H ISAO O SHIMA The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku The Tempest has a unique international afterlife, traveling through time and space not only in Europe and the brave new world but also in Asia and Japan. This essay will trace its travel in Japan, borrowing the metaphor of journey used by the editors of “The Tempest” and Its Travels. 1 The Tempest was first staged in Japan in 1916. Since then, it has been performed in Japan but less often than other more popular Shakespearean plays such as Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet. Does the paucity of its stage productions mean the play is neglected in Japan? Not at all. In its journey in Japan, The Tempest has encountered and incorporated Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki, and Bunraku, resulting in hybrid intercultural stage productions. I will examine these intercultural encounters in Ninagawa’s Tempest, Yamada’s Bunraku adaptation, and Kurita’s Tempest to show what happens in intertextual encounters between Shakespeare’s last solo play and Japanese theatrical traditions. 2 Of the three, only Yamada’s Bunraku Tempest can be called a complete adaptation in its true meaning of the word, drastically changing the original story into a Japanese period play with suitable Japanese character names; the traditional form and style of Bunraku necessitated such change. On the other hand, Ninagawa and Kurita used a faithful Japanese translation of Shakespeare’s original, but they strongly impress us like a quite Japanese play, almost a Japanese adaptation, probably because their uses of elements of Noh and Kabuki are not mere Japanesque decorations. So we should not just be charmed with the outward beauty of their productions, but consider how their uses of Japanese theatrical traditions give the audience new perspectives to understand the intertextually expanded meaning of the play. The [Resarch for this paper was supported by JSPS KAKENHI, Grant Number 22520252.] 1 Peter Hulme and William H. Sherman (xii). As for the play’s afterlife, see Virginia Mason Vaughan and Alden T. Vaughan (73-124). This edition is quoted in this chapter. On the reception of Shakespeare in Japan, see Akihiko Senda; Testuo Anzai; Friederike von Schwerin-High (60-67); Tetsuo Kishi and Graham Bradshaw (1-28); Ryuta Minami; Michiko Suematsu; Shoichiro Kawai. 2 On the theory of intertextuality which Julia Kristeva has been credited with inventing, see Megan Becker-Leckrone (92-98). James Goodwin applied the theory to his analysis of Kurosawa’s films in his Akira Kurosawa and Intertextual Cinema (9). H ISAO O SHIMA 150 established theatrical styles of Noh, Kabuki, and Bunraku have a respectable history of their own as much as Shakespeare’s drama has. Shakespeare and these great theatrical traditions are fused in the three productions to create unique local Shakespearean stages, which prove globally entertaining, moving, and worthy to be staged. As more and more similar approaches are witnessed not only in Japan but also in other Asian countries like China and Korea, it is essential to grasp how Shakespeare is received and staged locally in order to understand Shakespeare in this global age. This chapter aims to focus on the reception of The Tempest in Japan, examining the imaginative intertextualities of some Japanese stage productions hybridizing Shakespeare and Japanese theatrical traditions, Noh, Kabuki, and Bunraku. Shakespeare and Japan’s Westernization: Tenkatsu Ichiza’s Tempest (1916) The reception of Shakespeare in Japan is closely related to its Westernization in the Meiji Era (1868-1912), which greatly influenced the formation of a modern Japanese theatre caught between traditional practices and western influences. When the long rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868) collapsed under the colonial threats of Western imperial powers in 1868, the new Meiji government which had defeated the 15th and last shogun, Yoshinobu Tokugawa (1837-1913), started to modernize Japan, imitating Western practices not only in politics, social systems, armaments, industries and technology but also in art, culture and even daily life such as food and fashion. Native theatrical traditions such as Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku were considered old and barbarous; the Tokyo government summoned Kabuki actors in 1872 and urged them to perform good ethical stories suitable for the new Westernized intellectual people and visiting foreigners. Engeki Kairyo Kai [The Theatre Reformation Society] was formed in 1886 to start Engeki Kairyo Undou [The Theatre Reformation Movement] 3 , which aimed to reform Japanese theatre on a Western model (Mine 204-28). A Kabuki company first staged a Shakespearean play, Sakuradoki Zeni no Yononaka at Ebisu-za [Ebisu Theatre] in Osaka in 1885, adapting The Merchant of Venice as a Kabuki period play with its familiar Japanese character names and situations (Kawato 1.163-170). In 1878, a Kabuki company built Shintomi-za, though only its façade, in the Western architectural style in Tokyo, while even the theatre named Kabuki-za was built in the same way in 1889. The first authentic Western theatre with its proscenium stage and all Western seats in Japan, Yuraku-za, was opened in 1908, then followed by a luxurious modern Western-style theatre, Teikoku Gekijo [The Empire Theatre], near the 3 Brackets are used to explain Japanese words in English. The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 151 Emperor’s Palace in 1911. Players on stage were all male in the Edo Era, but the first training school for female actors was established in Teikoku Gekijo where female stars such as Sumako Matsui (1886-1919) played the roles of famous heroines in Western plays. Ibsen, Chekhov, and Shakespeare were eagerly translated into Japanese and staged in the Western style on a Western stage, leading to the birth of a new Westernized theatrical style called Shingeki [New Theatre] in Japan (cf. Ortolani 243-247). The Tempest, however, was introduced into Japan much later than other popular Shakespearean plays: The Merchant of Venice, Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar and Hamlet. Japanese readers first read Shakespeare with some scenes of Hamlet translated into Japanese by Kanagaki Robun (1829-1894) in 1875 early in the Meiji period while they first encountered The Tempest through Lamb’s story version translated into Japanese in 1888. 4 The play itself was first translated by Daisui Sugitani (1874-1915) in 1913, and then by Shoyo Tsubouchi (1859-1935) in 1915. 