways 2022, Montpellier, France, 22-25 August 2022. [3] Bänsch, R et al.: CFW - Das Schienengüterverkehrskonzept von morgen. In: Eisenbahningenieur, Issue 9, September 2022 [4] Kirkayak, L. et al. Lightweight Design Concept Methodology of the Extended Market Wagon: A Shift2Rail Project [Conference presentation]. In: World Congress on Railway Research 2022, Birmingham, UK, 06-10 June 2022. [5] Hecht, M. et al. Development of a concept for the EU-wide migration to a digital automatic coupling system (DAC) for rail freight transportation Technical Report: “DAC Technology” for the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI), Berlin, Germany, 29 June 2020 [6] EN 14363 Testing and Simulation for the acceptance of running characteristics of railway vehicles - Running Behaviour and stationary tests. DIN e.V., 2013 [7] EN 15839 Testing and simulation for the acceptance of running characteristics of railway vehicles - Running safety under longitudinal compressive force. European Committee for Standardization, 2012 David Krüger, Research Associate, German Aerospace Center Institute of Vehicle Concepts. Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart David.krueger@dlr.de Christian Gomes Alves, Research Associate, German Aerospace Center Institute of Vehicle Concepts. Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart David.krueger@dlr.de Nicolai Schmauder, Research Associate, German Aerospace Center Institute of Vehicle Concepts. Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart nicolai.schmauder@dlr.de Mathilde Laporte, Research Associate, German Aerospace Center Institute of Vehicle Concepts. Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart mathilde.laporte@dlr.de Robert Winkler-Höhn, Research Associate, German Aerospace Center Institute of Vehicle Concepts. Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart Robert.winkler-hoehn@dlr.de Gerhard Kopp, Dr.-Ing., Department Head, German Aerospace Center Institute of Vehicle Concepts. Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart gerhard.kopp@dlr.de Science LOGISTICS DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0074 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 25 DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0075 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 26 Driving Change in Corporate Mobility Management— Comprehensive Perspectives on Mobility Budgets for Employees Corporate Mobility Management, mobility budgets, sustainability, mobility behavior, Mobility as a Service Corporate Mobility Management (CMM) is a key part of the transformation towards sustainable mobility and has an impact on emissions and employee satisfaction. Mobility budgets (MBs), categorized as employee benefits, offer a unique solution for transforming employee mobility. This article summarizes the results of two studies and provides a comprehensive overview. Study I, a representative survey (n=994) in Germany, examines the differences between MB users (MBN) and non-users (NU). NU show longer commuting distances and a lower perception of sustainability, which underlines the transformative effect of MB. Socio-demographic nuances, including gender and socio-economic factors, further influence mobility choices. Study II focuses on three case studies presenting different MB implementations. Overall, our results underline the transformative potential of MBs regarding the change towards sustainability. Policy makers and companies should develop solutions for different socio-demographic groups, take gender preferences into account and consider the impact on commuting behavior. The presented holistic framework contributes to a more sustainable and satisfying mobility experience for workers and is in line with broader environmental goals. Lea Heide Schwehn, Tobias Heußler, André Bruns Relevance / Introduction Corporate Mobility Management (CMM) plays a key role in countering CO2-dominated transportation modes. Innovative mobility and transportation measures can contribute to major sustainability goals such as a reduced emission balance as well as enhanced employee satisfaction which unleashes long-term change. Thus, CMM addresses two challenging business perspectives at once. In addition, CMM can be seen as a supporting action by the private sector in support of its sustainability strategies, helping to promote sustainable change. CMM holds two main functions; First, the pooling effect of measures to tailor the offering to the specific needs of different target groups and second, the integration of supply and demand-oriented measures to foster behavioral change. A promising measure that combines both key features of CMM are mobility budgets that are lately categorized as an additional benefit for employees [4; 1]. They introduce the possibility for companies to change the mobility behavior of their workforce while satisfying increasing demands. Instead of providing employees with conventional mobility services like company cars or public transportation, companies allocate a budget focused on individual purposes and needs to meet the mobility requirements of their workforce [4; 3]. Since this concept is quite new to the mobility and transportation environment and only a few studies exist to this date [4; 3; 2], companies are faced with the challenge of providing a well-designed and adequate budget suiting their business goals and objectives. This article provides a broad overview of the concept and contributes to the understanding of the effects of mobility budgets. More precisely, it aims to illustrate the impact of mobility budgets to change mobility behavior towards more sustainable means of transportation and/ or multimodality. To respond to this rising debate, we combine insights from two different studies. First, we conducted a representative survey for the German working environment (n=994) to provide insights into the differences between users and non-users of such a budget. Second, we analyzed several company workshops and interviews to design three different case studies that show the different approaches of companies to introduce a mobility budget. In summary, this article reveals valid insights into the different attitudes and behaviors of users versus non-users and provides assistance in form of guidelines for companies that want to successfully introduce such budgets. Our results also indicate how MBs need to be flanked by public policies to be fully embedded in a mobility ecosystem. Definition MB The so-called mobility budget is currently a hot subject of debate as a modern and sustainable alternative to travelling solely by a private and/ or company car. It is closely related to Mobility as a Service (MaaS) in which a mobility solution is used according to individual needs and preferences. Instead of providing employees with a single offering such as a company car or a job ticket for public transportation a company provides a budget for personal mobility purposes. Thus, companies can shape the choice of transport of the entire workforce and promote more environmentally friendly options while clearly differentiating CMM from travel management. The arrangement and revision of the business travel policy is a challenging task that deserves a differentiated approach. A mobility budget is particularly valuable in sales and management where company cars are still the standard. Mainly, these business divisions are highly depending on a car. However, a mobility budget can function as a convenient alternative to a company car; either to downsize the current car in return of other benefits/ modes such as a bike, or to replace it completely for payment and/ or more sustainable modes of transportation. However, as a holistic approach, the budget is targeted to influence the commuting behavior of the entire workforce instead of a single entitled sub-group. Study I: Mobility budgets change mobility behavior towards more multimodality. Survey Background MBs seem to have the ability to change behavior of employees. However, there has been hardly any research with significant insights published yet. Hence, we conducted a quantitative field study with employees serving a German business (N=995) screened accordingly to a mobility budget offering from their employer. The questionnaire was mainly targeted to gain insights into daily mobility characteristics, the individual commuting journey as well as attitudes and satisfaction towards the mobility and transportation offering from the employer. Our representative sample consists of 51% women with an average age range between 36 and 55. 