PFSCL XXXVII, 73 (2010) Rotrou’s Bélisaire : Hierarchy and Meaning NINA EKSTEIN (Trinity -University) Bélisaire -(1643) -differs - significantly - from -the -bulk -of - Rotrou’s -theater, -perhaps above - all - in - its - array - of - profoundly - disparate - features. - The - notion - of - hierarchy offers - a - means - of - organizing - the - dissimilar - elements - and - understanding - the play - as - a - whole. - Like - so - many - of - Rotrou’s - plays, - the - subject - is - not - original. - Its source - is - Mira - de - Amescua’s - El - ejemplo - mayor - de - la - Desdicha. - The - plot - is relatively - simple: - Bélisaire, - a - historical - figure - from - the - sixth--‐century - East Roman - Empire, - returns - victorious - to - Constantinople, - having - expanded - the lands - controlled - by - the - emperor - Justinian. 1 - César’s - wife, - Théodore, - however, nurses -resentment -against -the -conquering -general -for -having -not -responded -to her - amorous - advances - before - her - marriage - to - the - emperor. - She - dispatches three - men - to - murder - Bélisaire - at - different - moments - during - the - course - of - the play. - Each - in - turn - fails, - converted - by - the - sublime - generosity - of - the - intended victim. - César - lavishes - honors - on - the - victorious - Bélisaire - while - Théodore persists -in -her -hatred -of -this -man -who -is -so -vital -to -the -well--‐being -of -the -empire, and -she -orchestrates -a -break -between -Bélisaire -and -his -beloved -Antonie. -César eventually - learns - that - it - is - his - wife - who - seeks - to - have - his - general - killed, - and orders - Théodore’s - exile. - Bélisaire, - however, - intercedes - on - Théodore’s - behalf. For -this, -the -empress -rewards -him -only -with -increased -hatred. - She -attempts -to seduce -Bélisaire -for -the -purpose -of -revenge, -and -when -she -doesn’t -succeed, -she intercepts -a -letter -from -Bélisaire -destined -for -Antonie -and -claims -that -Bélisaire wrote - it - to - her - instead. - She - thus - accuses - the - hero - of - betraying - César - by attempting - to - seduce - his - wife. - César - believes - her - without - question - and, refusing -to -listen -to -his -defense, -sends -Bélisaire -off -to -have -his -eyes -plucked -out. Bélisaire - dies - from - the - ordeal, - Théodore - then - admits - her - own - responsibility, and -César -is -overcome -by -regret -and -remorse. As - in - the - case - of - Le - Véritable - Saint - Genest, - there - exists - as - well - a - slightly earlier - play - by - Nicolas--‐Marc - Desfontaines - on - the - same - subject - with - which - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - The -play -refers -to -the -emperor -as -“César; ” -I -will -do -so -as -well. Nina Ekstein 440 Rotrou’s - version - was - in - competition. 2 - Saint - Genest - and - Bélisaire - share - another feature - as - well: - they - both - lend - themselves - to - an - unusually - broad - range - of interpretations, - some - quite - incompatible. - In - the - case - of -Bélisaire, - the - spectator must -wonder -whether -the -central -focus -is -a -love/ hate -story -or -a -cautionary -tale about -political -power. -Is -Bélisaire -a -victim, -or -does -he -bring -his -own -destruction upon - himself? - Is - he - a - Christian - martyr? - Is - this - a - tragedy - or - a - tragicomedy? - I propose - to - examine - these - questions, - as - well - as - certain - particularly - striking features -of -this -play -- -the -use -of -the -discourse -of -identity, -the -frequent -presence of - asides, - and - the - recurrence - of - the - number - three - - - through - the - organizing principle -of -hierarchy. The - play - opens - with - Bélisaire’s - return - from - war. - His - triumphant - efforts have - changed - the - dimensions - of - the - Roman - empire; - so - too - have - they - changed his -status, -elevating -him -considerably. -The -opening -act -makes -it -clear -that -both emperor - and - empress - need - to - make - important - adjustments - in - order - to - deal with - Bélisaire’s - elevation, - despite - the - latter’s - reiterated - modesty - and - humility. The - question - of - hierarchy - is - thus - at - the - core - of - the - accommodations - that - the couple - must - make, - for - Bélisaire - is - no - longer - far - below - them. - Indeed, - in - more general - terms, - the - preoccupation - with - hierarchy - is - a - constant - in - the - play, ranging - from - the - simply - physical, - with - multiple - scenes - of - kneeling, - bowing, - or prostration, - to - the - otherworldly, - with - abundant - references - to - a - host - of supernatural -forces. -Furthermore, -the -question -of -Bélisaire’s -place -in -a -universe that - is - organized - hierarchically - is - a - central - problem - of - the - play, - one - that confounds - all - three - main - characters, - Bélisaire, - César, - and - Théodore. - May - the general’s - elevation - be - accommodated, - or - is - the - threat - that - elevation - poses - too great? 3 Let - us - start - with - César. - The - emperor - welcomes - the - conquering - hero - back with - joy - and - gratitude. - Unlike - Corneille’s - Orode - in - Suréna, - he - never - seems threatened - by - his - own - indebtedness - to - his - general. - Onstage - with - Bélisaire - for the -first -time -(I.vi), -César -almost -immediately -tackles -the -question -of -hierarchy. He - moves - quickly - to - place - Bélisaire - above - himself, - an - independent - force necessary -to -the -emperor, -but -who -has -no -real -need -of -anyone: -“Sans -besoin -de mes - biens - tu - tiens - tout - de - toi--‐même” - (l.275); - “Et - pour - régner - enfin, - j’ai - besoin de - ton - bras” - (l.278). - It - would - appear - that - César - has - reversed - the - political hierarchy - between - himself - and - his - general. - He - changes - direction - abruptly, however, -and -adopts -a -stance -of -perfect -parity -through -both -words -and -physical symbols. - Presenting - two - rings - carrying - the - seal - of - the - imperial - eagle, - César gives -one -to -Bélisaire -and -keeps -the -other -for -himself; -later, -he -will -continue -on - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 - - See - Béthery - and - Lancaster - for - discussions - of - the - relationship - between - the - three versions -of -the -Bélisaire -story. 