5 Sakuradoki Zeni no Yononaka, mentioned above, was staged in 1885 while an adaptation of The Tempest was performed by Tenkatsu Ichiza in Tokyo in 1916. Tenkatsu Ichiza [Tenkatsu Company] was a magic show company whose leader was a beautiful lady magician, Tenkatsu Shokyokusai (1886-1944). In Japan, the art of magic performance is usually called kijutsu [magic] which is often acrobatic and, like Kabuki and Bunraku, has a long history as a traditional form of popular entertainment. Their magic was based on this traditional Japanese style of kijutsu, but they seemed to have mastered some techniques of the Western magic; there remains a photo of Tenkastu in the Western dress performing a Western magic with her assistant girl. The company even made a successful American tour twice in 1924-5. As Sumako Matsui’s Salome in the Shingeki style was a great hit, Tenkastu’s company also produced Oscar Wilde’s play at Yurakuza in 1915 in the Shingeki style with her enticing feminine beauty and magic performances like Jokanaan’s speaking head (fig. 1). 6 Much encouraged with 4 The Shakespearean stages and publications in the Meiji Era are listed in Kawato (2.261- 9; 373-86). 5 As for Tsubouchi, the first Shakespearean scholar who translated all his works in Japan, and his early adaptation of Julius Caesar, Shizaru Kidan, see Tetsuo Kishi and Graham Bradshaw (1-28). In 1931, four scenes of The Tempest translated by Tsubouchi were known to be staged in Ooguma Lecture Hall of Waseda University, for the production’s script is extant. In memory of his completion of translations of all Shakespeare’s works in 1928, the university established the Theatre Museam, the only one in Japan, whose exterior design was based on the Elizabethan Fortune Theatre. 6 Kayoko Marukawa (184-92); Gasho Ishikawa (145-162). The company asked Kaoru Osanai (1881-1928), one of the famous founders of Shingeki, to direct their Salome in the new Western style. Yuraku-za, the first Western-style theatre in Japan, was then the stronghold for the Shingeki movement. As for Kijutsu as a traditional Japanese performance art, see Shintaro Fujiyama (17-8): Bunraku is derived from such “karakuri ningyo” [mechanical trick puppets] used by Tezuma kairaishi [Magic puppeteers] (114- H ISAO O SHIMA 152 the success of this stage, the company’s manager and her husband, Shinnosuke Noro, persuaded Tenkatsu to stage The Tempest whose early stage productions seem to often feature a magic show by the magician. 7 With Daigo Ikeda’s direction, Heitaro Doi played the role of Prospero while she played the roles of Ariel and Miranda. Unfortunately, however, their magic Tempest in the Shingeki style failed, probably because the Shingeki style and their magic performances were not well mixed on stage this time and Miranda was a too innocent female character for Tenkatsu to show her feminine charms. Yukio Ninagawa and The Tempest on Sado Island Ironically, modern stage productions of Shakespeare’s plays have received much benefit from the very native theatrical traditions which were regarded old and barbarous by those who fostered Shingeki. 8 Yukio Ninagawa (1935-), an internationally famous Japanese stage director, took advantage of the nebulous location of Prospero’s island and imaginatively linked The Tempest with Sadogashima [Sado Island] in the northern part of Japan. One of Ninagawa’s favourite dramatic strategies is to relocate Western classics such as Greek tragedies and Shakespearean plays in Japanses settings, though he keeps Shakespeare’s original texts, faithfully translated into Japanese as much as possible. Ninagawa used a Japanese translation by Yuji Odajima at Niseei Theater in Tokyo in 1987, switching to a new translation by Kazuko Matsuoka for later Japanese stagings. 9 In its first performance at The Nissei Theatre in 1987, he added a subtitle to the main title: “A Rehearsal on Sado’s Noh Stage,” thus placing the play’s romance world in the intertextual 123). In 1936, Tenkatsu with other 32 magicians founded Japan Magic Association at whose website you can see her beautiful portrait: http: / / www.jpma.net/ index.html. 7 You can see such a magic show scene in The Tempest (1908), a silent film directed by Percy Stow for Clarendon Film Company in BFI’s Silent Shakespeare: doves fly away from Prospero’s magic cauldron. 8 In this point, Akira Kurosawa is the great pioneer in the modern Japanese adaptation of Shakespeare, incorporating elements of traditional theatres in its samurai period setting, though his media is film; Kumonosujo (1957) is its typical example. In fact, it is Kurosawa who firmly established the “tradition” of Japanese Shakespearean adaptations whose history goes back to those in Meiji Era. See Hisao Oshima. 9 Odajima (1930-) also translated all Shakespeare’s works while Matsuoka (1942-) is the first female translator working to translate all his plays now. The uniqueness of her translation lies in her collaboration with actors and directors staging Shakespeare’s plays, especially Ninagawa who is also trying to stage all his plays at Saitama Art Theatre. The first Japanese director staging all the plays is Norio Deguchi who formed his company, The Shakespeare Theatre, starting his project with Twelfth Night in 1975 and completing it by Antony and Cleopatra in 1981; he staged The Tempest as the 26th play in 1979 at Shibuya Jan Jan in Tokyo. The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 153 framework of a specific Japanese location; this production was also staged in Edinburgh in 1988 and in London in 1992. 10 His Macbeth, staged also in Edinburgh in 1985 and in London in 1987, surprised the Western audience by placing Macbeth’s tragedy in a Japanese butsudan [ancestral house-shrine]. As he wrote in his book describing his dramaturgy, the Japanese settings he used, such as butsudan, and sekitei [stone garden] for his Midsummer Night’s Dream, are not mere visual Japanesque enticements for a Western audience. 