27% are already offered a MB but only 11% make use of it. This forms three subgroups: 73% of non-users (NU), 11% of users (MBN) and 16% of the ones with an offering but not making use of it (MBNU). There are already many studies available that provide insights into the mobility behavior of employees (e.g., Mars et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2019). However, we want to provide insights on the impact of MB. This is why we compare the groups of NU and MBN in the following chapter for insights on their potentially differing attitudes and mobility behavior. Results of Study I (NU vs. MBN) The NU subgroup is 55% female, compared to only 40% at MBN. Particularly the differences between the stated multimodal mobility behavior and sustainability aspects regarding mobility and transportation are prominent: Only 11.8% of NU regularly make use of different modes of transportation while 45.5% of MBN use different modes for commuting and on private routes. Most of the NU commute between 10 to 30 km (35.6%). Among MBN the majority needs 5 to 10 km to get to work (40%). According to the individual importance of sustainable mobility and transportation 43.2% of NU compared to 64.5% of MBN Science MOBILITY DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0075 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 27 MOBILITY  Science DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0075 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 28 enhance employer loyalty and cater to the diverse needs of its workforce, The Family Corporation embarked on a transformative journey by introducing mobility budgets as a pioneering employee benefit. Objective: The primary goal was clear—to establish mobility budgets as a valuable and inclusive benefit that not only attracted top talent but also promoted a holistic approach to employee well-being. Three-Purpose Implementation: Inclusive Transportation Options: The Family Corporation broke away from traditional benefits by providing mobility budgets with no limits on the means of transportation. From public transit to ridesharing services, every mode was included, ensuring that the benefit catered to the unique needs of each employee. Holistic Approach: Unlike benefits tailored to specific entitled groups, mobility budgets were designed to value the entire workforce. This inclusive approach aimed to create a workplace culture that prioritized diversity and equal treatment for all employees. Autonomy and Flexibility: A distinctive feature of the mobility budget program was its hands-off approach to nudging employees towards a specific mobility behavior. Instead, employees were empowered to make their own transportation choices, fostering a sense of autonomy and flexibility in their work routines. Challenges and Solutions: Above all, The Family Corporation defined a clear vision of its purpose for the business to ensure the success of MBs. Aligning the benefit with overall company goals helped communicate its value and foster employee satisfaction and productivity. Contrary to expectations, The Family Corporation found that a small budget was often sufficient to implement an effective mobility program. The key was strategic and thoughtful implementation, emphasizing the importance of the benefit rather than its financial magnitude. Contrary to the ‘Small Budget, Big Impact’ outlook, was the challenge of dealing with rising demands. As employees embraced the mobility budget, expectations evolved. The Family Corporation remained agile and responsive, adjusting the budget to meet the changing needs and preferences of its workforce. Regular assessments ensured that the benefit remained relevant and impactful. Emerging from rising demands another concern emerged: the potential loss of control over employees’ transportation choices. However, by shifting towards a culture of trust and responsibility, The Family Corporation successfully managed this challenge, realizing that empowering employees led to a more engaged and accountable workforce. Results: The implementation of mobility budgets at The Family Corporation resulted in a significant boost in employer loyalty. Employees appreciated the freedom to choose their modes of transportation, which also led to attitudinal changes that disrupted established mindsets and habitualized mobility behaviors. The inclusive nature of the program contributed to a positive and productive work environment. The success of this innovative employee benefit positioned The Family Corporation as a trailblazperceive sustainability important regarding their active mobility and transportation. More than half of the group of MBN specifically focus on sustainability. Both subgroups strongly identify as car drivers (66.2% NU vs. 54.5% MBN) and show a strong car use habit strength. Nevertheless, almost twice as many MBN identify as public transport users (15% NU vs. 27.3% MBN). There are no major differences between both groups regarding the modal split on private routes. For the commuting split however, there is a distinct difference between public transport usage (16.3% NU vs. 23.6% MBN). For both ways the car is dominating as the most used means of transportation on average. Very interestingly, the NU are way less satisfied with the corporate mobility and transportation offerings (CMTO) than MBN. However, both groups show high employee loyalty through a positive rating of their employers. Finally, it seems valuable to look deeper into sociodemographic differences. We focused on education, wage, household composition and living environment. MBN show higher wage ranges than NU. They are also more likely to live in or near the city center (51.8%), while most NUs live in the suburbs (28.6%). There are slight differences in marital status; we see that more people in a relationship with children opt for MB, while most NU are alone without children (33.1%). In addition, the more people in a household, the more likely they are to use a MB. In summary, we identified recognizable differences between NU and MBN, particularly according to multimodal mobility behavior and satisfaction. This indicates and supports previous work, that MB may be able to shift mobility behavior towards the use of sustainable modes [2]. Accordingly, an investment is worthwhile for a contemporary CMM. In the following we present three examples (based on case studies) of how a MB can be successfully introduced in companies. Study II: Three approaches to effectively introduce mobility budgets in companies according to culture and objectives. We conducted in-depth interviews and workshops with several companies that had already introduced MBs, were in in the introduction phase, or at least considering implementing them. By means of a qualitative analysis we designed three different case studies to successfully introduce a MB according to a company’s individual culture and objectives. Case Study I: Driving Loyalty: Mobility budgets as an employee benefit to enhance employer loyalty. BasicCorp, a leading player in the competitive business landscape, recognized the need for innovative employee benefits to stay ahead in the talent game. In a bid to Additionally, a transparent and precise alignment with business goals was crucial. Sustainable mobility was not just a checkbox but an integral part of the company’s mobility culture. GreenWheels Corp. emphasized that it wasn’t just about reducing emissions but also about aligning with the company’s broader commitment to environmental stewardship. Striking a fine line between actual sustainability and greenwashing was also a challenge. GreenWheels Corp. ensured that its initiatives were substantive and had a real impact, steering clear of superficial gestures and ensuring authenticity in its commitment to sustainability. Results: The implementation of mobility budgets at GreenWheels Corp. led to a notable reduction in the company’s internal emission balance. Employees embraced sustainable mobility behavior, and the gamification elements added an element of fun and motivation. Leadership commitment and visibility at the highest level reinforced the company’s dedication to sustainability, setting a benchmark for responsible corporate mobility. GreenWheels Corp. successfully navigated the challenges, fostering a culture where sustainable mobility became an Integral part of the company‘s Identity and values. Case Study III: Driving both: Mobility budgets to support mobility satisfaction as well as more sustainable mobility behavior. Ideally, the budget functions as both, an additional employee benefit to increase mobility satisfaction as well as fostering more sustainable mobility behavior within the workforce. HarmonyHub represents the company for the third case study. HarmonyHub, an industry leader committed to corporate responsibility, embarked on a pioneering journey by integrating mobility budgets as a comprehensive corporate mobility management tool. This innovative approach aimed to elevate employee satisfaction and encourage more sustainable mobility behavior, aligning seamlessly with the company‘s dedication to environmental stewardship. Objective: HarmonyHub set out with a dual objective: to bolster mobility satisfaction among employees and promote a shift towards more sustainable transportation choices through the implementation of mobility budgets. Implementation: To achieve a dual objective, HarmonyHub combined the approaches from prior cases with a focus on a sustainable fleet transition including downsizing, integrating inclusive sustainable means of transportation, gamification as well as leadership as sustainability role models. Challenges and Solutions: HarmonyHub took a similar combining approach to the challenges and solutions. A particular focus was on the behavioral change and adequate communication including the avoidance of greenwashing, a genuine alignment er in the industry, setting a new standard for employee-centric benefits in the corporate landscape. Case Study II: Driving Sustainability: Mobility budgets to foster more sustainable mobility behavior and decrease internal emission balance. GreenWheels Corp., a forward-thinking company committed to environmental responsibility, undertook a bold initiative to foster more sustainable mobility behavior among its employees. The implementation of mobility budgets aimed not only to decrease the internal emission balance but also to redefine the company’s approach to corporate mobility. Objective: The primary objective was twofold: to downsize the carbon footprint of internal operations and replace traditional company cars with mobility budgets that encouraged employees to opt for more sustainable means of transportation on both, private and business-related routes. Implementation: GreenWheels Corp. took a bold step by downsizing its company fleet, recognizing the environmental impact of traditional company cars. This move was pivotal in aligning the company’s commitment to sustainability with its everyday operations. Instead of providing company cars, GreenWheels Corp. introduced mobility budgets, allowing employees the flexibility to choose from a variety of sustainable transportation options. This not only reduced the environmental impact but also empowered employees to make conscious mobility choices. Mobility budgets were allocated exclusively to more sustainable modes of transportation, such