3 - - Corneille - will - recall - this - play, - no - doubt - when - he - writes - Suréna - (1674) - and - perhaps even -Nicomède -(1651). Rotrou’s Bélisaire : Hierarchy and Meaning 441 in - the - same - vein, - dividing - in - two - both - the - imperial - laurel - wreath - and - the imperial -scepter, -and -assigning -half -to -each -(III.vii). -His -actions -and -words -thus bespeak - equality - between - himself - and - Bélisaire - (the - two - rings - “[m]arqueront entre - nous - une - puissance - égale,” - l.336). - César - goes - even - further, - however, - and insists -upon -complete -identity -between -them, -calling -Bélisaire - “un -second -moi--‐ même” -(l.339). -And -until -Théodore -accuses -Bélisaire -of -making -sexual -advances towards -her, - César -agressively -maintains -that -position. -Variants -of -this - form -of reference - to - Bélisaire - appear - seven - more - times, 4 - and - are - supported - by - César’s reference - to - his - general - as - “mon - image” - (l.1052) - and - by - other - rhetorically complex -constructions -of -identity: -“Et -nouons -entre -nous -de -si -parfaits -accords/ Que -nous -n’ayons -qu’un -coeur -et -qu’une -âme -en -deux -corps” -(ll.341--‐42); -“Et -son corps -et -le -mien -n’étant -que -même -chose” -(l.1059). -César -seems -to -have -erased the - line - between - the - two - men: - referring - to - the - sleeping - Bélisaire, - the - emperor cautions: - “Et - puisque - deux - amis - sont - une - même - chose - [...] - Par - ce - même sommeil -je -repose -avec -lui” -(ll.972--‐74). - There - is - an - occasional - move - back - to - hierarchy - (that - is, - non--‐identity), particularly - when - Bélisaire - is - threatened - with - assassination. - Perhaps - out - of - a desire - to - protect - his - general, - César - makes - reference - to - his - own - power - to establish -all -hierarchical -relationships: Les -Rois -comme -rayons -de -la -divine -essence, En -leur -gouvernement -imitent -sa -puissance, - Font -d’un -mont -élevé -des -abîmes -profonds, - Élèvent -un -vallon -à -la -hauteur -des -monts, - Et -tenant -pour -chacun -la -balance -commune, - Au -prix -de -la -vertu -mesurent -la -fortune; - Je -te -mettrai -si -haut -que -la -faux -du -trépas, Sans -te -pouvoir -toucher -passera -sous -tes -pas -(ll.1139--‐46). 5 - César’s - control - over - hierarchy - goes - awry, - however, - when - in - the - penultimate scene - he - seeks - to - stop - Bélisaire’s - punishment. - The - language - the - emperor employs - to - describe - the - wrongly - accused - Bélisaire - seems - to - place - the - latter above - César: - the - emperor - calls - Bélisaire - “la - plus - vive - lumière” - (l.1933) - of - his empire, - “ce - clair - flambeau” - (l.1934); - the - “Soleil - de - l’Empire” - (l.1936). 6 - This change - in - positioning - may - be - read - either - as - a - sign - of - Bélisaire’s - heavenly ascension -or -of -César’s -unstable -relationship -vis--‐à--‐vis -his -general. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 - - Ll. -369, -532, -684, -972, -1059, -1476, -1594. 5 - - Also: - “Il - suffit - que - ce - bras - [César’s] - .../ - T’élèvera - si - haut - .../ - Et - que - la - passion - des - plus ambitieux,/ -Ne -peut -monter -plus -haut, -sans -s’attaquer -aux -Cieux” -(ll.1193--‐98). 6 - - It - is - worth - noting - that - these - images - are - curiously - reminiscent - of - Bélisaire’s - earlier description - of - Théodore - as - a - “céleste - flambeau” - (l.1317); - he - describes - her - eyes - as “vivants -soleils” -that -give -light -to -the -court -(l.1182). Nina Ekstein 442 César - thus - seems - to - struggle - throughout - the - play - with - how - to - deal - with - a returning - hero - and - the - change - of - status - his - accomplishments - represent. - His struggle - is - never - satisfactorily - resolved; - it - is - only - ended - by - Bélisaire’s - death. 7 For -most -of -the -play, -however, -César -emphasizes -his -complete -identity -with -his general. - Indeed, - César’s - discourse - of - identity - goes - so - far - that - it - occasionally takes -on -sexual -overtones. -The -emperor -describes -Bélisaire -in -terms -that -would befit -a -beloved: -“ce -port -céleste, -et -ce -divin -aspect,/ -Impriment -à -la -fois -l’amour et - le - respect” - (ll.989--‐90). - Interestingly, - such - language - increases - when - César withdraws - his - favor - and - plans - Bélisaire’s - punishment: - he - calls - him - “l’objet - de mes - voeux” - (l.1575) - and - accuses - him - of - having - “mal - usé - de - mon - affection” (l.1612). 8 - In - his - final - lines - of - the - play, - César - sounds - like - Iseult - pining - after - the dead - Tristan - as - he - seeks - to - be - reunited - with - Bélisaire - in - death: - “Chère - âme, obtiens--‐moi - l’heur -d’expier -ton -trépas,/ - Par - celui -de -te - joindre, - et -de - suivre -tes pas” - (ll.1983--‐84). - César’s - identification - with - Bélisaire - may - be - complete - here, but -it -is -with -a -dead -man. As -I -noted -earlier, -the -issue -of -Bélisaire’s -elevation -concerns -not -only -César, but -Théodore -as -well. -The -contrast -between -the -reactions -of -the -two -is -extreme. Whereas - César - struggles - and - seeks -to - establish - a -place -of - equality - and - identity with - his - victorious - general, - Théodore, - from - beginning - to - end, - seeks - only - to destroy - Bélisaire, - first - through - assassination - and - then - through - calumny. - In essence, - she - refuses - to - make - a - meaningful - adjustment - to - Bélisaire’s - change - in status, - or - rather, - her - idea - of - reorientation - is - to - deprive - him - of - his - very existence. - In - several - important - respects - her - reaction - resists - clear interpretation. - First, - her - motivations - are - too - numerous: - not - only - does - she desire - revenge - because - he - rebuffed - her - amorous - advances, - but - she - complains that - his - victory - makes - her - subservient - to - him - in - terms - of - political - power; furthermore, - she - seeks - to - further - the - career - and - marriage - of - her - nephew Philippe, - both - of - which - are - impeded - by - Bélisaire’s - success. - Second, - there - is - no clear - chronological - indication - of - when - Bélisaire - rejected - the - empress’s advances. -We -know -only -that -it -was -before -her -wedding -to -César. -Why -does -her hatred - and - thirst - for - revenge - show - itself - now? - Is - it - because - Bélisaire - has - been elevated - by - his - heroic - deeds? - There - does - not - seem - to - be - any - other - viable - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7 - - Anne - Teulade - makes - a - pertinent - point: - “Le - couple - masculin - est - de - soi - porteur - de tragique: - la - coexistence - dans - l’identité, - étant - contradictoire - dans - les - termes, - exige - la disparition, -à -la -fois -inévitable -et -injuste, -de -l’un -des -deux -protagonistes” -(111). -Death may -thus -be -the -inevitable -resolution. 