11 He thinks that these beautiful stage sets rooted in Japanese traditional culture strongly affect the Japanese audience’s memory, making a foreign Shakespearean story more familiar for them (cf. Ninagawa 95-105). Because his stage is commercial and he needs to entertain a varied audience, he draws on a mix of cultural traditions, Japanese as well as foreign, often putting them into surprising combinations accompanied by lively audio-visual representations. Although he himself, like many others in the trade now, was trained as a stage artist in Shingeki theatre, Ninagawa has rebelled against the Western style of realistic drama focused on language and ideas, and worked to restore the Japanese emphasis on stage pictures, offering ‘visual pleasure’ to fascinate the eyes. Far from being a maker of facile visual entertainment products, Ninagawa is an industrious artist, always seeking original methods of dramatic representation, never satisfied with his past successes. His desire to stage The Tempest was very special and personal. According to his interview, he first read the play with a certain awareness of the end of his own career as a stage director (cf. Ninagawa and Hasebe 335-49). Though he is still very active and directs many plays all year round as the Art Director of Saitama Art Theatre and Theatre Cocoon in Shibuya Cutltural Village, he had a health problem then and often said that this might be his last stage in his usual humourous manner. After reading Shakespeare’s last play, however, he was rather disappointed with its story, because it does not contain the same sort of dramatic actions as Hamlet, Macbeth, and King Lear. When he was in Vancouver for his tour of Euripides’ Medea, some of his staff suggested he should go to the Bermuda Islands to do some preliminary research for his Tempest. Ninagawa, however, thought its fundamental story is about an old man banished from the court to a prison island. As a result, he went to Sado Island, not Bermuda, to look for hints and materials for his stage production. Many political prisoners were sent to this typical Japanese prison island since the Kamakura period (1185-1333). In fact, shima nagashi [island banishment] even became a traditional Japanese literary theme. There were several prison islands where criminal and political culprits were sent in Japan, and the 10 As for the London stage of Ninagawa’s Tempest and a Bunraku adaptation, see Virginia Mason Vaughan (151-167). 11 You can see beautiful scenes of his London stages in Takeshi Yamaguchi (82-7 et passim). H ISAO O SHIMA 154 most famous ones were heralded in songs and poetry and sometimes made into heroes in Noh and Kabuki. 12 Later in the Edo Era Tokugawa Shogunate operated a gold mine there, forcing vagabonds and criminals in its capitol, Edo, to work as miners. 13 One of the famous early political prisoners was Zeami (1363-1443), the founding actor and dramatist of Noh, who was banished there for an unknown reason by the emperor in 1434 when he was 72 (cf. Kitagawa 2-48; 160-84). When the Tokugawa Shogunate began in 1603, Choan was appointed as the first governor of the gold mine. Because he was from a Noh player family, he had the first Noh theatre built in Sado where more than 200 Noh stages stood in the past (fig. 2) (cf. Sado Museum 8; 89-92). Nowadays, there are still about 30 Noh stages, some well preserved, some crumbling, beside Sado’s village shrines and temples, and Noh plays and other traditional ritual dances are staged in its seasonal village festivities (fig. 3) (cf. ibid. 9; 86- 8). 14 Ninagawa drew on the historical and cultural background of Sado Island to create a unique intercultural stage production of The Tempest: Zeami is intertextually superimposed on the traditional image of Prospero, who has been often associated with Shakes-peare in his retiring days. 15 When spectators arrive at Ninagawa’s Tempest, while they look for their seats, they see that a rehearsal for a village festival, often annually held in early summer or autumn in Sado, has already started. 16 Boy actors with their school bags join adults, as if arriving after school. Among the adults is a village leader (played by Mikijiro Hira) who later plays the role of Prospero. On the proscenium stage is an old, almost crumbling, traditional Noh stage near the sea. Then Shishimai, a lion dance, called Oni Daiko in Sado, begins with sounds of a drum (cf. Sado Museum 88). This is a common way to stage a Noh play in Sado. Village festivals often begin with performances of folk dance and music, and then a Noh play is staged, sometimes only lighted by candles or 12 The Buddhist monk Shunkan (1143-79) is such a literary hero banished to Kikaigashima Island in a Noh play, Shunkan, and Monzaemon Chikamatsu’s Bunraku and later Kabuki play, Heike Nyogogashima (1719). According to Virginia M. Vaugahn (163), the head of Shunkan was used to represent Prospero in the London staging of the Bunraku Tempest. As for the history of Sado as a prison island, see Kinzo Isobe and Keiichi Tanaka (9-28). 13 Kinzo Isobe (44-47). Isobe points out the human and cultural exchange between Kyoto and Sado, mentioning the possible Sado tour of Okuni (the legendary lady founder of Kabuki) and the popularity of Sadogashima-za [Sadogashima Company] in Kyoto in the 17th century (ibid.). 14 You can see scenes of unique traditional ritual dances in Sado at the web site of Sado Tourism Association: http: / / www.visitsado.com/ . 15 Peter Greenaway’s film, Prospero’s Books (1991), is also based on a “deliberate crossidentification” between Shakespeare and Prospero, adding John Gielgud as well (Peter Greenaway 9). 16 The following description of the stage is based on the one produced at Melpalk Hall (Postal Bank Hall) in Fukuoka in 2000. The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 155 Figure 1: Tenkatsu as Salome with Yokanaan’s speaking head at Yuraku-za in 1915. Figure 2: Daizen Jinja [Shrine] Noh Stage, the well-preserved oldest Noh stage in Sado with its thatched roof and Hashigakari on the left. H ISAO O SHIMA 156 Figure 3: Noh Stage and Kagami-ita [Mirror Board], on which an old pine is traditionally planted, at Daizen Jinja. Figure 4: Playbill of Ninagawa’s The Tempest at Melpalk Hall Fukuoka in 2000. The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 157 candles or torches in the evening. Sado is a precious preserve for such folk dances and rituals as Oni Daiko and Harukoma, because people from various parts of Japan rushed to the small island for gold, bringing their unique local cultures with them. Villagers sit on the grass surrounding the stage, eating from Jubako, special lunch boxes, and drinking sake. It is a festive moment for communal enjoyment; you are not supposed to see the entire Noh play silently without motion. In Ninagawa’s Tempest, the village-performers choose Shakespeare’s play for their torch-lit Noh stage, a rare, or impossible, choice. After the lion dancers, who really belong to a lion dance group in Sado, leave the stage, the Shakespearean story starts with the Noh stage quite ingeniously transformed into a ship tossed on the tempestuous sea (fig. 4). The rough waves are represented by several long pieces of cloth on which waves are painted, a common stage device called Nami-nuno [Wave-cloth] in Kabuki, just as the set of a ship is: the roof of the Noh stage removed and a mast and the bow added. 