as public transportation, electric scooters, and bicycles. This deliberate inclusion aimed to create a culture of environmentally responsible commuting among employees. To further incentivize emission-free mobility behavior, GreenWheels Corp. incorporated gamification elements. Employees were rewarded for choosing environmentally friendly options such as walking or biking, fostering a sense of competition and team spirit. Managers and the corporate board took on the role of sustainability ambassadors, leading by example in their transportation choices. CMM became a key agenda item for CEOs, ensuring high-level visibility and commitment to the cause. Challenges and Solutions: GreenWheels Corp. faced several different challenges, particularly arising from the goal to achieve a change of behavior while facing higher expenses. This required an increased level of support and communication. Green- Wheels Corp. implemented comprehensive awareness campaigns, educating employees about the environmental impact of their transportation choices and the benefits of sustainable mobility. Recognizing the need for a more significant impact, GreenWheels Corp. acknowledged the importance of a bigger budget. An adequate amount was deemed necessary to make mobility budgets attractive enough for employees to willingly eliminate or downsize their reliance on traditional company cars. Science MOBILITY DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0075 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 29 MOBILITY  Science International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 30 DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0075 reducing emissions while increasing employee satisfaction. However, this is a challenge for CMM. Again, the consideration of mobility demands across the workforce with different sociodemographic backgrounds should be considered wisely. A proper process management including a frequent performance evaluation regarding the intended goals is a key feature to adjust the MB during the implementation process. In an encompassing perspective, our research provides a holistic framework for the effective incorporation of MBs into mobility management strategies. By addressing different commuting patterns, sociodemographic diversity, and corporate strategies, our findings pave the way for a more sustainable and satisfactory mobility experience for employees while aligning with broader environmental goals. ■ REFERENCES [1] Schlegel, M., & Stopka, U. (2022, June). Corporate Mobility Budgets as a Contribution to the Enforcement of Sustainable Mobility. In International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (pp. 600-617). Cham: Springer International Publishing. [2] Schwehn, L., & Heußler, T. (2022). Zur Attraktivität von Mobilitätsbudgets: Modellentwicklung und Ableitung kommunikativer Handlungsempfehlungen. Transfer: Zeitschrift für Kommunikation & Markenmanagement, 68(4). [3] Zijlstra, T., Goos, P., & Verhetsel, A. (2019). A mixture-amount stated preference study on the mobility budget. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 126, 230-246. [4] Zijlstra, T., & Vanoutrive, T. (2018). The employee mobility budget: Aligning sustainable transportation with human resource management? . Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 61, 383-396. Photo credit: © iStock.com/ Tirachar with business goals as well as budget considerations, principally managing higher expenses. Results: The integration of mobility budgets as a corporate mobility management tool at HarmonyHub yielded remarkable results. The company experienced a substantial decrease in its internal emission balance, achieved through a successful downsizing of the fleet and the adoption of sustainable transportation options. Employees embraced the mobility budget program, not only increasing their satisfaction with mobility choices but also contributing to a more sustainable corporate environment. HarmonyHub emerged as a beacon of corporate responsibility, setting a new standard for organizations looking to simultaneously enhance employee satisfaction and promote sustainable mobility behaviors. Implications/ Conclusion Our findings are two-fold. According to our data we can draw several conclusions for CMM and the introduction process of MBs. First, we can see that a MB has an actual impact on mobility attitudes and behavior. Results from Study I give insight into the basic mobility behavior and commuting patterns of German employees among the groups of NU and MBN. The analysis reveals intricate patterns in multimodal mobility behavior, sustainability perceptions, and sociodemographic differences. To foster more sustainable and inclusive transportation systems by means of MB, policymakers and companies should consider addressing gender-specific preferences, understanding the factors influencing commuting patterns, and tailoring transportation solutions to meet the diverse needs of different sociodemographic groups. This implicates a systematical implementation of MB, especially based on differentiated data revealing individual mobility needs and preferences. Additionally, efforts to improve public transport services and enhance employee satisfaction with CMTO could contribute to more sustainable and satisfactory mobility experiences for both groups. Second, our conclusions from Study II are particularly helpful for companies that are planning to introduce mobility budgets. MBs are a trendy topic but there are hardly any insights on a proper implementation into CMM. The compiled cases provide an overview of an in-depth analysis of several different firms located in Germany that already introduced MBs or were at least in the introduction phase. They represent three different approaches of implementing MBs while also pointing out the relating challenges and solutions. We conclude that the ideal of the concept of MBs is the last case that combines both goals, Lea Heide Schwehn, RheinMain University of Applied Sciences, Bleichstraße 3, 65183 Wiesbaden, Germany Tobias Heußler, RheinMain University of Applied Sciences, Bleichstraße 44, 65183 Wiesbaden, Germany André Bruns, RheinMain University of Applied Sciences, Kurt-Schumacher-Ring 18, 65197 Wiesbaden, Germany articles will therefore continue to focus on in the future on specific occasions. 2 The forerunners of the Italian autostrade Everywhere in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century, existing roads and road structures were not able to withstand the demands of ever-increasing motorization. In Italy, calls for the modernization of existing roads and for so-called car-only roads, means roads that were to be reserved exclusively for automobiles, can be traced back to 1906, when the engineer GIUSEP- PE SPERA propagated the construction of such a project between Rome and Naples in a study. 1 Introduction One of Italy‘s proud inventions the autostrade have been one hundred years old on September 21, 2024. This magazine is once again taking this event as an opportunity to look back on the formative developments in motorization, roads and transport that began over a hundred years ago and to place them in an overall engineering-historical context with regard to freeways, among other things. Two points in time mark the beginning of the development of the freeways (including their predecessors): ƒ from 1902, the desire for an automobile racetrack (i.e. the Berlin Avus) ƒ around 1920 the desire for more carfriendly roads (including „car-only roads“) The first launch in 1902, which led to the completion and operation of the „Automobil-, Verkehrs- und Uebungsstrasse“ (Avus) in Berlin in 1921, among other things, has already been reported on extensively in issue IV/ 2021 of this magazine. As with all technical innovations that shaped people‘s lifestyles and made everyday life easier, a trip to other countries was often enough for people to return home with ideas for remedying deficiencies in the road system. The second starting point, from around 1920, produced interesting developments and projects in several countries at short intervals, which the „A hundred years ago“ series of In a similar context, towards the end of the First World War, the Milanese engineer EMILIO BELLONI proposed the construction of a „direct, permanent road“ between Milan and Venice, reserved for motor vehicles and subject to tolls (Figure 1), having previously at least attracted attention with a similar project between Paris and Moscow. In the prosperous, up-and-coming Milan of the 1920s, which was conveniently located for trade in all directions, the project to the port of Venice met with approval. Even though the straight route chosen at the time, away from the major cities of Bergamo, Brescia and Verona, was a disadvantage, BELLONI obtained the approval of a commission made up of politicians, economic A hundred years ago: Were the autostrade to the Upper Italian lakes the first freeways? This article follows on from the publication by Wolfgang F. Jaeger „A hundred years ago: Was the Avus the first autobahn? “ from issue IV/ 2021 of this magazine. „Pensare all‘Europa e tracciare su di essa una rete organica, razionale di comunicazioni autostradali che, seguendo le linee di maggior traffico, la dotasse di un sistema circolatorio pari ai bisogni dell‘epoca.“ „To think of Europe means to cover it with an organic and meaningful network of car roads (autostrade), which, following the course of the largest traffic, form a closed traffic system that meets the requirements of time.