8 - - Robert - Nelson - observes - the - homosexual - cast - of - such - comments: - “The - emperor - calls the - sleeping - Bélissaire - “la - moitié - de - moi,” - a - term - applied - elsewhere - in - Rotrou - by heterosexual - lovers - or -married - characters - to - their -beloved - and -mate.” -In -reference - to César’s -comment -about -“affection,” -Nelson -notes -that -“affection -is -the -term -used -in -the early -plays -to -express -the -emotion -felt -between -heterosexual -lovers” -(127). Rotrou’s Bélisaire : Hierarchy and Meaning 443 explanation -for -why -Théodore -should -choose -this -particular -moment -to -launch her - campaign - against - Bélisaire. - The - latter’s - elevation - would - seem - to - be responsible - for - a - strange - romantic - triangle, - with - both - César - and - Théodore desirous - of - a - quasi--‐sexual - alliance - with - this - newly - elevated - general. - Such - a reading - would - explain - the - surprisingly - small - role - accorded - to - Antonie - (not quite -4% -of -the -play’s -lines): -Théodore’s -rival -is -not -so -much -the -young -woman as -her -own -husband. -Third, - there - is -Théodore’s -haine. - She - spouts -the -word -(or some - variant) - with - great - frequency - - - 36 - times - - - , - but - what - exactly - she - means by -haine -is -never -made -clear. -In -the -place -of -César’s -elaborate -poetic -rhetoric -of identity, - Théodore’s - eloquence - does - not - rise - above - repetition. - One - has - only - to consider - Cléopâtre - in - Corneille’s - Rodogune - of - the - following - year - (1644--‐1645) to -be - struck -by -the -contrast. - Haine -is - Cléopâtre’s -favorite -word -as -well, -but -her hatred -comes -alive, -almost -literally, -as -the -queen -personnifies -it -as -her -double. 9 Haine - is - Cléopâtre’s - essence, - what - she - attempts - to - inculcate - in - her - sons, - what she - will - not - abandon, - even - at - the - price - of - her - own - life. - Théodore, - on - the - other hand, - just - tosses - the - term - out, - brutal - and - without - nuance. - Cléopâtre - and Théodore - share - a - similar - hierarchical - problem: - in - both - cases - the - return - of - a male - (males) - threatens - a - significant - loss - of - status - for - the - female, - although - it - is unclear -in -Théodore’s -case -exactly -how -or -why -this -is -so. -While -certain -readings of -Bélisaire -give -a -crucial -role -to -Théodore -(Mazouer -520, -Béthery -22--‐23, -43), -I find - that - she - never - comes - into - focus - as - a - character, - and - thus - is - nothing - more than -a -blunt -force -of -evil, -who -just -reflexively -opposes -Bélisaire -at -every -turn. Bélisaire’s - own - attitude - towards - his - elevation - in - status - is - invariably - one - of demurral. - All - that - César - bestows - upon - him, - Bélisaire - accepts - only - with - the greatest - reluctance, - and - only - after - attempting - to - dissuade - the - emperor. 10 - The most -controversial -moment -of -the -play -involves -Bélisaire’s -attitude -towards -his own -elevation. -In -act -IV, -scenes -vi--‐vii, -with -almost -everyone -onstage, -César -first announces - that - his - wife - is - to - leave - the - court, - then - he - divides - and - bestows - half of - the - crown - and - the - scepter - on - Bélisaire - (over - the - latter’s - objections), - and finally - he - insists - that - Bélisaire - employ - his - new, - elevated - authority: - “Ordonne sur--‐le--‐champ - quoi - que - ton - coeur - respire,/ - Et - fût--‐ce - au - détriment - de - mon propre - intérêt,/ - Moi--‐même - je - m’en - fais - un - immuable - arrêt” - (ll.1172--‐74). Returning - yet - again - to - his - consistent - strategy - of - extreme - generosity, - Bélisaire responds - by - aiding - his - enemy - Théodore: - after - much - hesitation - (“L’effroi - me saisit - l’âme, - et - m’interdit - la - voix,” - l.1178), - he - asks - that - “Ma - Reine - et - ma - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9 - - Addressing - her - haine, - Cléopâtre - says: - “Éclatez, - il - est - temps, - et - voici - notre - jour/ Montrons--‐nous - toutes - deux, - non - plus - comme - Sujettes,/ - Mais - telle - que - je - suis, - et - telle que -vous -êtes” -(Rodogune -ll.406--‐08). 10 - - Béthery -suggests -that -Bélisaire’s -attitude -is -what -permits -the -role -of -double -that -César gives - to - Bélisaire. - “Le - maître - ne - peut - l’affirmer - avec - complaisance - que - parce - que - le sujet -la -récuse; -elle -ne -remet -jamais -en -cause -l’inégalité -foncière -entre -eux” -(52). Nina Ekstein 444 Maîtresse,/ - [...]/ - Par - son - éloignement - ne - prive - point - la - Cour” - (ll.1179--‐81). - He then -goes -on -to -place -the -halves -of -the -crown -and -scepter -at -the -feet -of -César. 11 This - second - gesture - is - unequivocally - one - of - self--‐abasement: - Bélisaire - refuses the -elevation -that -César -bestowed -on -him. -But -it -is -Bélisaire’s -act -on -Théodore’s behalf - that - has - occasioned - controversy. - Van - Baelen -reads - it - as - a -move - to - place himself -above -César, -to -command -the -emperor -(131; -see -also -Béthery -52). -I -see it -rather -as -an -attempt -on -Bélisaire’s -part -to -use -a -technique -- -generosity -- -that has - worked - so - well - earlier - with - his - would--‐be - assassins - in - order - to - convince Théodore - to - put - aside - her - enmity. - To - the - extent - that - Bélisaire’s - act - is - in - any sense -directed -toward -César, -I -would -argue -that -it -indicates -a -generous -attempt to - satisfy - the - emperor’s - unspoken - wishes. - Surely, - Bélisaire - cannot - be - unaware that - César, - after - promising - death - to - whoever - has - sought - to - attack - his - general, be - it - his - own - wife - (II.xiii, - ll.724--‐34), - has - only - handed - down - a - sentence - of - exile without - disgrace. - César’s - strong - feelings - for - his - wife - are - thus - evident. Consequently, - Bélisaire, - far - from - exploiting - the - quasi--‐sexual - triangle - that - his elevation - has - engendered, - seeks - actively - to - destroy - it - by - removing - himself through - his - own - demotion - (returning - the - crown - and - scepter). - It - may - well - be that - neither - Théodore - nor - César - will - allow - Bélisaire - to - lower - himself (Théodore -certainly -does -not -allow -herself -to -be -touched -by -his -generosity); -or perhaps -Bélisaire’s -own -image -of -the -roue -de -la -fortune -(ll.1202--‐04, -1629--‐30) -is most -apt: -neither -César -not -Théodore -will -forgive -him -for -having -been -elevated, and - thus - Bélisaire - is - doomed. - A - change - in - status - - - up - or - down - - - - invariably wreaks -havoc. - *** The - issue - of - hierarchy - manifests - itself - strikingly - throughout - Bélisaire - on - the level - of - discourse - as -well. -Most - telling - in - this -respect - is - the - abundant - presence of - asides, - statements - made - out - loud - that - are - conventionally - taken - to - be inaudible -to -the -other -characters -onstage. 