17 Ariel, hung by a rope, flies over the stage, causing thunder and lightning: this flying action is called Chunori in Kabuki; such special effects are called Keren. Kabuki developed mainly as a theatrical media for civic popular entertainment while Noh satisfied aristocratic taste and the desire for ceremony in the Edo Era. Kabuki plays were staged on licenced theatres in Edo (now Tokyo); Noh plays were performed on stages attached to shrines or temples where people prayed for communal prosperity, or on stages in aristocratic mansions and castles by and for samurais [warriors] to pray for the prosperity of their master. In his Tempest, Ninagawa uses Kabuki elements for spectacles, as in the shipwreck scene, and for comic effects to represent the vulgar plebeian world of Caliban, Trinculo, and Stephano. When Caliban first appears on stage, he looks indeed like a fish because he wears a Koinobori [carp-shaped flags often raised on a pole in May to celebrate the healthy growth of boys] costume. 18 The costume was an actor’s idea, not Ninagawa’s, but the Koinobori outfit is quite appropriate in an ironical sense, because Koinobori also symbolizes the social success of a boy climbing up in the social hierarchy; Caliban’s conspiracy with his comic conspirators against Prospero fails, after all. From the space under the Noh stage, which seems to be his assigned den, Caliban comes out with a special Kabuki gesture called Mie, a Kabuki star’s heroic pose meant to impress the audience with his sharp eyes wide open, but Caliban is soon tamed by Prospero’s magic, thus creating a Miles Gloriosus comic effect. The foolish revolting gang of Trinculo, Stephano and Caliban becomes a mock version of Kabuki bandit heroes, Shiranami Gonin Otoko [Five Bandits of White Waves], though only three in this case 17 Nautical scenes are often staged in Kabuki: see Masakatsu Gunji (210-1). 18 You can see the Koinobori costume in Yamaguchi (88). H ISAO O SHIMA 158 (2.2). In Kabuki, they are heroic thieves like Robin Hood, who steal only from evil rich men and distribute the stolen wealth among poor people. Flourishing their characteristic umbrellas, they depart the stage with a typical Kabuki stylized heroic action of leaving, Michiyuki, in its mocking version. Entering and exits on the hanamichi [special separate long entrance / exit stage] are highlights of the Kabuki stage, important dramatic moments which the audience eagerly looks forward to in Kabuki. On the other hand, Ninagawa uses Noh elements to represent the supernatural magic world of Prospero and Ariel. Like a Shite [Noh main character], Ariel, wearing a beautiful Japanese dress (kimono) and a Noh men [mask], enters the stage, walking on a Hashigakari, the bridge connecting the tiring room and the Noh stage. When he leads Ferdinand (Kazuma Suzuki) to Miranda (Shinobu Terashima), Ariel (Youji Matsuda) wears the mask of Otafuku, the Japanese goddess of happiness. Just as in Noh, the masks clearly represent the role and character of their wearers in this play. When Prospero orders Ariel to punish the “three men of sin” (3.3.53), the spirit appears with the mask of Tengu [bird man], the Japanese version of a harpy, which Shakespeare derived from Virgil’s Aeneid (Hamilton 74-8). In Japanese folklore, a Tengu is a monster much feared for doing harm to men (often bad men) and sometimes maddening them. When Stephano and Triculo are trapped by gaudy kimonos, the scene alludes to a custom called Mushiboshi in Noh theatres; Japan is a very humid country, especially in its rainy season, and Noh costumes must be dried, hung in the windy shade, to kill vermin once a year. 19 When Ferdinand brandishes his sword against Prospero, the old man uses magic to totally incapacitate the young man (1.2.486-8). In Ninagawa’s production, Prospero hurls a magical spider web over the young prince to immobilize him. Ninagawa derives this stage spectacle from a popular Noh play called Tsuchigumo [Earth Spider] in which the hero fights against a spider monster spouting a web against him. 20 Some critics might complain about Prospero using an evil monster’s magic web to tame his future son-in-law, but here a spectacular effect is only aimed, emphasizing the power of Prospero’s magic, without any intention to equate Prospero with an evil spider monster, or it might suggest that Prospero’s powerful magic, if pursued by anger and revenge, has a dangerous possibility to turn him into a monster. This is not a far-fetched interpretation, as extreme emotions such as anger, sorrow, and hate often turn men into monsters in Noh, as you see below. Mugen Noh [Noh of Dream Vision] and Monogurui Noh [Noh of Madness], created by Zeami, are the most famous Noh genres (Kitagawa 90-124). In a Mugen Noh play, incidents in the past come back in a character’s dream, 19 You can see the picture of Mushiboshi in Yuichiro Yamazaki (77). 20 See the stage pictures of Tsuchigumo in Ortolani, Figure 38 and Yamazaki (76). The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 159 often featuring a traveling Biddhist monk who visits the places closely related to past incidents, thus bridging between the past (the main story) and the present (a sort of framework to represent the main story). A similar time structure is also found in The Tempest in which Prospero tells Miranda about events in “the dark backward and abysm of time” (1.2.50). Furthermore, Ninagawa frames the play with the fiction of a “Rehearsal on a Sado Noh Stage,” linking Prospero’s tragic past with Zeami’s island banishment. In Japanese poetry, the name of a famous historical site such as Sado has an important function for poetical allusions. In Japanese poetics, a poetic location name is called an utamakura [song pillow] which, evoking historical or literary associations traditionally linked with the place, is supposed to give poetic inspiration to a poet. 21 In a sense, Sado is an important utamakura for Ninagawa to locate a Shakespearean play in the particular Japanese poetic and literary milieu with rich historical and cultural associations for the known audience. In a Monogurui Noh play, a character loses his or her senses because of great sorrow or anger, and madness sometimes even transforms him or her into a monster. 