“ PIERO PURICELLI (September 1934) Wolfgang F. Jaeger Figure 1: The “direct, permanent road” from Milan to Venice designed by the Milanese engineer EMILIO BELLONI and reserved for motor vehicles (status: spring 1922) [GABRIEL 2010, p. 68]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 31 History  FORUM to Lago di Varese, Lago di Como and Lago Maggiore. VANDONE assumed that even if tolls were compulsory, the heavy automobile traffic in the direction of the northern Italian lakes would switch to these special roads and „the idea of the automobile-only road would spread quickly“ [VANDONE 1921, pp. 288-295]. It is safe to say that the positive public response to the BELLONI project and the support from the TCI spurred the engineer PURICELLI to publish a study „with the functionaries and the President of the Milan Chamber of Commerce, Senator ANGE- LO SALMOIRAGHI. In November 1921, this commission gave a vaguely positive verdict on BELLONI‘s project, stating that the road „deserved to be accepted by the public authorities directly concerned and implemented without delay“ [Camera di commercio 1921, p. 14]. 3 Italian automobile clubs, PURICELLI and Milanese officials only take about a year from the idea to the start of construction In 1919/ 20, PIERO PURICELLI‘s road construction company had already drawn up an automobile-only road project [THORZ 1925, p. 977/ 978], which was significantly shorter than BELLONI‘s, as it was intended to connect Milan with the prosperous region on the northern Italian lakes. This project is said to have been supported by the Touring Club of Italy (TCI) as early as 1920 [HORS- TER 1925, p. 40]. On the occasion of a lecture at the Italian Road Congress in Brescia in September 1921, ITALO VANDONE (head of the Technical Office of the Province of Milan, director of the Experimental Road Institute and editor of the magazine „Le Strade“) then officially mentioned that the engineer PURICELLI had presented the TCI with a concrete project for an 84 km long automobile-only road network leading from Milan help of a few friends“ [PURICELLI 1925, p. 13], which PURICELLI called „Road network for motor vehicles from Milan to Varese and to the lakes Maggiore and Como“ in March 1922 (Figure 2) [PURICELLI 1922]. In his study, he criticized the fact that the railroad network in northern Italy was still far too coarse meshed for freight transport and that the existing roads leading to the railroad centers were also too poorly maintained. In comparison to the existing network, PU- RICELLI visionarily named four distinguishing features of the new roads he planned: a) his roads would pass close to city centers to ensure higher speeds with maximum traffic safety, b) his roads are shorter than the existing provincial roads, c) his roads would generally avoid intersections with railroad lines and would not have at-grade level crossings with railways, d) his roads would have as few bends as possible adapted to the topography and would have maximum radii. On March 11, 1922, a committee appointed by the TCI met for the first time, which included numerous founders of the Milan Rotary Club (LUIGI VITTORIO BERTAREL- LI, PIERO PURICELLI, SILVIO CRESPI, PIE- RO PIRELLI, etc.).), which was divided into several sub-commissions and which, rejecting the word „Autovie“ (car ways), which had been in use since 1906, proposed the name „autostrade“ (car roads) for the new special motor vehicle roads. This name was then retained in Italy from the mid-1950s for the second generation of this type of road, which was developed with a focus on freeways. As PURICELLI was well connected as the head of his family-owned (road) construction company and also had a modern public relations policy at the time, his project Figure 2: The network of car roads originally planned by PURICELLI before MUSSOLINI came to power: The southern bypasses of Somma Lombardo and Gallarate as well as the long straight from Varese to Olgiate were later given a different alignment (as of spring 1922) [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER] Figure 3: The envisaged autostrada route network in northern Italy in the version of the concession contract: The “constriction” of the town of Gallarate provoked considerable criticism (as of December 1922) [VANDONE 1923, p. 163]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 32 FORUM  History quickly gained nationwide recognition. The naming „autostrade“ and from the summer of 1922 at the latest the political advocacy of the responsible Minister for Public Works in Rome, LUIGI ROSSI, showed how the Milan committee and the TCI were increasingly moving away from the pure planning level and consistently pushing for the realization of their vision. 4 MUSSOLINI and the lake autostrade (autostrade dei Laghi) In September 1922, the newspaper „Il Popolo d‘Italia“ (The People of Italy), founded and headed by the Fascist party leader BENITO MUSSOLINI, published an approving report on PURICELLI‘s autostrade, one month before the end of Italy‘s last democratic government and thus before MUSSOLINI‘s „March on Rome“ in October 1922. On November 13, 1922 the new Italian Prime Minister MUS- SOLINI received Mr. PIERO PURICELLI and Mr. ARTURO MERCANTI (Director of the Milan Automobile Club), whom he had known personally for some time, and assured them, in view of the economic and social advantages (e.g. combating unemployment), he assured them of the legally possible, formal recognition of the public benefit and asked them to „open the work themselves with the ‚first pickaxe blow‘ on January 1, 1923“ and to complete it obviously with a view to the construction of the Monza race track - „within a year“ [Società 1923, p. 18]. Just five days later, on November 18, 1922, the „Società anonima Autostrade“ (Autostrade Ltd.) was founded with a symbolic initial capital of 20,000 lire, half of which was contributed by the TCI and half by the Milan Automobile Club. The TCI President LU- IGI VITTORIO BERTARELLI subsequently took over the honorary chairmanship of Autostrade Ltd.. SILVIO CRESPI became President of Autostrade, PIERO PURICEL- LI Managing Director, and PIERO PIRELLI and ARTURO MERCANTI were among the members of the Board of Directors. Although all government consultations were conducted „with the greatest haste“, the concession was not finally approved by ministerial decree until December 17, 1922. For Autostrade Ltd., the public benefit established by the state meant that necessary expropriations of land were legitimized and a repayable annual state financial contribution was available in addition to the share capital. The Supreme Council for Public Works in Rome (Consiglio Superiore dei Lavori Pubblici) finally approved the further modified project on February 27, 1923 (Figure 3), so that the way was finally clear politically for the Duce to publicly celebrate the start of work. On March 26, 1923 around three months later than originally planned - MUSSOLINI traveled to Lainate (north of Figure 5: MUSSOLINI on 26 March 1923 during his famous speech at the symbolic start of construction in Lainate, in which he proclaimed that he wanted to honor work no less than the capital invested [PURICELLI 1925, p. 9]. Figure 6: The memorial stone erected at the site of the symbolic start of construction of the autostrade for King VICTOR EMANUEL III and MUSSOLINI at the Lainate at-grade junction [PURICELLI 1925, p. 4]. Figure 4: Group photo with MUSSOLINI on the occasion of the “first pickaxe blow” for the autostrade near Lainate on March 26, 1923: PIERO PURICELLI‘s son, Franco, was allowed to hold the Duce‘s symbolic working tool in his hands [S.p.A. 1984, p. 35]. Milan) to ceremoniously start the construction work on the autostrade with the first pickaxe blow (Figure 4). The media of the same direction later reported euphorically that MUSSOLINI‘s „male physiognomy“ (la maschia sua fisinomia) had taken on almost religious traits. For the staged work, MUSSOLINI (Figure 5) conscientiously took almost three minutes and moved around a quarter of a cubic meter of earth. He then issued the slogan in deliberately few but precise words that he wanted to „honor work no less than the initiative of capital“ (onoro il lavoro non meno che l‘iniziativa del capitale) [VANDONE 1923, pp. 33-37]. PU- RICELLI was also certain with MUSSOLINI „that the first motorway project in Italy has found the strongest and best collaborator in the present government, above all others in the person of [Hi]S. E[xcellency]. the Prime Minister Mussolini, who immediately understood the advantage and the growth that the country would gain from the realization of this initiative“ [PURCELLI 1925, p. 14]. On DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 33 History  FORUM 3,000 meters. Only four exceptions required the use of curves with a minimum radius of R = 300 m or only slightly more. The maximum longitudinal gradient was 3.0 %. In the elevation plan, crests and troughs were uniformly rounded to a radius of 3,000 m (Figure 9) a value that would justifiably raise safety concerns for freeways today. The standard roadway cross-section between Milan and the Gallarate junction was „RC 14“, while all other cross-sections were „RC 11“, with the former having 2 x 2 m wide grass verges and the latter having 2 x 1.50 m wide grass verges (Figure 10). The difference between the two cross-sections consisted in the requirements „for single and double overtaking“ [MOLL 1925, p. 21/ 22], in other words: the Milan - Gallarate section was ritory with the northern bypass of Chiasso, for which he realized for the first time in the history of the autostrade a provisionally bluntly terminating extension end at Como. The layout of the autostrade consisted mainly of long „monotonous“ straights of up to ten, eleven or even 18 kilometers in length. With a total route length of 84.6 km, 76.7 km (91%) were straight, and only 7.9 km (9%) of the route were curves. The design was based on a speed of 100 km/ h, even though most vehicles only reached a maximum speed of around 70 to 80 km/ h at the time. The route was planned in such a way that it required as few cost-intensive crossings with railroad lines as possible. In the curves, the roadway was slightly banked, with curve radii usually between 500 and June 28, 1925, a memorial stone was erected at the Lainate at-grade junction as was customary for many rulers at the time to commemorate the start of construction and the protagonists of the work (Figure 6). 