12 -Most -often, -asides -provide -a -means for -a -character -to -express -his -thoughts -and -concerns -openly -and -honestly, -as -he or - she - would - in - a - monologue. - There - are - significant - differences - between - a monologue - and - an - aside, - however. - For - our - purposes, - the - most - salient distinction -is -that -the -presence -of -asides, -unlike -that -of -monologues, -makes -the - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11 - - The -stage -directions -indicate -that -he -places -them -“aux -pieds -de -l’Impératrice.” -Béthery states, -in -a -note, -“L’édition -de -1780 -corrige -en -« -aux -pieds -de -l’Empereur -» -(140, -n.77). It - would - appear - that - the - latter - edition - is - correct, - as - Bélisaire - shifts - from - “elle” - to “vous” - as - he - offers - these - objects, - and - indicates - the - masculine - gender - of - that - “vous” very -clearly -when -he -states: -“Vous -seul -êtes -pourvu -de -cet -auguste -rang” -(l.1186). 12 - - Fournier - provides - a - succinct - definition - of - the - aside: - “Procédé - dramatique, - discours secret - (monologue - ou - dialogue) - dérobé - par - convention - aux - autres - personnages - en scène” -(16). - - Rotrou’s Bélisaire : Hierarchy and Meaning 445 stage - into - a - double--‐layered - universe, - with - a - level - of - public - discourse - and - a second, - private - level - involving - words - that - are - audible - only - to - the - audience. Writing - in - 1640, - La - Mesnardière - was - highly - critical - of - asides - because - of - their artificiality - and - invraisemblance. 13 - The - aparté - remained - highly - popular nonetheless, - and - Rotrou - was - a - particularly - egregious - practitioner. 14 - With - 58 asides, - Bélisaire - accords - this - feature - a - particularly - large - and - thus - significant place. - One - must - wonder - why - there - are - so - many - asides - in - this - play, - and - what their -abundance -says -about -the -role -of -hierarchy. The -need - for - the - second - level - of -discourse - that - asides -provide - is - a - function of - problems - of - communication. - Indeed, - in - this - dramatic - universe - it - is - difficult for - anyone - to - speak - openly - and - honestly. - By - far - the - greatest - number - of - asides belong - to - Théodore - and - Bélisaire. 15 - In - the - case - of - Théodore, - asides - are necessary -to -underline -the -disjunction -between -her -public -persona -and -her -true position: - her - attraction - to - Bélisaire - and - her - desire - to - assassinate - him - in revenge - for -having -refused -her - advances. - It - is -only -with -her - confidant, - Camille, that - she - can - speak - openly - (I.iii). - Bélisaire, - on - the - other - hand, - needs - asides because - of - the - instability - of - his - position - in - the - political - hierarchy. - The possibility - for - open - and - frank - discourse - is - severely - limited - for - him - by - the presence -of -three - assassins -on -one - side - and - an - almost -overly - grateful - emperor on - the - other. - The - general - is - never - truly - alone - onstage - with - the - one - person - - Antonie -- -with -whom -open -discussion -might -take -place. -As -the -wheel -of -fortune takes -its -downward -turn, -asides -function -to -underscore -Bélisaire’s -solitude -and looming -ruin. - In - a - situation - in - which - open - speech - is - dangerous, - it - is - natural - that - asides flourish. - Furthermore, - it - is - reasonable - to - suppose - that - the - more - public - and ceremonial -the -scene, -the -greater -the -need -for -asides. -It -is -thus -not -surprising -to find - them - in - abundance - in - the - bookend - scenes - I.vi - and - III.vii, - in - which - César takes - steps - to - elevate - Bélisaire - in - the - presence - of - virtually - all - of - the - other characters. - Similarly, - the - higher - one’s - position - in - the - political - hierarchy, - the - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13 - - D’Aubignac - conceded - their - utility - but - made - numerous - recommendations - to - authors including -advising -a -length -of -one -half -to -one -line -per -aside -and -insisting -that -the -aside not - interrupt - the - onstage - discourse - of - another - character - (376). - Corneille - expressed his - aversion - to - the - practice - in - three - of - his - examens - (those - attached - to - La - Veuve, - La Suivante, -and -Le -Menteur) -and -made -only -modest -use -of -asides -outside -of -his -Menteur plays -where -they -have -a -significant -and -comic -role. -See -Cuénin--‐Lieber. 14 - - Fournier -notes: -“L’aparté -est -en -progression -très -sensible -dès -le -second -quart -du -XVII e siècle, - d’abord - chez - Mairet - et - Scudéry, - entre - 1630 - et - 1640, - puis, - entre - 1640 - et - 1650, chez - Rotrou, - qui, - il - est - vrai, - a - pour - le - procédé - un - goût - que - n’a - pas - Corneille - et l’emploie - dans - tous - les - genres, - avec - une - moyenne - de - 10,8 - apartés - par - tragédie, - 44,5 par -tragi--‐comédie -et -33,5 -par -comédie” -(4). - 15 - - Théodore -has -20 -asides -for -a -total -of -44.25 -lines -and -Bélisaire -has -12 -(42.75 -lines). Nina Ekstein 446 less -one -has -need -of -asides. -César -in -his -absolute -power -speaks -none -at -all -until the - end -of -the - fourth - act, -when -his - feelings -of - anger - and -pity -towards -Bélisaire impinge - on - his - public - discourse. - At - the - other - end - of - the - power - spectrum - are Antonie - and - the - three - would--‐be - assassins - Léonce, - Narsès, - and - Philippe, - each with - multiple - asides, - all - coerced - into - submission - by - the - commanding Théodore. 16 - And - while - she - is - indeed - powerful, - the - criminal - nature - of - her thoughts - and - feelings - means - that - she - cannot - speak - openly - in - public - any - more than -can -those -far -below -her. - The - stage - thus - becomes - a - two--‐tiered - space, - peopled - by - characters - who move - fluidly - from - one - level - to - the - other. - For - the - most - part, - asides - constitute - a subcurrent - of - private - reflexion. - It - is - worth - noting, - however, - that - there - is occasional -dialogue -on -the -level -of -asides. -In -the -great -scene -of -welcome -for -the conquering - hero - (I.vi), - Théodore - and - Léonce - carry - on - in - asides - an - exchange concerning -the -latter’s -failure -to -assassinate -Bélisaire. -Similarly, -in -II.xvi, -Narsès and - Léonce - use - asides - to - organize - a - plan - to - attack - Philippe - in - order - to - save Bélisaire. -There -is -even -the -possibility -of -an -intermediate -position -between -the two - levels. - When - Philippe - comes - to - kill - Bélisaire - (III.ii), - the - latter - overhears him - speaking - (an - aside - in - which - Philippe - notices - with - great - surprise - his - own ring -on -Bélisaire’s - finger), -but - cannot -make -out -his -words -(“Que -marque -à -mes pieds - ce - muet - entretien? ” - l.897). - In - virtually - all - cases - asides - are - a - kind - of speech -distinctly -below -the -primary -level -of -discourse. Asides - operate - in - conjunction - with - other - means - of - doubling - levels - in - the major -scene -of -confrontation -between -Théodore -and -Bélisaire -(IV.2). -As -the -two characters - face - off, - they - cannot, - given - Théodore’s - royal - status - and - attempts - to murder - Bélisaire, - be - direct - with - one - another. - For - the - first - half - of - the - scene (ll.1291--‐1356), - Théodore - displaces - their - present - conflict - onto - the - realm - of - the past, - focusing - on - what - Bélisaire - did - and - did - not - do, - and - what - he - should - have done. -Thus -the -scene -sets -out -both -the -present -and -the -past. -Near -the -end -of -the scene, - the - empress - takes - two - objects - - - her - scarf - and - her - glove - - - and - moves them - from - the - domain - of - their - everyday - function - to - the - realm - of - the - symbolic by - dropping - them - on - the - ground. - Indirection - is - thereby - compounded - as - new meanings - are - added - to - old. - Finally, - this - scene - contains - the - largest - number - of asides - in - the - entire - play - (12), - evenly - divided - between - the - two - characters. - This group - of - asides - includes - two - curious - features. - First, - while - Théodore - is responsible - for - the - other - doubling - of - levels - (present/ past; denotation/ connotation), - her - own - asides - at - times - indicate, - not - the manipulation - of - levels - as - one - might - expect, - but - rather - confusion. - She - does - not know - how - to - interpret - Bélisaire’s - lack - of - attention - to - the - scarf - and - gloves - she - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16 - - In - terms - of - the - numbers, - Léonce - has - 9 - asides, - Narsès - 3, - Philippe - 5, - Antonie - 5, - and César -only -2. - Rotrou’s Bélisaire : Hierarchy and Meaning 447 has - dropped: - “Ou - ma - faveur - le - trouble, - ou - l’amour - qui - l’engage - [for - Antonie]/ Des - yeux - comme - des - mains - lui - dérobe - l’usage” - (ll.1391--‐92). - Indeed, - the - asides of -both -characters -here -suggest -uncertainty -about -the -true -feelings -of -the -other. The -second -surprising -feature -is -contained -in -Bélisaire’s -overlong -aside: 17 [...] -cette -force -d’âme -[his -own], - Se -rend -sans -résistance -à -la -voix -d’une -femme -[Théodore]; Sa -fureur -s’apaisant -en -obtient -mieux -ses -fins, Et -fait -plus -par -trois -mots -que -par -trois -assassins. - Le -trouble -me -saisit, -la -frayeur -me -possède -(ll.1367--‐71). Nothing -has -prepared -us -for -Bélisaire’s -sexual -attraction -to -Théodore. -While -he resists -acting -on -his -desire, -beyond -giving -some -unavoidable -indication -of -being flustered, - this - attraction - is - nonetheless - shocking - for - the - audience. - Most - asides tell - us - something - we - already - know - or - suspect, - and - work - to - underline - the contrast - between - the - two - levels - of - discourse. - Here, - Bélisaire’s - admission - is entirely - unexpected - and - his - feelings - seem - to - be - occurring - as - he - speaks - them. Our - shock - is - also - based - on - the - criminal - nature - of - his - attraction: - although - his actions -are -beyond -reproach, -the -simple -fact -of -his -attraction -does -not -befit -the perfect - hero, - one - of - whose - attributes - in - seventeenth--‐century - France - is - perfect fidelity - to - the - beloved. - While - the - contents - of - this - noteworthy - aside - have - no direct - influence - on - the - course - of - events - for, - as - Bélisaire - says, - “ma - foi - tient toujours - si - ma - constance - cède” - (l.1372), - it - may - be - part - of - a - pattern - to - cast - a certain -measure -of -guilt -on -Bélisaire - so -that -his - cruel -punishment -will -be -more palatable. 18 Asides -organize -the - stage - into - a -binary -hierarchy -that - affords -us - a -nuanced view -of -relationships -and -events -and -reminds -the -audience -of -the -difficulties -of communication - between - characters. - In - their - creation - of - a - second - level - of discourse, - asides - are - inherently - linked - to - perhaps - the - most - characteristic feature - of - Rotrou’s - theater: - theatricality. - Through - role - playing, - disguise, - and onstage -spectatorship, -characters -in -Bélisaire -create -miniature -plays -within -the play - itself, - a - doubling - that - is - once - again - hierarchical - in - nature. - The - roles - are fairly - numerous - here: - under - Théodore’s - direction, - Antonie - pretends - to - be indifferent -to -Bélisaire -(II.iv); -Bélisaire -feigns -sleep -in -order -to -be -able -to -speak the -truth - concerning -Théodore -(III.iv); - specifically, -he -pretends -to - speak -to -her directly, - and - later - pretends - to - awaken - (III.v). 19 - The - theatrical - extends - to - the - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17 - - At -15 -lines, -it -strays -far -from -d’Aubignac’s -prescription -to -avoid -exceeding -a -single -line and -is -two -and -a -half -times -as -long -as -any -other -aside -in -Bélisaire. - 18 - - Racine -may -have -remembered -this -play -when -he -makes -the -pure -Hippolyte -“guilty” -of loving -a -woman -his -father -has -expressly -forbidden -him -in -Phèdre. 19 - - In - the - act - of - pretending - to - be - asleep - we - may - observe - a - further - crack - in - the - perfect virtue -of -Bélisaire: -the -implicit -mendacity -is -hardly -characteristic -of -the -hero. -Béthery Nina Ekstein 448 past: - in - the - confrontation - between - Théodore - and - Bélisaire - (IV.ii), - the - empress reproaches - him - for - not - having - played - the - galant - role - required - when - she initially - signaled - her - attraction - to - him. - In - that - same - scene - Théodore - seems - to be -playing -the -role -of -seductress, -feigning -interest -so -as -to -trap -Bélisaire. -Later, Bélisaire’s - disgrace - is - a - function - of - Théodore’s - role--‐playing - (IV.vi): - her - tears and - fainting--‐spell - work - to - support - the - role - she - has - assigned - herself - of - the importuned - wife. - Disguise, - characteristic - of - theater, - has - its - place - as - well: Léonce - disguises - himself - as - a - pilgrim - when - he - goes - to - kill - Bélisaire, - and Bélisaire -disguises -his -voice -and -hides -his -face -from -Philippe -after -having -saved him - from - Léonce - and - Narsès - (II.xviii). - While - anyone - on - stage - when - another character - plays - a - role - is - inevitably - a - spectator, - on - two - occasions - the - invisible onlooker’s - role - is - adopted - explicitly: - Théodore - hides - by - a - window - while Antonie -pretends -under -duress -to -be -no -longer -interested -in -Bélisaire -(II.iv) -and César -hides -with -Alvare -and -his -guards -behind -a -tapestry -as -Théodore -prepares to - assassinate - Bélisaire. - As - in - the - case - of - asides, - the - largest - participation - in scenes - of - theatricality - belongs - to - Théodore - and - Bélisaire; - and - again - César - has far -less -need -of -the -second -level -it -affords -because -of -his -own -power. -Asides -and theatricality - work - hand - in - hand - to - make - the - stage - a - layered - space - where - only the - speaker - of - the - aside, - the - actor, - or - the - spectator - can - perceive - the - hierarchy at -work. - *** One - of - the - most - curious - and - non--‐typical - features - of - Bélisaire - is - the overabundance - of - various - groupings - of - three. - I - know - of - no - other - seventeenth--‐ century - tragedy - or - tragicomedy - that - is - so - unsubtly - patterned - and - structured. There - are - three - attempts - on - Bélisaire’s - life - distributed - among - the - first - three acts. - Each - potential - assassin - - - Léonce, - Narsès, - and - Philippe - - - is - sent - by Théodore -and -each -abandons -his -project -when -faced -with -the -generosity -of -the unsuspecting - general. - All - three - in - turn - then - swear - allegiance - to - Bélisiaire - and promise - to - protect - him; - all - three - refuse, - however, - to - divulge - the - name - of - the woman -who -sent -them -to -kill -him. -Coincidentally, -the -same -three -men -seek -the position -of -governor -and -they -present -formal -requests -to -that -end, -requests -that César - then - turns - over - to - Bélisaire - for - his - decision. - As - Bélisaire’s - fortunes - fall, the -same -three -men -are -dispatched -by -César -in -the -same -order -to -demand -that Bélisaire - return - a - specific - symbol - of - the - power - the - emperor - has - invested - in him: - Léonce - demands - the - ring - bearing - the - seal - of - the - Imperial - Eagle - (V.ii); Narsès, - the - official - documents - “Qui - vous - ont - fait - l’envie - et - la - terreur - des - Rois” - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - notes - that - this - ruse - “donne - un - peu - d’ambigüité - à - un - héros - jusqu’ici - d’une - vertu monolithique” -(26). Rotrou’s Bélisaire : Hierarchy and Meaning 449 (V.iii, - l.1684); - Philippe, - Bélisaire’s - sword - and - his - freedom - (V.iv). 20 - Between these -two -major -series -of -threes, -Rotrou -places -a -third: -at -the -end -of -the -critical scene - in - which - Bélisaire - requests - forgiveness - for - Théodore - (III.vii), - the - same three -men -underscore -the -importance -of -the -scene, -like -a -kind -of -Greek -chorus, one - after - the - other, - each - speaking - a - single - line - in - the - form - of - a - rhetorical question. 21 Below - that - level - of - heavy--‐handed - patterning, - there - exist - numerous - other references - to - the - number - three. - Théodore - gives - three - motives - for - wanting - to kill - Bélisaire - (see - above). - Bélisaire, - weakening - before - Théodore’s - attempts - at seducing - him, - notes - that - she - “fait - plus - par - trois - mots, - que - par - trois - assassins” (l.1370). -It -is -not -uncommon - for - characters -to - create - small -groupings -of -threes in - their - discourse, 22 - but - Théodore - takes - it - to - an - extreme, - as - she - prepares - to play -her -role -of -accuser: Fournissez--‐moi -des -cris, -de -sanglots -et -de -pleurs; - Intéressez -mon -sein, -et -mes -yeux, -et -ma -bouche, - ...................................................... A -venger -les -soupirs, -les -regards -et -les -voeux -(ll.1446--‐49). This - repeated, - conspicuous - use - of - the - number - three - gives - the - play - an - abstract and - artificial - cast. - It - creates - an - almost - hieratic - pace, - as - the - same - structure repeats -itself -with -the -force -of -inevitability. -The -excessive -patterning -in -César’s withdrawal - of - his - favor - makes - Bélisaire’s - fall - into - a - kind - of - rite. - Like - the abundant - use - of - asides, - the - presence - of - the - artificial - trebling - structure - works against - vraisemblance. - The - organizing - structure - of - threes, - while - not - in - itself - a vertical - structure, - nonetheless - functions, - one - might - say - horizontally - in - tandem with -the -hierarchies -we -have -examined -in Bélisaire. The -heavy -use -of -the -number -three -comes -out -of -several -traditions, -the -most significant - of - which - is - the - folk - or - fairy - tale. - For - our - purposes - we - may - conflate the - two, - because - the - questions - of - origin - and - orality - that - preoccupy - specialists in - those - fields - are - not - pertinent - here. - A - folk - or - fairy - tale - is - a - highly - unusual - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 - - While - all - three - have - vowed - loyalty - to - Bélisaire, - in - the - final - analysis - their - first allegiance - is -to - César. -As -Van -Baelen -notes, -the -hierarchy - is - clear: - “Quand - il - s’agira -de choisir, - la - plupart - des - personnages - se - rangeront - du - côté - de - l’empereur; - même - s’ils accordent -une -valeur -au -mérite, -ils -en -accordent -davantage -au -rang” -(128). 21 - - Léonce: - “Qui - jamais - entendit -une -telle - aventure? ” -(l.1199); -Philippe: - “Qui - jamais -pour son -Prince -eut -une -foi -si -pure? ” -(l.1200); -Narsès: - “Quelle -rage -tiendroit -contre -tant -de bonté? ” - (l.1201). - It - is - worth - noting - that - Viollet--‐le--‐Duc’s - 1820 - edition - identifies - these lines -as - “à -part” -while -Béthery’s -does -not. -I -think -either - stance - can -be -justified, -all -the more -since -these -short -rhetorical -questions -have -no -effect -on -the -action. 22 - - For -example, -Antonie -asks -Philippe -to -leave -her -alone, -“soit -par -pitié, -par -haine, -ou -par amour” -(l.438); -Bélisaire -is -aghast -at -César’s -rejection -of -him: -“Quoi, -... -sans -me -parler, sans -me -voir, -sans -m’entendre? ” -(l.1610). Nina Ekstein 450 source - for - seventeenth--‐century - French - theater, - even - if - there - is - no - specific - tale referenced. -The -number -three -has -long -been -associated -with -the -folk -tale -(Lüthi 33; - Propp - 74): - “It - is - above - all - the - triad - that - is - predominant: - three - tasks - are accomplished - in - succession; - three - times - a - helper - intervenes; - three - times - an adversary - appears” - (Lüthi - 33). - While - the - number - three - forms - the - basis - of - the tie -between -this -play -and -the -fairy -or -folk -tale, -other -elements -support -it -as -well. First, -in -the -opening -lines -of -the -play -we -find -a -comparison -between -mountains covered -with -men -come -to -watch -the -triumphant -return -of -Bélisaire -and -giants: “Et -ces -hauts -monts -chargés -de -pieds -jusques -aux -faîtes,/ -Paraissent -des -Géants, tout - de - bras - et - de - têtes” - (ll.11--‐12), - an - image - that - is - entirely - appropriate - to - the folk - or - fairy - tale. - Second - is - the - character - of - Théodore: - her - obdurate - stance coupled - with - the - absence - of - unified - and - substantial - motivation - makes - her resemble -a -wicked -witch. -The -large -number -of -objects -in -the -play, -many -of -them highly -symbolic, -also -call -to -mind -folk -or -fairy -tales. -We -find -two -different -rings, the - laurel - wreath, - the - scepter, - the - scarf, - and - the - glove, - all - objects - whose meaning - and - power - in - the - play - exceeds - their - normal - roles. - The - presence - of elements - associated - with - the - folk - or - fairy - tale - gives - this - play - its - unusual - cast and - they - both - jar - with - the - play’s - tragic - ending - as - well - as - its - grounding - in history. The - number - three - is - also - strongly - tied - to - religion, - specifically - to - the Christian -tradition -of -the -Trinity. -The -presence -of -the -divine -or -the -supernatural is - frequently - mentioned - in - Bélisaire - and - works - to - reinforce - the - importance - of hierarchy - to - the - play: - the - characters - are - subservient - to - a - higher - realm. However, -this -point -is -also -where -the -entire -highly -structured -and -hierarchized system - we - have - described - develops - serious - cracks. - In - a - pared--‐down - dramatic universe - with - one - hero, - one - emperor, - two - desiring - women, - and - three - helpers (Léonce, -Narsès, -and -Philippe), -we -suddenly -encounter, -through -the -language -of the - characters, - a - dozen - superior - powers, - many - of - whom - are - seemingly incompatible. - Leaving - aside - the - issue - of - the - singular - versus - the - plural - (“Dieu” vs - “Dieux”; - “Ciel” - vs - “Cieux”), - all - four - of - which - occur - repeatedly, - we - also - find “sort,” - “Déesse,” - “Fortune,” - “hasard,” - “Parques,” - “Mars,” - “Soleil,” - and - “astre”. While - Bélisaire - makes - the - largest - number - of - such - references - by - a - significant margin, -as -well -as -using -the -greatest -variety -of -terms, -all -the -characters -refer -to these -superior -powers -and -show -no -consistency -in -the -terms -they -employ. -The nature - of - the - superior - force(s) - at - play - is - perfectly - unclear. - The - importance - of the - religious - domain - has - long - been - noted - in - discussions - of - Bélisaire: - Nelson calls - it - “a - profoundly - religious - and - specifically - Christian - play” - (119); - Morel (178) - and - Watts - (82) - compare - it - to - a - medieval - mystery - play. - The - amassing - of undifferentiated -superior -forces -at -work -creates -a -sharp -note -of -discord -within the - hierarchical - structure - of - the - play. - Who - or - what - exactly - occupies - that highest -rung? -And -how -may -this -array -of -superior -powers -be -reconciled? Rotrou’s Bélisaire : Hierarchy and Meaning 451 The - note - of - discord - is - felt - elsewhere - as - well. - Perhaps - most - striking - is - the question -of -genre. -In -the -original -edition, -the -appellation - “tragédie” -appears -on the - title - page - and - “tragi--‐comédie” - is - printed - between - the - list - of - characters - and the -first -scene -of -the -play -(Berregard -99). -Unlike -Le -Cid, -for -example, -where -the tragicomedy - became - a - tragedy - in - a - successive - edition, - here - the - generic uncertainty - is - anchored - in - the - original - text. - Tragicomedy - and - tragedy - are themselves - associated - with - hierarchy - insofar - as - tragedy - was - clearly - a - more elevated - form - when - Bélisaire - appeared. - Indeed - the - play - combines - elements - of both - to - a - degree - that - makes - assignment - to - one - or - the - other - category impossible. 23 - There - is - an - absence - of - movement - in - Bélisaire - that - is - completely uncharacteristic - of - Rotrou’s - tragicomedies, - where - people - generally - rush - about a - great - deal. - Here, - having - returned - from - battle, - Bélisaire - seems - physically trapped - and - at - the - mercy - of - César, - Théodore, - and - her - three - assassins. - The impression - of - stasis - supports - the - impression - of - tragedy. - The - discordance between - tragedy - and - tragicomedy - is - compounded - by - the - odd, - frankly - comic elements, - such - as - Bélisaire - falling - asleep - in - the - same - place - and - immediately after - making - the - highly - political - act - of - choosing - a - governor - (II.vii--‐viii) - and Philippe’s - clumsy - efforts - to - awaken - Bélisaire - when - Théodore - enters - (III.v). Morello -goes -so -far -as -to -attribute -the -play’s -initial -lack -of -success -to -the -curious mixture -of -genres -(113). -Generic -uncertainty -thus -works -against -the -organizing principle -of -hierarchy. The - theme - of - envy - provides - another - example - of - a - hierarchy - that - is scrambled - in - Bélisaire. - The - notion - of - envy - is - obviously - tied - to - hierarchy: implicit - in - the - sentiment - is - a - feeling - of - inferiority - vis--‐à--‐vis - the - person - envied. Envy - is - frequently - brought - up - during - the - course - of - the - play - (11 - times), - and - in varied -contexts: -Léonce -blames -his -banishment -from -court -on -it -(l.45); -Bélisaire believes - that - he - will - be - protected - from - envy - by - the - “Ciel” - and - Léonce - asserts that - to - envy - Bélisaire - would - be - to - harm - the - state - (ll.127, - 129); - Bélisaire - calls the - knife - he - has - found - upon - awaking - “Ce - tragique - instrument - ou - de - haine - ou d’envie” - (l.639); - César - and - Antonie - assume - that - Théodore - acts - out - of - envy (ll.1108, -1419) -and -Bélisiare -blames -his -disgrace -on -this -motive -(ll.1826, -1866). What -is -odd -is -that -in -fact -envy -plays -a -negligible -role -in -the -play. -The -envy -that harmed - Léonce - is - never - explained; - the - envy - that - the - three - “helpers” - no - doubt feel, - although - never - express - directly, - is - dispensed - with - very - quickly - in - each - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23 - - Characteristically -tragicomic -elements -in -Bélisaire -include -the -extensive -use -of -objects, multiple - misunderstandings, - characters - hidden - onstage - for - the - purpose - of eavesdropping, - onstage - sleeping, - and - a - general - emphasis - on - the - visual - spectacle (Béthery - 27, - 33; - Louvat - 68--‐69; - see - also - Baby - 662). - Tragic - features - of - the - play encompass - the - classic - plot - of - the - accusatory - temptress - who - destroys - the - innocent hero -(see -Bénichou), -the -dénouement, -and -what -Béthery -describes -as -“un -authentique sens -du -tragique,” -“un -effort -constant -vers -la -concentration -tragique” -(33). - Nina Ekstein 452 case -by -Bélisaire’s -generosity. -Théodore -is -not -motivated -by -envy, -but -rather -by hate - and - a - thirst - for - revenge; - thus - Bélisaire’s - downfall - is - unrelated - to - envy. - Is this -red -herring -an -error -on -Rotrou’s -part, -or -is -it -another -knot -in -the -clean -lines of -the -hierarchical -structure -of Bélisaire? - The - biggest - knot - in - that - structure - is - the - confusing - multiplicity - of - super--‐ natural - forces. - Such - forces - are - never - explicitly - present - onstage, - but - the - high degree - of - coincidence - involved - in - Narsès - arriving - to - kill - Bélisaire - at - precisely the - moment - when - the - latter - has - written - Narsès’s - name - as - his - choice - to - be governor - cannot - possibly - be - explained - without - the - existence - of - a - superior realm. - Bélisaire’s - triple - deliverance - from - assassination - can - plausibly - be - called miraculous. -César’s -obtuse -credulity -when -confronted -with -Théodore’s -suspect accusations - is - so - unbelievable - that - it - too - may - be - credited - to - obscure - forces. Bélisaire - himself - envisions - higher - powers - when - he - makes - repeated - reference to - the - roue - de - la - fortune - (ll.1202--‐04, - 1629--‐30). - The - irreconcilable - set - of - such forces - that - we - find - here - occupies - the - highest - position - in - the - play’s - hierarchy, but - the - tensions - that - arise - from - the - incompatibility - and - mutual - exclusion - of those -forces -make -the -apex -of -the -hierarchy -an -incomprehensible -space. 24 -How are -we -then -to -come -to -any -final -conclusion -about -the -play’s -meaning? -Are -there divinities - of - some - sort - at - work - here, - but - who - act - in - a - fashion - beyond - human understanding? - Or - is - this - a - moral - drama - in - which - Bélisaire - is - guilty - of - a - crime which - makes - him - lose - both - royal - and - divine - favor? - Is - Bélisaire - destroyed simply - because - he - is - at - the - bottom - of - the - hierarchy? - Or - is - the - divine - a - red herring - similar - to - the - theme - of - envy? - Without - the - level - of - superior - forces, - the hierarchy - is - truncated - and - the - play - reduced - to - the - simple - victimization - of - a hero -by - the -whims - of - the - emperor - and - empress. -Without - any - superior - force - at work, - Rotrou’s - commonplace - of - the - wheel - of - fortune - becomes - an - empty conceit. - Perhaps - we - would - do - well - to - retain - the - supernatural - level, - even - with its - attendant - overcrowding - and - incompatibilities. - The - hierarchy, - thereby -more elaborate, -thus -forms -the -basis -for -a -far -greater -range -of -potential -meanings -for the -play, -even -though -the -lack -of -unity -in -that -highest -level -ensures -that -no -final meaning - can - be - securely - ascertained. - In - the - complex - manifestations - and implications - of - the - hierarchical - system - undergirding - Bélisaire, - we - are - left - with Jacques - Morel’s - fundamental - insight - about - Rotrou: - ambiguïté. - Perhaps - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 24 - - Béthery - notes - the - ambiguity - that - Rotrou - creates - by - mixing - “Fortune - et - Providence” (61). - Morel - attempts - to - recuperate - this - supernatural - multiplicity: - “La - fortune - prend alors - une - signification - providentielle. - Ses - caprices - ne - sont - tels - que - parce - que - les desseins -ultimes -de -la -divinité -échappent -à -l’homme. -Aussi -voit--‐on -les -personnages -de Rotrou - utiliser - indifféremment - les - mots - de - fortune, - sort, - astre, - et - destin. - Aussi - les personnages -malheureux -se -disent--‐ils -indifféremment -persécutés -par -la -fortune, -par -le destin - ou - par - les - dieux” - (117). - I - am - not - comfortable - with - such - a - reductive - move, - all the -more -so -in -a -play -in -which -hierarchical -distinctions -are -central. Rotrou’s Bélisaire : Hierarchy and Meaning 453 nowhere - else - is - Rotrou - as - thoroughly - the - “dramaturge - de - l’ambiguïté” - as - he - is in - this - play. - In - the - final - analysis, - I - read - Bélisaire - as - a - tragedy - of - unintended hubris, - wherein - Bélisaire’s - glorious - victory - upsets - the - tripartite - hierarchy - of subject, - emperor, - and - divine - forces, - revealing - serious - instabilities - within - the hierarchical -structure -and -destroying -the -hero -in -the -process. Works Cited Baby, -Hélène. -La -Tragi--Comédie -de -Corneille -à -Quinault. -Paris: -Klincksieck, -2001. Berregard, - Sandrine. - “La - Mixité - des - genres - dramatiques - dans - le - théâtre - de - Rotrou.” Littératures -classiques -63 -(2007): -pp. -97--‐106. Bénichou, - Paul. - “Hippolyte - requis - d’amour - et - calomnie.” - L’Écrivain - et - ses - travaux. Paris: -Corti, -1967, -pp. -237--‐323. Béthery, - Marianne. - “Introduction.” - Bélisaire. - By - Jean - Rotrou. - Paris: - Société - des - textes français -modernes, -2005, -pp. -13--‐64. Corneille, -Pierre. -Œuvres -complètes. -Ed. -Georges -Couton. -3 -vols. -Paris: -Gallimard, -1980--‐ 87. Cuénin--‐Lieber, - Mariette. - “Corneille - et - l’aparté.” - Œuvres - & - critiques - 30.2 - (2005): -pp. 121--‐32. d’Aubignac, -Abbé. -La -Pratique -du -théâtre. -Paris: -Champion, -2001, -pp. -373--‐81. Fournier, - Nathalie. - L’Aparté - dans - le - théâtre - français - du - XVII e - siècle - au - XX e - siècle. Louvain: -Peeters, -1991. Lancaster, - Henry - Carrington. - A - History - of - French - Dramatic - Literature - in - the - Seven-teenth -Century. -5 -pts. -New -York: -Gordian -Press, -1966. Louvat--‐Molozay, - Bénédicte. - “La - Tragédie - de - Rotrou - au - carrefour - des - genres dramatiques.” -Littératures -classiques -63 -(2007): -pp. -61-70. Lüthi, -Max. -The -European -Folktale: -Form -and -Nature. -Bloomington: -Indiana -UP, -1982. Mazouer, -Charles. -Le -Théâtre -français -de -l’âge -classique. -Paris: -Champion, -2006. La -Mesnardière, -H.--‐J. -Pilet -de. -La -Poétique. -Geneva: -Slatkine, -1972. -1640. Morel, -Jacques. -Rotrou -dramaturge -de -l’ambiguïté. -Paris: -Klincksieck, -2002. -1968. Morello, -Joseph. -Jean -Rotrou. -Twayne. -Boston: -G. -K. -Hall -and -Co., -1980. Nelson, - Robert - J. - Immanence - and - Transcendence: - The - Theater - of - Jean - Rotrou. Columbus: -Ohio -State -UP, -1969. Propp, -Vladimir. -Morphologie -du -conte. -Paris: -Seuil, -1970. Rotrou, -Jean -de. -Bélisaire. -Ed. -Marianne -Béthery. -Paris: -S.T.F.M., -1998. -Vol. -1 -of -Théâtre complet. Teulade, - Anne. - “Inventivité - générique - et - réception - de - la - comedia - espagnole - dans Bélisaire - (1644) - et - Venceslas - (1648) - de - Rotrou.” - Littératures - classiques -63 (2007): -pp. -107--‐16. Van -Baelen, -Jacqueline. -Rotrou, -le -héros -tragique -et -la -révolte. -Paris: -Nizet, -1965. Watts, - Derek - A. - “Rotrou’s - Problematic - Tragedies.” - Form - and - Meaning: - Aesthetic Coherence - in - Seventeenth--Century - French - Drama. - Ed. - William - D. - Howarth, - Ian McFarlane, -and -Margaret -McGowan. -Amersham: -Avebury, -1982. -pp. -75--‐91. -