22 In Ninagawa’s Tempest, the three men of sin are punished so severely that they are reported to become mad from grief and their guilty consciences, “all three distracted” (5.1.12); the three men of sin, especially Antonio, sit stricken in great sorrow like a forlorn child in the stage setting reminiscent of Sainokawara, the Japanese mythical shore of the river across from which dead men are ferried to the other world. Dead children are not allowed to cross it alone, so they must wait stacking pebbles on the shore until their dead parents come to take them together to the world of the dead. When a mountain of pebbles is almost finished, a fiend appears to scatter it, almost like a Sisyphean punishment. According to legend, Sainokawara is said to be located at the northern end of Sado Island (Sado Museum 6). Lastly, in Prospero’s masque, Western and Japanese elements are intertextually and audiovisually fused to establish a magical world of beauty. Just as Stuart court masques were staged for royal celebration, Noh plays were also performed to pray for the long prosperity of the nation and its ruler. 23 Goddesses of Prosperity, Iris, Ceres and Juno, dance wearing Noh masks and 21 As for “the art of allusion, or this love of allusion” in Japanese art, see Ezra Pound & Ernest Fenollosa (4). Utamakuras were such an important device in Waka [Japanese Poetry] that many books listing them were compiled in the past. They also served as guidebooks for travelers eager to visit those places evoked in poetry. 22 In Kumonosujo, Kurosawa told the hero and heroine to simulate the facial expressions of particular Noh masks; Asaji (Lady Macbeth) becomes a typical Monogurui Noh character, tragically losing sense because of her guilty conscience. See Kurosawa Akira Kenkyukai [Research Society] (184-191; 346-7; 358-9). 23 On the play’s relation with the Jacobean masque, see Stephen Orgel (43-50). H ISAO O SHIMA 160 kimonos to pray for the young couple’s happiness. 24 In a sense, this prothalamium Noh-masque scene is the climax of Ninagawa’s Tempest, because the scene is a dramatic realization of Yugen, the ideal sublime beauty of Noh expounded in Zeami’s dramatic theory. 25 Ninagawa boldly mixes Japanese and Western traditions: the Noh music is played harmoniously with a solemn Western classical hymn; Western reapers clothed in straw appear with typical Japanese vegetables in their hands and dance with Noh goddesses. Ninagawa is sometimes criticized for blending different traditions to create visual entertainment. Purists might complain about such a mixture of Shakespeare, Noh and Kabuki theatrical techniques, especially extreme instances such as the sight of Ariel wearing a Noh mask, flying over the stage in the Kabuki style called chunori. A Japanese stage production of Shakespeare in any style, however, is an intercultural hybrid. What is important is whether the different Japanese conventions are successfully unified so that the performance will move the audience. In The Tempest, at least, Ninagawa succeeds in combining the resonances of different Japanese theatrical traditions with Shakespeare’s plot and characters into an intertextual performance that is unified on stage. Tempest Arashi Nochi Hare : The Tempest in Bunraku puppet theatre One of the most unique Japanese adaptations of Shakespeare is certainly Tempest Arashi Nochi Hare [Sunny after Storm], a Bunraku version of The Tempest. Bunraku is a traditional Japanese puppet drama in which three Ningyotsukais [Puppeteers] manipulate one puppet stylistically as well as realistically, accompanied by Gidaiyubushi [Narration, Speech and Song] and Shamisen [a sort of Japanese guitar with three strings hit by a stick of bone] music, each performed by one or more players. 26 In order to celebrate the centenary of the London Japan Society, three Shakespearean productions in the styles of Kabuki, Kyogen, and Bunraku were planned to be staged in London in 1991: a Kabuki version of Hamlet (Hamlet Yamato Nishikie), a Kyogen version of The Merry Wives of Windsor (Horasamurai) and a Bunraku version of The Tempest (Tempest Arashi nochi Hare). Though the plan never materialized for some reason, the Bunraku adaptation of The Tempest was staged in the Kintetsu Art Centre in Osaka and the Panasonic Globe Theatre in Tokyo in 1992, and later revised and restaged in the National Bunraku 24 Even in modern traditional Japanese weddings, Noh songs are sometimes sung to pray for the lasting happiness of the couple and the families united by their marriage. 25 On Yugen, see Kitagawa (150-52). 26 You can see the instrument at Japan Arts Council’s website referred below. As for Bunraku, see Ortolani (208-32). The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 161 Theatre in Osaka and the National Theatre in Tokyo in 2009 (cf. Yamada 2009). 27 Tempest Arashi nochi Hare is based on Tsubouchi’s translation adapted by Shoichi Yamada (1925-) with music composed by Seiji Tsurusawa. Yamada set the play in the medieval warrior society of Japan, situating Prospero’s island in its southern sea; he also changed the characters’ names to Japanese nomenclature: Prospero became Asonozaemon Fujinori; Miranda, Midori; Ferdinand, Harutaro; Ariel, Erihiko; and Caliban, Degamaru. In an interview, Yamada commented: It is rather difficult to translate the play’s philosophical ideas and subtle feelings and emotions into Gidaiyubushi, so I adapted it with the Japanese spirit. Moreover, the smooth flow of the story is essential in Bunraku. As I adapted it as a period play, Tachiyaku [hero] needs to have Monogatari [dramatic narration about his heroic action], while Onnagata [heroine] needs to have Kudoki [passionate or sorrowful speech about her tragic situation]. So I adapted it, keeping these points in my mind. This time [in the 2009 production], I added Prospero’s epilogue, which kind of action had never been seen or heard on Bunraku stage, but Fujinori [Prospero] remained alone on stage and spoke to the audience. All in all, I tried to direct it like a classical Bunraku play. (my translation) 28 This approach, quite different from Ninagawa’s, is rather close to a Meiji adaptation of a Shakespearean drama into a Kabuki play, such as Hamlet Yamato Nishikie by Kanagaki Robun (cf. Kawato 7-19; 161-70). 29 Bunraku is often regarded as drama to be heard rather than to be seen; Gidaiyubushi accompanied by Shamisen music is the core of Bunraku, though the actions of puppets look very natural and even moving in spite of their naive appearance. In fact, the natural movements of puppets are made possible by puppeteers’ long hard training. 30 Adopting Tsubouchi’s literay translation, Yamada created a unique Joruri [script of Bunraku]. 31 27 The following description is about the Bunraku stage at National Theatre in Tokyo in 2009. 