5 The design parameters of the lakes car roads The finally approved project (Figure 7) deviated in various parts from the original project design attached to the concession (compare with Figure 3): ƒ Gallarate was no longer bypassed to the south, but finally to the north. ƒ The connection to the provincial road to Sempione was moved from Somma Lombardo to Vergiate in order to bring the highway closer to lake Maggiore. ƒ An agreement with the city of Milan made it possible to extend the autostrade 1.7 km to the south (as far as Viale Certosa), so that the new autostrade could now be routed over Musocco station by means of a bridge (Figure 8). This resulted in the following approval and construction phases (Table 1): In December 1925, PURICELLI also published two planned additions to the autostrade network (Figure 7): On the one hand, these included the Milan - Bergamo section, which was later built under his direction; on the other hand, the visionary already planned a short autostrada section on Swiss ter- Figure 7: The car roads network realized by Autostrade Ltd. from Milan to Varese, Como and Vergiate, including entry and exit points; the (partial) routes Milan - Bergamo and Como - Chiasso (Switzerland) were only planned at that time (as of December 1925) [PURICELLI 1925, supplement]. Table 1: The five approval and construction phases of the Upper Italian autostrade [PURICELLI 1925, page 19] Ongoing No. Number of the construction phase Route section Length roadway cross-section 0 1 2 3 4 1 CP 1 Milan (Viale Certosa) - Musocco - Lainate 12.085 km RC 14 [m] 2 CP 2 Lainate - Gallarate 20,673 km RC 14 [m] 3 CP 3 Gallarate - Varese 16.235 km RC 11 [m] 4 CP 4 Lainate - Como 24,507 km RC 11 [m] 5 CP 5 Gallarate - Sesto Calende (Vergiate) 11.119 km RC 11 [m] Sum: 84, 619 km DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 34 FORUM  History were arched or tubular below a clear width of 2.00 m. Iron bridges with straight beam superstructures were chosen when other constructions were unsuitable. The following five structures deserve special mention: ƒ Bridge over Musocco station, km 1.0 (three arch openings of 21 m each) (Figure 8) ƒ Bridge over the Villoresi Canal, km 11.5 ƒ Arch bridge over the Olona River, km 22.0 (span 48 m) (Figures 11 and 12) ƒ Tunnel under „Villa De Fernet“ near Olgiate Olona, km 23.0 (70 m long) (Figures 13 and 14) ƒ Bridge over the railroad at Vergiate, km 43.0 (four openings, height 15 m) With regard to road construction, it is known that PURICELLI studied pavement types extensively, especially on trips to the USA: „America was also recommended as a model because the roads there, even if they are only ordinary roads, are almost exclusively used by cars today“ [PURICELLI 1925, p. 28]. The pavement construction on the can be seen, especially on the autostrade branches. At Gazzada, a moraine circle is reached that surrounds lake Varese. During the construction of the autostrade, peaty zones were found in the ground at Besnate (on the branch to Sesto Calende) and at Portichetto (at the branch to Como), where the soil had to be replaced with gravel for reasons of load-bearing capacity. The most picturesque branch of the first autostrade is the section from Gallarate to Sesto Calende, where moraine terrain of the Verbano glacier can be found, lined with hills densely covered with pine groves and protruding erratic boulders from the glacial and alluvial periods. The highest dam (15 m) is located near Castellanza, the deepest cut (22 m) just before the end of the autostrada at Sesto Calende. A total of 2 million m³ of earthmoving was carried out under the supervision of PURICELLI. To maintain intersecting roads and railroad lines and to cross rivers, 34 overpasses and 71 underpasses were to be built in the course of the autostrade, together including the culverts - 219 structures, which conceptually based on four lanes, while all 11 m wide cross-sections were to have three lanes. However, it later became apparent that at higher speeds, lanes only 2.50 m wide with no hard shoulders anyway were not practical, so that a different road marking had to be chosen. Embankment gradients of 1: 1 also proved to be too steep. However, things had developed so suddenly, focused and quickly that even in spring 1923 after final approval of the concession - PURICELLI still did not have all the technical details finalized. The actual construction work could therefore only begin in June 1923 because land acquisition and expropriation took longer than originally expected. In total, around 3,000 individual properties or an area of 2,600,000 m² were taken up. 6 The construction of the first Italian autostrade Geological investigations were carried out during the planning and construction of the first autostrade projects. From Milan to Gallarate, the autostrade crosses alluvial land rich in sand and gravel, which is cut through by the Olona River at km 22.0. From Origio, or about 3 to 4 km from Gallarate, foothills of the middle Dilivium Figure 8: The newly built bridge in the course of the Milan - Varese autostrada over Mussoco station (km 1.0 near Milan) [PURICELLI 1925, p.22]. Figure 10: Standard cross-sections of the autostrade Milan - Upper Italian lakes, 14.00 and 11.00 m wide: The roadway was originally intended to have four or three lanes (as of January 1926) [GARBRIEL 2010, p. 79]. Figure 9: View of the Milan - Varese autostrada at the level of the (partially concealed) Castellanza secondary guard post (km 20.3): The trough roundings of HW = 3,000 m proved to be too small early on (among other things to maintain the minimum stopping sight distance) [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER, photo from approx. 1950] Figure 11: Teaching scaffold of the arch bridge over the Olona River in the course of the Milan - Varese autostrada (km 22.0) in the fall of 1923 [S. p. A. 1984, p. 51]. Figure 12: Completed arch bridge over the Olona River in the course of the Milan - Varese autostrada (km 22.0) in the fall of 1924 [PURICELLI 1925, p. 23]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 35 History  FORUM ceded him by a few years, the road-building entrepreneur was proud that „this first example of car roads for Italy represents a primacy, because even if there are roads abroad which have one or the other characteristic, such as the cement surface, the straight line, the wide curves, etc., there is none which has all the advantages mentioned above and which, what matters above all, is reserved exclusively for automobiles, there is no such road which has all the advantages mentioned above and which, most importantly, is reserved exclusively for automobiles and at the same time, through a complex of perfect construction and precise regulations, provides a full guarantee of peace and safety while driving“ [PURICELLI 1925, p. 11/ 12]. The new road, which was closed to motorless vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians, undoubtedly looked very futuristic in the mid-1920s, even though JELMONI 1974 described it as „so small, so simple, so modest, so pathetically ‚old‘“ (ci appare tanto piccola, semplice, modesta, tanto pateticamente „antica“) compared to today‘s freeways [JEL- MONI 1974]. He took the liberty of making this judgment because the first-generation autostrade was based on design parameters that he and today would justifiably describe as fundamentally unacceptable. JELMONI therefore did not want to speak here of an autostrada or a freeway, but „merely of a tiring, especially at midday [KLINKMANN 1934, p. 117]. King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy presided over the opening ceremony and the opening to traffic of the „first autostrada section in the world“ from Milan to Varese on September 21, 1924 (Figure 17). The ruler was accompanied by PIERO PURICELLI in the carriage on the journey, which covered the entire section of the route. The second section to be opened on June 28, 1925 was the branch from the Lainate at-grade junction to Como. The third section from the Gallarate at-grade junction to Vergiate was opened to traffic on September 23, 1925. In December 1925, PURICELLI, who always carried out professional public relations work for his projects that still seems modern today, published his book „Autostrade“ in several languages, including an English, a French and a German version [PURICELLI 1925]. This book describes the planning, construction and operation of the first Italian autostrade in such a vivid and descriptive way that anyone who read it must undoubtedly have gained a lasting impression of a motorized future, in all likelihood linked to the desire to establish modern motor-only roads in their own country. Even if PURICELLI did not mention that the Avus, opened in Berlin in 1921, had preupper Italian autostrade was carried out almost exclusively with concrete pavers of the American KOEHRING type (Figures 15 and 16), whereby a total area of 750,000 m² was produced. „Initially, only 20 cm thick concrete was chosen for the road surface, probably based on American models and in the expectation that this surface would be the most resistant and would require hardly any maintenance. After completion of the tracks, the surface was given a bitumen coating for waterproofing“. In addition, long periods of driving on the previously bright-grey road are said to have been very Figure 13: Earthworks for the autostrada in the area of the “Villa De Fernet” near Olgiate Olona in the fall of 1923 (km 23.0) [S. p. A. 1984, p.47] Figure 14: The “world‘s first autostrada enclosure” shortly before its completion in the summer of 1924: The structure was built to protect the gardens of the “Villa De Fernet” near Olgiate Olona (km 23.0) [S. p. A. 1984, p.47]. Figure 15: Concrete roadway construction of an 8.00 m wide surface on a gravel layer in the course of the Milan - Upper Italian lakes autostrada [PURICELLI 1925, p. 24]. Figure 16: The American concrete paver