28 You can read the interview, though in Japanese, at the website of Japan Arts Council: http: / / www.ntj.jac.go.jp/ member/ pertopics/ per090612_02.html. It also offers information about Japanese traditional theatres, Kabuki, Bunraku, Noh and Kyogen in English: http: / / www.ntj.jac.go.jp/ english.html. Along with Noh, Kyogen and Kabuki, Bunraku is registered in UNESCO’s Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage. 29 Kurosawa tried this type of Shakespearean adaptation very successfully in his films, Kumonosujo (1957) and Ran (1985), setting the stories of Macbeth and Lear in the Japanese historical period of civil war called “Sengoku Jidai” (1467-1573). In 2005, Ninagawa staged his Kabuki adaptation of Twelfth Night in this style, transplanting the story into a medieval Japanese court, changing the characters’ names in a similar way. It was staged by all male Kabuki actors, using Kabuki settings and costumes, at Kabuki Theatre in Tokyo with a big success. 30 A puppeteer has to train himself as Ashizukai [foot puppeteer] for 10 years and then as Hidarizukai [left hand puppeteer] for another 10 years until he can become Omozukai H ISAO O SHIMA 162 When the play begins with a tempest, the violent Shamisen music performed by five Shamisen players represents the storm, accompanied by a waving curtain lighted by flash lights. Then on the right side from the audience, Dayu and Shamisen [the players of Gidaiyubushi and Shamisen] sit on Dayudoko, a special small stage while Fujinori’s big cave with three small chambers inside appears. 32 In 1992, panels and abstract stage settings were used. In 2009, on the other hand, realistic Bunraku settings were built on genuine Bunraku stages in Osaka and Tokyo (cf. Yamada 2009). The play is divided into 7 scenes called dan in Bunraku: 1st dan: Tempest; 2nd: In the Cave; 3rd: On the Beach; 4th: In the Forest; 5th, 6th and 7th: In the same Cave. As Yamada tells us in the interview quoted above, the story of Bunraku must be straightforward, focusing on Monogatari and Kudoki. Therefore, the original story is drastically changed and simplified. Yamada tried to keep its main action as much as possible: Gonzalo and Sebastian are cut while Trinculo and Stephano are merged into one comic character, a drunkard Buddhist monk named Chinsai. Fujinori was once the lord ruling Aso, which suggests his country was situated in the central area of Kyushu, famous for the still active great volcano, Mt. Aso, in the southern part of Japan. His brother, Kagetaka, conspired with Akizane, Tsukushi no Tairyo [governor of Kyushu] and banished Fujinori to a remote island in order to become the lord of Aso. Thus, in this play too, the place names set Shakespeare’s story in historically and geopolitically evocative Japanese locations. The sound and kanji letters of the characters’ names are also suggestive: Midori means “green” in Japanese while the first 2 of the 3 kanji characters in the name of Degamaru mean “mud” and “tortoise,” often referred as a slow animal in Japan, with the last one “maru” being a common suffix for a boy’s name. In the second cave scene, six Ningyotsukais dressed in black manipulate the two puppet-characters, Fujinori and Midori: those dressed in black with their faces also hidden by black cloth are called Kurogo who are conventionally supposed to be invisible on stage. One Dayu plays both the roles, projecting the voices of Fujinori, and Midori, changing his tone accordingly, but in other scenes in which several characters appear the number of Dayu is increased to divide the dialogue between them; the number of Shamisen is also increased when more gorgeous or dramatic music is required in the [head and right hand puppeteer]. Omozukai, the chief of the three Ningyozukai, can manipulate the eyes and mouth in a Kashira [head] to change its facial expression and represent subtle emotions. 31 At a theatre shop in the National Theatre, you can get a tokohon, booklet of Joruris in the program in which two or three different plays are usually featured. 32 From the right cave, you can see the sea while the left one seems to lead to the forest. Before the center one hangs a curtain which functions as an inner stage used to discover Midori and Harutaro playing a Japanese chess-like game in the last scene. The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 163 climactic scenes. At first, ignorant of his purpose, Midori, onnagata, asks her angry father why he caused such a terrible tempest in the style of Kudoki. Fujinori throws something into a small fire and prays; then Erihiko appears flying (fig. 5) and leads Harutaro from the beach to the forest. Erihiko always appears with the harmonious sounds of Koto [a 17-string instrument] and bells which players ring from a special hidden chamber called Misuuchi above Dayudoko. A Japanese flute is used for songs of birds, and drums represent thunder and sometimes foretell the appearance of ghosts and monsters just as in the harpy scene in 3.3. The forest is represented by a big tree in the center with a backdrop of a forest-scene painting reminiscent of Henri Rousseau’s “Tropical Storm with a Tiger” (1891) at the National Gallery in London. Tired Harutaro sits under the big tree. Then Midori comes to the forest to pick flowers to soothe her father’s unusual anger, while Degamaru, the monstrous wild native, flying from his master’s punishment, also comes there to find her. Degamaru tells her that he has waited to see her grow mature and would like to get married to her now. Facing her complete rejection, he tries to rape her in the forest. Thus the episode of Caliban’s attempted rape of Miranda only recollectively mentioned in the original is acted on stage, resulting in a Monogatari scene of heroic action in which Harutaro notices it and rescues her from the lustful hands of Degamaru. After this Monogatari scene, Harutaro and Midori fall in love just as Fujinori expected. Fujinori, however, is harsh to Harutaro; he tells Midori and Harutaro how he was banished by his brother and Harutaro’s father. Harutaro apologizes for his father’s wrong-doing against Fujinori, but Fujinori, testing the honesty of the young man’s repentance, pretends to cut his head in revenge. Harutaro willingly offers his head to compensate for his father’s sin, so Fujinori saves his life but he orders him to become his slave for the rest of his life. This is another relocation of a section of Shakespeare’s text, essential for making a good emotional, or even sentimental, Bunraku scene, for in Shakespeare, Prospero tells only Miranda about their past in I.ii and Ferdinand does not know it until the last scene. In Bunraku, a comic scene is called chariba, the Bunraku version of comic relief (Yamada 1990, 69). Degamaru, running away from Harutaro, meets Chinsai drinking sake from a bottle. In this typical chariba, full of comic topical allusions in their dialogue, Degamaru