KOEHRING in operation at the Gallarate atgrade junction (Sesto Calende branch): The completed concrete roadway of the branch to Varese can be seen in the background (km 32.8) [PURICELLI 1925, p. 26] Figure 17: King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy ceremonially opens the “world‘s first Italian autostrada” Milan - Upper Italian lakes on 21.09.1924 (together with PIERO PURICELLI in the car) [PURICELLI 1925, p. 9]. Figure 19: View of the at-grade junction (biforcazione) Gallarate (km 32.8) with the branches to Sesto Calende (left) and Varese (right) around 1930: An auxiliary guard with a signal flag can be seen on the right of the roadway. [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER] Figure 18: Contemporary panoramic drawing of a main watchtower (entry and exit point) on the Milan - Upper Italian lakes autostrada with the width of the carriageway deliberately drawn wider than in reality for advertising purposes [PURICELLI 1925, p. 8]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 36 FORUM  History with at least three pneumatic tires. Trucks were allowed to carry a maximum of one trailer. Deviating vehicles, persons, objects or animals were prohibited on the autostrade, as was stopping (with the exception of emergencies, when the vehicle had to be parked on the extreme right). In general, you had to drive on the right-hand side of the road at all times; driving in the middle for no reason was punishable by a fine of 1,000 lire. Overtaking took place on the left, whereby a signal had to be given beforehand. „Sound signals“ (by means of horns) riageway, which meant dangerous crossings of the (three or four) lanes when turning left or right. Crossing-free solutions at junctions initially seemed „not really necessary“ given the low traffic density, especially as the total number of registered vehicles in the most heavily motorized provinces of Milan and Como was only around 10,000 at the time. Conduct on the autostrade was governed by the „Regulations for the use of motor roads and traffic on them“, according to which use was reserved exclusively for cars road with a certain level“ (una strada di un certo livello) [JELMONI 1974]. 7 No freeway junctions and interchanges as we know them today The first-generation autostrade as they are called in Italy today not only had a single carriageway for both directions of travel, they also did not yet have the multi-level junctions that are taken for granted today. At the junctions, which were therefore level, guards (cantonieri) were on duty: ƒ Main guard posts (raccordi alle cantoniere capotronco) (Figure 18) ƒ Secondary guard posts (raccordi alle cantoniere intermedie) ƒ At-grade junctions (biforcazioni) (Figure 19) The main guard posts of Milan (Figure 20), Varese, Como and Sesto Calende (Figure 21) were of particular importance as the start and end posts of the autostrade. The intermediate entrances and exits (varchi intermedi) could be designed as main or secondary guard posts, depending on their importance. The guards, of whom the respective head guard (cantoniere titolare) and his family lived in the guardhouse (casello), had additional auxiliary guards (cantonieri aggiunti) at their disposal for main sections. The usual color signal flags at the level junctions (including construction sites) in addition to the mandatory horn signal and column formation can be seen in Figure 22. Each guard post had running water, electric light, telephone, a fuel store, a „motorists‘ rest room“ and a first-aid kit. Stopping was compulsory at all main guard posts. There were also fuel pumps and oil and tire depots. A bicycle guard (cantoniere ciclista) was responsible for road policing and a motorcycle guard (cantoniere motociclista) for technical assistance (servizio d‘ispezione). Tickets were available for one-way as well as return journeys, both for total and partial routes. Figure 23 provides an overview of important structures, equipment, access, departure and branching options on the first autostrade (including fare zones). There were five price categories based on vehicle power (indicated in horsepower), as well as a „multi-journey card“ for 50 journeys and many different season tickets (including premiums for new cars of commercial (large) customers). No discounted tickets were issued to foreign vehicles. Subscribers and authorized free users were not included in the traffic load figures. The intermediate entrances and exits were located on one, sometimes both sides of the road always with a guard house (casello) next to them. After the barrier was opened, the entrance and exit were at the same level in a 90° bend into the main car- Figure 20: Milan main guard post (on Viale Certosa) in the 1950s, also the start of the Milan - Upper Italian lakes autostrade (km 0.0): Even then, the 10.00 m wide carriageway was not yet four-laned (see background) [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER] Figure 21: Sesto Calende (Vergiate) main guard post in the 1950s, also the temporary end of the Milan - Upper Italian lakes autostrada (km 43.8) [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER]. Figure 22: Signals on the autostrada: In 1925, PURICELLI also published instructions in German on how to behave and stop at guard signals at guard posts, at-grade junctions and construction sites [similarly PURICELLI 1925, p. 34]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 37 History  FORUM speculated in Germany that the „first Italian autostrade to be built, Milan - Upper Italian lakes, was more for tourist traffic“ [WILIMEK 1933, p. 88/ 89]. In September 1933, Autostrade Ltd. had to return the concession to the Autonomous State Road Company (Azienda autonoma statale della strada) (AASS) due to a lack of capital. This meant that the model of privately financed, built and operated autostrade to the northern Italian lakes was a thing of the past for the time being. 8 The autostrade of the pre-war generation is equipped with the 1956 to 1965 roadway „doubling“ (radoppio) converted to freeways After the Second World War, at the beginning of the 1950s, the „original“ autostrade was confronted with an enormously high traffic load in the course of economic growth, for which it had not been designed and which was also set to increase dramatically. As early as 1956, Italy therefore began to increase the capacity of existing car ways by adding a second carriageway next to the existing one, so that from then on a separate carriageway was available for each direction of travel. As the alignment parameters and junction requirements of freeways were taken as a basis at the same time, these route conversions were generally equivalent to new constructions, as, among other things, all bridge structures had to be fundamentally rebuilt under the changed conditions. In the case of the autostrade dei Laghi, the modernizations were carried out as follows: The changes and route deviations specified as part of the construction design for the future two-lane freeway related to the location, height, load-bearing capacity and systems of the bridges (and other structures) as well as all junctions and ancillary facilities. After obtaining the right to build, the responsibility for the reconstruction of the autostrade was transferred from the Autonomous National Road Company (Azienda nazionale autonoma della strada) (ANAS) to the Serravalle - Milano - Ponte Chiasso (S. p. A.) Freeway Company (Società per Azioni per l‘Autostrada) on July 2, 1962. This freeway joint-stock company had to construct a six-lane cross-section (type B, 31 m wide) between Milan and the Lainate junction, which was planned now to a multi-level Sesto Calende and Como (Figure 24). It was also responsible for the particularly eyecatching advertising and agency ticket sales at the time. The company „Società Esercizi Telefoni Autostrade“ (SETA), which was also founded, operated open-air telephone lines and was involved in „telephone systems and any other acoustic means of transportation along the road network“, which brought in additional income. PURICELLI repeatedly announced that the expected positive business results would soon outweigh the many skeptics who „had less confidence in the company than the founders of the autostrade [... and who had even] made some people smile“ [PURICELLI 1925, p. 41]. Nevertheless, the revenues of Autostrade Ltd. in no way covered the capital requirements of the company as a whole. Although the cost estimate had been based on a traffic load of 1,000 vehicles per day, and 800 vehicles per day were already using the autostrade on September 30, 1925, the income was not sufficient to cover the costs given the calculated traffic load (Table 2). The attempt to achieve capital coverage through fare increases failed because customers avoided the autostrade all the more as a result. As early as August 1933, it was and formation of columns were compulsory at all entry and exit points and level junctions or at special signs (e.g. roadworks). Autostrade supervisors were treated in the same way as civil servants. In addition to the statutory penalty, anyone who used the facilities without authorization was fined up to 1,000 lire, and also quite recently: in the event of resistance to keeping the road clear, Autostrade Ltd. had to call in the security forces. The concession agreement of Dcember 17, 1922 also made it possible to use the autostrade for other purposes that were compatible with public use (e.g. passenger and goods transportation, sales agencies at home and abroad, advertising or lateral cable laying). As early as 1925, the year it opened, Autostrade Ltd. had therefore founded a separate company called „Società Autostradale Trasporti ed Esercizi Diversi“ (SATED) (or simply: Autostradale), which from then on used buses to transport passengers and goods from Milan to Varese, Table 2: The traffic load on the autostrade to the upper Italian lakes [S. p. A. 1984, p. 45] Ongoing No. Year Total annual trips Vehicles per day 0 1 2 3 1 1926 421.405 1.115 2 1927 463.031 1.268 3 1928 546.512 1.497 Figure 23: Overview of the 17 main and secondary guard posts (with km indication), important bridges and partial route tariff areas of the autostrade Milan - Upper Italian lakes (reconstruction 2024) [Graphic: PETER GOMBAR and Dr. W. F. JAEGER] Figure 24: Bus of the newly founded Autostradale company for passenger and goods traffic on the northern Italian autostrade [PURICELLI 1925, p. 40]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 38 FORUM  History 9 PIERO PURICELLI, the „King of the autostrade“ a central figure of the time Of the dozen or so protagonists of the northern Italian autostrade, PIERO PURICELLI (Figure 28) (born on April 4, 1883, died May 8, 1951, both in Milan) is considered the outstanding personality under whose responsibility the local autostrade of the 1920s was planned, built and operated. He was born the son of ANGELO PURICELLI and CAR- LOTTA COMBI, learned several languages (including English and German) and later attended the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zurich, from which he graduated as an engineer in 1905. After graduating, PURICEL- LI joined his family‘s construction company and soon took over its management. In 1917/ 18, at his instigation, a laboratory for road construction materials was set up at the TCI, well ahead of similar developments in other European and North American economic regions. In addition to his commitment to the autostrade, he planned and built the Monza motor racing circuit together with ALFREDO ROSELLI in 1922 to mark the 25th anniversary of the Milan Automobile Club. PURICELLI, later also known as the „King of autostrade“, received many accolades for his achievements throughout his life: in 1927 he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Milan and on February 26,1929, at the suggestion of finally and conclusively converted into the new form of the „second generation“ (seconda generazione) freeways (Figure 27). A number of modernized, multi-level junctions with the downstream road network were not put into operation until after the line had been reconstructed. This was followed by the Legano North junction on December 18, 1967, Origgio on December 21, 1967 and Arese on May 4, 1970. 1963 also saw the start of construction work on the extension of the freeway from Como towards Switzerland (or Basel), which had already been planned as a car road by PURICELLI. The Como - Grandate section of the freeway was opened to traffic on December 24, 1968 and the cross-border extension to Chiasso on December 1, 1971. The border crossing to Switzerland (Chiasso/ Brogeda) was then also open to trucks for the first time on February 12, 1973. The extension of the Sesto Calende branch (A 8/ A 26 Dir) beyond Vergiate to the A 26 freeway (Gravellona Toce/ Verbania - Genova-Voltri) was opened on December 21, 1988. Incidentally, a former section of the autostrada (now state road SS 707) between Vigano and the center of Varese (called „Via Autostrada“) still largely has the original PURICELLI cross-section and is therefore worth a historical detour during a vacation in Italy. With the transition to the 21st century and the renewed increase in traffic volumes, the freeways of northern Italy underwent further changes. The Milan - Musocco and Musocco - Lainate sections have now been widened to eight lanes, and the Lainate - Gallarate and Lainate - Como sections now also have six-lane cross-sections. The Lainate and Gallarate freeway interchanges have also been reconstructed. At the Gallarate freeway interchange, the main lanes were aligned with the Milan - Sesto Calende route and vice versa during the most recent conversion, meaning that almost the entire historic, at-grade PURICELLI junction at Gallarate is located next to the current freeway and is also worth a historical detour. intersection, and a four-lane cross-section (type A, 24 m wide) on all other branches up to Azzate-Buguggiate, Como and Vergiate. Although an attempt was made to keep the future freeway axis as close as possible to the existing road layout, it was nevertheless necessary to relocate the alignment due to the insertion of modern alignment elements (e.g. larger minimum radii or clothoids). In the elevation plan, the trough and crest radii were generally increased to 5,000 m and 10,000 m respectively (achieving a minimum stopping sight distance of around 300 m). These traffic safety requirements meant that the old and new upper edges of the carriageway differed in height by up to 2 m. The new bridges were always built at a distance of around 3 m from the old structures. The (replacement) construction of new underpasses was carried out in separate construction stages for each directional carriageway. In the case of overpasses, the old structures were demolished and steel superstructures were lifted onto new abutments during a full closure lasting around four hours. In the case of large structures (e.g. the „Villa De Fernet“ tunnel (Figures 25 and 26)), several construction phases with different traffic routes were generally required for the new replacements or conversions. The latter also applied to the conversion of the Lainate and Gallarate junctions, which had previously been at the same level, into modern freeway junctions. The section-by-section construction of the new directional lanes progressed rapidly between the Lainate and Como junctions, so that this branch (A 9) could be opened to traffic in December 1964 with a four-lane freeway cross-section. The other sections from Milan via Gallarate to Azzate-Buguggiate (A 8) and to Vergiate were opened to traffic on December 28, 1965. At the same time, not only was the existing traditional, closed toll system converted into a semiopen system, but on this day, all „first generation“ (prima generazione) autostrade in Italy, which were built before 1945, were Figure 25: The tunnel under the “Villa De Fernet” in Olgiate Olona in the 1950s before the addition of a second carriageway [Source: Archive Dr. W. F. JAEGER]. Figure 26: When the old Laghi autostrade were converted to two lanes, the tunnel under the gardens of the “Villa De Fernet” near Olgiate Olona had to be demolished in 1963/ 64 and adapted to the wider crosssection [S. p. A. 1990, p. 94]. Figure 27: Expansion of the 11.00 m wide section of the Laghi autostrade to a freeway cross-section near Besnate in 1963: Construction-related transfer of traffic from the old autostrada to the newly constructed directional lane [S. p. A. 1990, p. 94]. DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 39 History  FORUM te Archives (Munich State Archive), among others. Of the approximately 200,000 final document sheets at the Munich State Archive, around 150,000 sheets have already been indexed in depth. Further in-depth indexing is currently being continued. There is no doubt that an astonishing number of elements of the autostrade in fundamental aspects of planning, but above all in construction and operation are very similar to the practice later followed on the German autobahns. It is to the great credit of PURICELLI and his fellow campaigners that they studied these elements in detail in the USA beforehand and then, with the help of science, business and politics, implemented a concrete example of their application the autostrade in Italy. In principle, however, no conclusive assessment of the above-mentioned criteria should be made at this point, as further scientific contributions will be required in the coming years in any case based on the status of the research conducted by QK 5.1. 11 Outlook PURICELLI‘s autostrade had attracted the attention of governments, associations, scientific communities, industry, etc. worldwide. In the USA, where, in PURICELLI‘s view, „the truly colossal development of automobile traffic has already automatically, if not yet completely, replaced the [... rules] of roads to car-only roads“, the development of public mobility infrastructure was already very far advanced, which was now also to characterize the Italian autostrade, even if the „King of the autostrade“ recognized that: „This urge to activity that prevails in Italy is running a little ahead of needs“ [PURICELLI 1925, p. 43]. At about the same time, the discussion about freeways had reached parliament in England in 1924/ 25. In France and Germany, associations and committees were formed in 1924/ 25 partly due to the influence of Italy - (including the Studiengesellschaft fuer Automobilstrassenbau (Stufa), which later became the Forschungsgesellschaft fuer Strassen- und Verkehrswesen (FGSV) e. V.), which from then on provided an important basis for the need for urgent improvements in the road system in public and research. Interest groups were subsequently formed in Egypt, Argentina, Spain and Portugal, which took the Italian autostrade as a model for their own efforts. According to PURICELLI, the pleasing result for the start of the autostrade and the understanding of the importance of car roads in Italy as a whole had „left such a lasting impression“ that by the end of 1925 a whole series of new autostrade plans had already been launched, which will be reported on again in due course in the continuation of the „A hundred years ago“ series of articles. ■ mobile, which in contrast to the railroad only emerged in a decades-long development process in the first half of the 20th century and which served for further development until general design standards on the way to the freeway road classification became more and more established. Terms such as car-only roads, freeway precursors or motor vehicle roads can generally be equated historically, as these traffic routes assuming they were not built on often still lacked one or more criteria that were required for a freeway according to general expectations in the 20th century. At the Road and Transportation Research Association (Forschungsgesellschaft fuer Strassen- und Verkehrswesen) (FGSV), its committee (Querschnittsausschuss) QA 5 „History of Roads and Transport“ contributed to analyzing a significant and very extensive part of this historical process with its long-standing series of publications, especially under the editorship of Prof. Dr.