tastes intoxicating sake and thinks Chinsai is a god. As the Japanese title clearly suggests, a fine day comes back after the storm. In Bunraku, the end of a play must be clear-cut, without any Shakespearean ambiguity. After punishing the sinners to a certain extent, Fujinori forgives the genuinely penitent sinners, Akizane, Kagetaka, and even Degamaru, who, plotting with Chinsai, attempted to kill him. He shows the young couple innocently playing a board game in the inner cave (fig. 6) and H ISAO O SHIMA 164 Figure 5: Erihiko [Ariel], 2009. Copyright: The National Theatre. Figure 6: Fujinori [Prospero] shows the young couple playing the board game to Akizane [Alonso], 2009. Copyright: The National Theatre. The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 165 Figure 7: Fujinori [Prospero] throws his books and scrolls into the fire, 2009. Copyright: The National Theatre. Figure 8: Rehearsal scene on Ryutopia Noh Stage, lighted in the torch-lit style, 2009. Copyright: Kurita Company. H ISAO O SHIMA 166 Figure 9: Rehearsal scene on Ryutopia Noh Stage with four sybil-like fairies, Miranda and Ferdinand sitting at the front, 2009. Copyright: Kurita Company. Figure 10: Prospero, Miranda and Masked Ferdinand; Ariel in Noh mask and costume on the left; back picture of the DVD package of the production. The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 167 throws his magic books and scrolls into the fire he used to create his magic (fig. 7). Yamada says he is not completely satisfied with his adaptation; so, it will take more time to know whether this new Shakespearean Joruri will remain in the Bunraku repertory or not. But Yukikazu Kanou, leader of his theatrical company, Hanagumi Shibai, used Yamada’s Bunraku script to stage a Kabuki version of Tempest Arashi nochi Hare in the style of Maruhon Kabuki. 33 Like Kanou’s Kabuki Tempest, the Bunraku adaptation of The Tempest with its poetic Gidaiyubushi speech and narration might be transplanted into other Japanese theatrical traditions, just as was done to classical Joruris. 34 Yoshihiro Kurita and The Tempest on Noh stage Another unique Japanese production of The Tempest was performed on an authentic Noh stage in 2009, very appropriately, in Niigata to which Sado, the island of Noh stages mentioned above, belongs. Ryutopia Noh Theatre Shakespeare Series, No. 6, Tempest, was directed by Yoshihiro Kurita, who also played the role of Prospero. The actor-director Kurita, leader of his local theatrical group, the Kurita Company, has contributed a great deal to Niigata’s local stage culture by directing citizen musicals at the Niigata Performing Arts Centre “Ryutopia” since its opening, as well as by directing a series of professional Shakespearean productions, called Ryutopia Noh Theatre Shakespeare. So far, he has directed Macbeth (2004, 6-7), King Lear (2004-5), Winter’s Tale (2005), Othello (2006), Hamlet (2007), The Tempest (2009), and Pericles (2011). 35 The uniqueness of his Shakespearean productions lies in his staging of Shakespearean plays on an authentic Noh stage, combining Noh elements very effectively with the Western dramatic conventions of Shakespeare’s plays. His productions have been performed in Tokyo and other major Japanese cities as well as abroad: The Winter’s Tale was staged in Romania (Shakespeare International Festival), Mordva, Poland and Germany in 2008. A modern Noh stage is often built in a concrete building, though it is given the same wooden structure as the traditional ones on Sado Island have. 33 Yukikazu Kano, “From Watching to Listening” in the production pamphlet (2-3). Maruhon Kabuki is also called Gidaiyu Kyogen in which Bunraku joruri is transplanted into a Kabuki play with Gidaiyubushi leading its action forward. 34 For example, Chikamatsu’s joruris for Bunraku stage were transplanted into Kabuki to create a very popular jenre of love suicide tragedy such as Sonezaki Shinju (1703) while a Noh play transplanted into Kabuki is called a Matsubame-mono, referring to the backboard of Noh stage on which an old Matsu [pine] is painted [Figure 4]. Kanjincho, based on a Noh play, Ataka, is a typical example of Matsubame-mono. 35 You can have glimpses of Kurita’s productions at the website of Ryutopia Noh-Theatre Shakepeare Series: http: / / www.ryutopia.or.jp/ skp/ . H ISAO O SHIMA 168 Ryutopia Noh Stage is such a one, located on the 7th floor of the great theatre complex of the Niigata Performing Arts Centre. You walk in the medium-size hall and find lines of Western seats in the auditorium, but in front of them is a traditional wooden Noh theatre with its roofed stage, bridge, and three pine trees, sometimes planted in pots in front of the bridge. Kurita’s Tempest begins in complete darkness; the audience only hears the voices of the shipwrecked sailors and courtiers, with their fearful imagination enhanced by darkness. Generally speaking, stage properties are rarely used on a Noh stage; if any, they are simple ones, just like the props that were employed in Shakespeare’s Globe. Scenes on Noh stages are enlivened by the characters’ speech or special narrative songs chanted by Jiutai [singers] sitting on stage. After the darkened scene of the shipwreck, the stage lights are on, but so dim that the characters’ shadows are silhouetted on the back board (Kagamiita) of the stage (fig. 8). This is the lighting effect often experienced in torch-lit Noh productions on outdoor Noh stages built in the precinct of a Buddhist temple or Shinto shrine. Such a lighting effect is quite suitable for a Mugen Noh play, because it surrounds the play in a dark mystical atmosphere, appropriate for Prospero’s explanation to Miranda about the “dark backward and abysm of time” (1.2.50). Furthermore, because Shakespeare’s romance plays seem to have been more targeted at a higher class audience at the Blackfriars Theatre and at court than at public theatres, an intimate as well as intense atmosphere in the small Noh theatre makes its stage especially suitable acting space for their performance. Similar to Ariel in Ninagawa’s production, Kurita’s Ariel appears as a Noh character, wearing a female mask throughout the play that represents a noble lady. In a Noh play, a Shite wearing a mask performs a beautiful Noh mai [dance], often at the emotional climax. Kurita’s Ariel also dances elegantly just in the same Noh style to the tune of a Noh song and music at the play’s important moments. The other actors mostly perform in a Western acting style and Kurita uses a faithful modern Japanese translation by Kazuko Matsuoka for their dialogue. Still, some of Ariel’s speech and songs are rendered in the style of old Japanese verse, often chanted by Noh characters. So Kurita’s Tempest, like Ninagawa’s, is not a complete adaptation; however much these directors rely on Japanese theatrical traditions and incorporate Japanese elements into their productions, they keep the original names and story almost intact. In Kurita’s Tempest, four spirits looking like sibyls appear wearing costumes of blue, red, yellow, and black. Each has a book in her hands, and sometimes each can be seen reading them aloud, like some magical message (fig. 9). Prospero carries only a magic wand. The spirits are on stage throughout the play; they sit on the right side of the stage when they have no stage business. This is another Noh stage convention: if an actor sits with his The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 169 back towards the audience or sits on the right side (from the audience) of the stage, the audience regards him nonexistent. The four spirits following Ariel perform whatever Prospero orders, but they sometimes speak by turns lines written for Ariel in Shakespeare’s text. Though this is a bit confusing, these sibyl-like ladies have been a trademark presence in Kurita’s Shakespearean stages since they appeared as witches in his Macbeth. In The Tempest, they seem to be Ariel’s transformed shapes as well as servant spirits. In 3.3, when the harpies threaten the three sinners, they offer them the books which now become food trays, but when the sinners try to eat, the spirits snatch them from the sinners’ hands and read severe sentences from their books (which now have returned to their original function as books). In Prospero’s masque, the spirits also perform a beautiful dance with Ariel to pray for the future happiness of Miranda and Ferdinand. Another character who wears a Noh mask throughout the play is Ferdinand (Mitsuru Hirokawa), whose Noh mask represents the image of a young lord (fig. 10). This creates an interesting effect among other characters, including Miranda (Haruyo Yamaga), who wear no mask. Probably, Kurita wants to emphasize the role of Ferdinand as a suitor, rather than his individual personality, which is clearly contrasted with Miranda’s lovable individuality, full of youth and vigor. The most beautiful scene in Kurita’s Tempest, just as in Ninagawa’s, is Prospero’s masque when Ariel dances a Noh mai to the tune of the Noh Utai [song] and Hayashi [music] played by Hayashikata, players of fue and taiko [a Japanese bamboo flute and small drum]. 36 The players’ musical technique is also a traditional art, handed down from master to disciple. In this play, fue is played by Makoto One (from the Fujita School in Nagoya) while taiko is played by Akira Takano (from the Takayasu School). Ariel is performed by Reijiro Tsumura, a Noh actor (from the Kanze School, which is traditionally supposed to have descended directly from Zeami) who is officially endowed with the title of “Human National Treasure: Important Intangible Culture (Noh)” by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Prospero’s mysterious masque is transformed into a Noh mai scene of Yugen, and it conveys the Noh ideal of sublime beauty that Zeami and the Noh actors following him have tried to achieve. 37 36 As for the musical instruments used in Noh, see Yamazaki (64-5). 37 On 23-24 December 2011, Kurita staged The Tempest again, this time as a very modern stage based on the concept of jazz bar at the Hall of Niigata City Bandai Citizen Cultural Center. It is a seasonal entertainment production, featuring jazz by a piano and a bass and famous Christmas songs sung by Miranda (Haruyo Yamaga). Four barmaids, not sibyl-like fairies, appear as servants of the bar’s master Prospero (Kurita), and pour liquid from their bottles over the courties’ heads in the first shipwreck scene, and ever force them to drink from them. Caliban is chained to a chair on which he sits before the opening of the play, and asks the audience to put off their mobile phones at H ISAO O SHIMA 170 Conclusion We have witnessed above some highlights of The Tempest’s journey in Japan. Tadashi Suzuki, another famous Japanese director, pointed out, “Shingeki attempted to only imitate the Western drama, but their international approach, not rooted in Japanese theatrical traditions, failed, because imitations are just imitations, after all” (115-8; Takahashi 1-5). In other words, they tried to copy only the foreign appearance of Western drama, but missed its dramatic essence, separating themselves from their native environment, cultural, theatrical, spiritual, political, historical, and so on. They were certainly successful in conveying the story and ideas contained in the logos of Shakespeare’s text, but some of the most important meanings of drama often lies beyond the logos. On the other hand, Ninagawa’s Tempest, Yamada’s Bunraku adaptation, and Kurita’s Tempest on Noh stage, attempted to expand the play’s meanings intertextually beyond the logos with their hybridization with Japanese theatrical traditions, presenting us unique local stage productions of The Tempest, and attaining a truly international appeal, though their approaches are quite different. In a sense, they succeeded in firmly locating Shakespeare in the historical and cultural milieu of Japan as well as in its theatrical milieu so that the audience can understand Shakespeare’s play more freshly and deeply, seen from a new intercultural perspective. Shakespeare has been such a great cultural catalyst in Japan that The Tempest’s Japanese journey will not end here but continue to create its fascinating intertextual stages. its beginning. A young actress (Chiaki Eihou) plays the roles of Ferdinand and Ariel like a breechs role, or Otokoyaku [girl actor impersonating male roles] in Takarazuka, the famous girls’ opera theatre in Japan. The story is simplified (no Gonzalo again), focusing on Prospero’s revenge and forgiveness. The kitsch style of this “maid-bar” Tempest is certainly intentional and directly contrasted with the Mugen Noh style on Noh stage in 2009; Kurita proved the great possibility of Japanese adaptations of The Tempest. The Tempest and Japanese theatrical traditions: Noh, Kabuki and Bunraku 171 Works Cited Anzai, Testuo. “What do we mean by ‘Japanese’ Shakespeare? ”. Performing Shakespeare in Japan. Eds Ryuta Minami, Ian Carruthers and John Gillie. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. 17-20. Becker-Leckrone, Megan. Julia Kristeva and Literary Theory. London: Palgrave, 2005. British Film Institute. Ed. Silent Shakespeare. London: Milestone Film & Video, 1999. Fujiyama, Shintaro. 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