-Ing. WOLFGANG WIRTH. The research on freeways will now be continued in the FGSV committee (Querschnittskreis) QK 5.1 Freeway History, which was founded in 2020 and was thus established to document historical links to overarching national and international development trends [JAEGER 2021, p. 764]. In July 2005, ROLAND GABRIEL published a first scientific evaluation scheme at the FGSV on the extent to which freeway criteria are fulfilled or not in the case of freeway forerunners [GABRIEL 2005, p. 59-61]. Over the past five years, the QK 5.1 Freeway History has come to the conclusion that GABRIEL‘s evaluation scheme already provides a very good starting point for further research. An in-depth analysis of QK 5.1 on this topic is about two thirds complete. In the case of QK 5.1 Freeway history, it is viewed critically to refer to freeway forerunners as „early autobahns“, as this could give the impression that the absence of one or more criteria could not even completely rule out classification as a freeway in certain cases. There is agreement, however, that an optimal and reliable data basis must be available for a realistic assessment of all criteria, which is currently being carried out by means of literature evaluation and archive review. In this comprehensive review of (original) documents in various archives and libraries, QK 5.1, among others, is currently exploring new and previously unfamiliar avenues. Entire archive collections from departments that were involved in the planning and construction of route sections at an early stage play a special role here, such as the in-depth evaluation of the records of the former Supreme Construction Management (Oberste Bauleitung) of the Reichsautobahnen in Munich, which is currently being carried out at the Bavarian Stathe Fascist party, he became a senator and thus a member of the Italian Senate. Senator PURICELLI traveled to many countries, including Germany several times to propagate the idea of car-only roads there as well. On May 4,1938, he was awarded an honorary doctorate (Dr. h. c.) from the Technical University of Berlin-Charlottenburg. In 1940, PURICELLI was appointed hereditary count by the Italian Emperor and King and was henceforth known as PURICELLI, Count of Lomnago. He was also the founder of the „Puricelli Foundation“ (Fondazione PU- RICELLI), which ran specialist courses in road construction at the Milan University of Technology. The Italian Supreme Court for Sanctions against Fascism dismissed PURICELLI as a senator in 1945 and accused the autostrade inventor of supporting the political movement and sharing responsibility for the events of the war. The prosecution ended in July 1946 with an acquittal of the charge of collaboration. His early death at the age of 68 in 1951 caused consternation among experts and prompted numerous publications on the life‘s work of the Italian engineer, who was already world-famous at the time. 10 Were the autostrade to the northern Italian lakes the first freeways of the world? As already explained in more detail in issue IV/ 2021 of this journal, PAUL HAFEN in his 1956 work „Das Schrifttum ueber die deutschen Autobahnen“ (The literature on German freeways) consistently referred to car-only roads as „forerunners of freeways“ [HAFEN 1956, pp. 1-35]. Scientifically, the freeway precursor is defined as the exclusive high-speed traffic route for the auto- Figure 28: Portrait of the world-famous road engineer and “King of the autostrade” PIERO PURICELLI (1888 - 1951) [S. p. A. 1984, p. 21] DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 40 FORUM  History USA“, in: „Die Autobahn von der Idee zur Wirklichkeit“, Archiv fuer die Geschichte des Strassen- und Verkehrswesens, Heft 19, pp. 63-76, FGSV publishing house, Cologne 2005 THORZ, PAUL: „Die Automobilstrassen Mailand - Lombardische Seen“, in: Der Bauingenieur (6.) 1925, p. 977/ 978 VANDONE, ITALO: „Il problemo economico ed amministrativo della strada di fronte all‘incremento del traffico automobilistico“, in: Le Strade 1921, p. 288 - 295 VANDONE, ITALO: „Le ‚autostrada‘ da Milano ai laghi lombardi“; in: Le Strade 1923, pp. 33-37 WILIMEK, RUDOLF: „Lastautostrasse statt Eisenbahn”; in: Betonstrasse (8) 1933, p. 88/ 89 Special thanks go to Mr. Peter Gombar from Grafing near Munich for the time-consuming processing and restoration of pictures and drawings. KLINKMANN, G. H.: „Strassenbau in Italien“; in: Bitumen (4) 1934, p.113 - 119 MOLL, Ministerialrat a. D.: „Gesetzgebung und Finanzierung fuer Wege des Kraftwagenverkehrs“; in: Der Strassenbau (16) 1925, No. 1 (October), p. 18 - 25 MORAGLIO, MASSIMO: „Storia delle prime autostrade italiane (1922-1943)“, Nuova Trauben Edizioni, Turin 2007 N. N. (G. R.): „Der Schoepfer der italienischen Strassen zum Grafen ernannt“; in: Der Strassenbau (31) 1940, No. 5 (March 1, 1940), p. 60 PURICELLI, PIERO: „Autostrade“ (German edition), art and publishing house Bestetti e Tumminelli, Rome and Milan 1925 PURICELLI, PIERO: „Entwurf fuer ein europaeisches Autostrassennetz“; in: Die Strasse (1) 1934, No. 2 (1st September issue), p. 42 - 45 PURICELLI, PIERO: „Rete stradale per autoveicolo Milano - Lago di Como, Milano - Varese, Milano - Lago Maggiore. Relazione“, published by Umberto Grioni, Milan 1922 Società anonima Autostrade: „Le autostrade da Milano ai Laghi“, Milan 1923 S. p. A. per l‘Autostrada Serravalle - Milano - Ponte Chiasso: „1924-1935 Le autostrade della prima generazione“ (The car roads of the first generation 1924-1935), published by Arti Grafiche Leva A. & G., Milan 1984 S. p. A. per l‘Autostrada Serravalle - Milano - Ponte Chiasso: „1955-1975 Le autostrade della seconda generazione“ (The freeways of the second generation 1955-1975), published by Arti Grafiche Leva A. & G., Milan 1990 THEWALT, ALEXANDER: „Projekte der Autobahnfruehzeit im Ausland - Beispiele aus Italien und den LITERATURE Camera di commercio ed industria di Milano: „La strada permanente diretta Milano - Venezia“, Rovere publishing house, Milan 1921 GABRIEL, ROLAND: „Deutsche Autobahnvorlaeufer AVUS, HAFRABA, Munich - Leipzig - Berlin, Leipzig - Halle, Duesseldorf - Cologne - Bonn u. a.“, in: „Die Autobahn von der Idee zur Wirklichkeit“, Archiv fuer die Geschichte des Strassen- und Verkehrswesens, Heft 19, p. 24-62, FGSV publishing house, Cologne 2005 GABRIEL, ROLAND: „Dem Auto eine Bahn - Deutsche ‚Nurautostrassen‘ vor 1933“, Archiv fuer die Geschichte des Strassen- und Verkehrswesens, Heft 23, FGSV publishing house, Cologne 2010 HAFEN, PAUL: „Das Schrifttum ueber die deutschen Autobahnen“, Forschungsarbeiten aus dem Strassenwesen, Neue Folge Band 19, edited for the FGSV e. V. by Ernst Goerner, Ferdinand Duemmlers publishing house, Bonn 1956 HORSTER, Mayor Dr. jur. Dr. phil.: „Die Automobil- Bahnstrasse [Autobahn] als Wirtschafts-, Finanzierungs- und Verwaltungsproblem“; in: Der Strassenbau (16) 1925, No. 2 (November), p. 35 - 41 JAEGER, WOLFGANG F.: „Der Streckenentwurf der Reichsautobahnen - Eine ingenieurtechnische Analyse auf der Grundlage ausgewaehlter Archivbestaende“, Archiv fuer die Geschichte des Strassen- und Verkehrswesens, Heft 26, FGSV publishing house, Cologne 2013 JAEGER, WOLFGANG F.: „Vor 100 Jahren: War die Avus die erste Autobahn? “; in: Strasse & Autobahn (72.) 2021, p. 755 - 764, Kirschbaum publishing house, Bonn JELMONI, FRANCESCO AIMONE: „La Revista della Strada“, Rome and Milan 1974 Wolfgang F. Jaeger, Dr.-Ing., Head of the committee (Querschnittskreis) QK 5.1 Freeway History of the Road and Transportation Research Association (Forschungsgesellschaft fuer Strassen- und Verkehrswesen (FGSV), Koeln (Cologne) buero.dr.jaeger@gmx.de DOI: 10.24053/ IV-2024-0076 International Transportation (76) Collection ǀ 2024 41 History  FORUM EDITORIAL PANELS  ǀ  IMPRINT Gerd Aberle Dr. rer. pol. Dr. h.c., Emeritus professor of Gießen University, and honorary member of the Editorial Advisory Board (DE) Sebastian Belz Dipl.-Ing., Secretary General of EPTS Foundation, CEO econex verkehrsconsult, Wuppertal (DE) Uwe Clausen Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing., Director of the Institute for Transport Logistics at Technical University (TU) Dortmund & Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics (IML), (DE) Johann Dumser Director Global Marketing and Communications, Plasser & Theurer, Vienna (AT) Florian Eck Dr., Managing Director of the German Transport Forum (Deutsches Verkehrsforum e.V./ DVF), Berlin (DE) Alexander Eisenkopf Prof. Dr. rer. pol., ZEPPELIN Chair of Economic & Transport Policy, Zeppelin University, Friedrichshafen (DE) Michael Engel Dr., Managing Director of the German Airline Association (Bundesverband der Deutschen Fluggesellschaften e. V./ BDF), Berlin (DE) Ute Jasper Dr. jur., lawyer, law firm of Heuking Kühn Lüer Wojtek, Düsseldorf (DE) Oliver Kraft CEO, VoestAlpine BWG GmbH, Butzbach (DE) Magnus Lamp Program Director Transport, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Cologne (DE) Ullrich Martin Prof. Dr.-Ing., Head of Institute of Railway and Transportation Engineering (IEV), Stuttgart (DE) Editorial Advisory Board Editorial Board Kay W. Axhausen Prof. Dr.-Ing., Institute for Transport Planning and Systems (IVT), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich (CH) Hartmut Fricke Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil., Chair of Air Transport Technology and Logistics, Technical University (TU) Dresden (DE) Hans-Dietrich Haasis Prof. Dr., Chair of Business Studies and Economics, Maritime Business and Logistics, University of Bremen (DE) International Transportation is a special edition of Internationales Verkehrswesen | vol. 76 Imprint Cover Photo credit: © iStock.com/ Bim Editorial board Prof. Dr. Kay W. 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